it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools BOOK 8

IT’S THE MILLENIUM SUCCESS

SCIENCE
FOR JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS BOOK 8

I
 Copyright

oc 2021 Aduboffour Kobea Anthony

First Published in 2011
Reprinted in 2013
Revised edition in 2018
New edition [Book 8] in 2021.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or be transmitted

in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including
photocopy, recording or in any other information storage retrieval system,
without a written permission from the copyright owner.

Published and distributed by;

It's the Millennium Success Publications Limited

Kumasi -Ghana

ISBN : 978 - 9988 - 1 - 8787 - 3

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 it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools BOOK 8

PREFACE

The author drew his inspiration to write these books from the general inadequacy of good
study materials that can make the learning of science at the basic level to interesting
among beginners.

This lack of interest is responsible for the reduction in the number of students that actively
pursue science as a career path after the junior high level.

With his effort in addressing this academic challenge, the author has written the books to
cover all the strands in the Common Core Program from the Curriculum Research and
Development Division of the Ghana Education Service on Science.

Book eight has been designed to build upon the basic introductory knowledge from
book seven. Each strand ends with some related/likely exam questions to test the
student’s level of understanding.

The entire series is strongly recommended for students beginning the new curriculum
structure in the junior high level. For it will help them to understand and to appreciate
science as a practical subject whose study leads to a multi-disciplinary field of careers.

Dr. Frank Ofori Agyemang

Faculty of Engineering
Department of Material Science
KNUST.
Kumasi - Ghana.

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 Acknowledgement

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

My first and foremost thanks goes to God Almighty for the knowledge, guidance and
protection that HE has bestowed upon me to be able to come out with the second of
these series.

I also appreciate the prayers and diverse contributions from my Fathers in the Faith at
Power Chapel Headquarters in Kumasi, especially Rev. Simms, Rev. Tuffuour, Rev. Philip,
Rev. Owusu Bempah, Prophet Amoako Atta and the General Overseer; Prophet Victor
Kusi Boateng. God reward you all mightily for tendering HIS sheep that HE has left in your
care.

A word of praise goes to Madam Christiana Akosua Birago, my beloved mother who
stood firmly by me during my challenging times in life. To my dear mum, I say, You are One
in a million.

A great deal of appreciation goes to my friends; Salifu Mohammed and Adu - Gyamfi
Emmanuel for their diverse support and sincere contributions towards making this edition
a reality.

I will like to extend my heartfelt gratitude to Dr. Frank Ofori Agyemang, for writing the
preface to this edition.

I may be ungrateful if I fail to acknowledge Creative Print Media, Mumbai - India for a great
and quality printing.

The name of Madam Portia Adjei of Kwaprow D/A Basic School is worthy of mention for her
immense contributions during the writing of the maiden edition in 2011. God richly bless
you.

I sincerely appreciate your diverse contributions toward the successful publication of this
book.

Although I will like to share all the credit given to the book with the above named people,
yet I solely remain liable to any human errors that it may contain.

The Author

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DEDICATION

I dedicate this book to the memory of my late sister ‘Cecilia Dentaah’ who took me as a
brother and as a son, nurtured and inspired me to who I am today .
Although she is no more, yet I will forever remember her for the sincere contributions that
she made towards my education.

A NOTE TO THE USER OF THE BOOK

With the introduction of the Common Core Programme (CCP), many changes have
been made to the teaching and the learning of integrated science at the pre-tertiary
level.

Students are required to participate in the practical concept of the subject and to
appreciate the important roles that science plays in our lives.

Notwithstanding the attempt that have been made by the Ministry of Education and the
Ghana Education Service to provide the needed learning materials, there is still a deficit
in the required learning aids.

Book 8 comes with detailed diagrams and in-depth notes that will enable the student to
follow each topic without difficulty.

To enhance the vocabulary of learners, the synonyms of some words have also been
included in some sentences. With the use of brackets; i.e. [] and slant; i.e. / to separate all
these similar words.

The purpose of the author's use of two [2] or more word options in some sentences is to
promote diversity in the answers of students which to prevent the likelihood of producing
the same answers to questions during examinations.

Finally, each strand is followed by either some relevant past questions or likely
examination questions. This is to test the students' understanding of that strand.
I end by encouraging teachers and instructors to coach/guide students on scientific
experiments in line with the present reforms.

The Author

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 Table of Contents

TABLE OF CONTENTS

STRAND PAGES

STRAND 1: DIVERSITY OF MATTER 1-2

Sub-strand 1 Materials............................... 3 - 43

Sub-strand 2 Living Cells............................. 44- 57

STRAND 2: CYCLES 58 - 59

Sub-strand 1 Earth Science......................... 60 - 68

Sub-strand 2 Life Cycle of Organisms....... 69 - 74

Sub-strand 3 Crop Production....................... 75 - 80

Sub-strand 4 Animal Production................. 81 - 88

STRAND 3: SYSTEMS 89 - 90

Sub-strand 1 The Human Body Systems.... 91 - 98

Sub-strand 2 The Solar System................... 99 - 105

Sub-strand 3 The Ecosystem........................ 106 - 112

Sub-strand 4 Farming Systems................... 113 - 121

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

STRAND 4: FORCES AND ENERGY 122 - 123

Sub-strand 1 Energy................................... 124 - 134

Sub-strand 2 Electricity and Electronics...... 135 - 144

Sub-strand 3 Conversion and Conservation

of Energy................................... 145 - 154

Sub-strand 4 Force and Motion..................... 155 - 166

Sub-strand 5 Agricultural Tools.................... 167 - 176

STRAND 5: HUMANS AND THE

ENVIRONMENT 177 - 179

Sub-strand 1 Waste Management............... 180 - 185

Sub-strand 2 Human Health......................... 186 - 195

Sub-strand 3 Science and Industry............... 196 - 203

Sub-strand 4 Climate Change and Green

Economy................................... 204 - 207

Sub-strand 5 Understanding the

Environment............................. 208 - 220

INTRODUCTION TO SCIENTIFIC EXPERIMENTS : 27 - 29

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 Introduction
Table
Diversity
Dedication
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to Integrated Science

STRAND

1
DIVERSITY OF MATTER

SUB STRAND 1: MATERIALS

SUB STRAND 2: LIVING CELLS

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 it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume
STRAND1 : DIVERSITY OF MATTER
INTRODUCTION
Most of the things/materials that exist
physically around us are all
forms/examples of matter.
ALL the various forms of matter has these
two[2] features/components of mass
and volume [occupies space].
From the above description, Sound
[voice] is a common example of
something which cannot be classified as
matter because the above components
of mass and volume cannot be easily
determined/known/measured.
Every material; i.e. form of matter has its
unique usage or function to serve. This is
usually because each form of matter has
its own unique/different constituent
atoms [particles] as well as
arrangement.
Often times, two [2] or more different
materials; i.e. forms of matter are mixed
together to produce a mixture.
This is usually because the nature/kind of
the work to be done may require the
combination of the properties of the
various materials.
We come across and use various forms of
mixtures in our daily activities. Some
mixtures may come about by a process
called contamination but not by
purpose [intention].
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Note:1 Contamination is the process of
making a material/substance impure by
the addition of an impurity; i.e. another
[different] material/substance.
2. The process of contamination
c a n p o l l u t e / p o i s o n a
material/substance. Such a
contaminated material can be made
pure again through purification; i.e. the
removal of the impurity which is both
expensive and time-consuming.
A mixture is obtained whenever two [2]
or more different materials are
combined/joined/added together.
As earlier indicated, the properties of a
material describes its unique abilities
which also influences/determines its
uses.
Mixtures are generally formed when an
activity requires two [2] or more
materials to be combined together.
This is usually in response to the nature of
the task or work that must be
performed/done.
For instance; in the daily meals that we
eat, we usually combine foods with
different nutrient contents like;
carbohydrates, proteins, fats and oils
[lipids], vitamins and minerals.

This form of combination; i.e. mixture
formation is important because each
food nutrient has its own unique set of
functions in the Human body.
Furthermore, a food nutrient like
carbohydrate cannot perform the exact
function of another like protein in the
body.
So in effect, a person needs a balanced
diet which is a mixture of all the various
food nutrients in their right amounts in
order to grow well.
From a balanced diet, the body is able
to get all the needed nutrients for them
to perform their respective functions.
Naturally; i.e. in nature, certain
materials also exist together in a
collective state/form as a mixture.
The soil is a typical example of such a
natural environment that exists as a
mixture.
The soil is made up of components like;
soil particles; i.e. gravels, sand, silt and
clay, water, air and organic matter
[humus].
Each of the above components has a
special role to play in the natural
function of the soil.
The various soil particles contribute to
important soil features/characteristics
like; texture and structure.
The water present in soil; i.e. soil water is
used for important activities like;
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Introduction
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1. Food preparation in plants
[photosynthesis].
2. Helps in the transportation of materials
using the current/force of
transpiration/guttation.
Note: a. Transpiration is the process
during which water moves through a
plant to be evaporated; i.e lost as
vapour from the aerial parts like; leaves,
stems and flowers.
b. Guttation is the process during
which water is lost as droplets from the
tips/edges of the leaves of some plants
like grasses and some fungi.
3. Promotes/encourages the activities of
soil organisms.
The air present in soil; i.e. soil air is used by
plant roots and soil organisms for
respiration.
The organic matter [humus] present in
soil is needed for important activities
like;
1. Adds/contributes to the soil structure;
i.e. soil content.
2. Decays/rots to provide nutrients for
plants growth.
3. Binds soil particles together to make
them compact.
A compact soil is strengthened/fortified
against erosion; i.e. loss of soil particles.
4. Improves the water holding ability
[capacity] of the soil.
 it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume
SUB - STRAND 1: MATERIALS
INDICATORS and EXEMPLARS
At the end of this sub strand, the
student should be able to:
1. Identify types of mixture by name and
characteristics.
2. Design and perform processes for
separating the various kinds of mixtures.
3. Describe atoms as composed of sub-
atomic particles.
4. Explain the arrangement of elements in
terms of the number of protons in the nuclei
of atoms of each element..
MATERIALS
Materials/matter exits and can be found
in three [3] forms.
These are; Solids, Liquids and Gases.
Apart from these three [3] common
forms of matter, a fourth state/type/form
of material/matter called plasma has
been found to exist.
Note: Plasma is super heated matter or
ionized gas.
Some forms of matter are complex in the
sense that, they are formed by the
physical combination of two [2] or more
of the common forms/types/states of
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matter; i.e. solid, liquid or gas.
These complex forms of matter called
mixture are thus obtained by mixing two
[2] or more of the three [3] basic forms
together.
The three [3] main/common forms of
matter are sometimes combined
together to form a mixture depending
on the type/kind of work that it is to be
used to do/perform.
Note: 1. Every kind of matter/material
has its own unique properties/behaviour
that makes it suited/best to be used to
carry-out a specific/particular activity;
i.e. form of work.
2. The natural properties; i.e.
behaviour of one material may be
different from those of others.
3. The difference in the natural
properties/behaviour of various forms of
materials is what accounts for the reason
why different materials have different
uses/functions.
MIXTURES
A mixture is created/formed by the
combination of two [2] or more different
substances/materials together by a
physical/reversible process.
Note: Since a mixture is a reversible

product; i.e. formed by a physical
process/means, it can be easily
separated into its constituent
[component] materials by the use of
some physical processes/means.
For instance; the combination of sugar
and water forms a sugar solution.
The sugar solution; as a mixture, can be
separated back into sugar and water by
a physical processes of evaporation or
distillation.
Examples of Mixture
There are several forms of mixtures which
can serve as examples of same
depending on the states of matter that
were combined to form/obtain them.
These include;
1. Solid - solid mixture;
2. Solid - liquid mixture;
3. Gas - gas mixture;
4. Solid - gas mixture;
5. Liquid - gas mixture;
6. Liquid - liquid mixture,
etc.
From the above illustration and at this
level of study, it can be deduced that the
common examples of mixture are
formed by any two [2] states of matter
together.
Types/forms of Mixture
There are two [2] main types of mixtures.
These are; 1. Homogeneous mixture;
and
2. Heterogeneous mixture.
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1. Homogeneous [uniform] mixture
A homogeneous mixture is a type of
mixture in which the different
substances; i.e. components of the
mixture, mixes up completely together
in such a way that the two substances
are seen/appear as one.
In a homogeneous mixture, the mixture
composition is uniform; i.e. the same
throughout the mixture.
Examples of homogeneous mixture
includes; a mixture of salt and water [salt
solution], a mixture of sugar and water
[sugar solution], a mixture of different
non-harmful gases [air], a mixture of
alcohol and water [diluted alcohol], a
mixture of different metals [alloy], wine,
shampoo, vinegar, smog, etc.
shampoo, vinegar and wine are examples
of uniform mixture
a mixture of salt
and water forms
a uniform mixture
[salt solution]
 it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume
2. Heterogeneous [non-uniform]
mixture
A heterogeneous mixture is a type of
mixture in which the different
components; i.e. materials of the
mixture do not mix up completely
together but are easily found/seen to be
made of different; i.e. two or more
parts/phases.
In a heterogeneous mixture, the
composition is not uniform throughout
the mixture.
Examples of heterogeneous [ non-
uniform] mixture includes; a mixture of oil
and water, ice in water, salt and oil,
sand and water [muddy water], etc.
oil + water
salt + oil
oil and salt and oil and water each
forms a heterogeneous mixture
In addition to the above, there are some
types of mixtures that appear
homogeneous from a distance but are
actually heterogeneous from a closer
look [inspection].
Such mixtures include; blood and soil.
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The arrangement of the different soil
c o m p o n e n t s w i t h
varying sizes make the soil a heterogeneous
mixture.
Differences between homogeneous
and heterogeneous mixtures
Homogeneous and heterogeneous
mixtures differ from each other in terms
of the following parameters/
properties/characteristics/features;
i. The extent/degree of similarity/likeness
in the composition and properties of the
components of that mixture.
ii. The number of phases/parts formed in
the resulting mixture.
iii. The method and ease of separating
the mixture into its various components.
iv. The relative sizes of the particles of
each of the materials in the mixture.
v. The extent/degree of miscibility of the
components of the mixture into a unit;
i.e. as one part, as a result of the
similarities between the various
components/parts.
 Introduction
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The Table below compares the major differences between homogeneous mixture
and heterogeneous mixture

Characteristic feature Homogeneous Heterogeneous

[parameter] mixture mixture

1. Extent/degree of similarity The various components The various components

of the components in the mixture in the mixture
have similar properties have different properties

2. Number of parts/phases One phase/part of the Two phases/parts of the

formed mixture is formed mixture is formed

A complex process is A simple process is

3. The ease and method of required to separate it required to separate it
separation andthis makes and this makes the mode
the mode of separation of separation easy
difficult
The different components The different components
4. The degree/extent of mix together well because do not mix together well
miscibility as a result of they have similar colour, because they do not have
likeness/similarity density/weight, etc. s i m i l a r c o l o u r,
density/weight, etc.
5. The relative sizes of the The sizes of the particles in The sizes of the particles in
particles of each material the various materials are the various materials are
in the mixture similar to each other different to each other

Composition of Mixtures

A mixture is formed by combining two [2] T h e t w o [ 2 ] d i f f e r e n t

or more different substances/materials
together.
At this level of study, the forms of mixture
to be studied have two [2] main
components only.
substances/materials may be of the
same state/form or of different
states/forms.
The various combinations of the different
forms of matter to form a mixture made

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up of two [2] different substances are; Examples of this type of mixture

Solid - solid mixture, Solid - liquid
mixture, Gas - gas mixture, Solid - gas
mixture, Liquid - gas mixture, and Liquid
- liquid mixture.
1. Liquid - liquid mixture
A liquid - liquid mixture is a type of
mixture that is formed from the physical
combination of two [2] or more liquid
substances together.
includes;
1. Chlorine gas is dissolved in water; to
kill the micro-organisms that might be
present in the water during water
purification.
2. Oxygen gas which is dissolved in
water; is used by aquatic organisms for
respiration.
3. Carbon dioxide gas is dissolved in
most soft drinks; which gives these soft
drinks their fizzy [bubbling] nature.

From the types of mixtures, a liquid -

liquid mixture can be uniform; i.e.
homogeneous or non-uniform; i.e.
heterogeneous.
Two or more liquids that combines to
form a uniform/homogeneous mixture
are called miscible liquids.
Examples of miscible liquids that forms a
homogeneous mixture are; a mixture of
water and alcohol/ethanol, a mixture of
water and vinegar, a mixture of water
and wine, etc.
Note: A pair of miscible liquids always
forms a homogeneous/uniform mixture
or an emulsion.
3. Gas - gas mixture
A gas - gas mixture is a type of mixture
that is formed from the physical
combination of two [2] or more gaseous
substances that have been put together.
A typical example of a gas - gas mixture
is Air.
Air is a mixture of various non-harmful
gases.
The table below is a list of some major
gases in the mixture air and their
percentage composition
Component of Percentage
air composition

Nitrogen 78%
2. Gas - liquid mixture
A gas - liquid mixture is a type of mixture Oxygen 21%
that is formed from the physical
combination of a gaseous substance Carbon dioxide 0.03%
and a liquid substance that has been
put together. Inert gases 0.9%

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 Introduction
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Dedication
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4. Solid - gas mixture Note: When evaporation is used to

A solid - gas mixture is a type of mixture
that is formed from the physical
combination of a solid substance and a
gaseous substance that have been put
together.
separate a solution into its components,
the liquid component/part of that
solution is usually lost to the atmosphere
in the form of vapour.

For example; dust is a mixture of sand Terms under solution

particles that have been suspended in
air, smoke is a mixture of soot particles
suspended in air.
5. Solid - liquid mixture
A solid - liquid mixture is a type of mixture
that is formed from the physical
combination of a solid substance and a
liquid substance that have been put
together.
A solid - liquid mixture may either form a
solution or a solid-liquid suspension
[suspension].
1. Solute
A solute is the solid component of a
solution that dissolves in the solvent
[liquid component].
Examples of common solutes are sugar,
salt, coal tar [bitumen], chlorophyll,
etc.
2. Solvent
A solvent is the liquid component of a
solution that dissolves the solute [solid
component].
Examples of common solvents are;
water [the universal solvent], petrol,
kerosene, turpentine, thinner, etc.

Parts of a solid - liquid mixture Note: Water is also referred to as the

universal solvent because it can dissolve
a. Solution almost every solute.
A solution is a uniform mixture between a
solute; i.e. solid substance and a solvent;
i.e. liquid substance. The table below is a list of some
common solvents and their respective
A solution is also a homogenous solid - solutes that can dissolve in them.
liquid mixture because the solute usually
dissolves completely in the solvent. Solvent that can
Solute dissolve it
A solution can be separated into its
components; i.e. its solid part and liquid Salt, Sugar, Emu- Water
part, either by the use of simple lsion paint
distillation or evaporation. Oil paint Kerosene
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Chlorophyll Alcohol Similarities; i.e. likeness and

differences; i.e. disparities between
Coal tar
Turpentine solutes and solvents
[bitumen]
Grease Petrol Solutes and solvents are the two [2] main
parts of a solid-liquid mixture.
Note: From the above table, the suitable There are certain qualities/attributes that
solvent of grease is petrol, and this can be used to show/indicate the level of
explains why a mechanic/fitter washes sameness as well as differences
his hands with petrol after work but not between the components of a solid-
water. liquid mixture.

The table below compares and contrast a solute and a solvent

Parameter Solute Solvent

A solute is the substance A solvent is the substance

1. Definition [material] that [material] that
dissolves in the solvent. dissolves the solute.

2. Quantity/proportion The solute is mostly less The solvent is mostly more

/percentage/amount than the solvent in a given than the solute in a given
in the mixture quantity of mixture. quantity of mixture.

3. Boiling point of the The solute usually has The solvent usually has
substance/material a higher boiling point than a lower boiling point than
the solvent the solute
The solute is mostly solid but The solvent is mostly liquid but
4. Physical state there are also liquid and there are also liquid forms
gaseous forms

Types of solution

There are various forms of solutions that must be known at this level of study.
i. Concentrated [strong] solution
Their differences comes about as a result
A concentrated solution is a type of
of the percentage compositions
solution that has more solute [solid
[relative amounts] of the solute and the
component] than solvent [liquid
solvent that formed that solution.
component].
These are;
9

ii. Dilute [weak] solution
A dilute solution is a type of solution that
has more solvent [liquid component]
than solute [solid component].
iii. Aqueous solution
An aqueous solution is a type of solution
that was prepared using water as its
solvent.
Note: Most solutions that are prepared in
the laboratory are forms of aqueous
solutions.
iv. Hypotonic solution
A hypotonic solution is a solution that has
a higher concentration than the
concentration of its surroundings.
Note: A hypotonic solution is formed
when a dilute solution that is surrounded
by a semi-permeable membrane is put
into a concentrated solution.
For example; a red blood cell that is put
into water.
v. Hypertonic solution
A hypertonic solution is a type of
solution that has a lower concentration
than the concentration of its
surroundings.
Note: A hypertonic solution is formed
when a concentrated solution that is
surrounded by a semi-permeable
membrane is put into a dilute solution.
For example; a red blood cell put into a
salt solution [brine].
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Introduction
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vi. Isotonic solution
An isotonic solution is a type of solution
that has an equal concentration with
that of its surroundings.
Note: In an isotonic solution, there is no
net movement of water [solvent
molecules] between the solution and its
surroundings.
b. Suspension
A suspension is a type of a solid - liquid
mixture in which the solid components
[solute] does not dissolve completely in
the liquid component [solvent].
A suspension is also a heterogenous
solid - liquid mixture because the
solvent does not completely dissolve the
solute.
A suspension is usually separated into its
individual components; i.e. the solid
part and the liquid part, by either
filtration or sedimentation.
Examples suspensions includes; a
mixture of sand and water, a mixture of
powdered chalk and water, a mixture of
groundnut paste and water, etc.
6. Solid - solid mixture
A solid - solid mixture is a type of mixture
that is formed from the physical
combination of two [2] or more solid
substances together.
Examples include; a mixture of chalk
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Examples include; a mixture of chalk 2. Powder is a solid state of matter

dust and sand, a mixture of iron filings
and chalk powder, an alloy [a mixture of
two or more metals], etc.
Preparation and separation of mixtures
because its molecules/particles also
have relatively strong intermolecular
forces that causes them to behave
much differently from liquids
.
As solutes, powder dissolves much faster
than granules in the same quantity of a
given solvent.

In our daily lives, most of the materials

[substances] that we see or use are either The table below groups/classifies some
solids or liquids. common materials; as solid or liquid.

Materials like; powder, pebbles, bottles, Chlorophyll

Solid Liquid
Alcohol
bottle tops, sugar, salt, sand, gari,
chalk
Coal
powder
tar Turpentine
gravels, are solids. Turpentine
[bitumen]
pebbles water
Others like; water, oil, petrol, porridge bottle
Grease
tops Petrol
[koko], tea, beverage, cooking oil, sand, gari, salt Kerosene, soup
petrol, diesel, kerosene are also liquids.

Note: 1. Solid materials are found; i.e.

exists in two [2] common forms.
These are; the granular form [granules]
and the powder form [ powder].
When substances/materials are
combined, the mixture obtained can be
either uniform; i.e. homogeneous or
non-uniform; i.e. heterogeneous
depending on certain factors.

Granular solids [granules] have big and
course; i.e. rough particle sizes and as
such they can be easily picked by the
fingers of our hands.
Granular solids include; pebbles and
gravels.
Powdery solids [powder] have very fine,
dry and very smooth particle sizes.
A typical example of powder is silt or
clay.
11
These several factors as already
discussed are based on either the
similarities or the differences in their
properties.
The table below describes some types
of mixtures formed by putting any of the
above materials together and the
nature of the resultant product [mixture]
formed.
 Introduction
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Components Mixture formed and its nature Chlorophyll ReasonsAlcohol

of mixture Coal tar
Turpentine
Salt + water Salt solution; homogeneous [bitumen]
Water dissolves the salt
Sand + water Muddy water; heterogeneous Water does not dissolves the salt

Water + oil Oil-water emulsion, heterogeneous

Water and oil are immiscible
liquids
Water + Water and ethanol [alcohol] are
ethanol Dilute solution miscible liquids.
[alcohol]

From the definition of mixtures, it was On the other hand, a prepared mixture
indicated that the components in a can also be separated into its individual
mixture are combined together components by some simple physical
physically. processes.

The process of combining/adding two The process of completely putting apart

[2] or more substances together to form the components of a mixture is known as
a mixture is known as the preparation of the separation of mixtures.
mixtures.

Preparation and separation of mixture

From the beginning of the strand, it was
indicated that a mixture is obtained by
combining two[2] or more things
together physically.
The product of a physical process can
easily be separated; i.e. be reversed
back into the original materials which
were combined to obtain/form them.
Note: A physical process is thus a
reversible process as demonstrated
[illustrated] below;
12
salt + water salt solution.
From the above, salt mixed with water
forms a salt solution.
Likewise, a salt solution can be
separated back into salt and water.
Preparation of mixture
In the laboratory and even in the
classroom, some mixtures can be
prepared by following some simple
procedures.
 it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume
Examples of such mixtures that can be
prepared includes; salt solution [a
mixture of water and salt], a mixture of
chalk and water, a mixture of palm oil
water, etc.
a. The preparation of salt solution [An
experiment to demonstrate that salt
and water forms a uniform mixture]
Aim : To demonstrate [show] that salt can
dissolve in water.
Apparatus used : Common salt [NaCl],
water, and a beaker [container].
Procedure : Weigh about 5g of common
salt and add it to about 250ml of water in
a beaker [container]. Stir the mixture
continuously for sometime.
Observation : It is observed that the two
substances of salt and water have mixed
together completely; i.e. the water have
dissolved the salt/the salt have been
dissolved in the water.
Conclusion : Water and salt forms a
homogenous solution or a uniform
solution.
b. The preparation of a mixture of
powdered chalk and water [An
experiment to demonstrate that
powdered chalk and water forms a
heterogenous solution]
13
BOOK18
Aim : To demonstrate [show] that
powdered chalk cannot dissolve in
water.
Apparatus : Powdered chalk, water and
a beaker [container].
Method : Weigh about 5g of the
powdered chalk and add it to about
250ml of water in a beaker or container.
Stir the resulting mixture vigorously and
allow it to settle [stand].
Observation : It is observed that the two
[2] substances of powdered chalk and
water have not mixed up completely but
rather the powdered chalk have settled
below the water at the bottom of the
beaker.
Conclusion : Powdered chalk and water
when mixed together forms a
heterogenous mixture or a non-uniform
mixture or a suspension.
c. The preparation of a mixture of palm
oil and water [An experiment to show
that palm oil and water are immiscible
liquids]
Aim : To demonstrate [show] that palm oil
and water are immiscible liquids.
Apparatus : Palm oil, water and a
beaker [container]
Method : Add equal volumes of the
palm oil and the water together in the
beaker.

Cover the mouth of the beaker with your
palm.
Shake the beaker with its contents
vigorously and allow them to settle.
Observation : It is observed that the two
[2] liquids of palm oil and water have not
mixed up completely but rather the
palm oil is found floating on top of the
water.
Note: Oil is heavier than water, as one
molecule of oil depending on its state
may contain several carbon atoms and
this makes it weigh more than a single
molecule of water.
However, in terms of density; water is far
more denser than oil.
This is because, provided that the two [2]
liquids; i.e. water and oil have the
same/equal volume, then there will be
more water molecules than oil
molecules per unit volume of liquid.
For this reason; oil will float on water even
though water is lighter in weight than oil.
Conclusion: Water and palm oil forms a
heterogenous mixture OR palm oil and
water are immiscible liquids.
Separation of mixtures
A mixture can be separated into its
individual, original components by
certain physical means/processes.
However, the separation method that is
used in each case will depend on the
14
Introduction
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physical and the chemical properties of
the components in that mixture.
There are several ways/means that can
be used to separate a given mixture into
its constituents/components that came
together to form it.
In choosing a method to separate a
given mixture, the following
factors/conditions must be considered;
1. The original/initial state of each of the
mixture components; i.e. either solid,
liquid or gas.
2. The unique/special properties; i.e.
individual abilities of the components,
such as; the ability to be attracted by a
magnet, the ability to sublime; i.e.
change directly from solid to gas, etc.
3. The ability of one of the components
to be dissolved into a given
solvent/liquid; i.e. dissolution abilities of
the components in certain solvents.
4. The relative/comparative sizes of the
components of the mixture.
5. The relative/comparative weight of
the mixture components, that introduces
an opportunity for the lighter part to be
blown away by moving air [wind] such as
during the process of winnowing.
From the indicated factors/conditions
above, the various ways of separating
some common mixtures into their
respective components/parts include;
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1. Filtration Retort
Filtration is a method that is used to stand Glass rod
separate an insoluble solid [solute] from
a liquid [solvent] in a suspension; i.e. a
heterogenous solid - liquid mixture.

By the process of filtration, the mixture to

be separated is poured into a funnel with
a filter paper/cotton wool already
placed in it to cover the mouth or
opening of the funnel.

Beaker
containing
mixture

Filter paper
Residue Note:1.The glass rod prevents the
mixture from splashing; i.e spilling of the
Funnel beaker.

2. The retort stand is to hold the set-

Conical flask up firmly in place; i.e. make it steady
Filtrate during the experiment process.

The liquid component of the mixture

drains through the filter paper and it is
collected into the beaker as the filtrate.
The solid component remains on the
surface of the filter paper and it is
collected as the residue.
When the above set-up in arranged
during an experimen t, two other
apparatus; i.e. a glass rod and a retort
stand are added.
15
2. Sedimentation and Decantation
Decantation and decantation are
related and depended processes that
are used to separate a heterogeneous
mixture in which one of the components
is a liquid.
Sedimentation describes the process by
which the heavier particles in a
suspension settles down to the bottom of
a container/beaker.

D e c a n t a t i o n i s t h e p ro c e s s o f
separating/taking the lighter part
[supernatant] of a suspension from a
container without disturbing the heavy
part [sediments].
The process that can be used to separate
either an emulsion or a suspension into its
components.
During the process of decantation, the
mixture is allowed to stand/stay
undisturbed for a long time.
This allows/permits the heavy
component of the mixture to settle below
[under] the lighter component.
Glass rod
Supernatant
Sediments
The lighter component [supernatant]
which now forms the top layer of the
mixture can be carefully poured away
leaving behind the heavy component
[sediments].
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The process of decantation can be
facilitated by adding chemicals like
alum or slacked lime.
When the processes of sedimentation
and decantation are used to separate
muddy/dirty water into its components,
the supernatant becomes the clear
water and the sediments becomes the
sand.
Note: Sedimentation; i.e. the ability of a
heterogeneous mixture to separate into
its individual liquid components after it
has been left to stand undisturbed for
some time accounts for the reason why
some kinds of liquid medicines like
cough mixture should be properly
shaken before use.
This shake-up ensures that all the mixture
components in the medicine are
properly mixed together for effective
function/work.
3. Magnetic method [use of a magnet]
The magnetic method is a method that
can be used to separate a mixture in
which at least one of the mixture
components is a magnetic substance.
By the magnetic method, a permanent
magnet is gently passed through the
mixture for the magnet to attract and
take away; i.e. remove all the magnetic
substances and leave behind the non-
magnetic substances.
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direction of the air

Sulphur Iron filings

seeds

Magnet

husk
Sulphur + Iron filings

Examples of mixtures that can be

separated by the use of the magnetic
method includes; sulphur and iron
filings, chalk dust and iron filings, sand grains
and iron nails, ferrous and non-fereous
metals, iron dust and sand, etc.

5. Sieving
Sieving is a method that is used to
4. Winnowing separate a mixture taking into account
Winnowing is the method that is used to the relative sizes of the components of
separate the solid components of a the mixture and their individual abilities
thrashed cereal into the seed and the to be able to pass through a sieving
chaff by the help of the wind [moving air]. fabric.
Coarse/large
By the process of winnowing, wind component
[moving air] is allowed to pass through
the thrashed cereal for the
part/component that is light in weight
which is usually the chaff or the husk to Sieve
be blown away leaving behind the heavy [fine mesh]
component/part which is usually the smaller
seed or grain of the thrashed cereal that [fine]
part
serves as food.

Note: The wind blows away the

chaff from the seed leaving the grains
to fall into a basket/mat. By the process of sieving, the mixture is
17
 Introduction
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pressed onto a sieving fabric for the 6. Chromatography

smaller/finer components to pass
through the fabric leaving behind the
bigger components on top of the fabric.
Examples of mixture that can be
separated by sieving includes; gravels
and sand, maize [corn] and chaff,
wheat and bran, etc.
Chromatography is the method that is
used to separate the components of a
liquid - liquid mixture using; i.e. taking
into account the different rates of the
movements of all the liquid
components in that mixture over an
absorbent material.

The process of paper chromatography

Solvent flow

Solvent front

Separated
components

Before After Solvent

Time

The pregnancy test device that uses
urine from the female to determine her
pregnancy status is based on
chromatography; i.e. the ability to
separate the foetus urine from the
mother’s urine in the display column of
the device.
18
Ink and chlorophyll are examples of
mixtures that can be separated into its
individual components by the process of
chromatography.
Note: The absorbent material can be
either a glass material or even a filter
paper.
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7. Distillation
Distillation is a method that is used to
separate a homogenous [uniform]
mixture in which at least one of the
components is a liquid into its individual fractionating
components. c o l u m n

Distillation can thus be used to separate

a solution into its components.
water
inlet

condenser

8. Evaporation
vapour
mixture Evaporation is a method that is used in
water separating a solution into its
outlet components.
heat
By the process of evaporation, the
solution is heated strongly in an
The distilled liquid is collected in a beaker evaporating dish to dryness.
as the distillate. water
vapour
A typical example of a local process the

evaporating
use a form of distillation is the
brewing/making of the local wine
akpeteshie. mixture

dish
Another form of distillation known as
fractional distillation includes a part bunsen
called the fractionating column; which burner
allows two [2] or more liquids with close
boiling points to be efficiently
separated.

The fractional distillation apparatus can
be used to separate a mixture of water
and ethanol [alcohol], for purifying and
separating organic compounds in oil
refineries and chemical plants.
19
After evaporation, the liquid component
of the solution [solvent] is lost to the
atmosphere as vapour but the solid
component of the solution [solute]
remains in the evaporating dish as
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crystals. During sublimation, the mixture is

9. Separating funnel
The separating funnel is used to
separate immiscible liquids in a mixture
into its individual liquid components.
Separating
funnel
exposed for the component that
sublimes to be lost to the atmosphere
leaving behind the other component(s)
that does not sublime.
Examples of mixtures that can be
separated by sublimation includes;
A mixture of naphthalene balls and
sand, a mixture of ammonium chloride
and chalk dust, etc.

