Chapter 1

Rotating Frame of Reference

Module 1

Rotating coordinate system

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 So far we have passed through the motion of a particle or body in an inertial frame as
Newton’s equations of motion (particularly second law of motion) or D’Alembert’s principle are
valid in an inertial frame. But there are some systems which are rotating. The rotating frames are
non-inertial frames. Most important example of it is that when the motion takes place near the
earth’s surface. But, one can argue that the dynamical effects of earth’s rotation is so small that it
can be neglected. It is usually true but not always true. There are situations in which it has
significant impact. Earth’s rotation has dominant effect in the hydrodynamics of atmosphere and
ocean. So, it is necessary to develop some methods for constructing equation of motion in a
rotating frame of reference. Coriolis introduced the transformation laws for rotating frames. Non-
inertial frames are also known as accelerated frames. If one knows the real cause behind its
acceleration then the modified mathematical form of Newton’s second law can be obtained. For
this we must have to know the ‘fictitious’ forces that must be added to the real forces to obtain
the correct equation of motion in an accelerated frame of reference.

1.1 Inertial frame and non-inertial frame

Newtonian mechanics is based on three laws formulated by Sir Issac Newton. These laws
were first formulated for single particle. These laws were extended later on for a system of
particles. These laws postulate the existence of some frame in which they are valid. These
frames are known as inertial frames.

For example, a frame which is at rest or is moving with uniform velocity relative to the
average position of some distant fixed stars is an inertial frame.

A frame in which Newton’s laws of motion are not valid is called a non-inertial frame.
Rotating frame of reference is an example of such frame.

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1.2 Time derivative of a vector in a rotating frame

Let S be a fixed frame of reference with origin at O and axes Ox , Oy , Oz . Let S /

  
be a frame of reference defined by the three unit orthogonal vectors i , j , k (along

Ox/ , Oy / , Oz / respectively) rotating with an angular velocity  with respect to S about an axis
     
through O. Let    (t ) be any vector where   1i   2 j  3k .


Our problem is to find the rate of change of  with respect to time t as estimated by an
observer fixed on S.

   
d  d1  di   d 2  dj   d 3  dk 
 i  1    j  2    k  3 
dt  dt dt   dt dt   dt dt 
  
 d1  d 2  d 3    di dj dk 
 i j k    1   2   3 .
 dt dt dt   dt dt dt 

(1.1)

Fig.1.1

3
 
But i can be considered as the position vector of a point on Ox/ , which revolve about O with

an angular velocity  .

di  
 =cross radial velocity of that point =   i .
dt

[Since an arbitrary small rotation  about some direction n̂ (unit vector) passing through the
  
origin brings about a change in vector i given by  i  ( )nˆ  i .


 i  
  nˆ  i .
t t

di   
Taking limit as  t  0 we have,   nˆ  i    i . ]
dt
 
dj   dk  
Similarly,    j,    k.
dt dt

Substituting these in (1.1) we have,

  d 3  
d  d1  d 2      

dt  dt
i
dt
j
dt 

k   1  i   2  j   3  k 
 d  d  d 3      
 1i  2
 dt dt
j
dt 

k     1i   2 j   3k (1.2)

  
   
t

where

 d1  d 2  d 3 
 i j k
t dt dt dt

 rate of change of  as estimated by the observer in S / .


  
Now, gives the rate of growth whereas    gives the rate of transport.
t

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 d  
      . (1.3)
 dt fixed  t rotating

Applications:

 
1. Let   r be the position vector of a point P at the time t.
 
 dr r  
Absolute velocity       r.
dt t

2. Absolute acceleration
 d             r   
f                     r 
dt t  t   t  t 
   
 r    r  r   
2
 2   r          (  r )
t t t t
2  
 r       r
 2   r    (  r )  2  .
t t t
    r 
 2 r      
Let 2  f / ,  r    (  r )  ft , 2   f c
t t t
  
Then f / is the acceleration in frame S / and f t is called the transport acceleration and f c is
called the Coriolis acceleration of P.

   
r 2r
For a particle fixed in S , /
 0, 2  0 i.e. f /  0, f c  0.
t t
 
Then f  ft is called transport acceleration.


For a particle of mass m acted on by a force F (actual force), Newton’s second law gives
 
mf  F .

  
If F is the force acting on the particle of mass m then the law of motion in S is mf  F

   
or, m( f /  ft  f c )  F .
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    
or, mf /  F  mft  mf c .


This is the modified Newton’s law in the frame S/ where to the actual force F , the two
 
fictitious forces mft ,  mf c are to be added.


Now, mft is intimately related to the centrifugal force in the following way.


If the rotation is uniform (i.e.   constant) then

  
d    
0       0   0.
dt t t

  
       
In that case, mft  m  r  m  (  r )  m  (  r )   Fcf where
t

Fcf is the centrifugal force.

  
  r 
The Coriolis force is given by Fcor  mf c  m  2   .
 t 

 
 
The transverse force = Ftv  m  r.
t

Note: Transverse and centrifugal forces depend on position ( r ) of the particle but coriolis force

r
depends on velocity ( ). Centrifugal force is independent of the speed of the object in the
t
rotating frame.