Lighter part
Heavy part
Separation of mixtures with
components in the same state.
Stopcock Mixtures with components in the same
state of matter are always separated
using the unique and different
properties of the constituent
components.
Beaker

Heavy part A mixture of immiscible liquids can be

The heavy liquid settles below the lighter
liquid.The heavy liquid is then collected
first from the separating funnel by
opening the stopper, leaving behind the
lighter liquid component.
separated by the separating funnel or
decantation, but that of miscible liquids
can be separated by distillation.
With solid-solid mixtures, a magnet can
be used if one of the components is a
magnetic substance, like in the case of
iron filings and sand.

Contrally, if none of the two [2] solids is a

10. Sublimation
Sublimation is a method that is used to
separate a solid - solid mixture in which
at least one of the mixture components
sublimes.
20
magnetic substance then the principle
of dissolution of any of them in a given
solvent such as water can be used.
For instance; How to separate a mixture
of common salt/sugar and sand can be
done as follows:
 it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume
I. Add water to the mixture of common
salt and sand by a process called
dissolution.
ii. The resulting mixture of salt solution
and sand is separated by filtration.
iii. The sand is obtained back as the
residue on the filter paper/cotton wool,
but the liquid filtrate which is collected
into the beaker is a salt solution.
iv. The salt [salt crystals] is easily obtained
back from the salt solution by
evaporation.
Everyday uses of the methods of
separating mixtures.
The methods of separating substances
from their mixtures are employed in
various ways in everyday life.
For examples;
1. In the Coastal salt industry, common
salt is obtained by allowing salty water to
evaporate.
2. The Ghana Water Company limited
uses filtration during water purification.
3. The ethanol/alcohol that is used in
thermometers and even as an alcoholic
drink is obtained by the process of
distillation.
4. Different kinds of petroleum products,
e.g. kerosene, petrol and vaseline; are
all obtained from crude oil [unrefined oil]
by the method of distillation.
21
BOOK18
Colloid, suspension and their effects
Colloid
A Colloid is a heterogeneous mixture in
which the dispersed particles are
intermediate between those of a
solution and a suspension in terms of
size.
The particles are spread evenly
throughout the dispersion medium,
which can be a solid, li auid or gas.
Suspension
A suspension is a heterogeneous
mixture in which some of the particles
settle out of the mixture upon standing
undisturbed.
Suspension is heterogeneous in nature
because the solute particles in the
mixture will not remain uniformly
dispersed if it is not continuously stirred.
Example of a suspension is a mixture of
water and sand.
Emulsion
An emulsion is a colloidal dispersion of a
liquid in either a liquid or a solid.
For an emulsion as a heterogeneous
mixture to be stabilized, an emulsifying
agent is required/needed.
For instance; Mayonnaise ; which is
made up of oil and vinegar cannot mix
together completely until as emulsifier
like as egg yolk is added.
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Similarly, soap also acts like an washing or cleaning of the later off your
emulsifying agent to hold water and a hands or clothes much easier and even
dirty material like grease which makes possible.

Differences among Suspension, Colloid and Solution

The above three [3] forms of matter differ from each other in the following basic ways;

Colloid Suspension Chlorophyll

Solution Alcohol
PARAMETER
Turpentine
1. Particles in a 1 . Pa r t i c l e s i n a 1. Particles in a 1. SIZE OF
colloid range from suspension are usually solution range from PARTICLES
1nm to 1000nm more than 1000nm 0.01nm to 1nm
Turpentine
2. Colloids are hetero 2.Suspensions are hetero- 2. Solutions are homo-
geneous in nature; g e n e o u s i n n a t u r e ; geneous in nature; 2. FORM OF
i.e. are a form of i . e . a r e a f o r m o f i.e. are a form of a MIXTURE
non-uniform mixture n o n - u n i f o r m m i x t u re uniform mixture
3. Solute particles in 3. Some solute particles 3 . Pa r t i c l e s i n aTurpentine
a colloid do not 3. ABILITY OF
in a suspension settle solution do not settle
separate when left PARTCLES TO
down when left down when left
to stand for a SETTLE IN THE
to stand for a to stand for a
MIXTURE
l o n g t i m e l o n g t i m e l o n g t i m e
undisturbed u n d i s t u r b e d u n d i s t u r b e d

4. Filtration can be Turpentine

4. Filtration cannot be 4. Filtration cannot be 4 . T O B E
used to separate used to separate used to separate S E PA R AT E D
a colloid into its a suspension into its a solution into its BY FILTRATION
c o m p o n e n t s components c o m p o n e n t s
5. Colloids can 5. Suspensions are mostly 5. Solutions do not 5. ABILITY TO
s c a t t e r o p a q u e i n n a t u r e scatter light CAUSE/BRING
light or cause and do not scatter C O L LO I D A L
colloidal effect light EFFECT

6. Solute particles in a 6. Solute particles in a 6. Solute particles in a 6. ABILITY TO

col l oi d can only suspension can solution cannot SEE/VIEW
be seen with the be seen with b e s e e n w i t h PARTICLES
miscroscope but not the naked or the naked or
the naked eyes unaided eyes unaided eyes

22
 it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume
TYNDALL [COLLOIDAL] EFFECT
Colloids are often confused with true
homogeneous solutions because the
individual particles of a colloid cannot
be seen.
However, when light is passed through a
true solution, the dissolved particles are
too small to deflect the light rays.
On the contrary, the dispersed particles
of a colloid are larger in size and thus
have the ability to reflect light.
The Tyndall [colloidal] effect is the
scattering of visible light rays by colloidal
particles.
One can visibly see a light beam as it
passes through a fog, smoke or a
scattered dust particles suspended in
air.
All these three [3] examples above are
forms of colloids.
Similarly, suspensions may also be able
to scatter light but if the number of
suspended particles are too large in size,
the suspension may simply become
opaque and the light will not scatter; i.e.
the light scattering will not occur.
The ability of sunlight to be seen through
a fine mist in the atmosphere is a typical
effect [observation] due to colloidal
effect.
Another property/behaviour of a
colloidal system is observed when the
colloids are studied under a light
microscope, the colloids scintillate; i.e.
reflect brief/small flashes of light.
23
BOOK18
This reflection is because of the colloidal
particles which move in a rapid and
random fashion illustrating a
random/brownian motion.
The Brownian/random motion is caused
by the collisions between the small
colloidal particles and the molecules of
the dispersion medium.
Demonstration of colloidal [tyndall]
effect
Science is a practical subject. The study
of such a discipline requires that certain
concepts and observations must be
proved to the learner as evidence.
This approach to the study of science
increases the understanding of students
and also give to them an industry
experience that will be required of them
in the future.
The demonstration of all Scientific
processes as well as observations are
done through experiments.
Aim: To show/demonstrate that particles
in a colloid/suspension can scatter light
rays.
Apparatus used: A light source [torch
light], beaker, solution, suspension.
Method: The solution and suspension
are poured into separate beakers. The
torch is lighted to allow its light to pass
through the contents of the beakers.
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Solution Suspension

Torch light

no scattering of light scattering of light

occurs in the solution occurs in the suspension

Observation: It is observed that the
solution is unable to scatter the light from
the torch but the suspension scatters the
light from the torch as seen above.
Conclusion: Colloidal/tyndall effect
occurs in a suspension but not in a
solution.
Note:1. A body that does not reflect
light usually absorbs it.
2. Therefore while as a suspension
reflects light from the torch as seen in the
above experiment, the solution rather
absorbs the light from the source. The
light cannot be seen in the solution as in
the suspension

RELATED PAST QUESTIONS

1. Which of the following substances can 3. Which of the following substances is a

dissolve almost all solutes ? mixture ?
A. Kerosene B. Palm oil A. Sodium chloride B. Sulphur dioxide
C. Water D. Turpentine C. Sugar solution D. Carbon dioxide
E. Petrol E. Ammonium chloride
[BECE 1991 obj. 7] [BECE 1992 obj. 16]

2. A uniform mixture of two or more 4. Which of the following mixtures can be

metals is called . separated by filtration ?
A. a solute B. a colloid A. salt in water B. sugar in water
C. a compound D. a suspension C. sand in water D. oil palm in water
E. an alloy E. omo in water
[BECE 1991 obj. 37] [BECE 1993 obj. 13]
24
 it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume
BOOK18

5. Kerosene and petrol are obtained from 10. Water is sometimes referred to as the
crude by universal solvent because it
A. distillation B. condensation A. is the purest liquid on earth.
C. filtration D. evaporation B. is the commonest liquid on land
E. decantation C. is found in all living cells.
[BECE 1993 obj. 21] D. dissolves most substances
[BECE 2005 obj. 22]
6. A mixture of raw starch and water is
best separated by 11. Which of the following solvents can
A. boiling B. distillation be used to remove grease from the
C. decantation D. winnowing hands?
E. crystallization. A. Alcohol B. Palm kernel oil
[BECE 1993 obj. 36]. C. Turpentine D. Water
[BECE 2006 obj. 23]
7. Which of the following processes
should be carried out first when 12. A mixture of sugar and water can be
separating a mixture of sand and separated by
common salt ? A. decantation B. evaporation
A. Crystallization of the salt C. filtration D. sublimation
B. Dissolution of the salt [BECE 2016 obj. 27]
C. Distillation of the solvent
D. Filtration of the mixture 13. Which of the following apparatus is
E. Sublimation of the solute not required in the process of distillation in
[BECE 1998 obj. 30] the laboratory?
A. Condenser B. Evaporating dish
8. A mixture of sand and common salt C. Bunsen burner D. Round bottom flask
could be separated by [BECE 2017 obj. 11]
A. Filtration and distillation
B. Dissolution and evaporation 14. Which of the following substances is a
C. Dissolution, sedimentation and mixture?
evaporation. A. Water
D. Dissolution, filtration and evaporation B. Sodium chloride
E. Sedimentation and filtration C. Sodium chloride solution
[BECE 1999 obj. 1] D. Iron filing
[BECE 2017 obj. 16]
9. The method used to separate an
insoluble solid from a liquid is 15. Show how you will separate each of
A. crystallization B. distillation the following mixtures;
C. filtration D. sublimation i. common salt and sand
[BECE 2003 obj. 1] ii. muddy water
[BECE 1990 Q 3b]
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16. Name the method which can be

used to separate each of the following Muddy
mixtures into their components : water
i. Alcohol and water; I
ii. Salt and water; II
iii. Powdered charcoal and iron filings
iv. Powdered chalk and water. III
[BECE 1992 Q 1d]

17. State one solvent for each of the

following substances. Beaker
i. Common salt ii. Paint Filtrate
iii. Coal tar iv. Sucrose
v. Chlorophyll . Name each of the parts labeled I, II and
[BECE 1995 Q 4d] III.

18. Explain how sulphur can be obtained ii. State the function of the part labeled II
from a mixture of sulphur and iron filings.
[BECE 1996 Q 1f] iii. Name the substance that is obtained
as the filtrate
19. State the method that can be used to
separate each of the following mixture? iv. State three physical properties of the
i. iodine and sand filtrate
ii. ethanol and water
[BECE 2001 Q3 e] v. Name two other materials that could
be used in place of the part labeled II
20. State the method which could be [BECE 2017 Q1c]
used to separate each of the following
mixtures and explain your answer in
each case :
i. salt and water;
ii. sawdust and iron filings;
iii. powdered charcoal and water.
[BECE 2004 Q 5b]

21. The diagram below is an illustration of

an experiment performed to separate
the components of muddy water.

Study it carefully and use it to answer the

following questions
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 it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume
BOOK18

INTRODUCTION TO EXPERIMENTS This stage/step involves the arrangement

of the required laboratory
tools/equipment to form a set-up.
Experiments are systematic procedures
that are used to confirm scientific Note: The set-up of an experiment
observations and processes. describes how the laboratory tools to be
used are arranged in the
Experiments make the study of science a correct/needed order.
practical subject which also serves as a
true preparation for its learners for At this foundational level, the set-up can
industry; i.e. respective scientific careers be arranged for the student by the
in the future. instructor, but he/she must learn to do
that by a diagram guide with time.
All scientific experiments at this level of
study are simply some tried and verified
[tested] approaches [methods] that are LABORATORY TOOLS/INSTRUMENTS
used to confirm/prove/verify some The various laboratory instruments are
simple and basic scientific classified into groups using their
functions.
findings/processes/ observations.
These are; Measuring instruments for
For studying convenience, all scientific length
experiments are sub-divided into six [6]
stages [steps]. meter rule
tape measure
These are; [surveyor’s tape]
i. Aim
The aim is the motive/purpose/reason for
needed/required to per form the
experiment.
This is the first step in the process and it
also differentiates one experiment from
another.
It even determines how the rest of the
remaining four [4] steps are to be carried
out/performed.
outside callipers
inside callipers
iii. Method/procedure
The method/procedure of an
experiment is the rightfully laid down
steps that describes the correct order by vernier callipers
which the experiment is carried micrometer screw
out/performed. gauge
27
 Table of Contents
Introduction
Dedication to Experiments
Integrated Science

Volumetric instruments for measuring Supporting devices for holding other

the volumes of liquids instruments during experiments

retort stand
and clamp
wire gauze

pipette burette conical flask

tripod stand
bunsen burner
test funnel [heat source]
volumetric
flask tube
Holding instruments for holding hot
objects

tongs
forceps

test tube rack

[test tube holder] flat bottom
flask Laboratory masses metallic objects with
their masses on them to serve as known
weight during experiments

standard
masses

slotted
masses

reagent distilled water round bottom

bottom b o t t l e flask
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 it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume
v. Observation/inference
The obser vation/inference is an
expected result/outcome that is seen
and recorded at the end of the
experiment.
Note: At this level of study, the
observation [inference] must usually
.confirm/approve/validate/prove an
already known scientific findings or idea.
For instance; light travels in a straight
line, starch is produced in a green plant
after photosynthesis, light energy is
needed before photosynthesis can
occur, etc.
Certain experiments may have data
which can include; tables and graphs on
the entire process which can be added
at this point.
v. Conclusion
A conclusion on an experiment is the final
statement of truth that summarizes all
the observed/verified facts/findings.
vi. Precaution
The precaution is a set of careful steps
[rules] that are taken during the
experiment process.
These rules when followed, protect the
experiment results/outcome from errors
and the experimenter; i.e.
student/scientist from injuries.
Important: Students are advised to strictly
study all the experiments in the book
under these six [6] sub-headings above
so that they can easily approach and
answer examination questions on them.
29
BOOK18
Forms of experiments
Experiments are grouped into two [2]
forms which are usually conducted at the
same time together.
These are;
I. The main [actual] experiment
and
ii. The control experiment.
i. The main/actual experiment.
The main experiment contains all the
needed conditions and tools that are
needed/required for the process.
The result/observation/outcome of this
type of experiment always
approves/validates an already
established scientific obser vation
[finding].
ii. The control experiment
The control experiment usually lacks one
of the conditions/factors/tools for the
experiment process.
This makes the result/outcome different
from the expected and this is due to the
lack of one or more of the needed
conditions or factors.
The control experiment is done/carried-
out/performed alongside the main
experiment to affirm/confirm the
importance as well as the role of a
particular/specific condition/factor/tool
in the experiment process.
 Introduction
Table
Diversity
Dedication
of Contents
of Matter
to Integrated Science

THE ATOM AS THE BASIC COMPONENT Compound

[BUILDING UNIT] OF MATTER
Matter is made up of entities/particles.
This concept is called the particulate
nature of matter.
The particles/entities that make up
matter could be; atoms, ions,
molecules, radicals or compounds.
The atom is the most important particle
of matter because it forms the
other/remaining particles like; ions,
molecules, radicals or compounds.
A compound is formed when the atoms
of different elements are combined
together chemically in a fixed ratio.
The definitions of the particles above
shows the presence of atoms in each of
them and since the relationship between
the atom and each of the remaining
particles.
A flow chart diagram showing the
relationship among; matter, atom,
element and compound

Matter
Definition of the particles of matter

Atom atoms
An atom is the smallest, indivisible part [group]

kin me

di
sa

ffe
[particle] of an element or matter that
d

kin

re
d
can be used; i.e. take part in a chemical

nt
reaction. Element Compound

Ion m se no ac ba s
An ion is a charged atom.
et m n
al i-m -me id se alt
From the above definition, an ion is et ta
al l
formed by the atom of an element when
From the above, every element contains
it either gains or loses an electron or
atoms of the same kind and a
some electrons.
compound contains atoms of different
kind.
Molecule
Inasmuch as elements contain atoms of
A molecule is made up of atoms that are
the same kind, yet some elements have
chemically combined and they exists
atoms with some slight
together as a separate particle/unit.
variations/changes.
Radical
Note: During chemical reactions, it is the
A radical is made up of two or more
atom of an element that combines with
atoms from different elements that are
the atom(s) of other/different elements
chemically combined together and they
to form compound(s).
share [have] a common [single]
charge.
30
 it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume
BOOK18

Tthese elements are studied into detail at

The periodic table of elements
this level.

Since the onset [beginning] of the study The table below lists the first twenty [20]
of matter, Scientists found out that elements on the periodic table, their
various forms of matter have different chemical symbols and their atomic
make-ups [compositions]. numbers.

The difference in compositions that Chemical Atomic

Name of element symbol of number
occurs in the different forms of matter
element
accounts for the respective differences in
their natural states as well as nature. Hydrogen H 1
Helium He 2
For instance; the composition [make-
up] of a pen is different from the Lithium Li 3
composition [make-up] of a paper even Beryllium Be 4
though they are all forms of matter.
Boron B 5
Several Scientists attempted to group all Carbon C 6
the elements they knew; i.e. had been
discovered at that time into a chart Nitrogen N 7
[table] called the periodic table of
elements. Oxygen O 8
The most successful of such attempts Fluorine F 9
was made by the Russian Scientist Dmitriv
Mendeleev. Neon Ne 10
Sodium Na 11
It was this Russian Scientist who arranged
Magnesium Mg 12
all the elements based on their
increasing atomic numbers and that Aluminium Al 13
has since been the basis for the
compilation of the modern periodic Silicon Si 14
table of elements.
Phosphorus P 15
Note: Elements with two or more atom Sulphur S 16
types are known as isotopic elements
and the individual atoms in the said Chlorine Cl 17
element are known as the isotopes of Argon Ar 18
that element.
Potassium K 19
here are presently 118 elements on the Calcium Ca 20
periodic table but the first twenty [20] of
31
 Introduction
Table
Diversity
Dedication
of Contents
of Matter
to Integrated Science

The first twenty [20] elements on the Cu

Copper Cuprum
periodic table in their increasing order
can easily be remembered with the Silver Argentum Ag
acronym below;
He [Hydrogen] Gold Aurum Au
has [Helium]
light [Lithium]
brain [Beryllium]
but [Boron]
can [Carbon]
not [Nitrogen]
offer [Oxygen]
The sub-atomic particles
full [Fluorine]
nine [Neon]
The atom irrespective of its small nature
subjects [Sodium]
[size], is still composed of certain
must [Magnesium]
particles.
all [Aluminium]
silly [Silicon]
These particles that come together to
people [Phosphorus]
form [make-up] the atom are referred to
stop [Sulphur]
as the sub-atomic particles.
calling [Chlorine]
a [Argon]
The sub-atomic particles are; protons
pope [Potassium]
[those particles with positive charges],
christ [Calcium]
electrons [those particles with the
negative charges] and neutrons [those
Apart from the first twenty [20] elements,
particles with no charges].
the following important elements should
also be studied because of their uses in
subsequent/later lessons.

The table below summarizes some of The table below is a summary of the
the important elements, their latin basic information about the three sub-
names and their chemical symbols. atomic particles.

Name of Chemical Sub-atomic Charge on relative mass Location of

element Latin name symbol particle particle of particle particle
Proton +1 1 a. m. u. Inside the
Tin Stannum Sn nucleus
1 a. m. u. On the
Ferrum Electron -1 shell
Iron Fe 1840

Neutron 0 1 a. m. u. Inside the

Lead Plumbum Pb nucleus

Mercury Hydrasgum Hg
32
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Note: a.m.u. is the abbreviation for Mathematically;

atomic mass unit and it is the unit for mass = atomic [ Z ] + neutron [N]
measuring the mass of the sub-atomic number number number
particles.

Worked example
Terms under the atomic structure 1. The atomic number of an element is
19 and its mass number is 39.
1. Atomic number/proton number [Z] Calculate the following;
The atomic number refers to the number α). proton number,
of protons that are found in the nucleus of β). electron number,
the atom. γ). neutron number.

Every atom in the natural state/form is solution

electrically neutral; i.e. it has no charge . α). proton number
The proton number is another name for
This is because the number of its protons; atomic number.
i.e. positive charges is equal to the Hence;
number of its electrons; i.e. negative proton number = atomic number
charges. proton number = 19
The atomic number is also known as the
proton number. β). electron number,
Electrically, the atom is neutral because
the electron number=the proton
2. Neutron number [N] number
The neutron number is the number of electron number = 19
neutrons that are found in the nucleus of
the atom. γ). neutron number [N]
Note: Neutrons have no electrical Given mass number [A] = 39,
charges; i.e. they are neither negative [-] atomic number [Z] = 19
noe positive [+] but they only contribute Mathematically, A = Z + N
to the mass of the atom. also; Z + N = A
N=A-Z
N = 39 - 19
3.Mass number/nucleon number [A] N = 20.
The mass number is the sum of the neutron number = 20
number of protons and the number of
neutrons in the nucleus of the atom.
4. Electronic configuration
The mass number is also known as the Electronic configuration refers to the
nucleon number. arrangement of electrons on the shells
33
 Introduction
Table
Diversity
Dedication
of Contents
of Matter
to Integrated Science

of an atom. In filling the shells of an atom with

electrons, certain rules are followed/
Electrons in the atom are arranged on observed.
the shells in increasing energy levels from
the nucleus. Rule 1: The building up rule
In filling the shells of an atom with
Energy level [n] Name of shell electrons, shells that have lower energy
N = 1, first energy level K shell
levels; i.e. those shells that are closer to
the nucleus are filled first, completely
N = 2, second energy level L shell [fully] before moving to the shells with
N = 3, third energy level M shell
higher energy levels; i.e. those shells that
are far from the nucleus.
N = 4, fourth energy level N shell

N = 5, fifth energy level O shell

The shells were named in order; i.e. K, L,
M, N and O as with the case of the letters
of the English alphabet.
Note: The smaller the energy level; i.e.
the value of n, the closer/nearer that shell
is to the nucleus.
From the above, the K shell is the closest
shell to the nucleus, it is followed in that
order by the L shell, the M shell, the N
shell and the O shell respectively.
So in practical terms, the K shell should
be filled completely/fully before moving
to the L shell and the L shell should also
be filled completely/fully before moving
to the M shell, etc.
Rule 2: The octet rule
The octet rule states that; the atoms of
some elements must either lose or gain
an electron or some electrons in order to
form their respective compounds so
that each atom in the compound will
have eight [8] electrons in its last
[outermost] shell.

The octet rule describes the maximum

The order of arrangement of the shells number of electrons that a given shell
around the nucleus in the atom can contain/hold.

F u r t h e r m o r e, t h e f o r m u l a e f o r
calculating the number of electrons a
2
given shell can occupy is given as 2(n) ;
Nucleus where n = the energy level of that shell.
K shell
L shell
M shell So in effect, when n=1; i.e. the N shell,
N shell the maximum number of electrons that
the N shell can contain/hold is given as
O shell
2(1)=2, when n=2; i.e. the L shell, the
34
 it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume
BOOK18

maximum number of electrons that the L Lithium atom Beryllium atom

2
shell can contain/hold is given as 2(2)
=8, when n=3; i.e. the M shell, the
maximum number of electrons that the
2
M shell can contain/hold is given as 2(3)
=18, when n=4; i.e. the N shell, the
maximum number of electrons that the N
2
shell can contain/hold is given as 2(4) K L
K L
=32, when n=5; i.e. the O shell, the Be : 2, 2
Li : 2, 1 4

maximum number of electrons that the O 3

shell can contain is given as 2(5) 2 =50,

Boron atom Carbon atom
etc.
Note: Even though the above indicates
the maximum possible number of
electrons that a given shell can
contain/hold, yet when drawing the
atomic structure of any element, the
table below is what is rather
followed/used. K L
K L C : 2, 4
6
B : 2, 3
Maximum number 5
Name of shell
of electrons
Nitrogen atom Oxygen atom
K shell 2 electrons

L shell 8 electrons

M shell 8 electrons
N shell 8 electrons
O shell 8 electrons
K L K L

7 N : 2, 5
8 O : 2, 6
From the above rules under the atomic
structure, the structures of the atoms of
Fluorine atom Neon atom
first twenty [20] elements are as follows;
Hydrogen atom Helium atom

K K K L K L
H:1 2 He : 2 9 F : 2, 7 10 Ne : 2, 8
1

35
 Introduction
Table
Diversity
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of Contents
of Matter
to Integrated Science

Magnesium atom Potassium atom Calcium atom

Sodium atom

K L M N K L M N
K L M K L M
K : 2, 8, 8, 1 20 Ca : 2, 8, 8, 2
11 Na : 2, 8, 1 12 Mg : 2, 8, 2 19

Aluminium atom Silicon atom

Ion and ion formation

Ion
An ion is a charged atom.
Ions are formed when the atom of an
element either gains or loses an electron
K L M K L M or some electrons.
13 Al : 2, 8, 3 14 Si : 2, 8, 4
Types of ions
Phosphorus atom Sulphur atom There are two [2] types of ions.
These are;
a. cations [positively charged ions], and
b. anions [negatively charged ions].

a. Cations
A cation is a positively charged ion.
A cation is formed when the atom of an
K L M K L M element loses an electron or some
15 P : 2, 8, 5 S : 2, 8, 6
16
electrons.
+
Chlorine atom Examples of cations are; K [Potassium
Argon atom ion], Na+ [Sodium ion], Ca2+ [Calcium
ion], etc.

b. Anion
An anion is a negatively charged ion.
An anion is formed when an atom gains
an electron or some electrons.
K L M Examples of anions are; F- [Fluoride ion],
K L M - -2
17 Cl : 2, 8, 7
18Ar : 2, 8, 8 Cl [Chloride ion], O [Oxide], etc.
36
 it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume
BOOK18

Note: In naming anions, the last three [3]
letters of the element’s name are
changed into ‘ide’.
For instance; Chlorine becomes
chloride, Oxygen becomes oxide,
Fluorine becomes fluoride, etc.
This makes the number of electrons of
the said atom of that element to be more
than its number of protons.
The said atom then gets [obtains] a net
negative charge as illustrated below
using Nitrogen and Sulphur.

Nitrogen accepts
Differences between an ion and its 3 electrons
neutral atom to become

Ion Neutral atom

Nitride
1. Ions have either 1. Neutral atoms Nitrogen ion 3-
7 N : 2, 5 N : 2, 8
positive or negative [atoms] have no atom
charges. charge.

2. They can take 2. They cannot take Sulphur accepts

2 electrons
par t in chemical part in chemical
reactions. reaction to become

3. They have either 3. They have equal

more electrons than number of electrons
protons or more and protons. Sulphur 16 S : 2, 8, 6 Sulphide S 2- : 2, 8. 8
p r o t o n s t h a n atom ion
electrons

Note: The number of the negative

Ion formation
Apart from helium, neon and argon, all
the other elements in the first twenty [20]
elements on the periodic table do not
have a completely filled outermost shell
and must either lose or gain electrons in
order to obey the octet rule; i.e. to have
a completely filled outermost shell.
Elements that have more than half of the
capacity of its outermost shell; i.e.
between 5 to 7 electrons need to accept
electrons; i.e. between 1 to 3 electrons
from another element in order to have a
completely filled outermost shell.
37
charges on the anions indicates [shows]
the number of electrons that were
received/gained.
Hence from the above, nitrogen
receives 3 electrons and sulphur
receives 2 electrons to form their
respective anions.
Elements that have less than half the
capacity of its outermost shell; i.e.
between 1 to 3 electrons need to donate
their outermost electrons to another
atom in order to obey the octet rule.
This makes the number of protons of the
said atom of that element to be more
than the number of its electrons.
 Introduction
Table
Diversity
Dedication
of Contents
of Matter
to Integrated Science

This leaves that atom with a net positive Example1: Sodium donates 1 electron
charge as illustrated below using to chlorine.
Beryllium and Aluminium.

Beryllium donates
2 electrons

to become

2+
4 Be : 2, 2 Beryllium Be :2
Beryllium ion
atom Cl accepts
Na donates 1 electron
1 electron

Aluminium donates
3 electrons to become
to become
to become

Aluminium Aluminium 3+
atom 13 Al : 2, 8, 3 ion Al : 2, 8

Na +1 Cl
-

Note: The number of positive charges

on the cation indicates [shows] the The attractive force that exists between
number of electrons that were lost. sodium ion [Na +1] and chloride ion [Cl -]
brings them together by the laws of
Hence from the above, beryllium lost 2 magnetism; i.e. unlike poles attract to
electrons and aluminium also lost 3 form Sodium chloride compound.
electrons to form their respective
cations.
Example 2: Calcium donates 2
The donation; i.e. losing and the electrons to oxygen
acceptance; i.e. gaining of electrons
usually occurs at the same time
between two atoms from different
elements that have a sum of their
outermost electrons to be eight [8].
38
 it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume
BOOK18

2. A uniform mixture of two or more

metals is called .
A. a solute B. a colloid
C. a compound D. a suspension
E. an alloy
[BECE 1991 obj. 37]

O accepts
3. Which of the following substances is a
2 electrons mixture ?
Ca donates A. Sodium chloride B. Sulphur dioxide
2 electrons
C. Sugar solution D. Carbon dioxide
E. Ammonium chloride
[BECE 1992 obj. 16]
10
196

4. Which of the following mixtures can be

to become
to become separated by filtration ?
A. salt in water B. sugar in water
C. sand in water D. oil palm in water
E. omo in water
[BECE 1993 obj. 13]

5. Kerosene and petrol are obtained

from crude by
O -2 A. distillation B. condensation
C. filtration D. evaporation
Ca +2 E. decantation
[BECE 1993 obj. 21]
The attractive force that exists between
+2
the Calcium ion [Ca ] and the oxide ion 6. A mixture of raw starch and water is
-2
[O ] brings them together by the laws of best separated by
magnetism [unlike poles attract] to form A. boiling B. distillation
Calcium oxide compound. C. decantation D. winnowing
E. crystallization.
[BECE 1993 obj. 36].
RELATED PAST QUESTIONS
1. Which of the following substances can 7. Which of the following processes
dissolve almost all solutes ? should be carried out first when
A. Kerosene B. Palm oil separating a mixture of sand and
C. Water D. Turpentine common salt ?
E. Petrol A. Crystallization of the salt
[BECE 1991 obj. 7] B. Dissolution of the salt
39
 Introduction
Table
Diversity
Dedication
of Contents
of Matter
to Integrated Science

C. Distillation of the solvent 13. Which of the following apparatus is

D. Filtration of the mixture not required in the process of distillation in
E. Sublimation of the solute the laboratory?
[BECE 1998 obj. 30] A. Condenser B. Evaporating dish
C. Bunsen burner D. Round bottom flask
8. A mixture of sand and common salt [BECE 2017 obj. 11]
could be separated by
A. Filtration and distillation 14. Which of the following substances is a
B. Dissolution and evaporation mixture?
C. Dissolution, sedimentation and A. Water B. Sodium chloride
evaporation. C. Sodium chloride solution
D. Dissolution, filtration and evaporation D. Iron filing
E. Sedimentation and filtration [BECE 2017 obj. 16]
[BECE 1999 obj. 1]
15. The chemical symbol for Iron is
9. The method used to separate an A. I B. K C. Fe D. Au E. Cl
insoluble solid from a liquid is [BECE 1990 obj. 6]
A. crystallization B. distillation
C. filtration D. sublimation 16. A substance that cannot be broken
[BECE 2003 obj. 1] down into simpler substances is called
A. a molecule B. a compound
10. Water is sometimes referred to as the C. an element D. a mixture
universal solvent because it E. an atom
A. is the purest liquid on earth. [BECE 1990 obj. 8]
B. is the commonest liquid on land
C. is found in all living cells. 17. The chemical symbol for potassium is
D. dissolves most substances A. Fe B. K C. P D. Pb E. Zn
[BECE 2005 obj. 22] [BECE 1991 obj. 9]

11. Which of the following solvents can 18. When a substance is made up the
be used to remove grease from the same kind of atoms it is called
hands? A. a mixture B. a compound
A. Alcohol B. Palm kernel oil C. an element D. a solution
C. Turpentine D. Water E. a solvent
[BECE 2006 obj. 23] [BECE 1991 obj. 23]

12. A mixture of sugar and water can be 19. In the nucleus of the atom, there are
separated by A. neutrons and shells
A. decantation B. evaporation B. protons and electrons
C. filtration D. sublimation C. neutrons and protons
[BECE 2016 obj. 27] D. electrons and shells
40
 it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume
BOOK18

E. electrons and neutrons i. common salt and sand

[BECE 1995 obj 22 ii. muddy water
[BECE 1990 Q 3b]
20. An atom has 5 protons and 5 neutrons
in its nucleus. 27. Name the method which can
How many electrons are present on the because to separate each of the
shells of the atom ? following mixtures into their components :
A. 1 B. 2 C. 5 D. 4 E.9 i. Alcohol and water;
[BECE 1999 obj. 5] ii. Salt and water;
iii. Powdered charcoal and iron filings
21. An atom has 4 protons and 5 neutrons iv. Powdered chalk and water.
in its nucleus. [BECE 1992 Q 1d]
How many positively charged particles
are in the atom ? 28. State one solvent for each of the
A. 1 D. 2 C. 3 D. 4 E. 5 following substances.
[BECE 2000 obj. 38] i. Common salt ii. Paint
iii. Coal tar iv. Sucrose
22. Which of the following substances is v. Chlorophyll
made up of only one kind of atom ? [BECE 1995 Q 4d]
A. Iron B. Salt
C. Steel D. water 29. Explain how sulphur can be obtained
[BECE 2002 (B) obj. 1] from a mixture of sulphur and iron filings.
[BECE 1996 Q 1f]
23. Chlorine is an example of
A. an atom B. an element 30. State the method that can be used to
C. a compound D. a molecule separate each of the following mixture?
[BECE 2004 obj. 19] i. iodine and sand
ii. ethanol and water
24. An atom has a proton number of 17 [BECE 2001 Q3 e]
and neutron number 18.
Determine the number of electrons in the 31. State the method which could be
third shell of the atom. used to separate each of the following
A. 1 B. 3 C. 5 D. 7 mixtures and explain your answer in each
[BECE 2017 obj. 18] case :
i. salt and water;
25. What is the chemical symbol for silver? ii. sawdust and iron filings;
A. Ag B. Au C. Si D. S iii. powdered charcoal and water.
[BECE 2018 obj. 7] [BECE 2004 Q 5b]

26. Show how you will separate each of 32. Define the following terms and give
the following mixtures; one example each.
41
 Introduction
Table
Diversity
Dedication
of Contents
of Matter
to Integrated Science

I). Element ii). Compound iii). Mixture ii. oxygen atom becomes negatively
[BECE 1993 Q 1] charged.
[BECE 2015(A) Q 3a]
33. Give chemical symbols for the
following elements: 40. Draw a potassium atom and show
I). Oxygen ii). Chlorine the distribution of electrons in its shells.
iii). Aluminium iv). Fluorine [K = 19] .
[BECE 1994 Q 1d] [BECE 2015 [ B] Q 2b].

34. i. Describe how ions are formed from 41. Give one example each of a
atoms. chemical used in:
ii. State two differences between a proton i. medicine ii. agriculture iii. industry
and an electron. [BECE 2017 Q 5b]
[BECE 1995 Q 6d]
42. What is an ion?
35. An atom has three protons and three [BECE 2018 Q2ai]
neutrons.
i. How many electrons are there in this 43. Draw the potassium atom and show
atom ? the distribution of electrons in its shells.
ii. Draw a labeled diagram to show the [K = 19]
arrangement of all particles in the atom [BECE 2018 Q3b]
[BECE 1998 Q 4 c]
44. The diagram below is an illustration of
36. i. What is an ion ? an experiment performed to separate
ii. Give two examples of ions the components of muddy water.
[BECE 1999 Q 2b]
Study it carefully and use it to answer the
37. i. What is an element ? following questions
ii. Classify the following as an
element, a compound or a mixture. Muddy
water, air, potassium, alcohol, common water
I
salt, sugar
[BECE 2000 Q 3c] II

38. List the particles that make up matter III

[BECE 2002 (A) Q 2c]

39. Explain how;

Beaker
i. lithium atom becomes positively Filtrate
charged
42
 it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume
BOOK18

i. Name each of the parts labeled I, II and

III.

ii. State the function of the part labeled II

iii. Name the substance that is obtained

as the filtrate

iv. State three physical properties of the

filtrate

v. Name two other materials that could

be used in place of the part labeled II
[BECE 2017 Q1c]

43

SUB - STRAND 2: LIVING CELLS
INDICATORS and EXEMPLARS
At the end of this sub strand, the
student should be able to:
1. Examine and describe the structure of
prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
2. Classify organisms [plants and animals] as
prokaryotic or eukaryotic based on the
type of cells they are made of
LIVING CELLS
Since 1665; when Rober t Hook
discovered the presence of the cell; i.e.
the basic functional unit of living things,
several studies have been
conducted/performed about the cell.
These research works have made us
know some important information
about cells like the presence of
functioning parts/components called
organelles.
Each of these components of the cell
called organelles have special
activities/roles that they play in the
overall performance of the cell.
These same studies have revealed that;
while as some cells have organelles; i.e.
membrane bound components, some
do not.
44
Introduction
Table
Diversity
Dedication
of Contents
of Matter
to Integrated Science
The most important organelle of any
living cell is the nucleus.
All cells that contain/have membrane
bound organelles are called eukaryotic
cells while as those that do not have their
components/parts surrounded by
protective membranes are called
prokaryotic cells.
As earlier established, a cell is a basic unit
of life; i.e. a living thing, that can perform
some or most of the life processes of
living things.
Various cells have distinct differences.
These variations has to do with their
qualities/features like; shape, function
and place/location of its function.
Note: 1. Cells that can perform only
certain activities are called specialized
cells while as those that can perform
several of the life activities are called
generalized cells.
2. Many cells start/begin as
generalized cells but they turn/change
into specialized cells after maturity.
Cells are classified as either prokaryotic
or eukaryotic depending on the
presence or the absence of membrane
bound organelles.
 it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume
Note: A membrane bound organelle is a
structure in the cell that has a protective
layer [covering].
A membrane bound organelle can be
surrounded by either a single layer; i.e.
single membrane bound organelle,
such as vacuole, lysosome, golgi
apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum, or
surrounded by a double layer; i.e.
double membrane bound organelles
such as nucleus, mitochondria and
chloroplast.
Every membrane bound organelle has
a specific set of functions/duties in the
cell.
A few of them function by
providing shape and support for the cell
and the other organelles, and some are
involved in activities like; energy
production , locomotion/movement ,
reproduction, etc.
Comparatively, prokaryotic cells are
much smaller than eukaryotic cells,
because they lack a definite nucleus,
and other membrane-bound cellular
organelles.
All prokaryotic cells are surrounded by a
cell wall and some have a capsule; i.e.
slime layer which is made of
polysaccharide molecule.
On the other hand, eukaryote cells
possess a clearly defined nucleus; i.e.
nucleus which is surrounded by a nuclear
membrane, and other membrane-
bound organelles like; mitochondria,
golgi body, endoplasmic recticulum,
45
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lysosymes, etc.
As indicated above, some membrane
bound organelles have a single layer
covering; i.e. a single layer membrane
bound organelle whilst others have a
double layer covering; i.e. a double
layer membrane bound organelle.
All organelles coordinate; i.e. work
together, to ensure the normal
functioning of the cell.
Prokayotes [ prokaryotic organisms]
Prokaryotic cells are those cells that do
not have membranes around their
organelles like the nucleus.
They are the primitive [old] cell types.
Most Prokaryotes have animal-like
forms and they include organisms like;
bacteria and cyanobacteria [blue-
green algae].
Cytoplasm
Nucleoid
Capsule
Cell Wall
Cytoplasmic
membrane
Ribosomes
Pili
Flagella
a typical bacteria
 Introduction
Table
Diversity
Dedication
of Contents
of Matter
to Integrated Science
Cell wall
Differences between Prokaryotes and
Cell membrane
Eukaryotes
Cyanosomes

Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
Phosphate granules
1. Prokaryotic cells are 1. Eukaryotic cells are
Ribosomes
the primitive/old type the modern/new cells
Protein granules of cells which evolved/came
from the prokaryotic
cells
Lipid droplets

photosynthetic lamellae 2. They do not have 2.They have a

a definite nucleus definite; i.e.
a typical cyanobacteria membrane bound
nucleus

3. The chromatin 3. The chromatin

Eukayotes [ eukaryotic organisms] bodies remain bodies are enclosed
scattered within the by a nuclear
Eukaryotic cells are those cells that have cytoplasm membrane
membranes around all their organelles,
including the nucleus. 4 . A s e x u a l 4. Both sexual and
Examples include; protists, fungi, plants re p ro d u c t i o n l i ke asexual reproduction
and animals. binary fission occurs in occurs in eukaryotes
prokaryotes
cilia
5. Comparatively, 5. Comparatively,
mouth pore p r o k a r y o t e s a re eukaryotes are bigger
micronucleus
food
smaller in size than in size than
anal pore vacuole eukaryotes. prokaryotes.
macronucleus
contractile
vacuole
6. Mostly unicellular in 6.Mostly multicellular
form. in form.
paramecium is a maize is a
typical protist typical plant 7. Mitochondria and 7. Mitochondria and
vacuole are present vacuole are absent.

Cap

Gills
Stalk
Note: A nucleus which lacks a nuclear
membrane is called a nucleoid.
Hyphae
Thus prokaryotes have a nucleoid but
mushroom is a elephant is an eukaryotes have a true nucleus.
typical fungi animal
39
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 it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume
Classification of organisms
Plants and animals can also be
classified as either eukaryotic or
prokaryotic depending on the type of
cells that they are made of.
hh
Eukaryotes [eukaryotic organisms]
Eukaryotes are organisms whose cells
have a nucleus enclosed within a
nuclear membrane/envelope.
They are belong to a group of organism
called Eukaryota; i.e. organisms with a
true nucleus.
Eukaryotes represent a small minority of
organisms on our planet but we have
much information about them due to
their comparatively large sizes when
likened/compared to prokayotes.
Eukaryotic organisms are further
classified into smaller kingdoms/divisions
namely; plantae [plants], animalia
[animals], fungi and sometimes protista
[prototists].
Eukaryotes [Eukaryotic organisms]
contain eukaryotic cells which also have
membrane bound organelles like;
mitochondria and golgi apparatus.
Furthermore, some eukaryotes like plants
and algae have chloroplasts in their
cells; with which they use to prepare their
food.
Note: Chloroplasts contain the green
pigment chlorophyll which traps sunlight
for the preparation of food in some
organisms by the process of
photosynthesis.
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Eukaryotes may be either unicellular or
multicellular.
Unicellular eukaryotes have one cell-
type that may be arranged repeatedly
and cluster together to form
colonies/filaments.
paramecium
Bacteria
Amoeba Yeast a colony
common unicellular eukaryotes
On the other hand, Multicellular
eukaryotes have different and many
cells that may either come together and
coordinate; i.e. work together to form a
tissue, an organ, a system and
eventually a complete organism; i.e.
multicellular organism.
sea urchin
snail
prawn jellyfish
squid fly
earthworm
spider cockroach starfish
common multicellular eukaryotes
Animals , plants and fungi are
common/familiar eukar yotes but
protists [protoctists] are also eukaryotes
although not as common; i.e. they are
rare as compared to the previous forms.
Eukar yotes can reproduce both
sexually; i.e. by sexual means and
asexually; i.e. by asexual means.

When sexual reproduction occurs in
eukaryotes, it is characterized by the
process of meiosis and gamete fusion.
During the process of meiosis, there is the
duplication/replication of DNA and later
two [2] rounds of cell divisions to
produce/obtain four [4] haploid cells
which acts as gametes [sex cells].
Note: A haploid cell is a cell that has half
the number of chromosomes of the
parent cell.
They are produced only during meiosis.
A haploid daughter cell [gamete] from
each male and female parent
combines together during gamete
fusion; which is a stage in sexual
reproduction.
So from the above and by heredity, every
human and other organisms that
reproduce sexually inherits and
possesses features/traits from both
parents.
However, the features/traits of one of the
parents may cover/mask/hinder another
from showing/appearing according to
the concept of dominance.
On the other hand, when asexual
reproduction occurs in eukaryotes, it is
characterized by the process of mitosis.
During the process of mitosis, one cell
divides to produce two [2]
identical/similar cells.
Mitosis occurs in only the body/somatic
cells.
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Introduction
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Dedication
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Prokaryotes [prokaryotic organisms]
Prokaryotes represents a large majority
of the number of organisms on Earth but
less information is known about them
because of their comparatively small
size.
Note: 1. All studies/research conducted
on prokaryotes requires very powerful
microscope because of their extremely
small sizes.
2. A .microscope is a laboratory
instrument that produces enlarged
images of small objects which allows an
observer to conveniently observe and
analyse those objects for the purpose of
research and studies.
a light microscope
in use
Prokaryotic cells may contain primitive
organelles.
They are not as structurally complex as
eukaryotes, in terms of their internal
organization; i.e. the presence and the
function of cellular organelles.
Prokaryotes are mostly bacteria and
cyanobacteria. Inasmuch as
prokaryotes are not as not as internally
structured and organized as
eukaryotes, yet there is the existence of
functioning compartments in some
prokaryotic organisms especially those
with photosynthetic abilities.
 it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume
Compartmentalization is therefore a
feature of prokaryotic photosynthetic
organisms.
Prokar yotes are typically/strictly
unicellular. A prokaryote is therefore a
single-celled organism that lacks a
nucleus and other membrane-bound
organelles.
Prokaryotes belong to the phylum
[group] prokaryota; which is made up of
the domain [sub-group] Bacteria; i.e.
eubacteria and Archaea; i.e.
archaebacteria.
Besides the absence of a nucleus,
prokaryotes also lack mitochondria
and/or most of the other membrane-
bound organelles that characterize the
eukaryotic cells.
Contrally to the above, some
prokar yotes have compar tments
enclosed in protein shells. This has given
birth to prokaryotic organelles; i.e.
similar structures in prokaryotic that
resemble organelles in eukaryotic
organisms.
Prokar yotes are mainly/mostly
unicellular, but some types like
cyanobacteria can/may form large
colonies.
Note: A colony is a group of unicellular
cells/organisms that cluster/join to live
together as/like a multicellular organism
Other forms of prokar yotes like
myxobacteria have stages in their life
cycle where they exist as multicellular
organisms in form.
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All prokaryotes reproduce asexually
and also by gene transfer but not by the
fusion of gametes.
The differences between prokaryotes
and eukaryotes reflects the existence of
two very different levels of cellular
organization.
It is only eukaryotic cells that have an
enveloped nucleus which contains its
chromosomal DNA and other
characteristic membrane-bound
organelles like mitochondria.
Cellular organization of Eukaryotes
and Prokaryotes.
Prokaryotes are made up of prokaryotic
cells and eukaryotes are made up of
eukaryotic cells.
Prokaryotic cell
The Prokaryotic cell by its name is found
in prokaryotes [prokartic organisms].
This form of unicellular organisms are
adapted to perform all the needed
basic life processes like; movement,
feeding, reproduction, etc.
The various components
[compartments] of the prokaryotic cell
have evolved; i.e. been designed to
perform; i.e. carry-out the above life
activities and more for the organism.
 Introduction
Table
Diversity
Dedication
of Contents
of Matter
to Integrated Science

A generalized diagram of a prokaryotic Eukaryotic cell

cell
flagella The Eukaryotic cell by its name is found
in eukaryotes [eukartic organisms].

cytoplasm nucleoid [DNA] This form of mostly multicellular

organisms have distinct membrane
bound parts; i.e. organelles that are
pili
adapted; i.e. designed to perform a
specific life activity.

The two [2] forms of eukaryotes cells are

capsule
plasmid those in animals; i.e. eukaryotic animals
cell wall ribosome cell [plasma] and those in plants; i.e. eukaryotic
membrane
plants.
These two [2] cells are similar to each
other and also different from each one at
the same time.
The similarities between the plant cell and the animal cell is mainly as a result of the
presence of some common organelles that are found in each of them.

On the other hand, the differences that exists between the plant cell and the animal cell
arises; i.e. comes about as a result of certain organelles which are found in one cell-type
but not the other.

A generalized diagram of an eukaryotic animal cell

nucleus

ribosomes nucleolus

cytoplasm
endoplasmic reticulum
cell membrane golgi body
centrosomes
lysosome
mitochondrion
microtubules

opening in cell
membrane

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A generalized diagram of an eukaryotic plant cell

endoplasmic
recticulum

nucleus golgi apparatus

chloroplast

nucleolus vacuole

peroxisome mitochondrion
ribosomes cell membrane
amyloplast cell wall

cytoplasm

Cellular components/organelles and their function(s) in their respective cells.

Cellular structure
[organelle] Function of structure [organelle] in their respective celsl

The nucleus is a double-membraned eukaryotic cell organelle

that contains the genetic material/information; i.e. DNA which
Nucleus
controls important cell processes like; growth, replication
[duplication/copy of DNA], transcription [creation of RNA from

The nucleolus is a spherical structure found in the cell’s nucleus

with the main function of producing and assembling the cell’s
Nucleolus ribosomes. After the ribosomal RNA [rRNA] are transcribed and
assembled, they are sent/transported to the cytoplasm, where
they serve as the sites/place for protein synthesis.

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Diversity
Dedication
of Contents
of Matter
to Integrated Science

Peroxisomes are organelles that contain enzymes that

oxidize/change certain molecules in the cell, mostly amino
peroxisomes
acids and fatty acids into carbohydrates. They also help
reduce the toxicity level of the cell by converting hydrogen
peroxide to water and oxygen.

A ribosome is an organelle which is made up of RNA

ribosome [ribonucleic acid] and protein. It is the site/place of protein
synthesis in the cell.
Amyloplasts are organelles which are present in the plant cell
with the responsibility of producing and storing starch.
Amyloplast Note: Glucose is the first product of photosynthesis from which
starch is later obtained.
The cytoplasm is the gel-like fluid inside the cell. It serves as the
platform where all the other organelles perform their functions;
i.e. chemical reactions.
cytoplasm These functions include; growth, replication, protein synthesis
and expansion.
It surrounds/encloses the cytosol with floating/suspended
filaments, ions, proteins, and macromolecular structures.
The cytosol is the liquid content of the cytoplasm which contains
cytosol an organized framework of fibrous molecules that make-up the
cytoskeleton; which gives a cell its shape, enables organelles to
move within the cell, and the entire cell at large.
The cytoskeleton is a structure that helps cells maintain their
shape and internal organization by providing it with the
mechanical support [strength] needed to carry out essential
cytoskeleton functions like division and movement.
cytoskeleton is a system of filaments or fibres that are present in
the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells.
There are three [3] types , namely; actin filaments,
microtubules, and intermediate filaments.

Golgi apparatus or Golgi complex or Golgi body is a

membrane-bound organelle of eukaryotic cells that is made
Golgi apparatus up of a series of flattened, stacked pouches called cisternae.
The Golgi apparatus is responsible for transporting, modifying,
and packaging proteins and lipids into vesicles [containers] for

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delivery to targeted destinations.

It is located in the cytoplasm next to the endoplasmic
reticulum and near the nucleus.
Endoplasmic reticulum is a network of membranes inside a cell
through which proteins and other molecules move. The
endoplasmic reticulum can either be smooth or rough,
Endoplasmic depending on the presence or otherwise of attached
reticulum ribosomes. The rough endoplasmic reticulum has attached on
it ribosomes; which are small, round organelles which function
to make those proteins. However, smooth endoplasmic
recticulum has no ribosomes.
A vacuole is a membrane-bound cell organelle which is
prominent; i.e. very large and permanent; i.e. always present in
the plant cell but small and temporary; i.e. not always present in
the animal cell.
vacuole
In the plant cell, the vacuole helps maintain water balance; i.e.
osmoregulation and sometimes a single vacuole can take up
most of the space in the plant cell. In the animal cell, they mostly
have excretory functions; i.e. take away waste from the cell.

Mitochondria (mitochondrion, singular) are membrane-bound

cell organelles that generate most of the chemical energy
Mitochondria needed to power the cell's biochemical reactions.
Chemical energy produced by the mitochondria is in a form of
molecule called adenosine triphosphate [ATP]

The cell wall is the non-living component/covering which serves

as the outmost layer of the plant cell. It is permeable to some
materials.
cell wall A cell wall surrounds the plasma membrane of plant cells and
provides strength and protection for the inner organelles.
The cell wall in plants is made up of cellulose; a special
carbohydrate polymer, hence it is also called cellulose cell wall.
It provides; shape, support, and protection to the cell and its
contents.

The tonoplast is also known as the vacuolar membrane.

tonoplast The tonoplast's main function is to separate the inner vacuole,
from the outer cellular cytoplasm, or cytosol, which is the fluid-
like material in which cell organelles are found.
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Diversity
Dedication
of Contents
of Matter
to Integrated Science

Plasmodesmata (singular form: plasmodesma) are intercellular

organelles found only in plant and algal cells.
The plasmodesmata consist of pores/holes, that serves as
Plasmodesmata channels which connects/joins one plant cell to other,
allowing/permitting the movement of molecules between
adjacent cells.
(The animal cell organelle that works similarly to it is the gap
junction.)
Chloroplast as organelle is found only in all green plants and
algae but not in animals.
They contain the characteristic green pigment; chlorophyll that
captures sunlight and converts it into useful energy, and also helps
Chloroplast
in the release of oxygen from water during the process. They
belong to a family of double-membraned cell plant organelles
called plastids.
They are also responsible for the biosynthesis of molecules like;
amino acids, phytohormones, nucleotides, vitamins, lipids, etc.
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a large, continuous membrane
system that forms a series of flattened sacs within the cytoplasm of
eukaryotic cells which can be used as site/place for the storage of
calcium; synthesis, folding, modification, and transport of
proteins as well as lipid metabolism.
All eukaryotic cells contain an endoplasmic reticulum (ER).
There are two [2] types of endoplasmic reticulum based on the
presence or otherwise of attached ribosomes.
endoplasmic
Rough ER contains ribosomes which are used in the synthesis of
reticulum
protein.

Smooth ER, has no attached ribosomes, and are involved/used in

the synthesis of lipids, in the form of cholesterol and
phospholipids; the main material used in the production of new
cellular membrane.

Plasmodesmata are microscopic; i.e. unseen channels [paths]

Plasmodesmata which connects the cell walls of all plant cells and some algal
singular; cells together.
plasmodesma
They enable/help the transport [movement] of materials as well
as communication between adjacent/neighbouring cells.

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Comparison between the major types 7. The plant cell and the animal cell
of eukaryotic cells; i.e. animal cells each possess ribosomes.
and plant cells

To compare means; to bring/put two [2]

or more items side by side in order to Similarities between the plant cell and
bring out; i.e. know their similarities as the animal cell
well as differences.
Plant cell Animal cell
1. The plant cell has a 1. The animal cell has
cell wall no cell wall
2. The plant cell has a 2. The animal cell has
Similarities between the plant cell and
big and permanent a small and temporary
the animal cell vacuole vacuole

Similarities between two [2] or more 3. The plant cell has a 3. The animal cell has
chloroplast no chloroplast
items talks about the common features
which are present in them. 4. Plant cell has a fixed 4. Animal cell has no
shape and rigidity fixed shape nor rigidity
The plant cell is similar to the animal cell 5. The plant cell has a 5. The animal cell has
because of the presence of the thick outer covering a thin outer covering
following organelles. that is made up of the that is made up of only
cell wall and the cell the cell membrane
membrane
1. The plant cell and the animal cell
each possess a nucleus.

2. The plant cell and the animal cell

each possess a cytoplasm. Effects of prokaryotes and eukaryotes

3. The plant cell and the animal cell
each possess a cell membrane.
4. The plant cell and the animal cell
each possess a mitochondria.
5. The plant cell and the animal cell
each possess an endoplasmic
reticulum.
6. The plant cell and the animal cell
each possess peroxisomes.
55
Every living thing has a role to play in the
ecosystem for which it is a part.
This is known as the niche of that
organism.
Likewise, prokaryotes and eukaryotes
have several effects on other organisms
and the environment in which they live.
The above is possible through several
interactions and processes.
Important processes like; the carbon
 Introduction
Table
Diversity
Dedication
of Contents
of Matter
to Integrated Science

cycle, the water cycle and the nitrogen
cycle are maintained by these
organisms above.
In the area of human health ,
prokaryotes and eukaryotes have both
beneficial as well as harmful impact on
our well-being.
Beneficial impacts of prokaryotes
1. Most enzymes in the digestive system
that assist in the break down of food are in
the form of prokaryotes.
2. Pathogenic microbes are forms of
prokaryotes that protect us from harmful
micro-organisms.
Safety measures to protect prokaryotes
and eukaryotes
From the study of the environment, it has
been established that every organism
has a particular kind of habitat where it
can live successfully.
This is because of the presence and or
absence of certain chemicals and
environmental conditions at that place.
Since prokaryotes and other eukaryotes
live with us, the only way to protect them i
is to protect their environment.
The environment is primarily/mainly
protected by/through the prevention of
pollution.

3. Some prokaryotes help our immune

system to function properly.
RELATED PAST/LIKELY QUESTIONS
4. The commercial/industrial production 1. Which of the following organisms is/are
of various foods like; cheese, bread, multicellular?
wine, beer and yoghurt make use of I. Amoeba
some prokaryotes like yeast. II. Paramecium
III. Onion
A. I only B. III only
Beneficial impacts of eukaryotes C. I and II only D. II and III only
1. Plants are eukaryotic organisms that [BECE 2014 obj. 33]
provide humans with most of the
requirements of life like; oxygen, food, 2. The component of a living cell
medicine, etc. responsible for respiration is
A. chloroplast B. mitochondrion
2. Lower class organisms like; worms, C. nucleus D. vacuole
termites play active roles in the decay of [BECE 2015 obj. 30]
organic matter into humus; which is a
ready form of plant food. 3. The organelle which occupies the
largest portion of a plant cell is the
3. Butterflies, bees and birds act as A. chloroplast B. mitochondrion
agents of pollination which is an C. nucleus D. vacuole
important stage in the life cycle of [BECE 2017 obj. 28]
flowering plants [angiosperms].
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4. The part of a living cell which is semi- organelles

permeable is C. Both cells can prepare their own food
A. cytoplasm B. nucleus D. Unicellular forms of each group can
C. protoplasm D. cell membrane survive on their own
[BECE 2017 obj. 32]
11. Give one function each of the
5. Which of the following structures components of a living cell
contain cellulose? i. Cell membrane
A. Cell wall B. Cell membrane ii. Chloroplast
C. Chloroplast D. Mitochondrion iii. Nucleus
[BECE 2018 obj. 2]
12. Explain the following terms as
6. The basic unit of life is the associated with living organisms:
A. cell B. nucleus I. unicellular
C. organ D. tissue ii. multicellular
[BECE 2018 obj. 10] [BECE 2017 Q3c]

7. Which of the following statements 13. What is chloroplast?

about a plant cell is correct? It
A. does not have a nucleus.
B. contains large vacuoles
C. is surrounded by cell membrane only
D. does not have a definite shape
[BECE 2017 Q4bi]
14. Give three similarities as well as
differences between a plant cell and an
animal cell.

8. Which of the following organisms is an 15. Describe briefly how prokaryotes are
eukaryote? different from eukaryotes.
A. Bacteria B. Cyano-bacteria
C. Maize plant D. Amoeba 16. Name two [2] single bound
membrane organelles in eukaryotic
9. The distinguishing feature that cells.
separates prokaryotes from eukaryotes is
A. Prokaryotes can manufacture their 17. Why is the nucleus regarded as the
own food but eukaryotes cannot. most important organelles in eukaryotes?
B. Prokaryotes are multticellular whiles
eukaryotes are unicellular
c. Prokaryotes do not have membrane
bound orgsnelles but eukaryotes have.
D. Prokaryotes have no cells but
eukaryotes do

10. The animal cell and the plant cell are

all eukaryotic because;
A. Both cells can reproduce
B. both cells have membrane bound
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 Introduction
Table
Cycles
Dedication
of Contents
to Integrated Science

STRAND

2
CYCLES

SUB STRAND 1: WATER CYCLE

SUB STRAND 2: LIFE CYCLE OF ORGANISMS

SUB STRAND 3: CROP PRODUCTION

SUB STRAND 4: ANIMAL PRODUCTION

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STRAND 2 : CYCLES

A cycle is a natural process that can

maintain or sustain itself to continue
Condensation from time to time indefinitely provided
that it is not disrupted or disturbed.

From the above definition, all cycles in

Transpiration nature are repetitive/continuous without
Precipitation
a known end provided that it
Evaporation experiences no human
interferences/disturbances.

The human influence/disturbance that

Infiltration can cause a cycle to alter/change from
its conventional/normal pattern is called
disturbance/disruption of the cycle.

All the known cycles play important

INTRODUCTION roles/functions in the survival of living
things; i.e. plants and animals.

The natural environment around us is full Humans [human beings] must therefore
of cyclic patterns. protect these cycles.

A process; i.e. a natural process is This can be achieved when all human
described as a cycle if it forms the factors that disturb the cycles are
pattern/design/shape of a circle. eliminated or minimized.

With all the various forms of cycles, the

last stage/step of the process usually
lead into the first stage; i.e. beginning
stage of the process.

Note: Every process/phenomenon is

made of several/many interconnected
steps/stages with one following close to
the other.
59

SUB - STRAND 1: THE CARBON CYCLE
INDICATORS and EXEMPLARS
At the end of this sub strand, the
student should be able to:
1. Explain the process of the Carbon cycle
2. Describe the role of Carbon cycle to the
environment.
CARBON CYCLE
All living things and even some non-
living things are made up of [contains]
carbon.
Carbon also forms part of the ocean, the
air and even some rocks.
In the atmosphere, carbon is mostly not
found alone as a separate element but it
is rather found to exist together with a gas
like oxygen to form a compound like;
carbon dioxide [CO2] and carbon
monoxide [CO].
Under normal conditions/circumstances,
the carbon cycle plays a very important
role of maintaining the right levels of
carbon compounds in the earth’s
atmosphere.
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Introduction
Table
Cycles
Dedication
of Contents
to Integrated Science
By the above regulation, there must be
just enough amount of green house
effect to warm the earth and make it
suitable for supporting life; i.e. the
survival and growth of plants and
animals.
Yet when the amount of the green house
gas is too high, it can increase the level
of green house effect and as such lead
to a more severe global warming which
has many negative effects.
During photosynthesis, green plants
combine carbon dioxide and water
together in the presence of chlorophyll
and sunlight to make or prepare their
food.
The carbon which is found in carbon
dioxide thus becomes a part of the
plant.
When herbivores and other animals eat
these plants or their parts, they also get
carbon from the plants.
The passing on of carbon then continues
along the food chain.
During the process of respiration; i.e. the
production of energy from food
substances, living things; i.e. plants and
animals break down glucose [C6H12O6] to
produce carbon dioxide [CO2], water
[H2O] and energy.
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Through this process, CO2 is also returned
back into the atmosphere.
When animals and humans defecate
and urinate, the faeces and the urine
which contains a considerably high
amount of carbon also goes into the soil
for plants use.
Plants and animals that died and were
buried millions of years ago also turn into
fossil fuel like petrol and gas.
When these fossil fuels are burnt to
produce energy, some of the carbon in
them returns back into the atmosphere.
The carbon cycle is the series of
processes which describes/shows the
circulation/movement of carbon
[carbon compounds] from the
atmosphere to living things, to non-
living things and back to the
atmosphere again.

All the above processes/stages in the carbon cycle can be simplified by the diagram
below
Carbon
dioxide
Sunlight

Photosynthesis Auto and

factory
Animal emissions
plant
respiration respiration

Organic
carbon
Root
respiration
Decaying
organisms
Dead organism and
waste products

Fossils and fossil fuel

61

Main stages in the Carbon cycle
The entire Carbon cycle can be
summarized into four [4] stages.
These are; Photosynthesis, Respiration,
Burning and Decay.
The four [4] main processes above can
be further divided into two [2] main
groups. These are;
1. Activities that remove/take carbon or
carbon compounds from the
atmosphere;
and
2. Activities that release carbon or
carbon compounds into the
atmosphere.
1. Activities that remove/take carbon or
carbon compounds from the
atmosphere
Photosynthesis is the main process by
which Carbon in the form of Carbon
dioxide is removed from the
atmosphere.
Photosynthesis is made up of the words
photo; which means light and synthesis;
which means put together to
form/make.
Photosynthesis is the process during
which plants combine water [H2O] and
carbon dioxide [CO2] to form/produce
glucose [C6H12O6] and oxygen [O2] using
light energy from the sun.
The energy needed for the above
process is trapped into the plant by the
green pigment chlorophyll.
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1. Activities that release/return carbon
or carbon compounds into the
atmosphere
Activities that release/return carbon or
carbon compounds into the
atmosphere includes; respiration ,
decay and burning.
a. Respiration
Respiration is the process during which all
living things break down food
substances [materials] to release
energy with or without the use of oxygen.
The form of respiration that uses oxygen
is called aerobic respiration.
This form of respiration returns carbon in
the form of carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere.
The reaction process of aerobic
respiration is as shown below;
C6H12O6 + O2 CO2+H2O + energy
Note: Respiration ; i.e. anaerobic
respiration is the main process by which
carbon in the form of carbon dioxide is
returned to the atmosphere.
c. Decay [decomposition]
Decay or decomposition is the process
during which organic matter [dead
plants and animal materials] are
broken down into inorganic forms like
carbon dioxide, methane and mineral
salt.
The process of decay is facilitated by the
activities of micro-organisms and heat.
The carbon dioxide released during the
process returns into the atmosphere.
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d. Burning Note: 1. Carbon is one of the few

Burning is the form of combustion that
produces flames/embers/smoke.
During the burning process, carbon in the
form of carbon monoxide [CO] and
carbon dioxide [CO2] are released into
the atmosphere.
The CO and CO2 that are released into
the atmosphere during bur ning
combines together to form/produce
smoke.
Note: Combustion is a chemical
reaction that involves the oxidation of
fuel; i.e. action of oxygen on fuel to
release energy.
FACTS ABOUT THE CARBON CYCLE
The carbon cycle describes how carbon
atoms in varying forms continually travel
from the atmosphere to the Earth [land]
and back to the atmosphere.
elements the can exist in varying forms
called allotropes.
2. Diamond and graphite are some
common allotropes of carbon.
The planet Earth and its atmosphere
forms a closed system.
A closed system is a physical system that
does not allow either the entry or exit of
matter [materials] into or out of it.
From the above definition of a closed
system, the amount of carbon ana
carbon compounds do not change
because none can either leave or enter
the Earth.
However, carbon constantly circulates
from the atmosphere to the Earth and
back in various forms; i.e. carbon
compounds.

The table below is a summary of the various forms/compounds of carbon and the
processes which change them into other forms.

Process in the carbon The form in which carbon The form in which carbon
cyce starts ends
Photosynthesis Carbon dioxide [CO2] Glucose [C6H12O6]

Respiration Glucose [C6H12O6] Carbon dioxide [CO2]

Combustion Fuel like methane/wood Carbon monoxide [CO] and

[burning] [CH4] Carbon dioxide [CO2]

The benefits/importance of the carbon This element forms an

cycle to plants and animals
Carbon is the chemical backbone of all
the various life forms on Earth.
63
integral/vital/important part of all living
things; i.e. plants and animals.
On Earth, much carbon is found/stored
in rocks.
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The rest is found/stored in the ocean, in
the atmosphere and in living things.
The various carbon containing materials
are the reservoirs among which carbon
can also circulates.
On land, carbon is returned into the
atmosphere when organisms die and
decompose/decay, when volcanoes
erupt when fossil fuels are burned and
also by a variety of other mechanisms.
In the ocean, carbon is constantly
exchanged between the ocean’s
surface and the atmosphere as a result
of the feeding among aquatic
organisms; such as from waterplants to
fish, from seaweeds to birds, etc.
3. The carbon cycle prevents the
accumulation of carbon in the
atmosphere that can lead to green
house effect and global warming.
4. The carbon cycle helps to
maintain/sustain the correct
composition of the various gases of air in
the atmosphere.
For instance; plants take CO2 and
release O2 during photosynthesis.
Similarly, living things [plants and
animals] take O2 and release CO2 during
respiration.
Note: Air is a mixture of various non-
harmful gases in the atmosphere.