Remarks:

1. The form of the Coriolis force indicates that it is always perpendicular to the velocity
vector. As a result it is unable to change the speed of a particle (except for its direction).
So, it can not influence the kinetic energy of the particle. Hence it does not affect the
conservation of energy.
2. The Coriolis force is also known as deflecting force since it changes the direction of
speed of a particle. It does no work.
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3. The effect of the Coriolis force is to bend the path of the particle to the right in the
Northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere.

1.3 Velocity and acceleration of a particle relative to the

rotating earth

Let C be the centre of the earth supposed to be a sphere. Let O be a point either on
the earth surface or a point very close to the earth surface. The point O is fixed relative to the
earth (see, Fig.1.2). The earth is supposed to be rotating with a uniform angular velocity
   
 about an axis CZ defined by a unit vector z . Let CO  r0 . Let P be the position of the
  
particle at time t whose position vector is r i.e. OP  r relative to a frame of reference rigidly

attached to the earth at O (and hence rotating with the same angular velocity  ).

Fig.1.2

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 d
We shall use ' ' to denote the rate of change of a vector with respect to a frame in which the
dt
 
earth has an angular velocity  and ' ' to denote the rate of change of a vector with respect
t
to a frame rigidly attached to the earth at O.

Absolute velocity of P is

d       


dt
  d  
CP  (r0  r )  (r0  r )    (r0  r )
dt t
 
r    r    
    (r0  r )     r0    r ,
t t

r0 
since  0, r0 being a constant vector with respect to the frame of reference at O.
t

Absolute acceleration at P is

 d             r     

f                     r0    r 
dt t  t   t  t 
2    
 r      r  r      
 2   r0   r          (  r0 )    (  r ) (1.4)
t t t t t
2 
r  r      
 2  2     (  r0 )    (  r ),
t t
   
r0  d       
(since  0 and as  is constant so 0   (   )  0   0 ).
t dt t t

1.4 True acceleration and apparent acceleration

In this Chapter, we have considered two frames: one is a fixed frame (i.e. inertial

frame) and another is a frame rotating with uniform angular velocity  with respect to
the fixed frame. This rotating frame forms a non-inertial frame. It is well known that
Newton’s laws of motion particularly, Newton’s second law of motion are valid only in
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 an inertial frame. But there are some situations where rotating frame (i.e. non-inertial
frame) appear. In such cases we have to modify Newton’s second law of motion which
is basically a relation between the acquired acceleration of the particle and the applied
force on it. For this it is necessary to calculate the acceleration in both the frames.
Moreover, it is essential to distinguish these two for clear understanding.

For simplicity, we shall consider the following:

The value of a quantity measured in a fixed frame (i.e. inertial frame) will be referred as
its true value whereas the value measured in the rotating frame (i.e. non-inertial frame)
will be termed as its apparent value.

In view of this we are going to define two terms:


(i) Apparent acceleration due to gravity ( g ) at O


The apparent acceleration due to gravity g at O is the acceleration of a free particle
which is at rest at O relative to the frame of reference rigidly attached to the earth at O.


 

 2r
g  f  
0 
r  . (1.5)
r  
0 
 t 2
t   
&  0


(ii) True acceleration due to gravity ( g / ) at O


The true acceleration due to gravity g / at O is the acceleration of the same particle
which is at rest at O with respect to a frame in which the earth is rotating.


 

 2r       
 g/  f  
0 
r     (  r0 )  g    (  r0 ). (1.6)
r  
0 
 t 2
t   
&  0

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Note:
1. We have
        
g /  g    (  r0 )  g   z  ( z  r0 )
       
 g   2  ( z .r0 ) z  ( z .z )r0   g   2 CN z  r0 
       
 g   2 CN  CO   g   2 CO  CN   g   2 NO.

   
 g  g /   2 NO where NO  CO cos  . (Ref. Fig.1.2)
    
So, g /  g   2 NO  g   2 ON
  
Thus g / is the resultant of g and  2 ON .

    
The term g  g /    (  r0 ) is also known as the effective acceleration due to gravity.


2. Obviously, g / is the real choice of acceleration in a rotating frame. Neglecting  2 one can
get the acceleration in a fixed frame.

1.5 Equation of motion of a particle relative to the rotating

earth


Let F be the external force acting on the particle of mass m in addition to gravity. Then the
equations of motion of the particle is
 
  /  F /  / F
mf  F  mg or, f   g or, f  g  . (1.7)
m m

Now, from the equations (1.4) and (1.6) we have,

  /  2 r 
 r    
f  g  2  2     (  r )  g. (1.8)
t t

So, from the equations (1.7) and (1.8) we finally have,

  
2r  r     F
 2     (  r )  g 
t 2 t m
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   
2r  r    F 
Or, 2  2     (  r )   g. (1.9)
t t m

This is the equation of motion of a particle of mass m relative to the rotating earth in terms of
 
the external force F and the apparent acceleration due to gravity g .


If we neglect air resistance then F represents the external force excluding air resistance.

Moreover, if the angular velocity  is very small so that  2 can be neglected then the
equation of motion (1.9) takes the following form:

  
2r  r F 
 2    g. (1.10)
t 2 t m

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