Humans also play a major role in the

carbon cycle through activities like; the The table below shows the percentage
burning of fossil fuel, tree planting or of some common gases in air
cutting, etc.
Component of Percentage
air composition
The carbon cycle is beneficial to living
things; i.e. plants and animals in the Nitrogen 78%
following ways;
1. The carbon cycle makes carbon Oxygen 21%
available in the form of carbon dioxide 0.03%
Carbon dioxide
to green plants for photosynthesis; i.e.
food preparation. Inert gases 0.9%

Photosynthesis supports [sustains] all the

various forms of life [living organisms] by
providing energy directly for plants and
indirectly for animals.
2. The carbon cycle also provides soil
nutrients for crop plants through the
decay of organic matter to form humus.
64
When the percentage of a gas like CO2
goes up higher than expected, there are
some severe outcomes like; global
warming and green house effect.
The carbon cycle is thus responsible in
ensuring this; CO2 = O2
balance/equilibrium.
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5. Carbon is needed in the formation of warming.

new life forms; i.e. living things.
Carbon is used in the formation of
proteins and DNA.
6. By the carbon cycle, nature is able to
re-use all carbon atoms continuously
[repeatedly].
Note: As a result of the carbon cycle,
carbon in various forms can always be
available for different usage until there is
a disruption of the process.
2. Bush burning
The practice of burning agricultural
lands during land preparation causes
an increase in the amount of
atmospheric carbon.
The use of fossil fuels like firewood and
charcoal and other forms of
combustible fuel for cooking food and
for other purposes also releases carbon
into the atmosphere.

Disruption of the carbon cycle 3. The use of aerosol spray and aged
refrigerators releases the carbon
S
compound chlorofluorocarbon [CFC ]
The disruption of the carbon cycle refers
into the atmosphere.
to those human activities [practices]
N o t e : T h e r e l e a s e o f
that inter feres with the natural
chlorofluorocarbons into the
circulation [movement] of carbon
atmosphere also creates holes in the
[carbon compounds] between the
ozone layer.
atmosphere, living things and non-
living things.
These holes make it possible for the
harmful ultraviolet rays from the sun to
The carbon cycle can be
reach the surface of the earth.
altered/disrupted by any of the following
human activities;
The harmful ultraviolet rays from the sun
causes skin cancer when it comes into
1. Deforestation [the rampant cutting of
contact with the human skin, mre
trees without re-planting].
especially in those people with a history
of bleaching.
Deforestation reduces the number of
trees which in turn also decreases the
amount of carbon dioxide [CO2] that is
The effects of disrupting/disturbing the
taken away [removed] from the
carbon cycle
atmosphere for photosynthesis.
1. Green house effect
The excess accumulation of carbon
Green house effect occurs [comes
dioxide [CO2] in the atmosphere leads to
about] when the quantity of carbon
green house effect and global
65

dioxide gas; i.e. the green house gas
that is found in the atmosphere is higher
than the normal/required
amount/percentage of a given volume
of atmospheric air.
Note: The accepted/normal
percentage of carbon dioxide in
atmospheric air is 0.3% of a given
volume of air.
When the figure increases too much
above the above quoted quantity, green
house effect and global warming can
occur as a result.
The excess CO2 forms a layer over the
Earth’s surface which traps and prevents
heat energy from the sun that has
traveled to the earth from going back into
space.
This causes; i.e. brings about an increase
in the average temperature of the earth,
a condition also referred to as Global
warming.
2. Global warming
Global warming refers to the
rise/increase in the average
atmospheric temperature of the earth
as a result of the trapping of the sun’s
energy by the layer of carbon dioxide
gas in the atmosphere owing/due to
green house effect.
The effects of global warming
1. Global warming increases the
average atmospheric temperature of
the earth’s atmosphere.
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Introduction
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2. The increase in the average
atmospheric temperature of the earth
contributes to the melting of polar ice
caps and the mountain glaciers which
leads to severe rainfalls.
This can lead to a rise in the sea level that
brings about flooding at coastal
towns/cities through which a lot of lives
and properties are lost.
3. Global warming is also a major
contributing factor to climate change.
As a result of the recent global climate
change, there have been changes in
the conventional/normal rainfall
patterns in a lot of countries that has lead
to poor food production.
4. There has also been the reduction in
food security in many countries as a
result of global warming and climate
change.
5. Certain animal and plant species
have migrated to higher altitudes as a
result of the recent increases in the
average atmospheric temperature of
the earth due to global warming.
Effects of the carbon cycle on food
chain
The food chain a habitat/environment
involves the transfer of energy in food
from the producers; which are mostly
plants to the consumers; which are
mostly animals.
 it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume
Plants are the producers because they
make food; i.e. C6H12O6 by combining
inorganic material like; H2O and CO2 in
the presence of sunlight.
The C in C6H12O6 is from CO2 and this is
transferred from the plant to animals
either directly or indirectly.
Note: 1. The direct transfer of food from
plants to animals describes the situation
where some animals like; sheep, goat,
cattle feed straight from the plants.
2. The indirect transfer of food from
plants to animals describes the situation
where some animals like; lions, tigers,
etc. feed on other animals that have
already fed on plants.
All living things release carbon [C] in the
form of CO2 during respiration back into
the atmosphere.
Respiration is a form of burning
[combustion] which occurs in the body
of all living things to release energy.
When plants and animals die, they may
either be broken down during decay
into humans by the activities of bacteria
or become a fossil fuel.
The decay process release carbon into
the atmosphere for re-use.
Likewise, fossil fuel when burned also
release carbon back into the
atmosphere.
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Relationship between greenhouse
gases and the carbon cycle
Greenhouse gases are those gases that
trap/capture sunlight and thus prevent
the heat from it from leaving the
atmosphere back into space.
In the Earth’s atmosphere, the major
greenhouse gases are; water vapour
and carbon dioxide. Others include;
methane, ozone, nitrous oxide and
chlorofluorocarbons.
Naturally, the greenhouse gases play an
important role of making the Earth warm
enough for life to be able to exist on it.
On the other hand, the excess
accumulation of these greenhouse
gases can also make the Earth to be
hotter than necessary, this has some
associated negative effects.
Although water vapour is a much more
stronger greenhouse gas than CO2, yet
the fight against the cause of
greenhouse effect is focused on Co2
This is because even the role of H2O
vapour in causing greenhouse effect is
influenced strongly by Co2.
When the atmosphere is first warmed by
the effect/action of CO2, the hot air is
able to hold much more H2O vapour,
and this trap more heat to worsen the
situation.
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RELATED PAST QUESTIONS 8. Explain briefly how water vapour can

contribute to green house effect and
1. Which of the following human activities global warming.
maintains the carbon cycle ?
A. Bush burning B. Feeding on trees 9. State two everyday activities that can
C. Release of fumes from factories harm the carbon cycle
D. Replanting of trees felled as timber
[BECE 2013 obj. 38]

2. Global warming is caused by the

A. circulation of oxygen in the
atmosphere
B. excessive release of carbon dioxide
into the atmosphere
C. release of hydrogen into the
atmosphere
D. circulation of nitrogen in the
atmosphere
[BECE 2016 obj. 30]

4. What is the normal percentage of

carbon dioxide in the atmosphere?
A. 3.0 % B. 0.3% C. 0.003% D. 3.3%

5. Carbon is released into the

atmosphere by each of the following
processes except?
A. Respiration B. Combustion
C. Photosynthesis D. Decay

6. i. Mention two ways in which the carbon

cycle can be maintained.
ii. State one environmental effect when
the carbon cycle is disrupted
[BECE 2011 Q 2c]

7. i. State two human activities the disrupt

the carbon cycle.
ii. State two effects of the disruption of the
carbon cycle on the environment.
[BECE 2015(B) Q 4c]
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 it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume
SUB - STRAND 2: LIFE CYCLE OF ANOPHELES MOSQUITO
INDICATORS and EXEMPLARS
At the end of this sub strand, the student should
be able to:
1. Describe the life cycle of the Anopheles
mosquito
2. Discuss the impact of Anopheles mosquito
on humans and how it can be controlled
LIFE CYCLE OF THE ANOPHELES
MOSQUITO
There are about 3,500 different species
of mosquitoes. Most of these do not bite
humans nor transmit any kind of a
disease.
Note: With the few mosquito species that
bite, it is only the female that do, and do
such in order to be able to develop their
eggs.
The mosquito is a parasite that breeds in
stagnant water bodies like; chocked
gutters, ponds and even in bushy
surroundings.
There are different breeds [types] of the
mosquito parasite, but the breed which
is of interest to this unit is the female
anopheles mosquito.
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BOOK18
The anopheles mosquito is the
breed/type of mosquito that is active
and flies about only from the late
evening to early dawn.
The anopheles mosquito becomes
inactive and sleep/rest during the
morning and the afternoon
periods/times of the day.
There are about 430 species of the
Anopheles mosquito, but only about 30
to 40 of these mosquito species are the
actual/real vectors of malaria.
The Anopheles mosquito is also
responsible for the heartworm disease in
dogs.
The female anopheles mosquito is the
vector/carrier of plasmodium which is
the causative agent; i.e. causes the
disease malaria.
This means that; the female anopheles
mosquito bites people and inject
plasmodium into their blood to give
them malaria.
On the other hand, the male anopheles
mosquito is harmless because it does
not even bite people to cause [bring
about] the disease malaria.
In explanation, the environmental
method of controlling mosquitoes which
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Dedication
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includes; draining chocked gutters and [4] stages below;

clearing/weeding surroundings bushes 1. The adult female anopheles mosquito
only disturbs/destroys the breeding lays eggs onto the surface of a stagnant
grounds of the mosquito parasite. water body.

Due to the above, the environmental
method is very effective and yields the
expected results when it is used for
controlling mosquitoes only during the
egg or larval stages in the mosquito’s
development.
A labeled diagram of the mosquito
Thorax
Abdomen
Head
2. The eggs hatch into larvae in 2-5 days
after they are laid.
3. The larvae grows to become the
pupa.
4. The pupa develops into the adult
[imago].
Note: The female anopheles mosquito
in the pupal stage is structurally very
similar to the adult but functionally, it is
immature and cannot lay eggs; i.e.
reproduce.

The life cycle of the female anopheles

mosquito is summarized by the flow
chart diagram below;
an anopheles mosquito sucking blood from
someone t

2n
1s

d
How the female anopheles mosquito eggs
transmits malaria
The plasmodium parasite that causes
malaria naturally lives in the saliva of the larva
female anopheles mosquito. pupa
adult 3r
4th

d
When the female anopheles mosquito
bites a healthy person, it
introduces/injects the plasmodium
parasite into his/her body.
The female anopheles mosquito is very
The life cycle of the female anopheles harmful because it causes the disease
mosquito malaria in people and this brings about
The life cycle of the female anopheles the need to control [reduce] its
mosquito is summarized into these four population [number].
70
 it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume
The various ways that are employed
[used] in the control of the population of
the female anopheles mosquito will
depend on the targeted stage of the
mosquito parasite.
This is because each of the methods that
is used in the control of the number of
mosquito has a particular stage in the life
cycle of the anopheles mosquito for
which it is most effective.
Economic importance of mosquito
Every organism has some natural roles in
the ecosystem in which it lives. This is
called the niche of that organism.
The niche of mosquitoes, including the
anopheles species are as follows;
1. Mosquitoes cause various diseases in
humans and other animals.
The table below is a list of some diseases
in animals and the species/breed of
mosquitoes that causes it.
Mosquito breed
Disease
that causes it
Dengue fever Aedes mosquito
Zika fever Aedes mosquito
Malaria fever Anopheles mosquito
Chikungunya Aedes mosquito
West Nile fever Culex mosquito
Heartworm Anopheles mosquito
Note: With the exception of the
heartworm disease that affects dogs, all
the others affect/attack humans.
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BOOK18
2. Mosquitoes visit flowers for nectar and
in the process cause pollination of the
flowers of such plants.
3. Mosquitoes help to preserve fossil
when their larvae feed on
microorganisms such as algae and
microbes that speed the decay of
organic matter.
4. Mosquito larvae contribute to
aquatic food chain by serving as food
sources for many predators like fish and
birds.
Note: Even if the mosquito survives to
adulthood and flies from its aquatic
habitat into a terrestrial habitat, it carries
its weight/biomass with it to play other
roles.
5. Adult mosquitoes are eaten by many
animals like; birds, bats, frogs and other
insects.
The adult mosquitoes that die and or are
eaten and defecated; i.e. removed
through faeces decompose/decay,
turn into organic matter [soil nutrients]
for plants use. This completes another
important natural cycle.
Control of mosquito
Inasmuch as there are some benefits
derived/obtained from all organisms, yet
the population/numbers of some
species like mosquitoes must be
controlled due to the numerous
diseases that they cause.

The various methods that are used in
controlling malaria includes; the
environmental control method, the
chemical control method and the
biological control method and the
genetic method.
A. The environmental method of
controlling mosquitoes and malaria
The environmental method of mosquito
control involves; the draining of
chocked gutters [stagnant/standing
water] and the weeding/clearing of
bushes in order to destroy the breeding
grounds of the female anopheles
mosquito.
The environmental method may also
include the following practices;
1. Pouring oil into mosquito breeding
grounds like; stagnant water bodies to
prevent the mosquito eggs and larvae
from getting air for respiration.
This may eventually kill them.
2. Burying all empty cans and tins that
could serve as mosquito breeding
grounds if they are filled with water after
raining.
Advantages of the environmental
method
1. This method does not cause pollution;
i.e. It is an environmentally friendly way of
controlling mosquitoes and malaria.
2. This method is relatively cheap; i.e.
less expensive.
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Disadvantages of the environmental
method
1. Draining the ditches [ponds] and
weeding the bushy surroundings require
a lot of physical work if mechanical
equipment are not used.
2. Draining stagnant water bodies and
clearing/weeding the dirty/bushy
surroundings only destroys the breeding
grounds of the mosquitoes but it does not
kill the mosquitoes.
B. The chemical method of controlling
mosquitoes and malaria
The chemical method of controlling
mosquitoes involves the use of
chemicals like; insecticides or
pesticides to kill the mosquitoes during
the various stages of their development.
Advantages of the chemical method.
1. The chemicals used kill the
mosquitoes
2. It does not involve [require] a lot of
physical work.
Disadvantages of the chemical
method
1. The chemical used is poisonous and
may pollute the environment.
2. It is an expensive method of
controlling mosquitoes and malaria.
C. The biological method of controlling
mosquitoes and malaria
This method of mosquito control involves
 it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume
the use of the natural enemy of the
mosquito parasite to control its
population.
For instance, mosquito eating fishes like;
Tilapia and Guppies could be
introduced into mosquito infested ponds
to feed on the mosquito eggs and
larvae and thus control their population.
Advantages of the biological method
1. The biological method controls
mosquitoes without polluting the
environment.
2. It is a less expensive method of
controlling mosquitoes.
Disadvantages of the biological
method
1. It is difficult to obtain the natural
enemy of the mosquitoes like the
mosquito eating fishes.
2. It is a slow method of controlling
mosquitoes.
D. The genetic method of controlling
mosquitoes and malaria
The genetic method involves the
breeding [producing] and the release of
sterile [infertile] male mosquitoes; i.e.
male anopheles mosquitoes into the
environment [surroundings].
When the sterile male mosquitoes mate
with the fertile female mosquitoes, there
are no eggs laid and the mosquito
population/number will gradually die out;
i.e. reduce from the environment.
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Advantages of the genetic method
1. The genetic method does not pollute
the environment.
2. It does not require a lot of physical
work.
Disadvantages of the genetic method
1. This method requires a lot of technical
expertise [know how] to perform.
2. It is a slow and an expensive method to
control mosquitoes.
Note: Not all mosquito species are
responsible for spreading pathogens;
i.e. disease-causing microorganisms.
Those specific species that cause
certain diseases like; the Anopheles
should be targeted.
Furthermore, we can make the
mosquitoes immune to pathogens.
This will protect humans from their
h a r m f u l e f f e c t s w h i l e
keeping/maintaining their niche in the
environment.
By this approach, although the
Anopheles mosquito is found in many
advanced countries, yet malaria has
been eradicated from such places
because the plasmodium parasite;
which is the actual cause of malaria is
not present/found in those mosquitoes.
RELATED PAST QUESTIONS
1. Which of the following organisms
causes malaria ?
A. Tsetsefly B. Fungi
C. Virus D. Plasmodium
 Introduction
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E. Bacteria [BECE 2003 obj. 19]

[BECE 1994 obj. 34]
7. The carrier of the malaria parasite is the
2. Which of the following practices will A. blackfly
destroy the breeding grounds of B. tsetsefly
mosquitoes ? C. female anopheles mosquito
A. Sleeping in mosquito nets D. male anopheles mosquito
B. Spraying with insecticides [BECE 2005 obj. 28]
C. Using insect repellant
D. Introducing fish into water 8. The disease caused by the mosquito
E. Burying all empty cans parasite is
[BECE 1999 obj. 35] A. cholera B. malaria
C. onchocerciasis D. schistosomiasis
3. The insect which transmits the [BECE 2006 obj. 26]
plasmodium parasite is the called
A. butterfly B. cockroach 9. The second stage in the life cycle of a
C. housefly D. mosquito mosquito is the
E. tsetsefly A. egg B. imago
[BECE 2000 obj. 34] C. larva D. pupa
[BECE 2015 obj. 14]
4. The organism which lives in the human
blood as a parasite is 10. The second stage in the life cycle of a
A. louse B. plasmodium mosquito is the
C. round worm D. tapeworm A. egg B. imago
E. tick C. larva D. pupa
[BECE 2001 obj. 36] [BECE 2018 obj. 39]

5. Malaria parasite enters the body 11. Name the stages in the life cycle of a
through mosquito
A. breathing contaminated air [BECE 2016 Q2b]
B. drinking contaminated water
C. mosquito bites
D. tsetsefly bites
[BECE 2002 (A) obj. 4 ]

6. The insect responsible for the spread of

malaria is the
A. female anopheles mosquito
B. housefly
C. male anopheles mosquito
D. tsetsefly
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 it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume
SUB - STRAND 3: SEED BED [SEEDLING BED]
INDICATORS and EXEMPLARS
At the end of this sub strand, the
student should be able to:
1. Explore the different seed beds for planting
crops in your community.
2. Plant different types of crops on different
seed beds.
3. Compare and contrast the differences in
height, size and flowering of crops grown in
different seed beds.
SEED BED [SEEDLING BED]
The seeds [matured ovules] of plants are
used for two [2] general purposes.
The seeds of most plants are used/eaten
as food and others are used to grow
new/young plants.
Every viable/good seed has certain
requirements that it needs before it can
germinate; i.e. grow into a young plant.
And as a result, seeds are usually sown;
i.e. planted on seed beds.
A seed bed [seedling bed] is a local soil
environment within which seeds are
nursed/planted.
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BOOK18
In reality, a seed bed may not comprise
of only a soil mass but a boundary
frame such as an elevation.
The seed bed is used mostly to grow
seeds in a controlled/regulated
environment before they are
transplanted; i.e. transported to the
farm or garden.
Seed bed preparation
The entire process of preparing a seed
bed is grouped into five [5] stages/steps.
These are;
1. The removal of stumps, stones and
debris that can physically prevent the
seedling germination and growth.
2. The leveling up of the site/area which
has demarcated for the bed for uniform
[even] drainage; i.e. entr y and
distribution of water.
3. Making the soil loose by digging and
breaking lumps.
This practice promotes the entry of air;
i.e. improves aeration, and the entry of
water; i.e. improves drainage.
It also helps the root of seedlings to
penetrate the soil.

Note: Smaller seedlings generally
require a fine granular soil structure
which can be obtained/designed with a
tool like the rake.
4. Improving; i.e. enhancing the soil
structure by adding organic matter
[humus].
5. Adjusting the nitrate and the
phosphate levels of the soil using the right
fertilizer.
Note: Any micro-nutrient which is found
to be deficient/lacking in the soil can be
added at this time.
Reasons/impor tance/benefits for
preparing a seed bed
1. A seedling bed is used to increase the
chances of the number of planted seeds
that can germinate per unit area of land.
2. It reduces or eliminates competition
for the seedlings because weeds and
other unwanted plants can easily be
controlled or removed from the seed
bed.
Note: Since it is easier to kill weeds before
seed planting, a good seed bed should
be free of any visible weeds at the time of
planting.
3. To conserve/save water for the planted
seeds or germinating seedlings through
the easy elimination/removal of other
competing vegetation like weeds.
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4. To ensure a shallow planting depth for
easier replacement of non-germinating
seeds and an early germination of the
viable seeds.
Note: An improper sowing/planting
depth can affect the chances of seed
germination.
5. To firm the soil and make it easier for
small seeds to come into contact with
water.
Note: Water plays an important role in
seed germination by softening the
cotyledon; i.e. stored food into a form
that can easily be changed/turned into
energy when oxygen acts on it.
This energy is used by the seed for the
growth process.
6. Seed bed preparation also presents
an opportunity to mix organic matter
and other materials that can improve
soil fertility.
Types of seed beds [seedling bed]
There are three [3] types of seed beds
based on the nature of their surfaces.
These are; flat beds, raised beds and
sunken beds.
Each seed bed has some unique
features that suit a specific climate, soil
type, crop management and available
equipment for cultivation.
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Flat beds
Flat beds are used where water
availability is adequate with no
drainage problems.
Flat beds are usually enhanced during
the farming season. For instance; in
some areas, crops like; maize, sorghum,
beans and potatoes can be
started/cultivated on a flat bed.
But as the season progresses, soil is
thrown into the crop row to mound up;
i.e. heap around the plant. This is called
hilling-up.
Hilling-up is done to; control in-row
weeds, provide support for the growing
plants and to improve the soil drainage.
Root tubers [tuber drops] like; potatoes
are also hilled up to keep their roots in the
soil.
This protects the tubers from rodent
attack and other infection.
Note: Hilling-up is good and works well for
plants with that have enough stem height
and broader leaves that can
tolerate/survive partial soil burial.
A flat bed with uniform surface
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Raised beds
Crop plants can be grown/cultivated on
raised-up beds or ridges.
These beds are especially
advantageous/beneficial for clayey soil
at places with high rainfall or with soils
that have poor drainage.
This system is ideal/popular with the
furrow irrigation system.
Note: Furrow irrigation is the supply of
water to crop plants through furrows; i.e.
channels holes between crop
beds/ridges.
The height of raised beds ranges from
10cm to 30cm high depending on the
soil properties/characteristics.
For example; clay soils at places which
experiences high annual rainfall could
be made to about 20cm to 30cm in
height because clayey soils have high
water drainage.
On the contrary, a sandy soil at a place
with similar annual rainfall like the above
could have a bed height ranging from
15cm to 20cm.
Finally, at more drier conditions/places, it
is advisable for bed height to be lower
than 10cm in height for adequate
drainage.
These alternations/changes in the
height of raised beds with the various soil
types at places with different climatic
conditions is important against water
loss.

Note: Water is mostly lost from raised
beds through the exposed sides.
Advantages of raised beds over flat
beds other beds
1. Raised beds have better/improve
drainage compared to flat or sunken
beds.
2. They provide a double layer of topsoil
which makes the particles more loose
than flat or sunken beds.
Note: Raised beds are made by the
heaping up of topsoil from the
surrounding alleys.
3. Plants on raised beds are easier to
reach during manual activities; i.e. hand
operations like weeding and thinning out.
Even though raised beds have these
advantages above, yet they are not a
good choice during the dry season.
This is because they tend to dry out; i.e.
lose water more quickly than flat or
sunken beds through; evaporation, the
alley-ways and as run-off.
These can be minimized by mulching,
making a lip around it or reducing the
height of the bed to about 10cm or less.
forms of raised bed
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The lips/boundaries of a raised bed can
be raised to suit the rainfall pattern of the
place.
Sunken beds
In dry regions/places, with sandy soils that
have relatively low water holding
capacity, vegetable crops can be
planted/raised in sunken beds; i.e.
shallow basins of about 100cm to 130cm
wide and 2cm to 5cm of the surrounding
soil level.
Sunken beds are advantageous
because they are able to
conserve/retain water for two [2] main
reasons;
1. Sunken beds usually do not have the
exposed sides unlike raised beds from
where considerable moisture can be
lost through evaporation.
2. None of the captured/supplied water
can be lost as run-off.
forms of raised bed
A major disadvantage of every sunken
bed is that some topsoil is lost during the
preparation/construction process.
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Sunken beds are made by small rubber bag or a container.

pulling/digging off soil from the bed area
and placing it in the surrounding Several of such bags are brought/put
alleyways. together to form the nursery bed.

However, this probably won’t affect crop The nursery bed is usually put under a
growth, as long as the topsoil is of the shed/shade to prevent/check excess
normal height of about 15cm and evaporation.
enough compost/manure is added.

Here are two [2] ways of building a

sunken bed without sacrificing the
topsoil.
1. First, take off the topsoil and then
replace it after removing enough subsoil
to sink the bed.
2. Make a pseudo sunken bed by
mounding alleyway soil around the bed
borders. a farmer watering his seedlings in the
nursery
This works better in clayey soils than sandy
soils; which can be easily washed away
during irrigation or watering due to the
loose nature of the soil particles.
LIKELY EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
However, one variation benefit of sunken 1. All the following are benefits of
beds is furrow planting in which crops preparing a seed bed except?
like; maize, sorghum and beans could A. It helps root and tuber crops to
be planted in the furrow bottom/base develop well.
between two [2] ridges where soil B. It prevents the seeds from being lost to
moisture is higher and not easily lost. erosion and birds.
C. It increases the chances of
Soil can also be thrown into the furrow germination
during the season to control weeds and D. It makes the process of cultivation
improve drainage if rainfall increases. more difficult.

2. There are ........ types of seed beds

A. 2 B. 3 C. 4. D. 5
Nursery beds
In the nursery, seeds can sometimes be 3. The sunken seed bed is ideal for
nursed in a special soils collected into a cultivating crop plants
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A. at places with high rainfall

B. at places with low rainfall
C. on lands with hard and rocky soil
D. on lands with soft and loose soil

4. Which of the following tools in not used

during the preparation of seed beds?
A. Shovel B. Plough
C. Rake D. Sickle

5. During crop production, the

appropriate time for making seed beds is
A. Before planting of seeds
B. After planting of seeds
C. Before harvesting
D. During weed control.

6. What is a seed bed?

7. Describe briefly the major types of seed

beds in crop cultivation

8. Give two benefits of seed beds in the

nursery.

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SUB - STRAND 4: ANIMAL FEED
INDICATORS and EXEMPLARS
At the end of this sub strand, the
student should be able to:
1.Compare and contrast the different types
of feed for different types of animals
2.Explain the importance of water and
animal feed to the growth of animals.
ANIMAL FEED
Animal feed is the food grown and
prepared to be given to domestic
animals including poultry and livestock.
Livestock feed may be in the form of a
fodder or forage.
Fodder refers to the processed
foods/forages that are cut and carried
to the animals.
This is popularly called the cut-and-carry
or the zero-grazing method of feeding
farm animals.
Popular animal feed under this system
includes; hay, straw and silage.
Forage is plant materials mainly leaves
and stem that are eaten directly by the
grazing livestock.
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Animal feeds are classified into three [3]
main types.
These are; roughages, concentrates
and mixed feeds.
Roughages
Roughage form about half of the ration
that is given to livestock.
This feed is plant based; i.e. obtained
from plant sources or materials.
They have a high fibre content and as
such a small amount digest to give
mostly carbohydrates.
Other nutrients like; proteins and
minerals like; calcium, potassium,
phosphorus and vitamins can be also
obtained in small quantities.
Roughages may be obtained in one of
these three [3] forms;
1. Fresh from pasture which are grazed
directly by the animals.
2. Processed form like hay and silage.
3. From crop residues and by-products
like; straw, stover and hulls.
Roughage is added to the ration of
mostly herbivores but in varying
quantities/amounts considering the
budget; i.e. money for production,
species/type of animal kept/raised and
purpose/product of production.

Concentrates
Concentrates include all feeds that
mainly produce energy for animals.
Different feed sources ; i.e. foods
materials produce energy in different
quantities.
Concentrates are mostly
obtained/prepared from cereal grains
and their by-products.
Common cereal concentrate
feeds/sources include; corn; i.e.
seeds/grains from the maize plant, oats,
malt, bailey, rye, millet and sorghum.
Concentrates form a vital and a large
part of animal feed because the cereals
can be dried and stored for use
throughout the year.
Mixed feeds
Mixed feeds from its name is usually
obtained from a source that has several
feeds/foods that have been
mixed/combined together.
These feeds are from the by-products;
i.e. waste of factories and companies
that process food products.
The by-products from the corn/flour mill
can be classified as mixed feed
because it may have several cereal
residue/remains.
This type of feed is ideal for preparing a
balanced ration; i.e. balanced diet in
animals.
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Animal feed and Nutrition
Different types of animals have different
feed requirements/needs.
Rabbits don't eat the same food as dogs
and pigs don’t eat the same food like
chickens.
Apart from this variations among
species, there are also variations within
each species.
Additionally, production factors like;
breed, purpose, reason and budget
also affect animal feeding.
Animals that are kept on a free-range
system, exercise a lot and as such they
require much energy from the food they
eat for this purpose.
Growing animals need protein-rich
foods to be able to put on the desired
weight.
Old animals may not need much food.
Feeding is the most important factor in
successful animal keeping.
An animal will only live up its production
potential only if it is well fed.
Being well fed does not imply being over
fed.
An animal that is well fed is given just
enough but not more of the correct
food so that it can realize/reach its
production potential.
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To feed the animals more than necessary
is not only wasteful and uneconomical
but could also lead to health problems in
animals.
On the other hand, under-feeding
animal can lead to health problems and
poor animal growth.
Animal ration
Ration is the amount of daily feed which
is given to an animal.
Ration can also be defined as the 24-
hour feed requirement/needs of a farm
animal.
Types of ration
There are four [4] types of ration. These
are; balanced ration, maintenance
ration, production ration and
supplementary ration.
Balance ration
Balanced ration is the feed that contains
all the essential nutrients in their correct
amount and adequate proportion for
feeding animals to meet their production
requirement/purpose.
The production requirement or purpose
of feeding could be; growth, lactation;
i.e. milk production, etc.
Maintenance ration
Maintenance ration is the feed that is
given to farm animals to help them to
keep/retain their basic metabolic
functions.
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This type of ration is relatively inexpensive
and its given to farm animals to keep
them alive.
Animals that are matured and are being
transported for sale can be given this
type of ration so that production cost
may not be significantly affected; i.e.
increased.
Production ration
Production ration is the feed which is
given to farm animals for a specific
produce or purpose.
A sheep which is kept for wool can be
given production ration to enable it
carry-out; i.e. perform this purpose.
Similarly, a bull which is kept to work on
the farm; i.e. pull the animal drawn
implements can be given production
ration for its work well/properly.
Supplementary ration
Supplementary ration are those feeds
that are given to farm animals to support
[supplement] the main [production]
ration.
The common types of supplementary
feeds/ration are; hay, silage, creep feed
and sometimes pasture feeding.
Pasture
Pasture is a piece of land covered with
grass and leguminous crops.
When animals like livestock live on a
pasture, that method of farming is called
pastoral farming.

Hay
Hay is the cut and dried grass that is kept
to be given to farm animals during the
rainy season.
Since it is difficult to get dried and brown
grass during the rainy season, the farmer
must store some dried grass when it is
abundant in the dry season and give it to
the animals during the rainy season when
they are scare; i.e. hard to get
Silage
Silage is the fermented grass that is
stored to be given to farm animals
during the dry season.
Grass can only be stored in its green state
when it has been fermented, hence
there is the need for fermentation during
the preparation silage.
Note: The ability of a farmer to give hay to
his animals during the rainy season and
silage during the dry season help him to
balance their diet for proper growth and
development.
Creep feed
Creep feed is the first type of solid feed
that is given to young ruminants after
they have been weaned; i.e. separated
from their mother to deny them from
breastmilk.
Note: Creep feeding is the act of giving
solid feeds that are rich in nutrients and
antibiotics to young r uminants
immediately after they are weaned.
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Pasture feeding
The term pasture refers to a piece of
land which is covered with leguminous
plants and grasses.
Pasture feeding refers to the grazing of
livestock; i.e cattle, goat or sheep on a
pasture; i.e. land covered with grass
plants and legumes.
Under pasture feeding, two [2] common
terms used are; grass fed and pasture
fed.
Grass fed means; grasses and other
suitable plants like; legumes/cereals are
given to the livestock whiles pasture fed
means; only grass plants are given to the
livestock.
Pasture fed is therefore better than grass
fed.
Water as a food nutrient
A food nutrient is a chemical substance
that is present in food and is taken into
the body to serve for a specific purpose
[function].
Water is a nutrient because it is found in
almost all foods but in varying amounts
[proportions].
Water is the an important nutrient for
animals, and it is essential that animals
can have access to clean water.
Making water available to livestock
allows for optimal animal performance
and ensures good health.
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Feed consumption is directly related to
the quantity of water consumed and
thus the less water an animal drinks, the
less feed it will also consume.
This will lead to reduced weight gains; i.e.
meat production, reduced quantity and
quality of milk production and also
affects the animal’s performance.
Water accounts for about 50 to 80
percent of an animal’s weight and it is
involved in every physiological process.
It is therefore important [vital] that, there
is enough water for entire herd during hot
weather conditions because the water
requirements/needs doubles with
temperature increment.
Furthermore, the quality of the provided
water also affects its quantity intake,
animal health as well as performance.
The Water trough/containers should thus
be cleaned frequently to ensure that the
water does not become contaminated.
The daily amount of water which is
needed by an animal is
influenced/affected by factors like; body
size, production stage/period, and an
external factor such as temperature.
Water should be an important factor to
consider in livestock rearing and
management.
The reason for the above is because of
the numerous roles that water plays in the
life of animals as summarized below;
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1. Water is a key factor in the digestion
and absorption of important nutrients
such as carbohydrates, proteins and
fat.
2. Water helps in the excretion of toxic
metabolic waste like urea.
3. Water is an important factor in the
production of milk in livestock; in terms
of quality and quantity.
4. During pregnancy, water plays an
active role in preventing pregnancy
because it constitutes; i.e. makes up a
high percentage of the placenta.
5. Water helps regulates the temperature
of an animal’s body and reduces heat
burden/stress through the production of
saliva and sweat.
6. Several drugs and medications that
are used for the treatment of several
diseases are given indirectly to the
animals by mixing them with their
drinking water.
Note: Sick animals have the
tendency/likelyhood to stop eating but in
most cases they continue to drink water.
The above is thus a surer way to
administer medicine to sick animals.
Water requirements of livestock -
factors to consider
Water is essential for life and must be
considered as an important factor in
livestock rearing and management.

Generally, there are seven [7] factors
that are used to determine/know the
water requirements/needs of farm
animals.
The seven [7] factors that determine the
water requirements of livestock are as
follows;
1. Animal type [breed]
The average daily water requirement for
cattle is about 30kg but it considerably
reduces to about 4kg for sheep and
goats.
This differences between species is due
to the varying body sizes and metabolic
rates.
For instance; sheep excrete less water
and produce more saliva than cows to
s u p p l e m e n t i t s w a t e r
requirements/needs.
2. Animal age
For the same type/species of animal, the
requirement for water may vary/change
as a result of the percentage of water as
a result of the percentage of water which
is needed in the animal’s body.
For instance; A new-born animal has a
body with about 35 to 80 percent water
which reduces gradually to about 5
percent at maturity due to changes in
metabolic rates and fat deposits.
3. Ambient temperature
Animals like cattle tend to have an
increase in water intake with an increase
in the temperature of their immediate
surroundings.
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4. Production level
The daily water needs of animals
increases depending on the level and
the type of production needs.
For instance; a cow that produces about
10 kg weight of milk daily is more likely to
consume twice as much water than
another that produces only 5kg weight of
milk, assuming that any other water
consuming factor remains the same.
5. Moisture content of feed
The amount of water required per day
increases if the animal is fed on a diet
containing a low percentage of
moisture such as hay or straw with about
40 percent moisture content compared
to feeding it with silage based diet which
is about 70 percent moisture/water
content.
The above illustration confirms that the
water content of feed is related to its
preparation process.
The high temperature involved in the
preparation of hay reduces its water
content compared to silage which is
prepared under a cool temperature to
facilitate the fermentation process.
6. Feed energy source
The daily need for drinking water vary
according to the different feeds that
given to animals.
Water consumption is high if the feed of
the animal has a high starch content
but reduces if it has a high fat content.
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The above observation is because the 3. Dryness of the mucous membranes

digestion process of fat releases more and eyes.
water than starch which reduces the
external water need and intake. 4. Reduction in the rate and quantity
urine.

7. Protein level in feed 5. The presence of little water in the fecal

The amount of water needed by the
animal increases daily depending on
the percentage of protein in the intake
food.
In this case, the animal will need
excess/more water to dispose/excrete
the nitrogen from the body through
urine; i.e. urea dissolved in water.
The above phenomenon/process is
more common in mammals than in
birds. This is because birds remove
[excrete] protein-waste as uric acid in a
solid/paste form devoid of water.
waste/matter.etc.
The stress which is associated with
inadequate water intake may need
special consideration to solve.
Newly arrived animals may refuse water
for some time due to the differences in
taste/palatability.
The farmer should allow such animals
time to adjust to their new environment.

LIKELY EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

Effects of inadequate water intake in 1. The feed that produces mostly energy
animals for animals is the;
On the average, farm [domesticated] A. Mixed feeds B. Concentrates
animals can live about 60days without C. Roughages D. Creep feed
food but may not be able to survive
without water after 7 days. 2. The animal feed obtained mainly from
plants are called,
Livestock should be given all the water A. Mixed feeds B. Concentrates
that they can drink because animals that C. Roughages D. Creep feed
do not drink enough water may suffer
from stress and dehydration. 3. Hay and Silage are examples of;
A. Mixed feeds B. Concentrates
Some common signs of dehydration in C. Roughages D. Creep feed
animals include;
4. The feed that is obtained from the by-
1. Tightening of the skin. products of food processing factories are
the;
2. Loss of weight. A. Mixed feeds B. Concentrates
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C. Roughages D. Creep feed

5. The first type of solid feeds that are

given to baby animals after weaning is
the;
A. Mixed feeds B. Concentrates
C. Roughages D. Creep feed

6. Define the following terms as used

under feed;
i. forage ii. fodder
iii. roughages

7. Give three importance of water to farm

animals

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STRAND

3
SYSTEMS

SUB STRAND 1: THE HUMAN BODY SYSTEMS

SUB STRAND 2: THE SOLAR SYSTEM

SUB STRAND 3: THE ECOSYSTEM

SUB STRAND 4: FARMING SYSTEMS

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STRAND3 : SYSTEMS
INTRODUCTION
A system is a set of different
materials/things that work together as an
interconnecting network.
The different components/parts of every
system coordinate/work together.
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As a result of this coordination between
the various components of a system, a
malfunction of any of the components
affect the other components.
Every component of a system therefore
has a role to play to maintain the system
of which it is a part.
All the components of a system is
needed to keep the entire system
running smoothly.
 it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume
SUB - STRAND 1: THE HUMAN MAMMALIAN TOOTH
INDICATORS and EXEMPLARS
At the end of this sub strand, the
student should be able to:
1. Explain parts of the mammalian tooth
2. Discuss the function of the different types
of teeth such as incisors, canines, premolars
and molars
3. Explain the causes and prevention of tooth
and gum decay
THE MAMMALIAN TOOTH
Mammals are a special group/type of
animals that are characterized by the
following features;
- The presence of hairs on their bodies.
- Their females have breast which
produce breastmilk.
- Their females give birth directly to their
live young ones.
Mammals like all other animals are
unable to prepare their own food.
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Their mode of feeding requires the use
of teeth in their mouth to seize/catch
and chew their food.
The teeth in mammals ; i.e. the
mammalian teeth is different from the
other types of teeth found in non-
mammals.
The study of the teeth falls under
dentition.
DENTITION IN ANIMALS
Dentition refers to the shape, number
and the arrangement of teeth in the
mouth of an animal.
The type of dentition in an animal is
mainly suited [adapted] to the animal’s
mode/way of feeding or ingestion.
Carnivores like lions and tigers mostly
have much stronger and very well
developed teeth because their mode of
nutrition involves attacking, killing and
eating the flesh of other animals as their
food.
On the other hand, Herbivores and
omnivores obtain and eat their food in a
more relaxed state hence their teeth are
not as developed and as powerful as
that of the carnivores.
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Types of dentition 2. Permanent [wisdom] teeth

There are two [2] types of dentition.
These are;
homodont dentition and heterodont
dentition.
1. Homodont dentition
Homodont dentition is a type of
dentition in which an animal has equal
teeth sizes and shapes in its mouth.
Animals with homodont dentition are;
fishes and sharks.
2. Heterodont dentition
Heterodont dentition is a type of
dentition in which an animal has different
teeth sizes and shapes in its mouth.
Animals with heterodont dentition
includes; human beings, ruminants
[sheep, goat, cattle], lions, tigers, etc.
The permanent teeth are the second set
of teeth that replaces; i.e. comes after
the milk teeth when one is growing up
between the ages of 5 to 14 years.
Note: The wisdom teeth is in fact a type
of the permanent teeth that is present
[found] only in full grown adults.
A fully grown adult has 16 pairs of teeth
[32 set of teeth].
The mammalian [human] tooth/teeth
The human teeth which is found in the
mouth is used to chew [masticate] food
for an easier digestion.
Human beings are mammals and as
such they have similar body organs
[parts] like other mammals, which
includes the teeth.

DENTITION IN HUMANS A labeled diagram of the Human

The type of dentition that is possessed by [mammalian] tooth
humans is a heterodont dentition.

Human beings grow two [2] different sets enamel

of teeth throughout their life time. Crown dentin [dentine]
These two [2] sets of teeth are; the milk
pulp cavity
[deciduous teeth] and the gum
Neck
permanent[wisdom] teeth. [gingiva]

cementum
1. Milk [deciduous] teeth
blood vessels
The milk teeth are the first set of teeth that
Root periodontal
erupts [comes up] in infants from the age ligament
of about 6 months to 3 years old.
lateral canals
This set of teeth is so named as the milk
teeth because it is believed to be used by nerves
infants to suckle [drink] breast milk.
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Parts of the mammalian [human] tooth
The human/mammalian tooth is
basically divided into three [3] main
parts.
These are; the crown, the root and the
neck.
The crown
The crown is the part of the tooth which is
found above the gum.
The crown is usually the part of the tooth
that is exposed or seen when someone
laughs or smiles.
The root
The root is the part of the tooth which is
embedded in the jaw bone.
The root is not seen but it is rather hidden
within [inside] the jaw bone.
The neck
The neck is the region [part] of the tooth
where the crown meets the root.
The gum mostly forms the neck; i.e. the
muscle layer that holds the crown and
the root together.
Functions of the labeled parts of the
human/mammalian tooth
1. The enamel
The enamel is the outermost layer of the
tooth which forms the biting surface of
the crown.
It is the most hardest material/tissue in the
human body.
The enamel protects the sensitive and
the delicate parts of the tooth during the
mastication [chewing] of food.
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2. The dentine
The dentine is the layer of the tooth which
is found beneath [under] the enamel.
It forms a greater part of the tooth.
This part of the tooth is sensitive to hot
and cold foods when it is exposed
because it contains the living tissues like
the bone.
The dentine is not as hard and resistant to
decay as the enamel.
3. The pulp cavity
The pulp cavity is a region [hole] within
[inside] the tooth where the blood vessels
are found.
It nourishes the tooth; i.e. supplies it with
oxygen, food and water for it to be able
to grow and it also removes [takes away]
waste products from the teeth for
excretion; i.e. removal from the body.
4. The gum
The gum is the flesh; i.e. the muscle tissue
that holds the crown and the root
together.
The gum basically forms the neck of the
root.
5. The jaw bone
The jaw bone contains the sockets
[holes] that serve as a basement
[anchor] for the tooth.
6. The cement
The cement is the adhesive substance
that holds the tooth firmly in the jawbone
and also to the periodontal fibres and
membranes.
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7. The blood vessels

Type of tooth Description and function
The blood vessels carry blood that
contains food and oxygen to nourish the The Incisor Description of the tooth
tooth and they also remove [take away] The incisors are the front row
metabolic waste products from the teeth.
teeth for excretion; i.e. removal from the Incisors are chisel edged in
body. shape

Function of tooth
8. The nerve fibres [nerves] Incisors are used for cutting
The nerve fibres carry impulses from the food.
tooth to the brain for interpretation and
responds.
Description of the tooth
The nerves are partly responsible for the
The Canine
sensitivity; i.e. sensitive nature of the The canines are conical
tooth. edged in shape. The
canines are ver y well
developed and prominent;
i.e. big and strong in
Types of teeth c a r n i v o r e s .
Note: Carnassial teeth is
The human/mammalian teeth is formed by the last upper
grouped into three [3] basic types canine and the first lower
molar of a carnivore.
depending on their structure [shape]
functions [uses] and location/position Function of tooth
on the jaw bone. Canines are used for
shearing [removing] flesh
They are; from bones.
a. The incisors, Note: The carnivore uses the
carnassial teeth to catch
b. The canines, and [seize] its prey and to kill it
c. The cheek teeth.
Note:1. The cheek teeth is a collective The Cheek teeth
Description of tooth
name for the premolars and the molars. The cheek teeth have broad
surfaces with some tiny
2. The premolars and the molars projections on them called
are collectively called the cheek teeth cusps.
because they are located at the cheek Function of tooth
of the jawbone.
Cheek teeth are used for
grinding [chewing] food.

The table below is a summary of the Note: The cheek teeth is

types of teeth, their shapes [structure] made up of the premolars
premolar and the molars.
and their respective functions
94
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foods.
The Cheek teeth Description of tooth
The cheek teeth have broad 4. Change your toothbrush at least once
surfaces with some tiny
projections on them called
every three months.
cusps.
5. Frequently chew tough substances
Function of tooth like bones and fibres like sugarcane in
Cheek teeth are used for order to strengthen the teeth.
grinding [chewing] food.
6. Avoid pricking the teeth with sharp
Note: The cheek teeth is
made up of the premolars
pointed objects like pins, needles, knife,
molar and the molars. broom, sticks, etc.

7. Visit the dentist regularly, at least twice

a year for teeth examination, advice and
The arrangement of the various teeth treatment.
types in the jaw bone
8.Flossing of the teeth after
meals/eating.
Incisor
1 1
Canine 2
3
3
4 4 Diseases of the tooth [teeth]
Premolars
5
6 6
Molars Socket
of jaw There are many diseases that can affect
7 the teeth, but the common among them
8 includes; tooth decay [dental caries],
plaque and gum [periodontal] disease.
To always ensure a strong and a healthy
teeth, One should perform/observe the
following practices; 1. Dental caries [tooth decay]
Tooth decay occurs when small holes
1.Brush your teeth at least two [2] times [cavities] are created in the enamel of
daily; i.e. in the morning and in the the tooth.
evening, in order to remove plaque
which leads to teeth decay. This is due to the accumulation of acids
as a result of the action [activities] of
2. Avoid eating too much sugary foods. some bacteria on sugary foods [sweets]
that are left [found] on the enamel for a
3. Avoid eating either too hot or too cold long time.
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Treatment of tooth decay Treatment of gum disease

1. The affected tooth [teeth] can be 1. The teeth should be brushed properly
removed in order to prevent the infection in order to prevent the accumulation of
from spreading. bacteria or plaque.

2. The cavities [holes] that have been 2. The teeth should be brushed at least
created [made] within the tooth can twice daily; i.e. early in the morning and
either be filled or filed [removed]. in the evening, before going to bed.

2. Plaque
Plaque consists of a sticky film layer RELATED PAST QUESTIONS
deposit that is made up of food remains
on the teeth which has been mixed with 1. Regular brushing of teeth is primary
saliva by the action [activities] of done in order to
bacteria and other micro-organisms. A. keep the mouth fresh
B. clear away food particles from the
Treatment of plaque teeth
Plaque can easily be removed by the C. remove bad smell in the mouth
proper brushing of the teeth using a D. kill bacteria in the mouth
good tooth paste and brush. E. control the flow of saliva in the mouth.
[BECE 1992 obj. 32]
Note: If plaque is left unchecked as a
result of a prolonged improper teeth 2. The different types of teeth that an
brushing, it may develop and grow into animal has gives an indication of the
the gum to cause [bring about] nature of its
periodontal [gum] disease. A. digestion B. environment
C. feeding D. reproduction
[BECE 2007 obj. 17]
3. Periodontal [gum] disease
Gum disease which is an advanced form 3. The type of teeth used for biting and
of plaque occurs when bacteria causes cutting are the
the gum to be inflamed; i.e to feel A. canines B. incisor
painful when it is touched and to also C. molar D. premolar
bleed [discharge blood] frequently [BECE 2010 obj. 31]
[often].
4. Which of the following types of teeth is
Periodontal disease may also lead to used by mammals to tear food particles?
bad breath and the loss of teeth if it is not A. canines B. incisors
treated. C. molars D. premolars
[BECE 2014 obj. 1]
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5. The type of the human teeth used for
biting food substances is
A. canines B. incisors
C. molars D. premolars
[BECE 2015 obj. 20]

6. What is plaque in human dentition ?

[BECE (A) Q 6bi]
A B C
7. The diagrams below are illustrations
of the different types of teeth in humans I. Name each type of teeth labeled A, 278
B,
Study them carefully and use them to C
answer the questions that follow. ii. State one function each of the teeth
labeled A, B and C.
iii. State two observable differences
between tooth labeled A and B.
iv. Mention two ways of ensuring proper
dental care.
[BECE 2015(B) Q 1c]

9. The diagram below is an illustration of a

longitudinal section of a canine tooth in
A B C humans

i. Identify each type of teeth labeled A, Study the diagram carefully and answer
B and C. the questions that follow
ii. Describe the shape of each of the
teeth labeled A, B and C.
iii. State one function of each of the I
V
teeth labeled A, B and C.
II
iv. Name the parts of the teeth labeled I
and II
[BECE 2011 Q 1c]

IV
8. The diagrams below are illustrations
of three different types of teeth, labeled
A, B and C, in humans.
III
Study the diagrams carefully and
answer the questions that follow.
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I. Name each of the parts labeled I, II, III, IV

and V.

ii. What is the function of each of the parts

labeled I and III?

iii. Which of the labeled parts could be

affected by tooth decay?

iv. State three ways by which tooth decay

may be prevented.
[BECE 2017 Q1b].

98
 it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume
SUB - STRAND 2: THE SOLAR SYSTEM
INDICATORS and EXEMPLARS
At the end of this sub strand, the student should
be able to:
1. Identify the outer planets of the solar
system and describe their properties.
2. Discuss the composition of the Solar
System.
3. Construct a model for the outerSolar
System
4. Discuss the properties that are peculiar to
each of the planets; Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus
and Neptune.
THE SOLAR SYSTEM
[THE PLANETARY SYSTEM]
The Solar System is made up of the eight
[8] planets, their moons; i.e. natural
satellites, and other heavenly bodies
that are moving around the Sun in space.
Note: A heavenly body is a natural body
[object] that is found in space.
In the solar system, the major/main
heavenly bodies are; the planets, their
natural satellites [moons] and the only
star; i.e. the Sun.
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The planets in the Solar System
A planet is a heavenly body that revolves
around a star.
In the Solar System, all the eight [8]
planets revolve around the Sun; which is
the only star in the planetary system.
Some of the heavenly bodies move
around others which give them some
special names.
For instance; a satellite is a heavenly
body that goes around another
heavenly body.
The moon is thus a satellite of the Earth
because the moon goes round the
Earth.
Similarly, the eight [8] planets are
satellites of the Sun because they
revolve round it.
Additionally, a planet is a heavenly body
that goes round a star.
Since the only star in the Solar System is
the Sun. Then all the eight [8] planets go
round the Sun.
Classification of the planets
All the planets in the Solar System are
classified/grouped into two [2] forms,
depending on;
i. Their positions/distances away from the
Sun, and
ii. The nature of the surfaces.
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The eight [8] planets are classified as either; inner [terrestrial] planets or outer planets
[gas giants] and they are separated from each other by the asteroid belt.
Note: The asteroid belt is a region of space between the planets Mars and Jupiter
where most of the asteroids [small rocky bodies] in the solar system are found.

Inner planets Outer planets

Parameter [Terrestrial planets] [Gas giants]
I. Position [distance] I. The inner planets are much I. The outer planets are very far
from the sun closer to the sun from the sun
2. Nature of their 2. The inner planets have hard, 2. The outer planets have
surface rocky/solid surfaces. gaseous [non-rocky] surfaces.
3. Other names 3. The inner planets are also 3. The outer planets are also
called the terrestrial/land called the Gas giants
planets
4. Planets in the 4. The inner planets are; 4. The outer planets are;
group mercury, venus, earth and jupiter, saturn, uranus and
neptune.

The Outer Planets of the Solar System

The Outer planets are the bigger and the
distant planets from the sun in the solar
system that have gaseous
nature/surface.
When viewed from the Earth, Jupiter is
one of the brightest objects in the sky at
night. Only the Moon [earth’s moon],
Venus, and sometimes Mars are more
brighter than it.

Descriptive features of the Outer planets Jupiter is named after Jove; the Roman
are as follows; ruler of the gods and heavens which
agrees with its extremely large size.

1. Jupiter [the fifth planet]
Jupiter is the fifth and the largest planet in
the Solar system.
It is estimated that this planet is twice as
bigger than all the remaining other
planets combined together.
100
It takes this planet about 12 earth years
to complete one revolution; i.e.
movement around the earth and 10
hours to complete one rotation; i.e. turn
about its own axis making it twice as fast
as the earth.
 it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume
It has some narrow rings around but has
several moons that have been counted
to be between 75 to 79 in number.
About three [3] of these moons have sizes
and conditions that are similar to those on
the planets; Mercury and Earth.
Jupiter is cold with windy clouds of
ammonia and water which floats in an
atmosphere of hydrogen and helium.
Unlike most of the other planets, Jupiter
has an internal heat source; which
supplies it with more energy than it
receives from the Sun.
A prominent and an old feature that is
found on the planet is the Great Red
Spot; a remnant/remains of a giant
storm, which is partly responsible for the
visible colour of the planet.
This Gas giant has the strongest
magnetic field than any of the planets, to
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the extent that it could be seen/felt from
Earth.
Jupiter cannot support life as several
studies have shown but some of it's
moons have large water bodies like
oceans under their crusts that might be
able to support life; i.e. the presence of
living things.
2. Saturn [the sixth planet]
Saturn is the sixth planet from the Sun and
the second largest planet in the Solar
system.
Saturn is unique among the planets for
the presence of seven [7] visible colourful
rings made of ice and rocks which
rotates around its equator.
Like the other gas giants, Saturn is a
massive ball made of mostly the
elements; hydrogen and helium.
Presently, the planet has 53 moons and
29 additional ones awaiting verification
of status.
In all there are about 82 satellites around
the planet.

Inasmuch as the main planet cannot
support life, yet some of its moons have
favourable conditions which can
support life; i.e. the survival of plants and
animals like in the case of Jupiter.
3. Uranus [the seventh planet]
Uranus is the seventh planet from the Sun.
It is large size to a diameter of about four
times that of the Earth.
Uranus is an ice giant and most of its
mass is a hot, dense fluid of icy-materials
like; water, methane and ammonia
which are above a small rocky core.
The atmosphere of Uranus saturated with
molecular hydrogen and atomic
helium, with a small amount of
methane.
These poisonous gases and cold
temperature, makes the planet unable
to support life.
Uranus has 27 known/discovered moons
and13 rings around its equator.
The inner rings are narrow and dark but
the outer rings are more colourful; i.e.
brightly colored.
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Like Venus, Uranus rotates east to west;
i.e. clockwise but rather on its one-side
only.
4. Neptune [the eight planet]
In the solar system, Neptune is the eighth
and most distant planet from the Sun.
It is a dark and a cold planet situated at a
far distance of more than 30 times the
distance between the Earth and the Sun.
Neptune is the only planet the Solar
System which is not possible to be
viewed/seen directly from the Earth with
the naked eye.
This planet is about four times wider than
Earth. As an ‘ice giant’ it has a mass of
hot, dense-fluid of icy-materials like;
water, methane and ammonia with a
small rocky central core.
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Neptune's atmosphere is filled with harmful gases like; molecular hydrogen, atomic
helium and methane and as such it cannot support life; i.e. the existence of plants and
animals. Neptune has 14 known/identified moons, 5 main rings and extra 4 ring-like arcs
which are formed from clumps of dust and rock debris.

The table below is some basic information about the outer planets

Distance from the Days to complete one [1] Average traveling

Planet Sun [Million Km] speed [Km/hr]
revolution [orbit the Sun]

Jupiter 778.34 12 Earth years 47,002

Saturn 1,400 29 Earth years 34,821

Uranus 2,900 84 Earth years 24,607

Neptune 4,500 165 Earth years 19,547

A MODEL FOR THE SOLAR SYSTEM

A model for the Solar System is
constructed and used to show the orbits,
relative sizes as well as the respective
distances of the planets and their
moons around the Sun.
Note: The position of the Sun always
marks the centre of the Solar System.
Mechanical models for the Solar System
are called Orreries.
In building a model to illustrate the Solar
System, a major challenge of using a
good/accurate scale arises.
This is because, the wide/vast gaps
between the interplanetary distances to
the planetary diameters make
selecting/choosing a scale for building
the model much difficult.
103
For instance; the distance between the
Sun and the Earth is about 12,000 times
the diameter/size of the Earth.
The materials for making the Orreries
varies but that which is commonly used
at this level are foam balls glued on a
painted cardboard.
Note: In place of foam balls, folded
paper balls of different sizes, that have
paper balls of different sizes, that have
been tightly sellotaped for stability can
also be used.
The model usually shows the Planets, their
orbits and their distributions; i.e.
positional distances around the Sun.

Steps used to make a cardboard
model of the Solar System
In developing a model for the Solar
System using the two [2] materials; i.e
foam balls and cardboard, the following
steps can be followed as a guide.
1. Select appropriate size of the foam
balls for the Sun and the planets using
their average sizes in space.
The largest ball should be the Sun and
the next largest should be Jupiter, then
Saturn after that Uranus, Neptune,
Mercury, Venus, Earth and lastly Mars.
2. Design the surface of the cardboard
to depict/show the background of the
Solar System. Use either a black or dark
blue coloured background with any
brightly patches/markings to represent
the stars.
MODEL FOR THE SOLAR SYSTEM
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3. Paint the Planets with different colours.
A good colour to fit the given description
may include;
Orange or yellow for the Sun. Brown for
Mercury. Brownish to yellow for Venus,
Saturn and Jupiter. Red for Mars. Blue for
Earth, Neptune and Uranus.
4. Indicate/design the orbits/planetary
rings.
Circumscribe; i.e mark a path/line of
the orbits for each of the planets and
remember to indicate the Asteroid belt
that separates the inner planets from the
outer planets.
5. Glue/fix the Sun and the Planets at
their respective positions/orbits
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RELATED PAST QUESTIONS 7. List the names of the planets in order of

their respective distances away from the
1. The sun and the planets form the sun; starting with the one closest to it.
A. universe B. atmosphere [BECE 1991 Q 2d]
C. milky way D. constellation
E. solar system
[BECE 1990 obj. 40]

2. Which of the following statements

about the solar system is true?
A. sun moves round the earth
B. planets move round the sun
C. planets move round the moon
D. sun moves in an orbit
E. sun moves round the moon.
[BECE 1995 obj. 35]

3. The sun and the planets form the

A. atmosphere B. constellation
C. milky way D. solar system
E. universe
[BECE 2001 obj. 6]

4. Which of the following heavenly bodies

is a star?
A. Earth B. Moon
C. Sun D. Milky way
[BECE 2002 (B) obj. 39]

5. The planet which is farthest away from

the sun is
A. Jupiter B. Mercury
C. Mars D. Neptune
[BECE 2006 obj. 31]

6. Which of the following heavenly bodies

is a star?
A. jupiter B. moon
C. sun D. venus
[BECE 2015 obj. 21]

105

SUB - STRAND 3: THE ECOSYSTEM
INDICATORS and EXEMPLARS
At the end of this sub strand, the
student should be able to:
1. Explore the feeding relationship within the
ecosystem
2. Discuss how life on earth will be without
the Sun.
3. Explain the term producer, primary
consumer, secondary consumer, food chain
and food web as applied in energy transfer
in an ecosystem.
THE FLOW OF ENERGY IN THE ECOSYSTEM
In nature/the ecosystem, the biotic
factors; i.e. living things and the abiotic
factors; i.e. non-living things co-exist; i.e.
live together as well as support each
other.
Similarly, the two [2] major forms of living
things; i.e. plants and animals constantly
interact with each other in order to
survive/live.
This relationship is called the
interdependency of nature.
For instance; during photosynthesis,
plants prepare their food; glucose and
also release oxygen as a by-product.
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The products of photosynthesis; i.e. food
and oxygen are combined together by
all living things during respiration to
produce energy and carbon dioxide;
which are also needed for the process of
photosynthesis to be repeated in plants.
Sources of energy in the ecosystem
The sun is the ultimate [main] source of
energy in the ecosystem.
It is for this reason that scientists believe
that life; i.e. the presence of plants and
animals on earth will cease to exist; i.e.
come to an end after the death of the
sun; i.e. the sun stops producing solar
energy.
The flow of energy from the sun through
the ecosystem
Green plants capture [trap] the energy
from the sun and changes [converts] it
into chemical energy by the process of
photosynthesis.
The green plants also store [keep] some
of the chemical energy that they have
produced in the form of starch at special
parts of their bodies.
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Herbivores consume [eat] these special The pattern [order] of food chain
plant parts and they obtain [get] some of
the stored chemical energy from the Food chain always follow a fixed pattern
plant. [order].
This is ;
The herbivores then serve as food for Producers Primary consumers
carnivores, omnivores and other tertiary Secondary consumers Tertiary
consumers that cannot prepare their consumers.
own food.

The process by which energy from the

sun is transferred to all living things snake
sunlight
starting [beginning] first with green plants
is better explained/described using the eagle
occurrences of food chain and food frog A terrestrial
web. food chain

grasshopper

Food chain
Food chain is the linear feeding grass producers decomposers
relationship that exits between the
organisms in the ecosystem beginning From the above; grass grasshopper
first with green plants [producers]. frog snake eagle.
Note: To ensure a continuous process,
Similarly, A food chain represents a decomposers also help minerals to
simple pathway through which energy return into the soil for re-use by the
and its related materials are transferred process of decay.
from one organism to another in an sea birds
ecosystem.
An aquatic predator fishes
In summary, food chains show how food chain
energy and its related materials flow
from producers to consumers , to small fishes
decomposers.

By this order of food chain, the energy zooplankton

[microscopic water animals]
from the sun is transmitted through green
plants [producers] to herbivores phytoplankton
[primary consumers] to carnivores and [microscopic water plants]
omnivores [secondary consumers] and From the above; phytoplankton
lastly to tertiary consumers. zooplankton small fishes
predator fishes/sea birds
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Food web Differences between a food chain and

Food web is the complex feeding a food web
relationship between the organisms in
the ecosystem. Food chain Food web
1. Food chain is a 1. Food web is a
Similarly, a food web can be described
linear feeding complex feeding
as a complex feeding relationship that relationship relationship
includes multiple intersecting food
chains. 2. It involves few 2. It involves many
organisms organisms
A terrestrial
food web 3. Organisms in a 3. Organisms in a food
f o o d c h a i n h a s web has a higher
snake
lesser chance of chance of survival
fox hawk survival
4. It involves a single 4. It is made up of
feeding relationship many food chains that
are connected
owl together
bird
frog
The reasons why a shorter food chain is
rabbit grasshopper
preferred to a longer food chain
mouse
grass Green plants use just about 1% to 2% of
the energy from the sun [solar energy] to
prepare their own food during
photosynthesis.

When herbivores [primary consumers]

shark
eat the stored food in the plant, they in
An aquatic turn receive/obtain only 10% of the
food web
chemical energy that is
stored/found/contained in the green
parrotfish
unicornfish plant [producers].
coral

When carnivores [secondary

consumers] eat the herbivores [primary
consumers], they also receive only 10%
phytoplankton
zooplankton of the chemical energy that is
stored/found in the herbivores [primary
consumers].
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From the above, the longer the food
chain, the smaller the amount of energy
that is obtained from that food.
As illustrated below, it can be observed
that
that eating [consuming] plant foods
gives a person a higher amount of
energy than eating [consuming] animal
foods.

Energy lost Energy lost Energy lost

90% 90% 90%

Energy Energy
Transferred Transferred

10% 10%

Producer Primary Secondary

Solar energy Consumer
from the Sun [green plants] Consumer

Terms that are associated with the transfer of energy from the sun to all living things
by the processes of food chain and food web

Producers directly or indirectly on the producers for

Producers are those living organisms that
prepare [make] their own food in the
ecosystem and they in turn provide or
serve as food for other living organisms
that cannot prepare [make] their own
food.
The producers in a terrestrial [land]
habitat are mostly green plants; i.e.
plants that contain the green pigment
chlorophyll and the producers in an
aquatic [water] habitat are mostly
phytoplankton; i.e. microscopic water
plants and zooplankton; i.e.
microscopic water animals.
Consumers
Consumers are living organisms in the
ecosystem that depend/feed either
109
their food.
Types of consumers
There are various types of consumers,
depending on the part of the food chain
where they are located [found].
These are; primar y consumers,
secondary consumers, and tertiary
consumers.
a. Primary consumers
Primary consumers are those consumers
that depend [feed] directly on the
producers for their food.
Eg. goat, sheep, cow, etc.
Note: Primary consumers are mostly
herbivores.

b. Secondary consumers
Secondar y consumers are those
consumers that depend/feed on the
primary consumers for their food.
Eg. lion, wolf, tiger, hyena, fox, etc.
Note: Secondary consumers are mostly
carnivores.
c. Tertiary consumers
Tertiary consumers are those consumers
that depend/feed on the secondary
consumers for their food.
Eg. vulture.
d. Herbivores
Herbivores are animals that feed on only
plants and plant produce/parts as their
food.
Eg. goat, sheep, zebra, giraffe, cattle,
deer, antelope, etc.
e. Carnivores
Carnivores are animals that kill other
animals and eat the raw flesh [meat] as
their food.
Eg. lion, tiger, wolf, etc.
f. Omnivores
Omnivores are animals that
depend/feed on both plants and
animals for their food [source of energy].
Eg. man [human beings].
g. Scavengers
Scavengers are animals that feed on the
dead plant and animal materials.
Eg. vulture, cockroach, etc.
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h. Decomposers
Decomposers are animals that feed on
the remains of dead plants and animals
and cause them to decay.
Eg. fungi, bacteria, microbes, etc.
The balance of nature
The ecosystem is a natural body that is
able to sustain [maintain] itself through
the following interactions and
associations.
1. Fungi and bacteria help in the
decomposition of organic matter to
make the nutrients in them available for
plants use.
2. Insects and birds act as agents of
pollination and help in the sexual
propagation [reproduction] of flowering
plants.
3. Trees provide shelter for arboreal
organisms like birds, monkeys, etc.
4. Nitrogen fixing bacteria that are living
in the root nodules of leguminous plants
help fix atmospheric nitrogen into the
soil to improve soil fertility.
5. Termites, fungi and some kinds of
bacteria help in the break down
[decomposition] of pollutants [harmful
substances] into their harmless forms.
6. Green plants release oxygen into the
atmosphere during photosynthesis
which is used by all living things for
 it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume
BOOK18

respiration. 5. The Sun’s immense mass draws/pulls

7. Living things release carbon dioxide
into the atmosphere during respiration
which is also used by plants for
photosynthesis.
all the other plants in the Solar System
towards it, keeping them in their circular
path; i.e. orbits.
If there is no Sun, the planets will slip/drift
off their circular paths into outer space
and be lost forever.

Importance of the Sun [solar energy] to RELATED PAST QUESTIONS

live on Earth 1. All the following are herbivores except
Nothing is as important to us on Earth A. sheep B. dog
than the Sun and the benefits that are C. goat D. grass cutter
obtained from it; i.e. solar energy. E. rabbit
[BECE 1990 obj. 17]
Without the Sun, the Earth will gradually
become a hard, lifeless; i.e. without 2. The lion is a typical example of a
living things, ball of ice-coated rock. A. a pet B. a carnivore
C. an omnivore D. a herbivore
This above conclusion is based/backed E. a parasite
by the following assumptions;
[BECE 1990 obj. 36]
1. The producers in the ecosystem; i.e.
green plants will die as there will be no 3. Which of the following statements
light energy available to them for food about feeding relationship is not true?
preparation; i.e. photosynthesis. A. Energy is transferred from one
organism to another.
2. The death of the end of B. A green plant is the basis of any food
plants/producers will also lead to the chain
extinction of those consumers that C. Bacteria feed on dead organisms for
depend on them. energy
D. A carnivore feeds on green plants for
3. The Sun generates as well as influences energy
our weather and seasons.
E. Omnivores feed on both plants and
These important contributions from the
Sun will cease with its death. animals
[BECE 1993 obj. 9]
4. The Sun provides for the Earth the
requisite/needed heat and temperature 4. The linear sequence of living things
which is essential for the activities of all feeding and being fed on is called
living things. A. linear feeding B. food chain
The freezing of the Earth in the absence C. photosynthesis D. nutrition
of the Sun will mean that all living things E. transpiration
will also freeze to death. [BECE 1994 obj. 33]
111
 Introduction
Table
Systems
Dedication
of Contents
to Integrated Science

5. The food chain that occurs in nature is 10. i. What is a food chain?
A. green plants lizards insects ii. Draw a food using the following
snakes. organisms;
B. grasshopper green plants hawk, cassava leaf, lizard, grasshopper.
lizards hawks [BECE 1994 Q 3c]
C. green plants snakes hawks
man. 11. Define the following terms and give
D. green plants grasshopper one example each.
lizards snakes. i. Herbivore
E. mice lizards hawks ii. Carnivore
snakes. iii. Omnivore
[BECE 2000 obj. 6] [BECE 1997 Q 4a]

6. Which of the following organisms is at 12. State two examples of a

the beginning of a food chain ? i. carnivore
A. fish B. grass ii. herbivore
C. locust D. mosquito [BECE 2007 Q 4a]
[BECE 2009 obj. 3]

7. Producers in an ecosystem are plants

that
A. attract insects
B. feed on other plants
C. feed on dead materials
D. manufacture their own food.
[BECE 2014 OBJ. 9]

8. Which of the following members in a

food chain will receive the least energy?
A. Lizard B. Grass
C. Grasshopper D. Hawk
[BECE 2018 obj. 5]

9. Use any three of the following to form a

food chain.
m a n , b i r d , g r e e n g r a s s, g o a t,
grasshopper.
[BECE 1992 Q 4ai]

112
 it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume
SUB - STRAND 4: FARMING SYSTEMS
INDICATORS and EXEMPLARS
At the end of this sub strand, the
student should be able to:
1. Identify and describe the types of crops,
animals and land combinations for the
different farming system
2. Discuss the usefulness of the different crops
and animals involved in the different
farming
THE FARMING SYSTEMS
Agriculture is as old as humankind. This
vocation is important for the several
benefits that are obtained from it.
Out of all the benefits that are derived
from agriculture, probably the most
basic as well as important among them
are; food, water and shelter.
The produce of agriculture are obtained
as a result of our engagement in farming
activities [ farming systems].
A Farming system is a set of managerial
procedures that makes use of livestock
[animals], crops [plants] and land to
obtained useful produce that can be
either consumed or sold.
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BOOK18
From the definition of farming systems, it
can be established that apart from the
managerial/management involvement
of humans, the farming system process
has three [3] main components; i.e.
contributors/factors/resources.
These are; livestock [animals], crops
[plants] and land.
Land is the fixed resource among them
that also affects the remaining other two
[2] factors in every farming system.
According to their uses/usage, all lands
are classified into two [2] forms/groups.
These are; agricultural/fertile/arable
lands and non-agricultural/non-
fertile/non-arable lands.
Agricultural lands are those lands that
can be used for crop cultivation
because they can provide the needed
conditions for the growth of crop plants.
On the other hand, non-agricultural
lands cannot be used for crop
cultivation because they cannot
provide crop plants with the needed
growth requirements.
Non-agricultural lands can therefore be
used for only animal keeping or any
other farming practice that does not
directly require/involve the cultivation of
crop plants.
 it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume
2. A farmed land section regains its lost
fertility during the fallow period; i.e.
resting time.
3. Less labour is required and this makes it
a relatively cheaper system of farming.
4. Crop produce; i.e. yield from this farm
is always high as the farmer always farms
on a fertile land.
Disadvantages of land rotation
1. Land rotation destroys the virgin forest.
2. It cannot be practiced at places
where land is scare; i.e. difficult to obtain.
3. The size of the farmland is usually small
and as such commercial farming; i.e
large scale farming is discouraged; i.e.
not possible.
b. Mixed cropping
Mixed cropping also called multiple
cropping involves the planting of more
than one type of crop on the same
farmland at the same time.
[It is very common under subsistence
agriculture and at places where
farmlands are scare; i.e. difficult to
acquire.
Forms of mixed cropping
Under mixed cropping, the farmer could
practice either inter-planting or inter-
cropping.
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BOOK18
Inter-planting
Inter-planting is the growing of two [2]
crops together on the same land.
The crop which was planted first is also
harvest first while the one planted last
remains on the plot to harvested later.
An example of this practice is the
growing of maize and yam together.
The maize, which is usually planted first, is
also harvested first.
Maize is therefore said to be inter-
planted with yam.
Inter-cropping
Inter-cropping is practiced when two [2]
different crops are grown together with
the crop planted last being harvested
first.
Usually the crop which is planted last is
early maturing; i.e. has shorter lifespan
than the one planted first.
An example is the planting of water
melon after yam has already been
planted.
The water melon will be harvested first
while the yam remains in the farm/land.
Yam is therefore said to be inter-
cropped with water melon.
Advantages of mixed cropping
1. It affords/provides the farmer a variety
of crops produce from his farm.
2. It prevents the possibility of total crop
failure since the diseases/pests of one
crop may not be able to affect the other.
 Introduction
Table
Systems
Dedication
of Contents
to Integrated Science

As a country, Ghana is blessed with There are about six [6] major farming
several hectares of arable lands that are systems, all the others are similar to
suitable for the cultivation of different these ones, in principle and in practice.
types of crops.
These are; Land Rotation, Crop Rotation,
The factor of land is so important among Mixed Cropping, Mixed Farming,
the rest to the extent that, it affects the Organic Farming and Mono-cropping.
type and size of any farm that is
cultivated.
a. Land Rotation
The various arable/agricultural lands in Land rotation refers to the farming
the country are adapted for the system in which a farmer divides a piece
cultivation of different crops as well as of land into sections and farms on the
favours some specific farming systems. divided sections from season to season,
leaving an already farmed section to
Places that record high annual rainfall fallow; i.e regain its lost fertility before
like Ashanti, Western, Bono and Ahafo returning to it later to farm.
regions support the growth of tree plants
like cocoa, cashew, oil palm, pear, etc. In practice, a farming system that
takes/follows the form of land rotation is
On the other hand, places that record shifting cultivation.
low annual rainfall like the Northern
regions also support the growth of grass Differences between land rotation and
plants like maize, millet, guinea corn, shifting cultivation
rice, sorghum, etc.
Land rotation Shifting cultivation
So in effect, a farmer who secures a land
for farming purpose should consider 1. There is no re- 1. There is re-
settlement; i.e. the settlement; i.e. the
these factors to know the best crop to farmer does not farmer moves his
produce at the area. move with his family. family and all his
belongings
The process that describes the
acquisition, ownership and use of land is 2. The farmer 2. The farmer does not
called land tenure system. return to a farmed return to a farmed land
land after the fallow even after the fallow
period period
In Ghana, one of the major challenges
to commercial [large scale] farming is to
be able to acquire a large land size for
crop cultivation. Advantages of land rotation
This is because of the traditional system 1. Diseases and pest build-up due to
of land ownership in the country. continuous cropping is reduced.
114

3. It minimizes the spread of diseases
and pests on the crops in the farm.
4. It enables the crops to make efficient
use of soil nutrients since different crops
have different nutrient requirements.
5. This practice ensures an efficient use
of labour throughout the year because
the different crops may have different
harvesting times.
Disadvantages of mixed cropping
1. It does not encourage the use of
machines on the farm.
2. It may lead to rapid depletion/usage
of soil nutrients if legumes not included.
3. It is labour intensive since the different
crops must be worked on; i.e. cared for
at different times/periods.
4. Pests and disease agents may persist
[remain] on the farmland for a long time.
This is because there are always food
and alternative hosts for them.
c. Continuous cropping
Continuous cropping is the practice of
putting a farmland under cultivation
continuously; i.e. from year to year.
When continuous cropping is practiced
for a long time without changing the
cultivated crops, it is known as
monoculture.
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Introduction
Table
Systems
Dedication
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Forms of Mono cropping
Mono cropping may take any of these
two [2] forms below;
1. Annual cropping: This involves the
planting of annual crops which may be
replaced/changed after harvesting; i.e.
end of farming season.
Note: Annuals are crop plants that
complete their life cycle; i.e. from
germination to maturity in one growing
season/year.
This means that the land is generally
cleared and cultivated every farming
season.
Such a type of mono cropping is
practiced at places where land is scarce.
2. Permanent cropping: This involves the
planting and maintaining of some
permanent/perennial crops
continuously on the farm.
Note: Perennials are crop plants that
complete their life cycle; i.e. from
germination to maturity in more than two
[2] growing seasons/years.
Similarly, Crop plants that complete their
life cycle in two [2] growing seasons are
called biennials.
Advantages of continuous cropping
1 It reduces the cost of land preparation
after the initial clearing and ploughing
[tilling].
 it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume
2 It enables the farmer to construct
permanent storage structures that can
be used continually on the farm.
3 It can be practiced where land is
scarce.
Disadvantages of continuous cropping
1. The fertility [nutrients] of the soil is soon
depleted; i.e. used-up.
2. It leads to destruction of soil structure
because of the pressure from the dense
[overcrowded] crops.
3. It encourages soil erosion.
4. Crop yield may gradually reduce with
time due to the depletion of soil nutrients.
5. It encourages the build-up of crop
pests and disease agents.
6. It requires a high cost for fertilizing and
keeping the land productive.
d. Crop Rotation
Crop rotation involves the planting of
different type of crops on different plots
on a farmland during a season; and at
the beginning of the next season, the
crops are changed from their respective
plots, while following a definite order
[sequence].
This system combines the concepts of
mixed cropping and continuous
cropping to arrive as some special rules.
117
BOOK18
The Rules/Principles of Crop Rotation are
as follows;
1. Crops that belong to the same group;
i.e. crops from the same family, should
not be allowed to follow each other.
This will lead to nutrient competition as
they have the same nutrient
requirement.
2. Crops that have deep roots like; yam
and cassava, should be followed with
those that have shallow roots such as
maize and groundnut.
3. Crops that consume a lot of nitrogen;
i.e. nitrogen consuming crops such as
cereal should be followed by those that
add nitrogen to the soil; i.e. nitrogen
fixation crops such as maize and the
legume group.
4. Crops that are likely to be affected by
the same disease and/or pest should not
follow each other on the same plot.
5. Legumes [leguminous crops] must be
added in the program.
Types of Crop Rotational programs
There are various types of crop rotational
programs depending on the number of
crops to be used for the exercise.
There are; two-years, three-years, four-
years and even five-years crop
rotational programs.
 Introduction
Table
Systems
Dedication
of Contents
to Integrated Science

How to Design a Three-Year Crop 3. The farmer has access to a variety of

Rotation crop produce from his farm.

1. Divide the farmland into three [3] plots. 4. It minimizes the spread of diseases
and pests since those of one crop may
2. Choose the crops to cultivate. not be able to attack the others.

3. Plant one crop on each plot, making 5. It reduces soil erosion and also help to
sure the principles guiding the adoption check weeds.
of the system are followed; i.e. adhered
to. 6. It leads to efficient utilization of labour.

4. At the end of one season, shift the
crop from plot B to A, C to B and D to C.
5. Repeat the above sequence until the
third year is reached.
7. It is a good practice at places with
land scarcity; i.e. a densely populated
area.
Disadvantages of crop rotation

Year 1 tomato beans carrot

1. It is labour intensive as the farmer is
plot # 1 plot # 2 plot # 3
required to work on all the crops at the
same time.

2. Crop yields may decrease over time

Year 2 carrot tomato beans except manure/fertilizers are
plot # 1 plot # 2 plot # 3
periodically applied to the soil which will
also increase; i.e. add unto the cost of
production.
Year 3
beans carrot tomato
plot # 1 plot # 2 plot # 3 3. The continuous practice will leads to
the destruction of soil structure which
may facilitate soil erosion.
Advantages of crop rotation

1. It helps to maintain soil fertility as the

inclusion/addition of legumes
introduces nitrogen into the soil for the e. Mixed farming
other plants use. Mixed farming is the system of farming in
which the farmer produces crops and
2. It ensures the efficient use of soil rears animals on the same piece of land
nutrients. at the same time.
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 it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume
When this form of farming is carried out on
a pasture; i.e. a piece of grassland then it
is known as pastoral farming.
Pastoral farming
Pastoral farming is the system of farming
during which livestock; i.e cattle, goat or
sheep are kept/raised on a piece of land
which is covered with leguminous plants
and grasses.
The term pasture is given a piece of land
which is covered with leguminous plants
and grasses.
Advantages of mixed farming
1. The waste produce from the crops
such as bran, husk and straw can be
used to feed the animals.
2. Droppings [faeces and urine] from the
animals can be used to enrich the soil.
3. Strong animals like bulls can be used
to work on the farm; i.e. draw/pull the
animal drawn implements.
4. The farmer gets both plant and animal
produce from his farm.
Disadvantages of mixed farming
1. The farmer is required to have
adequate knowledge on both crop
production and animal rearing
[keeping].
2. A lot of work is involved in this farming
system; i.e it is labour intensive.
119
BOOK18
3. The animals could destroy the crops if
they are not properly housed [fenced].
f. Organic farming
Organic farming refers to the natural
system [method] of farming that make
use of only environmentally friendly ways
of producing crops such as the use of
organic manure but not the use of
harmful chemicals like; weedicides,
pesticides or inorganic fertilizer.
Another form of organic farming is
ecological farming.
Ecological farming
Ecological farming is the system of
organic farming during which the
vegetative cover of the environment is
protected.
During ecological farming, old and big
plants/trees are not cut down as with the
other farming systems, but they are
shaded; i.e. their overgrown stems and
branches are pruned to enable sunlight
to reach the cultivated new plants in the
farm.
Advantages of organic farming
1. Organic farming does not cause
pollution; i.e. pollute the environment.
2. Food that is produced from this farm is
free of harmful/toxic chemicals.
3. The soil nutrients are conserved; i.e.
retained for a long time.
 Introduction
Table
Systems
Dedication
of Contents
to Integrated Science

Advantages of ecological farming C. Onion D. Yam

[BECE 2011 obj. 28]
1. Ecological farming is an
environmentally friendly way of 4. Which of the following farming systems
farming; i.e. it does not bring about land is most effective in maintaining soil
degradation. fertility?
A. Crop rotation
2. The cut-down overgrown stems and B. Land rotation
branches decay to add nutrients to the C. Mixed cropping
soil. D. Monoculture
[BECE 2012 obj. 8]
3. The presence of vegetation; i.e. old
trees promotes the welfare of animals 5. Leguminous crops may often be
like; bees, birds and other arboreal cultivated to add
organisms that live in that habitat. A. carbon to the soil
B. nitrogen to the soil
C. protein to the soil
D. potassium to the soil
LIKELY EXAMINATION QUESTIONS [BECE 2013 obj. 19]
1. Leguminous crops such as beans are
cultivated to 6. A farming system which requires at
A. Add humus to the soil least three years program is
B. Increase the nitrate content of the soil. A. mixed cropping
C. Add nitrogen to the soil. B. crop rotation
D. Make the soil loamy C. organic farming
E. Add protein to the soil. D. mixed farming
[BECE 1999 obj. 40] [BECE 2015 obj. 29]

2. Legumes are generally included in 7. The cultivation of different crops on

crop rotation because they different plots of a farm land in a definite
A. are easy to uproot in preparation for cycle is called
the next planting season. A. land rotation
B. are able to fix nitrogen into the soil. B. shifting cultivation
C. have short life span C. crop rotation
D. are good cover crops D. mixed cropping
E. have high market value. [BECE 2016 obj. 13]
[BECE 2000 obj. 33]
8. Which of the following practices is not a
3. Which of the following crops should be principle of crop rotation?
planted after cassava in a crop rotation ? A. Legumes should be added to the
A. Cocoyam B. Cowpea rotation programme.
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 it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume
BOOK18

B. Deep rooted crops should be followed

by shallow rooted crops
C. Crops that are closely related should
not follow each other
D. Fallow period should be allowed during
the time of rotation
[BECE 2017 obj. 34]

9. The farming system that makes

effective use of available soil nutrients in a
growing season is
A. crop rotation
B. land rotation
C. mixed cropping
D. mixed farming
[BECE 2018 obj. 4]

10. Explain each of the following terms;

i. mixed farming
ii. mixed cropping
[BECE 2011 Q 6d]

11. i. State two ways in which crop rotation

is important in crop production.
ii. Distinguish between mixed cropping
and mixed farming.
[BECE 2015 [A] Q 4b]

12. Name four farming systems used in

crop production
[BECE 2017 Q2b]

13. In what way does organic farming

protect the environment from pollution?
ii. Name the two farming systems that
are practiced under organic farming.

14. Differentiate between inter-planting

and inter-cropping.

121
 Introduction
Table
Force of
andContents
Energy
to Integrated Science

STRAND

4
FORCES AND ENERGY

SUB STRAND 1: ENERGY

SUB STRAND 2: ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRONICS

SUB STRAND 3: CONVERSION AND CONSERVATION OF

ENERGY

SUB STRAND 4: FORCE AND MOTION

SUB STRAND 5: AGRICULTURAL TOOLS

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BOOK18

STRAND 4 : FORCES AND ENERGY

In explanation, a stone which is thrown

TO
CO
NVER
TED
upwards gradually loses kinetic energy
D
TE TO

CO
NV
ER
CHEMICAL
CHEMICAL which in turn reduces its force of motion.
CO

ENERGY
ENERGY CHEMICAL ENERGY
NV

IN FOOD On the other hand, a falling stone gains

ERT

ELECTRICAL
ED

ENERGY
CONVERTED TO

kinetic energy and this likewise

TO

increases its downward force of motion.

CONVERTED TO
ELECTRICITY
CO

MECHANICAL
N
VE

CONVERTED TO
RT
E

CONVERTED TO
D
TO

KINETIC
ENERGY

LIGHT
LIGHT & SOUND
KINETIC ENERGY

INTRODUCTION
Basically, Force is moving energy. In
The topics that are studied in science are industry; i.e. world of work, force and
numerous. For this reason, similar topics; energy are connected/linked together
i.e. topics that have much in common, by the concept of work. Energy is the
are treated/studied together. ability to do work but force is
Force and energy are treated together demonstrated by directing a moving
because they have a lot in common. energy to work.

For instance; Force can be

converted/changed into energy and
likewise, energy can also be changed Solar panel
into force.

For this reason, whenever a force is

applied on a body, the energy in the Controller
body also increases. But as and when a
body loses some energy, the force it Battery
possesses also reduces.
123
 Introduction
Table
Force of
andContents
Energy
to Integrated Science

SUB - STRAND 1:ENERGY

INDICATORS and EXEMPLARS Sources and Uses of Energy

At the end of this sub strand, the Everything in the material world has a
student should be able to: source; i.e. where is obtained and some
functions to serve; i.e. uses.
1. Describe energy conversion.
2. Discuss the importance of the conversion
of energy
3. Discuss renewable and non-renewable The table below is a list of some forms of
energy. common energy and their everyday
4. Demonstrate how to manage sources of uses
renewable energy sustainably.
5. Discuss the differences and the
relationship between heat and temperature Energy form/type Basic function(s)
in the environment
1. Used by plants to
1. Light energy prepare their food.
2. Used by animals for
vision [seeing things]

Used as energy/power
2. Electrical energy source for most
[Electricity] machines and
ENERGY CONVERSION appliances

A form of non-
Energy plays an important role in our renewable energy that
lives. This is because it is used/involved in 3. Chemical energy is obtained after a
almost every activity that we perform chemical process like;
photosythesis
[do].
The main type of
Energy exists and can be found 4. Sound energy energy used for
hearing, a vital part of
[obtained] in various forms. every communication
Examples include; heat energy, light
energy, electrical energy [electricity], The main energy used
or involved in all forms
chemical energy, sound energy, kinetic 5. Kinetic energy of movements like;
energy, potential energy, nuclear walking, running,
energy etc. flying, etc

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BOOK18

The main energy used The law of conservation of energy

6. Potential energy or involved in all forms
of rest that occurs
during or after
movement
The energy obtained
7. Nuclear energy from the activities
within the nucleus of an
atom
The law of conservation of energy is the
law [rule] that governs/guides the
changes in energy forms.
The law of conservation of energy states
that; energy can neither be created nor
be destroyed but it can only be
changed; i.e. be transformed/be
converted from one form to another
form.

Conversion and conservation of energy According to the law of conservation of

energy, the total amount of the energy
in the universe is constant [fixed]
Energy is required/needed to be able to
because none can either be added or
all the various kinds of work.
be taken away from it.
Every type of energy has a particular
Furthermore, in accordance with the
form of work that it can be used to
above law, energy production and
do/perform.
energy destruction do not occur
[happen] in nature but it is rather energy
This brings about the need to sometimes
transformation; i.e. energy changes that
change one form of energy into another
occur around us.
form that can be used to do/perform a
particular work/activity.

From the above, all the various forms

[kinds] of energy can sometimes be
changed [converted] into other forms of
energy.
The process during which one form of
energy changes into another form of
energy is known as energy conversions.
Energy conversions [changes] and
energy conservations are
governed/guided by a set of laws and
principles.
Importance of energy transformation
From the beginning of the unit, it has
been established that every form of
energy has a set of function/uses that it
can be put to.
Energy conversion is important because
it enables a more available but a less
useful energy form to be changed into a
less available but a more useful energy
form.

125
 Introduction
Table
Force
Dedication
of
andContents
Energy
to Integrated Science

The more available but less useful d. a falling fruit like e. dissolving calcium
energy forms are usually obtained from mango from its tree carbide in water
renewable sources while as the less
available but more useful energy forms
are also obtained from non-renewable
sources.

Energy changes [transformations/

conversions] potential energy
light energy chemical energy
sound + heat. light energy.
There are some instances during which
some forms of energy are changed
[converted] into other forms of energy f. using a public address system
for some specific [purposeful] uses. chemical energy
Examples of some common
devices/processes/activities that
demonstrates/illustrates energy sound energy.
changes [transformations] includes;

a. b. a loudspeaker in g. a moving car

use chemical energy

kinetic energy.

producing light
from a drycell

Note: Energy conversion is different from

energy conservation.
chemical energy electrical energy
light energy. sound energy

c. an electric iron Conservation is from the word conserve;

in use which means to protect, to preserve or
to use wisely.
electrical energy
sound energy Materials that are usually conserved are
those that are important/useful.

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In addition to the above, important
materials are such which has some
uses/work with which it can be put to.
Based on the above, some materials are
more important than others depending
on their number of uses.
Energy is thus an important material and
thus must be conserved.
Conserving energy [Energy
conservation]
Naturally, energy is contained [found] in
all the forms of matter.
The various forms of energy which are
found in all the different kinds of matter
are what are converted [changed] into
other useful forms during energy
transformations.
These energy transformations/changes
also occur [take place] in some devices
like; the electric iron, radio set, television
set, filament bulb, etc.
Electrical energy [electricity] is the most
demanded energy-form today be it can
easily be converted [changed] into
other useful energy-forms by the various
household appliances/gadgets.
Sources of energy [materials that
produce and give us energy]
The sources of energy refers to all those
materials/places which produces and
gives us energy.
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Examples of these sources of energy
includes: the Sun; which serves as the
source of solar energy, fossil fuel like
petrol; which serves as a source of
chemical energy, dry cells [battery];
which serves as a source of chemical
energy, food substances/materials;
which serves as a source of chemical
energy, etc.
All the various kinds of energy can be
grouped into two [2] main forms using
their sources; i.e. where they are
obtained.
These are; Renewable sources of
energy, and Non - renewable sources
of energy.
a. Renewable sources of energy
Renewable sources of energy refers to all
those energy sources that are
inexhaustible in supply or cannot get
finished [depleted] with time as a result
of continuous [repeated] use.
Examples of the renewable sources of
energy includes; solar energy from the
sun, tidal energy from the sea, wind
[kinetic] energy from moving air, hydro
energy from moving water, etc.
b. Non - renewable sources of energy
Non - renewable sources of energy refers
to all those energy sources that are
exhaustible in supply or can get finished
[depleted] with time as a result of
continuous [repeated] use.
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Examples of non - renewable sources of 1. The biogas digester

energy includes; chemical energy from
firewood [charcoal], nuclear energy
from radioactive substances, chemical
energy from natural gas or crude oil like
petrol, biogas from decaying organic
waste, etc.
The biogas digester is a
device/machine that turns [changes]
biofuel; i.e. plant and animal waste into
biogas; i.e. methane gas and carbon
dioxide gas that can be used for
domestic activities like;

Production of energy from renewable
sources [Devices that convert/change
some forms of available energy into
other useful but unavailable energy
forms].
From the beginning of the unit, it was
indicated that energy is required in order
to be able to perform [do] almost every
kind of activity or form of work.
i. production of electricity.
ii. as a fuel for cooking food.
iii. for lighting purposes/functions, etc.
The by-product from the biogas digester
is in the form of organic manure which
can even be used for the fertilizing; i.e.
enriching farm lands.

However, each of the types of energy has A pictorial diagram of a domestic

a specific activity/task/work for which it biodigester
can be used to perform [carry out].
water
closet
Therefore, during those times of scarcity; Biogas outlet
i.e. the unavailability of certain useful
energy forms, some devices/machines inlet for animal
waste
have been invented/made that can be
used to change [convert] those forms of Collecting
tank
available energy into other useful
energy forms.
Biogas tank

The above exercise is needed because

some important energy-forms may
either be unavailable or even in limited
supply/quantity.
Devices/machines that can be used to
perform the above task include;.
128
The biogas digester should either be fed
with organic waste daily or can even be
connected directly to the sources of
these waste materials in the home like
toilet and animal pen.
This is because there is a type of
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bacteria that lives in the biogas tank that 3. The wind mill
converts the biofuel; i.e. the faeces and The wind mill is a device that converts
animal droppings into biogas through kinetic energy of wind [moving air] into
anaerobic respiration for various electrical energy.
purposeful uses in the home.
The wind mill can be used as a source of
electricity either domestically; i.e. in the
2. The solar heater home or even in small factories.
The solar heater is a device that
converts/changes solar energy which is The wind mill is normally erected on roof
obtained from the sun into other energy tops or other open places where it can
forms like electricity or heat for various receive abundant wind energy for its
domestic purposes. operation.

A pictorial diagram of a solar heater The wind mill got its name from its
primitive purpose [function] for which it
Sun
Solar cell was initially constructed/invented.
s panels The device was invented to mill [grind]
ion
iat
r rad grains like corn, wheat and millet.
Sola
Surplus electricity
is transmitted
Even though it currently has other uses for
Transformer which it can be put to, its primitive and
Domestic use of originally intended function/purpose
electricty has remained as the device’s name to
AC
Current
date.
DC current from A pictorial diagram of the wind mill
solar panels
Inverter that produces
AC from DC current
Rotor Blade

The panel of the solar cell is fixed onto Gear Box

the roof of the house so that it can be Nacelle
able to receive maximum solar energy Wind
to perform its duty. Generator
Power Cables
The heating panel is then connected to
an inverter inside the house which Transmission
Tower lines
changes the DC [direct current] to the
AC [alternating current].

AC is a stronger form of electricity that Transformer

can power most electrical devices.
129

Management of renewable energy
It has been established that renewable
energy can generally be changed into
other needed energy forms during
energy conversions.
These energy forms are obtained from
certain sources/places. And as such
protecting these energy sources
involves protecting those places where
they are obtained.
The sustainable management of energy
sources involves;
1. Protecting/preserving the source of
these renewable energy forms
and
2. Ensuring that the energy obtained
from these sources are efficiently used.
1. Protecting the sources of these
renewable energy forms.
Protecting the source of renewable
energy involves reducing the negative
human influences at such places.
For instance; protecting the river/dam
that ser ves as a source of
hydroelectricity may include preventing
human activities like farming or
settlement along its banks.
Such practices can reduce the volume
of the water over time which can even
affect the electricity generation
[production]
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2. Ensuring that the energy obtained
from these sources is efficiently used.
The efficiency in the use of a material
involves the use of the exact/correct
quantity in order to prevent waste.
When a material is efficiently used, it
prevents the source from getting
depleted before it would have normally
been, if it was wisely used.
For instance; the proper/efficient use of
electricity, either domestically; i.e. in
homes or commercially; i.e. in factories
and industries can help decease the
national demand which can exert/put
pressure on its production.
In addition to the above, the efficient
usage will require the beneficial use of
even the by-product from its production
so that it does not go waste.
For instance; after the water from a dam
has been used to produce electricity, it
can also be put into another use like; for
irrigating crops or to be treated as
portable water for human use.
Challenges in the management of
renewable energy
There are some challenges that are
associated with the management of the
sources of the various/different
renewable energy.
There are three [3] common forms of
renewable energy sources.
These include;
1. The wind; i.e. kinetic energy of moving
air
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2. Solar energy; i.e. energy from the sun
3. Hydroelectricity; i.e. kinetic energy
from moving water.
The conversion of the major renewable
energy sources into electricity for various
domestic and commercial
uses/purposes always comes with their
a s s o c i a t e d / r e l a t e d
difficulties/challenges.
These challenges differ from one
production type to the other.
Such variations/challenges make one
production type to be preferred over the
other.
Additionally, the purpose of
consumption; i.e. either domestic or
commercial can also determine which
of the three [3] methods above will be
suitable for a particular/specific
production.
The table below compares some of the
challenges that are associated with the
conversion of the three [3] common
factors of renewable energy into
electricity.

Parameter Wind Solar Hydro

1. Times of availability 1. Wind intensity is not 1. Solar energy [sunlight] 1. Water quantity in the
f o r c o n t i n u o u s uniform throughout the is not available for dammed river reduces
production day conversion during the during the dry season
night
2 . C o s t o f 2. Very high as several 2.Relatively cheap as a 2.The cost of building the
e s t a b l i s h m e n t a n d wind mills covering a large single solar panel unit can dam and installing the
maintenance land area would have to be used depending on machines is very high
be put together to form a the type of production
wind farm
3. Type of suitable 3. Mostly suitable for 3. Mostly suitable for 3. Mostly suitable for
p r o d u c t i o n ; i . e . commecial production domestic production commercial production
d o m e s t i c o r
commercial
4. Major environmental 4. The large land area that 4. Solar panels take much 4. Hydroelectricity
challenges that it poses must be used for the wind s p a c e f o r e f f e c t i v e production can affect
or can cause farm may compete with installation and use aquatic habitats like the
other better uses of the fish population in that
land like crop production water body
5. Type of pollution 5.The wind turbines can 5.The disposal of old and 5.The construction of the
associated with its c a u s e n o i s e / s o u n d spoilt solar panels can dam and new water ways
production pollution lead to land pollution can lead to the
deterioration of the orinal
landscape

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Relationship between heat [heat It is this transferred heat that your hand
energy] and temperature will detect/perceive as pain.

Heat is a form of energy which travels

from one point to another point due to
temperature difference between the two Differences between heat and
points. temperature
Heat energy is also known as thermal
energy. Heat [heat energy] Temperature

Temperature is a measure of the amount 1. Heat is the energy 1.Temperature is

which travels from the degree of
of heat energy that is found [contained]
one point to another hotness or coldness
in a body.
point due to of a body.
In a more simpler term, the temperature temperature
of a body is the degree of hotness or d i f f e r e n c e
coldness of that body. between the two
points
Heat energy and temperature are
2. Heat is a form of 2. Temperature is not
sometimes seen/perceived as the same
energy a form of energy
but there are some major differences
between them. 3. The S. I. unit of 3. The S. I. unit of
measuring heat is m e a s u r i n g
While as a form of heat energy known as joules [J] temperature is
sensible heat is concerned with the kelvin [K]
transfer of energy between two [2]
bodies with a temperature difference, 4. The instrument for 4. The instrument for
measuring heat m e a s u r i n g
temperature rather measures the
energyis the temperaure is the
amount of heat that is contained [found]
calorimeter thermometer
in a body.
5. Heat is a derived 5. Temperature is a
The main similarity [correlation] between quantity fundamental
heat and temperature is appreciated quanity
with regards to how they work [function].

For instance; a hot electric iron has a lot

of heat in it due to its high temperature.
When a person touches such an iron, the
hot iron will transfer some of its heat to
your hands due to the differences in
temperature.
RELATED PAST QUESTIONS
1.Which of the following energy changes
takes place when a church bell is tolled?
A. potential energy to kinetic energy

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B. kinetic energy to sound energy E. thermal energy is changed into sound

C. potential energy to sound energy energy.
D. chemical energy to heat energy [BECE 1998 obj. 19]
E. sound energy to kinetic energy
[BECE 1992 obj. 8] 6. Which of the following appliances
transforms electrical energy to heat
2. Which of the following is the energy energy?
possessed by an object on top of a I. Swish oven
table? II. Hair drier
A. kinetic energy B. electrical energy III. Refrigerator motor
C. potential energy D. sound energy A. I only B. I and II only
E. heat energy. C. II and III only D. I and III only
[BECE 1994 obj. 22] E. I, II and III.

3. When the palms of the hand are
rubbed together, kinetic energy is
changed to
A. thermal energy B. potential energy
C. solar energy D. elastic energy
E. chemical energy.
[BECE 1996 obj 35]
4. According to the principle of
conservation of energy, energy can
A. be created and destroyed
B. be created but not destroyed
C. be destroyed but not created
D. be reduced but not increased
E. neither be created nor destroyed
[BECE 1997 0bj. 7]
5. Which of the following energy changes
takes place when a church bell is tolled?
A. chemical energy is changed to sound
energy
B. kinetic energy is changed to sound
energy
C. potential energy is changed to sound
energy
D. potential energy is changed to kinetic
energy
133
7. When the brakes of a car are applied
for a long time, the brakes become hot.
This is because of a change of energy
from
A. kinetic energy to potential energy
B. potential energy to kinetic energy
C. potential energy to heat energy
D. kinetic energy to heat energy
[BECE 2002 (B) obj. 6]
8. The types of energy produced when
the hands are vigorously rubbed against
each other are
A. chemical and electrical energy
B. heat and sound energy
C. heat and light energy
D. electrical and light energy
[BECE 2004 obj. 2]
9. Which of the following items converts
chemical energy to electrical energy?
A. dry cell B. electric bulb
C. loudspeaker D. microphone
10. When a mango is falling from a tree, a
potential energy is changed to
A. sound energy B. heat energy
 Introduction
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C. kinetic energy D. chemical energy 17. State the energy transformations that
[BECE 2005 obj. 7] takes place in each of the following
activities
11. A solar cell produces electrical i). dry cell in use;
energy from ii). solar panel in use;
A. electromagnets B. heat iii). electric stove in use;
C. light D. sound iv). hammering a piece of metal.
[BECE 2009 obj. 7] [BECE 2013 Q 2c]

12. Which of the following device 18.I). Distinguish between heat and
converts electrical energy into sound temperature
energy? ii) State the S. I. units of heat and
A. Electric heater B. Electric fan temperature
C. Washing machine D. Loudspeaker [BECE 2002 (A) Q3d]
[BECE 2016 obj. 25]

13. The form of energy which flows from

one point to another point due to
temperature difference is known as
A. mechanical energy B. heat energy
C. solar energy D. nuclear energy
[BECE 2016 obj. 39]

14. Which of the following does not

produce energy ?
A. Coal B. Sand
C. Water D. Wind
[BECE 2016 obj. 40]

15. Energy stored in food is referred to as

A. chemical energy B. heat energy
C. solar energy D. kinetic energy
[BECE 2017 obj. 15]

16. The instrument used to measure

temperature is the
A. ammeter B. barometer
C. manometer D. thermometer
[BECE 2007 obj. 4]

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 it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume
SUB - STRAND 2: ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRONICS
INDICATORS and EXEMPLARS
At the end of this sub strand, the
student should be able to:
1. Explain how electricity transmission occurs.
2. Demonstrate the charging and discharging
action of a capacitor in a DC electronic
circuit.
ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRONICS
ELECTRICITY
After electricity has been generated
[produced], it must be transported to the
various loads [electrical appliances] for
usage.
The transportation/transmission of
electricity makes it possible to reach an
intended destination where it can be
used; i.e. changed into other forms of
energy.
A load [electrical appliance] is a device
that changes/conver ts electrical
energy [electricity] into other useful
energy forms.
The process of transporting electricity
from where it is produced/generated to
where it will be used is called electricity
transmission.
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Electricity Generation [production]
Electricity transmission is the process of
d e l i v e r i n g g e n e r a t e d / p ro d u c e d
electrical energy over long distances to
distribution grids that are closer to
consumers [populated areas].
The entire process of electricity
generation; from the source to the
consumer is made up of four [4] basic
steps/stages.
These are; generation, transmission,
distribution and consumption.
Electricity generation
Electricity generation is the process of
obtaining electrical energy from other
energy forms, in accordance to the law
of conservation of energy.
This process is governed by the law of
conservation of energy.
The commercial; i.e. large scale
production of electricity is done by a
device called the electric generator.
Note: An electric generator is a device
that changes other forms of energy into
electricity.
The commonest [widely used] form of
electric generator is the turbine-driven
generator.
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This generator uses moving fluid to The commonest forms of these turbines
turn/run/push a series of blades that include; combustion [gas] turbines,
have been mounted on the rotor shaft of steam turbines, hydroelectric turbines
a generator. and wind turbines.

Combustion [gas] turbines

Turbine Exhaust
Oil Air
tank intake Compressor
combustion Transformer
chambers Generator

G a s
Supply
The combustion/gas turbine burns gaseous/liquid fuel to produce hot gases which turns
the turbine blades

Steam turbines

Steam line Turbine Generator

Transmission
lines

Coal supply

Boiler
Condenser
Transformer
water supply

The steam turbine turns water into steam which rotates the turbine blades to produce
electricity.
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Hydroelectric turbines

Transmission lines

Powerhouse
water
inflow Transformer

Generator

water
water outflow
direction
turbine

The hydroelectric turbine uses the force; i.e. kinetic energy of moving water to turn/spin
the turbine blades to produce electricity

Rotor Blade Wind turbines

Gear Box The wind turbine uses the

Nacelle
energy of wind [moving air] to
Wind move the blades of a rotor to
power a generator which in turn
Generator
produces electricity.
Power Cables

Transmission
Tower
lines

Transformer
137

Other forms of electricity generators do
not use turbines. Such generators are
ideal/suitable for small scale electricity
generation.
A typical example is the photovoltaic
cells that are used to make solar panels.
Electricity transmission and distribution
After electricity has been generated
[produced], a system/network of
electrical wires carries the electricity
from the source; i.e. place of production
to our homes and businesses.
The network of wires that is used for the
transmission and distribution of
electricity is called the grid.
Grid lines could be either overhead or
underground, depending on the level of
infrastructural development of the
place.
In Ghana, overhead distribution
gridlines is what is in common use.
E v e n t h o u g h t h e p ro c e s s e s o f
transmission and distribution deals with
the transport of electricity, yet each one
is quite different from the other.
The main/primary difference [distinction]
between the two [2] is the voltage level at
which electricity moves in each stage.
Electricity which is transmitted in the grid
lines is transmitted at a very high speed
which is closer to the speed of light;
300,000,000 m/s
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Transmission
Transmission is the part of electricity
delivery that moves bulk electricity from
generation site over long distances to
those areas of electricity demand and
use.
Transmission lines are
detected/recognized as larger and
taller poles/towers that carry wires over
long distances.
They carry/move large amount of
power/electricity of high voltage levels
of 100KV; i.e. 100,000volts and above.
Note: Electricity of such voltage is too
high to be directly delivered and used in
a home/business.
The transmission of power/electricity
from the transmission phase/line to
distribution phase/line occurs; i.e. takes
place in a power substation; which has
the following components and
functions;
1. Circuit breakers and switches: This
enables the substation to be either
connected or disconnected from the
transmission lines or/and the distribution
lines.
2. Transformers: This steps down; i.e.
reduces transmission voltages of 35KV
and above to primary distribution
voltages, between 600-3,500V.
3. Busbar : This splits/shares the
distribution power in many parts in
different directions into distribution lines
to consumers.
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Distribution In the fuse box, the supplied electricity is

Electric power distribution carries
electricity from the transmission system
to the consumer; i.e. the place of use.
Distribution lines are those lines that we
see in our neighbourhood, along the
streets. Electricity from these lines
power/operate the industrial machines
and domestic appliances.
Distribution lines are of two [2] forms.
These are; primary distribution lines and
secondary distribution lines.
Primary distribution lines carry the
medium voltage power to distribution
transformers that are located near the
customer’s premises [home].
Note: A distribution transformer further
reduces; i.e. brings down the primary
distribution power to a low-voltage
secondary circuit usually 120/240V for
residential/domestic use.
distributed to all the electrical circuits in
the house.
The major [main] function of the fuse box
is to prevent any electrical fire
outbreaks.
The fuse box contains several fuses are
that are assembled/joined together.
In a circuit, a fuse protects appliances by
blowing up to disconnect continuous
power/electricity flow when the passing
voltage is too high.
From the fuse box, electricity is carried
by live wires to switches. The switches are
fixed onto live wires so that they could be
put off when the current [power] they
supply is not needed for use.
Connective arrangement of electric
meter, fuse box, switch and a load

Secondary distribution lines carry the fuse

utilization [usable] voltage electricity box switch
from service drops, and an electric
meter to the consumer.

Consumption
Electricity consumption is the use of
electrical energy for various
functions/activities.

When electricity reaches a

house/home, it first goes through an load
electric recording meter and it then to a electric [bulb]
recording
fuse box. meter
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 it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume
3. Learn the habit of ironing all clothes to
be worn/used during the week together
at a particular time.at a particular time.
Note: All electrical appliances that
directly convert [change] electrical
energy into heat energy mostly
consumes a very high amount of current
before it can be heated up sufficiently
[well enough] to be ready for use.
Appliances like; electric stove and
electric iron should not be used on a
daily basis but rather once over a period
of time in order to ensure that the heat
energy that they consume a very high
amount of current to generate [produce]
is efficiently used.
Capacitors
A Capacitor is a device that stores up
electrical energy in a circuit.
The charges stored on the terminals of a
capacitor is mostly brought back for use
in the circuit when the flow of current
from the original source; i.e. cell or
battery is removed.
The capacitor is also known as a
condenser or condensator.
The simplest form of capacitors is the
parallel plate capacitor.
This form of capacitors have two [2]
plates which are separated by a non-
conductive; i.e. an insulating region
called a dielectric.
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BOOK18
The two [2] plates/terminals of the
capacitor which store charges for later
supply into the circuit.
The dielectric between the plates could
be an empty space/vacuum or a
material of; glass, plastic, ceramic,
mica, oxide layer, etc.
The strength of a parallel plate
capacitor is determined by the plate
sizes and space between them.
The larger the plates of a capacitor, the
greater the amount of charges that
could be stored on them and the higher
the capacitance.
Similarly, the closer the plates of the
capacitor are to each other, the higher
the capacitance.
Capacitors are widely used as parts of
electrical circuits in almost every
common electrical device today.
Uses of capacitors
Today, capacitors are widely used in
electronic circuits for blocking direct
current [DC] while allowing alternating
current [A.C.] to pass/move.
In analog filter networks , they
smoothen/rectify the output of power
supplies.
In resonant circuits, they tune radios to
particular/specific frequencies.
In electronic power transmission
systems, they stabilize voltage and
power flow.

According to the law of conservation of
energy, electrical energy can be
changed into other useful energy forms.
The consumption of electricity should be
done manageably because of its
importance.
Conservation of electricity
Electrical energy [electricity] is used in
almost all urban homes and even in
some rural homes in Ghana today.
The expansion in the national grid; i.e.
nationwide electricity supply has brought
along with it some challenges
[problems].
Prominent among these problems is the
waste of electricity in people’s homes
and at their various places of work.
Ways through which electricity is wasted
Electricity [electrical energy] is wasted
on non-profitable purposes in many
homes in this country through the
following practices;
1. Putting on lights in rooms/places
where they are not needed amount to
waste of electrical power.
2. Using old and outmoded appliances
that consume very high amount of
electricity.
3. The habit of ironing clothes daily.
Note: It is advisable to iron clothes in
bulk; i.e. large quantities at a time
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because of the high amount of
electricity which is needed to heat the
iron and make it electricity which is
needed to heat the iron and make it
.
4. The use of overaged electrical
appliances like second-hand [home-
used] refrigerators.
5. The multiple use of a particular
appliance in the same house such as the
use of three [3] refrigerators, two [2]
television sets, etc.
The waste in the use of electrical energy
for various non-profitable purposes has
some negative effects on us all.
This has made it necessary for us to start
learning and educating one another on
the need for us to manage wisely the
available power that we receive from the
power providers; i.e. the electricity
company of Ghana.
Ways of conserving electricity
Electricity can be conserved from
overuse and waste by ensuring the
following practices/regulations.
1. Put on the light in a room only when
you are using/visiting the place.
2. Avoid the use of electrical energy to
perform certain domestic chores like for
cooking food, for which there may be
other available cheaper alternatives like
gas or even charcoal.
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In a circuit, the primary function of a Aim : Using an npn transistor to slowly

capacitor is to produce capacitance. charge and to discharge a capacitor

The capacitance of a capacitor is the Method/procedure: The electronic

electrical property of a capacitor which circuit is constructed as shown below;
measures its ability to store electrical
charges on its plates.

The capacitance of a capacitor is

measured/recorded in farads [F] but
smaller values is recorded in microfarads
[µF].
Note: 1µF = 0.00001F
or
1F = 1,000,000 µF
Apart from the several functions of a
capacitor above, its basic function can
be demonstrated by the activity below;
The use of a transistor to slowly charge
and to discharge a capacitor
The basic function [purpose] of a
capacitor is to store up electrical
charges for later supply [use] in the
circuit.
The npn transistor can be used to assist
the capacitor in its operation; i.e. in its
charging [storing up of electrical
charges] and in its discharging [giving
back the stored electrical charges],
when the original/initial source of power
is removed; i.e. taken away.
The use of the npn transistor to charge
and to discharge a capacitor is
demonstrated by the following
electronic activity [experiment] below;
142
3.3KΩ
9V T1 = NPN
100KΩ Transistor
c
b T1
470Ω e
+
100 µF
-
The switch is closed and the LED is
observed.
The switch is then opened and the LED is
observed again.
Observation: When the switch is closed,
a small current [forward voltage] flows
through the base of the transistor.
This turns the transistor on and electrical
charges; i.e. both positive and negative
charges begins to store up gradually on
the two [2] plates of the capacitor.
The LED also lights up; i.e. gives off some
flashes of light.
When the key is opened, the transistor is
not immediately turned off and this is
because the capacitor; i.e. the 100 µF
capacitor takes over the supply of the
small current from the original current
source; i.e. the 9V battery to the base of
the transistor.
 it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume
The LED too continues to give off some
flashes of light until the time that the
capacitor is fully discharged; i.e. all the
stored charges on the capacitor is
completely used up.
When the 100 kΩ and the 470 kΩ resistors
are each replaced with resistors of
respective higher resistances; it
decreases [slows down] the charging
and discharging rates of the capacitor.
This is because there in an increase in the
opposition to the flow of current to the
transistor.
Therefore, increasing the resistances of
the two [2] resistors above increases
both the charging and the discharging
times of the capacitor.
On the contrary, when both the 100kΩ
and 470kΩ are each replaced with
resistors of respective lower resistances;
i t i n c re a s e s t h e c h a r g i n g a n d
discharging rates of the capacitor as
there is a decrease in the opposition of
current flow to the transistor.
Therefore decreasing the resistances of
the two [2] resistors above
reduces/shortens the charging and
discharging times of the capacitor.
Applications of the capacitor in an
electronic circuit.
The capacitor can be used to perform
many functions in the circuit.
Notable among them include;
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1. The capacitor is used in the flashing
unit of a camera.
2. The capacitor is used by most
electronic appliances to store current
which it later supplies for use in the circuit
especially when the original power
source is taken away [removed].
3. The capacitor is used to smooth
[rectify] voltage before it is used in the
circuit.
4. Capacitors are also used in circuits as
filters.
5. The capacitor can sometimes be
used as a voltage control/regulator in
the circuit.
RELATED PAST QUESTIONS
1. Electricity is used by appliances to do
work. This means that electricity is a form
of
A. energy B. force
C. generator D. machine
[BECE 2005 obj. 8]
2. A rheostat is used in an electric circuit in
order to
A. increase electric current only
B. decrease electric current only
C. keep electric current constant
D. increase and decrease electric
current
[BECE 2017 obj. 5]
3. The instrument used to measure
current in an electric circuit is the
A. ammeter B. photometer
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C. thermometer D. voltmeter 9.I). What is a generator?

[BECE 2017 obj. 8] ii). Give three examples of generators.

4. Which of the following devices is made 11. I). What device prevents domestic
of semiconductors? electricity fire outbreaks?
A. Capacitors B. Inductors ii). Describe how the device named
C. Resistors D. Transistors above functions?
[BECE 2014 obj. 26]
12. I). What is electricity conservation?
5. In an electronic circuit, LEDS are used to ii). Give three ways through which
indicate the absence or present of electricity is wasted domestically.
A. emitter and collector B. electric current iii).Give three ways of conserving
C. p-n junction D. Voltage source electricity.
[BECE 2014 obj 34]

6. How many stages does electricity goes

through before it gets to the consumer for
use?
A. 2 B.4 C. 3 D. 5
[BECE 2017 obj. 40]

7. In an n-p-n transistor, the n-type

semiconductor is connected to the
positive terminal of the battery thus
making
A. base-collector junction reverse biased
B. base-collector junction forward biased
C. base-emitter junction reverse biased
D. base-emitter junction forward biased.
[BECE 2011 obj. 20]

8. When the p-n junction of a transistor is

reversed biased
A. current flows from the p-type to the
n–type
B. no current flows from the p-type to the
n –type
C. conduction of current occurs
D. current flows from the n-type to the p-
type
[BECE 2012 obj. 5]

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 it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume
SUB - STRAND 3: CONVERSION AND CONSERVATION OF
ENERGY
INDICATORS and EXEMPLARS
At the end of this sub strand, the
student should be able to:
1. Explain the importance of conversion of
energy and energy conservation in daily life
ENERGY TRANSFER, CONVERSION
AND CONSERVATION
Energy is an important commodity that
we come across and use all the time.
Energy undergoes various repeated
changes and processes. It can be
transferred, transformed or conserved.
Energy transfer is the
movement/transport of energy from one
location [place] to another.
Energy conversion [transformation] is
the process of changing energy from
one form to another form.
Energy conservation describes; i.e. talks
about the indestructibility of energy.
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Energy recycles/moves/undergoes the
above processes, one after the other, in
a repeated fashion/pattern.
Two or more of the above processes
may occur simultaneously; i.e.
together.
Energy transformation occurs when
energy changes from one form to
another.
Whether a given form of energy is either
transformed or transferred, it is always
conserved.
By this conservation, the total amount of
energy involved does not increase or
decrease because none is added; i.e.
created or removed; i.e. destroyed.
Energy Conversion
Energy is an important
requirement/necessity in our daily lives.
This is because it helps us to be able to
work.
This work could be in the form of
movement, intellectual/brain activity,
change of body position, etc.
There are various kinds of energy.
Generally, each kind is capable of
conversion; i.e. being converted from
one kind to another.

During the conversion process, energy is
neither created nor destroyed, but it is
rather conserved; i.e. only changed into
other forms.
The process of energy conversion is
governed by the law of energy
conversion.
The Law of Energy Conversion
The study of how energy is converted
from one form to another form is called
thermodynamics.
The law of conservation of energy [the
law of energy conversion] is also the first
law of thermodynamics.
It states that; “Energy can neither be
created nor be destroyed but it can only
be transformed/changed from one
form to another form”.
Energy conversion [transformation] is
the process of changing one form of
energy into another form.
This involves transferring energy from
available forms supplied readily/always
from nature into unavailable forms that
can be used by humans.
Note: 1. Available forms of energy are
the renewable energy sources which
cannot be depleted/finished with
continuous/repeated use.
2. Unavailable forms of energy are
the non-renewable energy sources
which can be finished/depleted over
time as a result of continuous/repeated
use.
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FORMS/KINDS/TYPES OF ENERGY
Energy exists and can be found
[obtained] in various forms.
Examples include; heat [thermal]
energy, light energy, electrical energy
[electricity], chemical energy, sound
energy, kinetic energy, potential
energy, nuclear energy, etc.
Definitions [descriptions] of the various
forms of energy
1. Heat [thermal] energy
Heat is a form of energy which travels
from one point to another point due to
temperature difference between the
two [2] points.
Heat energy is measured with an
instrument called calorimeter but it is
recorded in either kelvin [K] or degree
celsius [ OC ]
Note: Heat energy is also known as
thermal energy.
2. Light energy
Light is a form of energy and an
electromagnetic radiation that travels
8
with a velocity [speed] of 3.0 × 10 m/s in
a vacuum.
Light energy performs two [2] basic
functions
1. Light is used by plants to prepare their
own food.
 it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume
This food is used by both the plants as well
as animals to obtain energy through the
process of respiration.
2. Light promotes vision.
This means that it is used by diurnal
animals to be able to see clearly during
the day.
Note: Diurnal animals are those animals
that are usually awake and active during
the day time.
3. Electrical energy [electricity]
Electricity is the flow of charges [current]
through a conductor.
Electricity [current] is measured with an
instrument called ammeter but it is
recorded in the unit; amperes.
4. Chemical energy
Chemical energy is the type of energy
that is produced as a result of chemical
reactions [processes] like
photosynthesis.
Chemical energy is stored [found] in all
the various food substances, crude oil,
gas, petrol, diesel, firewood, charcoal,
dry cells, coal, etc.
5. Sound energy
Sound is the type of energy that is
produced by vibrating bodies [objects]
like musical instruments in use.
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The sound we hear from one another
when we communicate [converse] is
produced because our speech [voice]
transmits [sends] some energy to the
surrounding air which causes vibration.
When this vibrating waves gets into our
ears, it is detected and interpreted by
our brain as sound.
Sound energy is recorded in the unit of
decibels.
Sound energy which is above 60
decibels can cause damage to the
human ears when a person listens to it for
a long time, in such an instance, sound
[noise] pollution is said to have
occurred.
Properties [behaviour] of sound energy
Sound energy has some unique
behaviour [properties] that are similar to
those of light energy.
For this reason, sound and light are
sometimes compared.
However, it is important to know that light
energy travels faster than sound energy.
The occurrence of lightening and
thunder in the atmosphere is a prove of
this process.
Reflection of sound energy
Sound energy can be reflected when it
hits a hard surface.
An echo is produced anytime that sound
is reflected from a hard surface.
Uses of echoes
Echoes [reflection of sound] have some
important applications and uses.

These include;
1. Used to determine the depth of a sea
or river bed from the surface of the water.
2. Used by sailors to detect barriers and
obstacles at night.
3. Used by bats and other nocturnal
animals to avoid flying into objects at
night.
Note: Nocturnal animals are animals
that are usually awake and active only
during the night time.
4. Used in the exploration of minerals
beneath the earth.
5. Used in ultra sound equipments in the
hospital for patient diagnosis.
6. Solar energy
Solar energy is the type of energy that is
produced and obtained from the Sun.
Solar energy is made up of light energy
and heat energy.
The light component [part] of solar
energy is used by green plants for
photosynthesis and also by diurnal
animals for vision during the day.
On the other hand, the heat component
[part] of solar energy is used for drying
things like; washed clothes and food
items including cocoa beans, corn, fish,
pepper etc. during preservation.
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7. Nuclear energy
Nuclear energy is type of energy that is
obtained from the nucleus of an atom.
This kind of energy can be used to
produce electricity or to manufacture
atomic bombs.
8. Potential energy
Potential energy is the type of energy
that is possessed by a body by virtue of
[as a result of] its position with respect to a
reference level such as the ground.
Mathematically,
potential energy [P. E] = m × g × h
Where; m = mass of body,
g = acceleration due to gravity and
h = height [distance] of the body from
the reference position or the ground.
Note: Any object/body which is either
hanging from a support or resting on a
raised surface contains or possesses
potential energy.
Examples of such instances include;
i. A fruit like mango, orange, coconut,
apple, etc. which is hanging on its tree.
ii. A church bell that is hanging on its
tower.
iii. A boy who is raised in the air by the
father, etc.
9. Kinetic energy
Kinetic energy is the type of energy that
is possessed by a body in motion; i.e. a
moving body.
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Mathematically, Calculations under mechanical energy

Kinetic energy [K. E.] = 1 × m × v2 [potential energy and kinetic energy]
2
Where; m = mass of body, and 1. A boy of mass 150 kg is running with a
v = velocity [speed] of moving body. velocity of 4m/s. Calculate the kinetic
energy that is possessed by this boy?
Note:1. All bodies from the sky that are solution
falling to the ground have a velocity that mass of boy [m] = 150kg
is equal to the value of g [acceleration velocity of boy [v] = 4m/s
due to gravity]. kinetic energy [K. E.] = ?
So all falling bodies; i.e. bodies under K. E. = 1 × m ×v2
free fall has a value of v to be equal to 2
2
10m/s. K. E. = 1 × 150 × 4
2. Any object/body which is moving; 2
i.e. is in motion contains/possesses K. E. = 1 × 150 × 16
kinetic energy. 2 8
K. E. = 1 × 150 × 16
Examples of such instances include; 21
I. Running/moving water such as a river, K. E. = 150 × 8
stream or a dam. K. E. = 1,200 J
kinetic energy of boy is 1,200 joules;
ii. Moving air [wind]. [remember the S. I. unit of energy]

iii. A bird in flight; i.e. a flying bird. 2. The kinetic energy that is possessed by
a moving car is 300,000 J. Calculate the
iv. An aeroplane in flight. mass of this car if it is moving with a
velocity of 20m/s.
v. A moving car, etc.
Solution
kinetic energy [K. E.] = 300,000 J
velocity [v] = 20m/s
mass [m] = ?
9. Mechanical energy but K. E. = K. E. = 1 × m ×v2
Mechanical energy is the type of energy 2
that deals with all the stages of motion 300,000 = 1 × m × 20
2

[movement] of bodies. 2
300,000 = 1 × m × 400
Mathematically, 2
300,000 = m × 200
Mechanical Potential Kinetic 300,000 = m × 200
=
energy energy + energy 200 200
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1,500 = m, Examples of common everyday

mass of car is 1,500 kg; processes that demonstrate/show
[remember the S. I. unit of mass]. energy conversions include;

3. A church bell of mass 120 kg is Scenario/process Energy conversions

involved
hanging on its tower. If the distance
between the bell and the ground is 35m. 1. Rubbing both Kinetic energy to
hands together Thermal energy
Calculate the potential energy of this bell.
solution 2. A falling object Potential energy to
mass of bell [m] = 120 kg Kinetic energy
height of bell above the ground [h] = Potential energy to
3. Hammering an Kinetic energy to
35m object
acceleration due to gravity [g] = 10m/s Sound energy and
potential energy = ? Thermal energy
P. E. = m × g × h 4. Producing light Chemical energy to
P. E. = 120 × 10 × 35 from dry cell Electrical energy to
P. E. = 42,000 J Light energy
the potential energy of the bell is
42,000J; [remember S. I. unit of energy] Note: Gravitational potential energy is
the type of energy that is stored in a body
4. A boy of mass 56kg was raised into the by virtue of its position in the Earth’s
air by his father. If the potential energy gravitational fields.
that was possessed by the boy in the air
was 2,240 J.
Calculate the height above the ground
to which the boy was raised ? Devices that convert/change some
solution forms of available energy into other
mass of boy [m] = 56 kg useful but unavailable energy form
potential energy [P. E.] = 2240 J
height [h] = ? Every form of energy has a specific
but P. E. = m × g × h activity for which it can be used.
2,240 = 56 × 10 × h This brings up the need to be able to
2,240 = 560 × h change one form of energy into another
2,240 = 560 × h depending on the energy available and
the work that needs to be done.
560 560
4 = h
Over the centuries, a lot of devices and
h = 4m
systems have been developed for this
The height to which the boy was
purpose.
raised above the ground is 4m; Some of these energy converters are
[remember the S.I. unit for length] quite simple. Simple energy converters
include; the wind mill and water wheels.
150
 it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume
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Water wheel Such systems require multiple

water direction steps/processes to produce
intermediate forms which has many
associated energy loses.

The production of electricity from fossil

fuels and nuclear fuels are typical
examples.

Similarly, many of the energy converters

rotation
wheel

widely used today involve the

transforming of thermal energy into
electrical energy.

Likewise, the overall efficiency of such

converters are restricted by the laws of
thermodynamics and other scientific
principles.

Wind mill
In recent years, considerable attention
Rotor Blade [focus] has been devoted to certain
direct energy-conversion devices like;
solar cells and fuel cells that bypass the
Gear Box intermediate steps like in the power
Nacelle
generators.
Wind

Generator Fuel cell

current flow
Power Cables

Transmission
Tower
lines

Transformer anode cathode

Other forms of conversion systems are

complex. These converters take raw
energy from fossil fuels and nuclear fuels
to generate electricity.
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Solar cell N type

semiconductor
material

PN junction

current P type
semiconductor
material

RELATED PAST QUESTIONS

changed to
1.Which of the following energy changes
A. thermal energy B. potential
takes place when a church bell is tolled?
energy
A. potential energy to kinetic energy
C. solar energy D. elastic energy
B. kinetic energy to sound energy
E. chemical energy.
C. potential energy to sound energy
[BECE 1996 obj 35]
D. chemical energy to heat energy
E. sound energy to kinetic energy
4. According to the principle of
[BECE 1992 obj. 8]
conservation of energy, energy can
A. be created and destroyed
2. Which of the following is the energy
B. be created but not destroyed
possessed by an object on top of a
C. be destroyed but not created
table?
D. be reduced but not increased
A. kinetic energy B. electrical energy
E. neither be created nor destroyed
C. potential energy D. sound energy
[BECE 1997 0bj. 7]
E. heat energy.
[BECE 1994 obj. 22]
5. Which of the following energy changes
3. When the palms of the hand are takes place when a church bell is tolled?
rubbed together, kinetic energy is A. chemical energy is changed to sound
152
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energy B. potential energy to kinetic energy

B. kinetic energy is changed to sound C. potential energy to heat energy
energy D. kinetic energy to heat energy
C. potential energy is changed to sound [BECE 2002 (B) obj. 6]
energy
D. potential energy is changed to kinetic 10. The types of energy produced when
energy the hands are vigorously rubbed against
E. thermal energy is changed into sound each other are
energy. A. chemical and electrical energy
[BECE 1998 obj. 19] B. heat and sound energy
C. heat and light energy
6. Which of the following appliances D. electrical and light energy
transforms electrical energy to heat [BECE 2004 obj. 2]
energy?
I. Swish oven 11. Which of the following items converts
II. Hair drier chemical energy to electrical energy?
III. Refrigerator motor A. dry cell B. electric bulb
A. I only B. I and II only C. loudspeaker D. microphone
C. II and III only D. I and III only
E. I, II and III. 12. When a mango is falling from a tree,
a potential energy is changed to
A. sound energy B. heat energy
7. A ball is dropped from a height to the
C. kinetic energy D. chemical energy
ground. The energy possessed by the ball
[BECE 2005 obj. 7]
just before it strikes the ground is called
A. heat energy B. kinetic energy
13. Which of the following energy
C. potential energy D. sound energy
changes takes place in a ringing bell?
[BECE 2002 (A) obj. 8]
A. potential to kinetic
B. potential to sound
8. A body of mass 50kg falls from a height
C. mechanical to sound
of 5m. If the acceleration due to gravity is
D. sound to light.
10m/s2 , calculate the loss in potential
[BECE 2008 obj. 4]
energy ?
A. 50 J B. 250 J C. 500J D. 2,500 J
14. A solar cell produces electrical
[BECE 2002 (A) obj. 10]
energy from
A. electromagnets B. heat
9. When the brakes of a car are applied
C. light D. sound
for a long time, the brakes become hot.
[BECE 2009 obj. 7]
This is because of a change of energy
from
A. kinetic energy to potential energy

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15. Which of the following device ii). A carpenter hits a nail with a raised
converts electrical energy into sound hammer.
energy? [BECE 2002 (A) Q2d]
A. Electric heater B. Electric fan
C. Washing machine D. Loudspeaker 21. State the energy transformations that
[BECE 2016 obj. 25] takes place in each of the following
activities
16. Energy stored in food is referred to as I). dry cell in use;
A. chemical energy B. heat energy ii). solar panel in use;
C. solar energy D. kinetic energy iii). electric stove in use;
[BECE 2017 obj. 15] iv). hammering a piece of metal.
[BECE 2013 Q 2c]
17. A body of mass 100 kg is placed at a
point 2m above the ground. 22. A piece of stone is dropped from a
What is the potential energy of the body height to the ground. State the energies
with reference to the ground? possessed by the stone
[take g = 10ms-2], I). just before it was released from the
[BECE 1993 Q1d] maximum point
ii). midway between the fall
18. A body of mass 12.0 kg is placed on iii). just before it hits the ground.
an orange tree 20.0 meters above the [BECE 2013 Q4d]
ground.
I). Calculate its potential energy with 23. i. Define potential energy.
respect to the ground ii. An object of mass 10kg is moving
ii). If the body is released from this height, with a velocity of 2ms-1.
what will be its kinetic energy just before it Calculate the kinetic energy of the
hits the ground? object.
[g = 10m/s2], [BECE 2018 Q3c]
[BECE 1998 Q 4d]

19. A coconut of weight 50N hangs 15m

above the ground.
I). Name the type of energy possessed by
the coconut.
ii). Calculate the value of this energy
[BECE 2000 Q 4d]

20. State the energy changes that take

place in each of the following processes?
I). An orange falls from a tree to the
ground
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SUB -STRAND 4: FORCE AND MOTION
INDICATORS and EXEMPLARS
At the end of this sub strand, the
student should be able to:
1.Explain newton’s Second Law of Motion.
2. Identify complex machines and describe
their functions.
FORCE AND MOTION
Force and motion are related concepts
because it is the ‘applied force’ on a
body that causes it to move; I.e.
experiences motion.
Force is said to be that which changes a
body’s state of rest or of uniform motion
in a straight line.
In a more simpler term, force is either a
push or a pull on an object which causes
the body to move in the direction of the
force.
Motion is the process which describes
how an object/body changes its position
with respect to time.
In reality, motion is described/explained
in terms of displacement, distance,
velocity, speed or acceleration.
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The laws of motion
The laws of motion shows the
relationship that exists between the
motion of a body and the forces that are
acting on it.
Sir Isaac Newton, (1643 - 1727), was an
English Physicist and Mathematician
who proposed these laws to
describe/guide the motion of bodies.
Newton’s second law of motion
Newton's second law of motion states
that;
“the acceleration on a body is directly
proportional to the net/resultant force
acting on it and inversely proportional to
the mass of the body”.
Mathematically; a = ‘f’net
m
where; ‘a’ is acceleration
‘f’net is net/resultant mass
‘m’ is mass of the body.
Note: The net/resultant force is the
algebraic/vector sum of all the various
forces that are acting on the body.
This is not the same as ‘force [f]’.
The above equation is re-arranged to a
more familiar/common form below;
Fnet = m × a. [making Fnet the subject of
the equation]

From the above equation, a unit of force
is equal to a unit of mass times a unit of
acceleration.
By substituting/replacing standard unit of
force, mass and acceleration into the
above equation, the following unit
equivalency could be obtained as;
1 newton = 1Kg × 1m/s2
One newton is defined as the amount of
force which is required to give a body of
2
mass 1Kg, an acceleration of 1m/s
The direction of ‘net force’ and
‘acceleration’
The direction of the net force is in the
same plane as that of the acceleration.
So if the direction of the acceleration is
known, then the direction of the net
force can also be obtained.
In conclusion, Newton’s 2nd law provides
an explanation for the behaviour of
objects upon which the acting forces do
not balance; i.e. cancel out.
A c c o rd i n g t o t h e s e c o n d l a w ;
unbalanced forces always cause
objects to accelerate with an
acceleration that is directly proportional
to the net force and inversely
proportional to the body’s mass.
Acceleration, velocity, impulse and
weight
An applied force acting on a body can
cause a uniform change in its velocity
with time.
The above concept is called
acceleration, if the change in velocity
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is an upward change; i.e. increase or
deceleration, if the change in velocity is
a downward change; i.e. decrease.
Apart from an increase or a decrease in
the velocity of a body, an applied force
can also cause a change in the
direction of a body in motion.
Force and acceleration are therefore
vector quantities.
Note: 1. A vector quantity is a quantity
that has both magnitude [number] and
direction.
2. A scalar quantity is a quantity that
has only magnitude [number] but no
direction.
For practical purposes; i.e. in practice, it
is difficult to be able to apply a constant
force to a body for an indefinite length
of time.
In reality, Forces are applied constantly
for only a limited amount of time to
produce what is called impulse.
Impulse is the product of force and time
which is taken for it to act; i.e. exert its
effect.
The effect of impulse on a body to either
bring about a change in its
velocity/speed or direction can only
persists for the time that the force
component of the impulse works.
Contrary to the above, there is a
particular situation that we encounter;
i.e. come across a constant force.
This force is that which is due to [caused
by] gravitational acceleration.
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Note: Gravitational acceleration Procedure/method:

causes materials/bodies to exert a
downward force towards the center of
the earth.
This constant acceleration produced by
the constant force ‘F’ is denoted as ‘g’.
Newton’s second law of motion thus
becomes; F = Mg.
The product of ‘Mg’ is known as weight;
which is also a type of force.
Note: From the formula W=mg, a body
has no weight if it experiences no
acceleration due to gravity.
For this reason, a body in space has no
weight; i.e. is weightless even though it
has mass.
Furthermore, when a body has no
significant mass component, gravity
alone cannot produce weight; i.e.
downward force.
1.A piece of string with a mass hanging
at one end over a pulley.
2. A trolley; i.e. small movable car is
attached to the other/opposite end of
the string in such a way that the trolley
can easily accelerate when the
mass/weight is released.
3. The weight at the free end of the string
is gradually increased by adding the
standard/slotted masses and the time
taken to travel the entire length of the
meter rule in each case is recorded in
seconds.
The tools are arranged into the set-up
below;
position
of trolley
light gates pulley

Practically, this explains why one

requires an upward force ‘ma’ which is
greater than the weight ‘mg’ of a body to standard
be able to lift/raise it. [slotted]
masses

AN EXPERIMENT TO DEMONSTRATE
NEWTON SECOND LAW OF MOTION Observation and inference
The values of the weights [slotted
Aim: An experiment to show the masses] and the corresponding
relationship between the external force acceleration [time rate of increase in
applied on a moving body and the velocity] produced is tabulated as shown
resulting acceleration; i.e. acceleration below;
produced.
2
Weight [N] Acceleration [m/s ]
Apparatus/materials: Dynamic trolley,
pulley and string, slotted/standard
masses, clamp, meter rule, timer [stop
clock], light gates, glider.
157

From the above table, a graph of force
against acceleration is drawn which
produces a straight line as shown below;
weight
acceleration
Conclusion
It is concluded that increasing the acting
external force on a moving body ALWAYS
increases its acceleration.
Precautions
To ensure an accurate results, the
following measures must be
taken/ensured;
1. Use/choose a light inextensible
string/rope that can support/carry the
masses/weights of the standard/slotted
masses.
2. Careful select/choose the last weight
of the slotted/standard masses so that it
does not strain/tear the string.
3. Repeat the experiment/process for
several weights and record the
corresponding acceleration in each
case.
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Everyday observations that illustrate
Newton’s Second law
Newton’s second law of motion is
demonstrated/illustrated in the
following common/everyday
occurrences;
1. Differences in the accelerations
produced in a car and a truck after the
two have been supplied with the same
magnitude of force; i.e. applied force.
faster acceleration small car
equal
force
star t slower
point acceleration
big truck
]
2. A racing car is constructed to give it a
reduced/smaller mass so that its
acceleration can be increased for
faster movement.
3. A rocket is able to leave the Earth’s
orbit into space because it generates a
greater force; i.e. thrust which increases
its acceleration/speed to leave this
gravitational field.
4. A kicked ball follows the direction of
the applied force with an acceleration
which corresponds to the magnitude of
the exerted force.
5. During a car crash, there is a force
between the obstacle and the car
known as the impact force.
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The level of damage corresponds to this 8. A car can move forward due the
impact force which is determined by the exerted force from the engine which
masses of the colliding bodies and gives it the corresponding acceleration.
speed/acceleration with which they
were moving.
forward direction
Note: The above is the reason why over-
speeding is not advised in driving so as acceleration
the damage to the vehicle and the
injuries to the occupants/passengers
during accidents may be minimal; i.e.
less.

6. A body under free-fall; i.e. a fall 9. Since uniform speed increases

generated by the Earth’s gravitational acceleration with distance covered, a
force experiences an acceleration karate player is able to break a slab of
which increases with travel distance. brick easily by moving the hand over the
shoulders before striking.
For this reason, an object thrown from a
tall building suffers a greater damage
than if it were thrown from a shorter
building.

7. A fat person walks slower than a

slender person because the slender
person has a greater acceleration due
to a smaller mass.

slender
fat person
person
Importance of Newton’s Second Law of
Motion
Newton’s second law of motion is very
important because it shows the
relationship between force and
acceleration.

The correlation between force and

Weight = 90Kg Weight = 60Kg acceleration is the basics for most of the
speed 3.5 km/hr speed 5km/hr principles in sports movements.
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Players in games like; baseball, tennis 2. a. If the weights of three pupils in a

and football use the knowledge of force class are;
and acceleration to direct the ball to the I. 360.7 N ii. 380.5 N iii. 500.9N
target opponents or places. What are their masses ?

It is also used to calculate for the b. A spring balance reads 1.1 N when an
velocity/speed and the position of apple is hanged on it. What is the mass of
bodies that are acted upon by known the apple?
forces. [take g = 10m/s ]
In construction, the required forces that Solution
will be resting on fixed joints in the a. Weight = mass × acceleration due
framework of buildings and bridges can to gravity.
be determined with this law. mass = Weight
acceleration due to gravity

i. mass of first pupil = 360.07

Worked Examples
10
= 36.07 kg
1. a. What is the relationship among
mass, weight and acceleration due to
ii. mass of second pupil = 380.5
gravity ?
10
b. If your teacher has a mass of 75 kg,
= 38.05 kg
what is his weight. [take g = 10m/s ]
iii. mass of third pupil = 500.9
Solution
10
a. Relationship among mass, weight
= 50.09 kg
and acceleration due to gravity is given
by the expression; W = m × g, or W =
b. mass = weight
mg.
acceleration due to gravity
Where; w is weight, m is mass and g is
= 1.1
acceleration due to gravity.
10
= 0.11
b. mass = 75 kg
mass of apple is 0.11 kg
g = 10m/s2
weight = mass × acceleration due to
gravity TRIAL QUESTION
= 75 kg × 10m/s2 Determine the acceleration that will be
--
= 750 newtons produced in each case when a 12N net
the teacher’s weight is 750 N force is applied to a 3Kg object and to a
6Kg object.

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Compound Machines
A machine is a device which allows a
small applied force [effort] to be
multiplied/magnified so as to overcome
a large resistance force [load] in order to
do work.
A machine works by either increasing its
force or speed with/using the input
energy but not both at the same time.
The two [2] forms of machines are;
simple machines and compound
[complex] machine.
Simple machines
From book 7, it was established that a
simple machine makes work easier
using a mechanical advantage.
The mechanical advantage is the
number of times that the small input
force [effort] is multiplied into a large
output force.
Simple machines create mechanical
advantage [M.A.] by changing the
direction of the input force to work with
gravity; i.e. gravitational force.
Common property Simple machines
1. Definition 1. A simple machine converts
mechanical energy from its
source into another form of
energy without any help from
another device
2. Number o f 2. They has a few or no moving
moving parts parts
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The common types of simple machines
are; lever, screw, wheel and axle,
inclined plane, pulleys and the wedge.
Compound/complex machines
A compound/complex machine is
formed when two [2] or more simple
machines work together.
During the operation/work of a
compound machine, the effort force
which is applied to one of the simple
machine is magnified and transferred to
the next simple machine in series.
Examples of complex machines
include; bicycle, crane, car jack, lawn
mower, sewing machine, etc.
Differences between simple machines
and compound machines.
Inasmuch as simple machines and
compound machines are types of
machines, yet they differ in
several/many ways from each other.
The table below compares the
differences/variations in the two [2]
main forms of machines using some
common properties.
Compound machines
1. A compound machine is
made up of many simple
machines that are working
together
2. They has many/more moving
parts
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3. Nature of work it 3. They can do mostly less 3. They are designed to do more
does difficult; i.e. simple work difficult; i.e. complex work
4. Time taken for it 4. They use a relatively longer 4. They use a relatively shorter
to operate/work time in their operation; i.e. to be time in their operation; i.e. to be
able to work able to work
5. Quality of work 5. The quality of work done is 5. The quality of work done is
done relatively poor as compared to relatively high as compared to
that compound machines that simple machines
6. The mechanical advantage
6 . M e c h a n i c a l 6. The mechanical advantage of a compound machine is
advantage used in of a simple machine is relatively high because it is
t h e i r relatively low because it is obtained by combining those
obtained from a simple device of all the simple machines that
come together to form it.

7.Nature of force 7. Simple machines have single 7. Compound machines have

and load effort applied on a single load. many/multiple efforts applied
to one or many loads.
8.Availability of 8. Simple machines do not 8. Compound machines have
energy source contain or have an energy extra/other energy source
source and cannot power extra apart from its input force [effort]
work above what have been and as such it can perform
applied and magnified by it much more work
9 . F r i c t i o n t o 9.There is less friction to 9.There is more friction to
overcome in its overcome because there are overcome because there are
operation few moving parts more moving parts
10.Life span of 10. Simple machines have a 10. Compound machines have
machiine relatively longer span a relatively shorter span

Relationship between compound machines and simple machines

The main relationship between simple
machines and compound machines is
that; a compound machine is a
collection of simple machine that are
working in tandem; i.e. together in series.
162
Most of the devices we use on a daily
basis are compound machines
b e c a u s e t h e y h a v e
component/constituent simple
machines.
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The following are some compound machines and the simple machines that combine
to form them

Component/constituent simple machines in it

Compound machine
First part Second part Third part Fourth part
wedge lever
A pair of scissors [blades] [handles]
lever wedge
A stapler [punching part] [stapler pins]
wedge lever
A clipper [blades] [handles]
wedge wheel &
An electric fan [blades] axle
wheel & lever
A bicycle gears
axle [pedals]
inclined wheel & lever
A wheelbarrow
plane axle [handles]
[container] [wheel]

lever wheel & wedge

A bottle opener [arms] gears axle [cutter]
[rotating handle]

wedge pulley
lever
A fishing rod [hook] [winding &
[stick]
unwinding]

pulley inclined plane

Escalator [belt [steps of
movement] escalotor]

lever pulley wheel &

crane [bar on which [help to axle
frame is formed] pick up [rotating handle]
frame]

wedge lever
crane [tip of [handle]
shovel]

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A can opener
A pair of scissors A stapler

Escalator
A fishing rod

A bicycle

crane

A clipper

An electric
fan

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Definition of parts of compound
machines [simple machines]
1. Lever
A lever is an object that acts as a pivot
point that multiples the force that can be
applied to another object.
2. Wheel and axle
The wheel and axle is a rod attached to a
wheel which can multiply an applied
force.
A large force applied to the axle causes
the wheel to travel rapidly, causing an
automobile to drive faster, to make it to
function as a speed multiplier.
A minor force applied to the wheel
makes it cover a great distance to
produce a greater force in the axle such
as in the wind mill.
3. Pulley
A pulley consists of a wheel on an axle
with a rope running over the wheel.
Generally, they are used to change the
direction of an applied force.
4. Inclined plane
The inclined plane is a flat surface which
ends at different heights.
Generally, they reduce the amount of
force required to move an object.
5. Wedge
A wedge is a triangular-shaped tool that
can be used to separate, hold or lift an
object.
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6. Screw
A screw is a cylindrical shaft with grooves
that pass/move through other objects by
a rotational force to produce a linear
motion.
H o w c o m p l ex m a c h i n e s h a v e
improved the quality of life [uses of
complex machines]
In a general sense, a machine is a
device that makes the process of doing
work much easier and faster.
In today’s world, machines have/find
uses in enormous range of
applications/areas like; industrial,
commercial, residential and
academic fields.
The need for machinery/machines
arises when there is a demand for speed
and efficiency in doing a specific work.
A compound machine always works
better than a simple machine. This is
because the mechanical advantage
which is the ‘working force’ of any
complex machine is a product of all the
mechanical advantages of the simple
machines found within it.
Complex machines help/assist humans
in performing activities that are tough
[ h a rd ] , r e p e t i t i v e [ c o n t i n u o u s ] ,
dangerous or even dull.
Common examples of complex
machines that we come across on a
daily basis include; motors, pumps and
generators.

A motor uses electricity to turn a wheel or
another device that needs/uses
rotational force; i.e. torque.
Examples of common machines that
work with a motor includes; electric fan,
electric drill, electric mixers, washing
machines and water pumps.
A pump moves a fluid; i.e. liquid or gas,
by a mechanical action from one place
to another.
Pumps are used for irrigation, water
supply, gasoline supply, air
conditioning systems, refrigeration
systems, chemical compressors,
c h e m i c a l m o v e m e n t, s e w a g e
movement, flood control, marine
servicing, etc.
A generator takes energy from a source
as steam or water flowing through a river
and convert it into electricity.
Electricity generation is very important in
any modern society because it is
needed for most domestic and
commercial activities today.
Furthermore, complex machines
outperform simple machines, offering a
better work rate than the later.
For instance; an escalator and an
elevator are complex machines that
works with a principle similar to that of an
inclined plane in motion.
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An escalator makes it easier for people
and luggage to move between the
floors of busy public buildings like
airport terminals.
An elevator [lift] is an enclosed container
that works like a car to carry passengers
or freight between the levels/floors of
very tall buildings.
Similarly, a forklift which uses two levers
to able to lift heavy objects from the floor
to short vertical heights/distances.
Such kinds of heavy loads cannot be
lifted successfully by the hands
because it requires too much force for
such a small surface area.
But with two folks; acting as separate
levers working together, the effort
required is greatly reduced.
Note: The arms and legs can be turned
into levers, especially when they are
made stiff enough to be used for lifting
objects.
LIKELY EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
1. Give three differences between a
simple machine and a complex
machine.
2. Explain why a complex machine works
better/faster than a simple machine?
3. Differentiate between a pump and a
generator; as forms of simple machines.
 it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume
SUB - STRAND 5: AGRICULTURAL TOOLS
INDICATORS and EXEMPLARS
At the end of this sub strand, the
student should be able to:
1. Show and discuss the use of basic & simple
agricultural tools for basic on-farm activities.
2. Engage in the use of basic & simple
agricultural tools for basic farm activities.
AGRICULTURAL TOOLS
[FARM TOOLS and IMPLEMENTS]
Farming activities are carried out by the
use of certain tools and equipment.
Different farm tools have specific
functions for which they are used in the
farm.
The above is influenced by the stage that
has been reached in the cultivation
process of that crop plant.
The entire process of crop cultivation is
grouped into seven [7] stages/groups.
These are; land [soil] preparation,
sowing/planting, fertilizer application,
irrigation [water supply], weed control,
harvesting and storage.
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Out of these seven [7] stages of crop
cultivation, six [6] of these stages are
performed; i.e. carried out in the farm.
These are called the on-farm activities.
The on-farm activities are; land/soil
preparation, sowing/planting, fertilizer
application, irrigation, weed control
and harvesting.
Storage is the only is the only off-farm
activity in crop cultivation.
Each of the above processes has a
specific group of tools that can be used
during that stage.
In reality, several tools can be used for a
particular/specific activity/process in the
farm.
However, factors like; type of crop being
produced, the nature of land; i.e.
location of the farm, as well as the
size/purpose of production generally
determines the correct tool for a specific
work.
For instance; the tool to be used for
sowing yam setts is different from that
which must be used to plant a cereal
crop like maize/rice.
Similarly, the tool for tools
irrigating/watering a small farm-size
must be different from that which is used
to water a large farm-size.
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The six [6] on-farm activities/processes On a large scale [commercial] farm,

and the tools used to perform them are the cultivator is used for land
as follows; preparation

A. Land preparation
Land preparation is the first and one of
the most important processes in
farming.

According to its name, land preparation

mould board plough
gets/makes the land/soil ready for the
cultivation process to begin/start.

The activities that are carried out during

land preparation include; hoe

1. Clearing the land; i.e. removing all the

unwanted plants [weeds] for it to be bare.

2. Burning the cleared weeds. soil leveler

This is a practice which is presently
cutlass
discouraged because it kills useful soil
organisms and affect soil fertility.
machete
Instead, the cleared and dried weeds
can be mixed with the soil to decay/rot
into organic matter, which improves soil
str ucture and also encourages
[promotes] the activities of soil
organisms.

3. Turning of the soil to ensure that both

the cleared and uncleared weeds are
mixed with the soil.
This activity also improves soil aeration;
i.e. air penetration in the soil.
rake
4. Breaking lumps and clubs of soil and disc plough
also removing stumps.
The tools that are used for land
preparation include; cutlass, hoe, rake,
garden folk, cultivator, etc.
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B. Tilling or ploughing
The process of tilling/ploughing the soil
involves turning and loosening the soil.
This is done to ensure that the top soil and
the sub soil that provide nutrients as well
as the other conditions for crop growth
have the needed/required supply.
The plough is used for this process. It can
be operated/powered by a bull/oxen as
an animal-drawn implement or even by
a tractor as a machine-drawn
implement.
The common forms of this implement is
the mould board plough and the disc
plough.
The mould board plough is used on soft
and sticky soils while as the disc plough
is used on hard/dry soils.
Hard and dry soils can be watered
before the ploughing process.
Activities that are done during the
ploughing process include;
1. Turning and loosening the soil with the
plough
2. Using a leveler to break
clumps/crumbs of soil.
This levels the soil surface and proves
beneficial during irrigation and seed
sowing; i.e. makes them easier to
perform.
3. If organic fertilizer [manure] is the
chosen fertilizer for this cultivation, it must
be added at this stage.
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C. Sowing /planting
The sowing of planting materials is a
very important stage in the farming
process.
This is mostly because, the success or
otherwise of the entire process mainly
depends on this stage.
The quality of planting materials used
help check disease outbreak and
spread which can ensures high crop
yield.
Note: When seeds are the planting
materials used for cultivation, the
process is known as sowing.
Planting tools differ in shape, size and
function depending on the type of
planting material with which it is to be
buried in the soil.
Dibber, seed drills and sometimes
cutlass are used for sowing seeds
The hoe is used for making
mounds/beds for planting setts of yam
and pineapples, etc.
Planters are used in large scale
[commercial farms]
planter
[machine operated]
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Tools needed for the transportation and

application of manure include; hand
trowel, shovel, spade, wheel barrow,
head pan, etc.

seed drill
hand trowel

planter
[manual operated]
spade

head pan

D. Fertilizer application
Fertilizer application refers to the various
ways by which fertilizer is supplied to crop
plants in the farm.
Note: Fertilizer is any substance that
contains plant food [nutrients].
shovel
wheel barrow
On the other hand, fertilizer can be
supplied to crop plants using knapsack
sprayer, sprinkler, watering can or by
the broadcasting method.

Fertilizers can be grouped into two [2]

types/kinds, depending on their sources;
i.e. where they are obtained.

Organic fertilizer [manure] is obtained

from plant and animal materials; i.e.
living things but inorganic fertilizer
watering
[fertilizer] is made chemically in the
can
laboratory.
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for crop cultivation whoever, inorganic

fertilizer is ideal for large scale farming
because it can easily be obtained in
commercial quantities for large scale
production.

E. Irrigation
Irrigation is the artificial means of
supplying water at regular time-intervals
to crop plants to ensure a
healthy/proper growth.

Water is the most abundant material in

plants, it forms/contitutes about 90% of
sprinkler in-use their volume.

In addition to the above, it encourages

the activities of plants root, contributes
in seed germination and allows
dissolved minerals to be taken into the
plant during absorption.

The above reasons explains why water

must always be present in the soil. The
knapsack time and frequency of irrigation
sprayer varies/changes from crop to crop, soil to
soil as well as season to season.

During dry seasons, the frequency of

watering/irrigation must be high ,
compared to the other seasons.
The broadcasting method involves
Tools for irrigation
fetching and throwing the fertilizer
The watering can is used as a means of
granules among the crops in the farm
supplying water to crop plants on a
using the hands. No special device is
small scale farming system.
involved.
On a large scale system; the sprinkler is
Note: Organic fertilizer is mostly used for
used to supply water to plants like;
small scale production of crops
lawns, coffee and other crops that need
because it is needed in higher quantities
water constantly and in large quantities.
171

Fruit tree crops, gardening plants and
other plants that can conserve water for
prolonged use are occasionally supplied
water using the drip system.
drip method irrigation
F. Weed control [weeding]
Weeding [weed control] refers to various
ways/methods that are used/employed
to check the growth and the spread of
weeds; i.e. unwanted plants in the farm.
A weed is a plant that is growing where
and when it is not needed.
From the above, a maize plant that is
growing in a tomato farm is a weed.
However, technically, the term weed is
reserved for those unwanted plants that
have the special ability to rapidly grow
and increase in number to replace the
more desirable plants; i.e. crops in the
farm with time.
Weed control/removal is important
because of the following reasons;
Harmful effects of weeds
1. Weeds compete with crops for
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resources of growth like; water ,
nutrients , space and light which
reduce; i.e. negatively affect yield.
2. Some weeds serve as host for some
pests and diseases that affect crops.
3. Weeds increase the cost of
production as the farmer spends
money to control hem.
4. Weeds make the farm bushy and thus
interferes with movement in the farm.
Although weeds are harmful to crop
plants, yet there are some benefits that
are sometimes obtained from them.
Economic importance of weeds
1. Some weeds can sometimes serve as
food; i.e. be eaten.
2. Some weeds like centrosema can fix
atmospheric nitrogen into the soil to be
used by crop plants.
3. Some weeds are used to feed farm
animals.
4. Weeds could be used as mulch; i.e.
materials for mulching.
5. Weeds could be used as manure to
fertilize agricultural lands.
Note: The best time to remove weeds is
before they produce flowers and seeds;
i.e. before they begin their own
reproduction process.
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Tools for weed control i. Selective weedicides

The various ways of weed control and the
respective tools used includes;
1. Tilling/turning the soil with tools like;
plough and ridger before crop
cultivation.
2. Manual/physical removal of weeds by
uprooting or cutting them close to the
ground from time to time using a cutlass
or hoe.
A selective weedicide is a type
weedicide that kills only the plants
fromweedicide that kills only the plants
from certain families but not others.
Eg. Atrasine.
In explanation; when a farmer sprays
atrasine in his farm, the atrasine kills all
the plants in the farm except those
plants that belong to the grass family.

3. The use of ploughs, mowers, and other ii. Non - selective weedicides
cutting tools. A non-selective weedicide is a type of
weedicide that kills all the plants in the
4. Mulching and mulch application farm when it is sprayed.
equipment. Eg. Gamazone.
Note: 1. Mulching is the process of
covering the soil surface with dead In explanation; when a farmer sprays
plants and animal materials. gamazone in the farm, it kills all the
2. Mulch is the dead plants and plants in that farm.
animal materials like; dried leaves and
grass, compost and straw, palm fronds,
animal droppings, etc. that are used for
mulching.
3. Mulching is important because it
prevents the excessive loss of water from
the soil and also decays to add humus to
mower
it.

5. The use of a knacksack sprayer

[sprayer machine] to spray solutions
[liquid mixture] of chemicals called
weedicides /herbicides on the weeds.

Weedicides/herbicides are of two [2]

types. These are; selective weedicides
and non-selective weedicides.
ridger
173

G. Harvesting
Harvesting is the cutting/removal of the
edible parts of crop plants after they are
matured/ripe.
Different crop plants mature at different
times depending on the part which is
eaten; i.e. used as food.
Generally, vegetables crops mature
faster than other crop types like; cereals
or root and tubers.
Tools for harvesting
The tool selected for harvesting depends
on the part of the crop to be
removed/taken.
1. Cereals are harvested manually with a
sickle or with a machine called a
harvester.
a combine harvester in use to harvest thresh and bag rice
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Note: A type of harvester called
combined harvester can harvest,
thrash [thresh] and bag a cereal crop
like rice at the same time.
2. Cocoa pods are harvested by a
machete or a ‘special sickle’ with a
longer handle called go-to-hell.
3. Tomato, pepper, okra and the egg
plant [garden eggs] are harvested by
hand plucking.
4. Cassava, cocoyam and other tuber
crops are harvested by digging around
the root with a digging tool like; cutlass
hoe, mattock, etc.
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Shears

RELATED PAST QUESTIONS

sickle 1. The diagram below is an illustration of

a simple farm tool.

Study it carefully and use it to answer

go-to-hell the questions that follow:

Note: In the cultivation of ornamental

plants; i.e. plants generally regarded as
flowers which are grown to beautify the
environment, a common practice called
pruning is carried out; i.e. performed..

Pruning is the removal or cutting-off of

the diseased-affected or overgrown i. Identify the above tool.
parts of a plant in order to prevent the
spread of diseases among crop plants in ii. State three uses of the tool
the farm.
iii. Mention three ways of maintaining
In ornamental farming; i.e. the growth of the tool
plants which beautify the environment, [BECE 2010 Q1d]
pr uning is done to shape the
plants/flowers. 2. State three ways of caring for farm
machines
The process of pruning is done with a pair [BECE 2015 (B) Q 3d]
of shears or a pair of secateurs.
3. List two devices that can be used to
perform each of the following farm
activities;
Secateurs I. weeding

ii. ploughing

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iii. harvesting

4. I. What is weed control?

ii. Give three ways of controlling weeds in

the farm.

5. I. List all the stages that are involved in

crop cultivation.

ii. Group the stages into two general

forms based on where they are
performed.

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STRAND

5
HUMANS AND THE ENVIRONMENT

SUB STRAND 1: WASTE MANAGEMENT

SUB STRAND 2: HUMAN HEALTH

SUB STRAND 3: SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY

SUB STRAND 4: CLIMATE CHANGE AND GREEN ECONOMY

SUB STRAND 5: UNDERSTANDING THE ENVIRONMENT

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STRAND 5 : HUMANS AND THE ENVIRONMENT

All the various forms of living things

interact constantly with their
environment/surroundings in which they
live or are found in the following basic
ways.

1. P l a n t stake/remove vital
resources of growth like Oxygen
(O2), Carbon dioxide (CO2), Water
(H2O), Sunlight and Nutrients; i.e.
soil minerals from their
environment.

Plants combine these materials

together during photosynthesis to
produce their food. This food which is
produced during photosynthesis
provides energy directly for the plants
and indirectly for animals that feed on
INTRODUCTION them.

Note: After photosynthesis, Oxygen (O2)

The environment is the sum total of all the is released back into the atmosphere
things/materials in our surroundings. which forms part of the environment.

The environment is made up of living

things [living matter] and non-living
things [non-living matter] which
constantly interact with each other.

In another way, the environment includes

all the major parts of the world where
living things; i.e. plants and animals can
live successfully.

The environment is sub-divided into three

[3] main parts/components.
These include; Water, Land and Air.
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2. All living things take in food

materials and oxygen (O2) from their
surroundings into their bodies.
These two [2] materials combines
together, to release energy by a
process called respiration.

This energy is used by all living things to

perform all the needed life activities like;
movement, reproduction, nutrition,
irritability, growth, excretion and even
respiration itself.

Plants usually store their metabolic waste

at certain parts of their bodies but
animals remove them as soon as they
are generated/produced.

Note: 1. The handling of the

disposed/removed waste of living things
especially humans can cause pollution
if it is not properly managed.

2.Humans [human beings] are also

Note: Energy provides the animals and are classified under
ability/strength to work. And without the mammals.
constant supply of energy, no activity;
i.e. form of work can be performed by
any living thing.
Death will be the result.

3. All forms the of living things

including plants and animals
generate/produce waste
materials in their bodies.

The waste materials which are

produced as a result of the internal
activities of living things are called
METABOLIC WASTE.

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SUB - STRAND 1: WASTE MANAGEMENT
INDICATORS and EXEMPLARS
At the end of this sub strand, the
student should be able to:
1. Explain sustainable waste management.
2. Apply knowledge of waste management
practices to manage waste in a community.
SUSTAINABLE WASTE MANAGEMENT
All living things produce/generate
certain unwanted [waste] materials
[matter].
As a form of matter, waste can be either
solid, liquid or gas.
According to how they are
generated/produced, waste materials
are grouped into two [2] forms.
Waste materials that are produced
within the bodies of living things are
different from those waste materials that
are produced outside the bodies of
living things.
Waste materials that are generally
produced within living organisms are
known as metabolic [organic] waste
while as waste materials that are mainly
generated by as a result of the external
activities of humans are known as non-
metabolic [inorganic waste].
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Metabolic/organic waste that are
produced from the bodies of humans
and other living things do not usually
cause pollution; i.e. poison the
environment.
In humans, all the metabolic waste
materials are transported through the
blood [blood stream] before they are
removed; i.e. excreted from the body.
They include; sweat, urine, carbon
dioxide, etc.
Faeces is not regarded as metabolic
waste because it does not pass through
the blood before it is removed from the
body.
Metabolic waste materials constitutes a
form of pollutants called
biodegradable pollutants.
This type of pollutants have mild; i.e. less
severe effects on the environment and
they do not also persist [remain] for a
long time.
This is because the activities of certain
micro-organisms break them down into
their harmless units/forms through various
cycles and processes.
Contrar y to the above, greater
quantities [volumes] of organic waste
can pose/bring severe environmental
challenges, if it is not properly managed.
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On the other hand, non-metabolic
[inorganic] waste that are
generated/produced outside the body
have some severe environmental
effects that can persist for a very long
time.
Although there is the generation of
inorganic waste matter in every modern
society, yet they must be managed
sustainably in order to minimize their
negative effects on the environment.
According to a United Nations report on
the environment, the quantity of human
solid waste produced globally is about
11.2 billion tonnes per year.
1. Keep materials in use for a long time
through repair , maintenance or
recycling.
2. Reduce considerably or eliminate
completely unprofitable ways of waste
disposal like; the incineration/burning of
waste materials, as matter for land fills,
etc.
Note: a. The burning of waste in
incinerators and the decay of waste in
landfill sites produce carbon dioxide
gas and methane as by-products.
b. Carbon dioxide and methane
cause green house effect and global
warming.

We must all be involved in

managing/handling such huge volumes
of generated waste and look for ways to
even reduce this quantity/amount in the
future.

Waste management involves

collecting, transporting, processing,
disposal, handling and monitoring
[checking] the various waste materials
produced [generated].

Sustainable waste management is

focused on reducing the amount of
waste materials produced while
increasing the fraction/quantity of the
generated waste which is recycled at the
same time. an incinerator plant showing the
chimney releasing carbon dioxide and
methane gases into the atmosphere
Aims of sustainable waste
management 4. Conser vation through the
minimization the natural resources that
Sustainable waste management is are extracted and used as raw materials
suppose to be able to; in the manufacture of new products.
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5. Reduction the rate of pollution; i.e.
poisoning of the environment, due to the
accumulation; i.e. build-up of waste
materials through sustainable ways like
recycling.
Note: Recycling is the process of
converting waste matter into new and
useful materials.
Recycling is carried out in a recycling
plant, as shown below;
Common recycleable materials
include; paper, rubber [polythene]
bags, glass, metal scraps, waste water,
etc.
Importance of sustainable waste
management
If and when the various waste that we
generate [produce] are managed
effectively, humans and the
environment benefit in the following
ways;
1. It creates/saves space
The management of waste
matter/materials prevents them from
being scattered around or getting
heaped at a landfill site or refuse dump.
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Non-biodegradable waste like; rubber,
plastic or metal scraps that have been
scattered about affect crop production
by interfering with root activities and the
movement of soil organisms.
Furthermore, the continuous use of a
place as a dump site makes it difficult to
reclaim such a place for any useful
activity in the future.
2. It saves money and also serves as a
means; i.e. an avenue to make money.
The re-use or recycling of a
commodity/item prevents the need to
buy a new one.
Money is thus saved through recycling
and the repair of broken-down devices.
Additionally, the money that would have
been spend by the government through
the various waste management
companies will be reduced, as there will
be less waste matter to treat.
The waste management industry has
provided employment for several
people who are engaged in the various
stages of waste treatment.
3. It promotes reputation and social
image.
The effective management of waste,
either as; individuals, businesses,
organizations or government can boast
the image of such institutions and earn
them respect.
The can help attract more customers or
clients to such organizations.
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4. It controls/checks pollution.
Every form of waste matter affects a part
of our environment in a negative way.
This process is termed as; pollution.
When the environment is polluted, the
living things that live within also suffer.
Less pollution as a result of the effective
management of waste will result in
making the environment; i.e. water, air
and land, safe for all the organisms that
live in them.
5. It is the core/central part of
environmental conservation.
Environmental conservation involves
protects our surroundings; i.e. air, water
and land from the negative physical
and chemical changes.
This is easily achieved through effective
waste management practices.
Environmental conservation ensures
that the Earth is safe for both the current
as well as future occupants/inhabitants.
6. It makes us better and responsible
occupants [inhabitants] of the Earth.
Waste generation is an
indispensable/unavoidable part of
human living.
Therefore our only rescue; i.e. way out is
to find tenable/better ways to handle the
generated/produced waste matter so
that it does not lead to; i.e. bring about
pollution.
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Approaches to waste management
The methods that can be put in place to
check the production, the produced
quantity and the handling of waste
matter are numerous/many.
However, the common ones that can
give quick and lasting results include;
1. The use of alternatives that generate
less or no waste.
Paper, rubber and plastics make up a
greater portion of the waste that we
generate.
Better alternatives can be used as
replacements for each of the above
materials.
For instance; the use of paperless
transactions; i.e. electronic means of
transacting business will reduce the
quantity/volume of paper used as well
as its generated waste produced
afterwards.
Reusable containers, particularly those
that are made with materials with less
harmful effects on the environment can
be used in place of rubber and plastic.
2. Waste incineration
Waste incineration is a technique that
reduces the size of waste matter by the
use of fire; i.e. by burning.
Waste combustion/burning generates
heat energy even though it also releases
smoke into the atmosphere that can
cause air pollution.
Incineration is ideal for waste
management when there are;

a. No storage facility for the waste
matter.
b. No other purpose/use for that
generated waste.
3. The Donating [giving away] still usable
materials.
Most of the time, some slightly used
items can be donated to the less
privileged people for re-use instead of
being discarded; i.e. to be thrown away
as waste.
Similarly, perishable goods like cooked
or canned foods can be given out to
people in need for use, instead of waiting
for them to expire and turn into waste.
4. Encouraging the recycling of
recyclable products .
Some of the items that we use on a daily
basis are either made or packaged with
recyclable materials.
The practice of recycling conserves
production energy, keep the used
materials out of landfill sites and
incineration centers.
These recyclable materials then serves
as raw materials for producing new
products/items.
The practice of recycling can further be
encouraged/enhanced by providing
special dustbins for separately
collecting recyclable materials like;
paper, plastic, glass and metal scraps
from other waste matter.
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5. Encouraging the re-use of certain
products.
Products like bottles, that can be used
again must not be thrown away after
their first use.
Most bottling companies do the above
by collecting the empty bottles and
containers of their products back from
the their customers for re-use.
The re-usage of these bottles prevent
them from ending up in dustbins and
dumping sites which ultimately protects
the environment.
6. Discouraging the frequent use of
disposable bowls and cups.
The use of take-away/disposable bowls
and cups for serving food and drinks
should be reduced considerably.
This is because these disposables end
up in dustbins which eventually add-up
to the generated waste matter.
Rather, people must be encouraged to
eat from plates and to drink from cups
which can be cleaned and used again.
7. Turning left-over food and food
remains into compost.
Left-over food and food remains can be
turned into organic matter; i.e. compost
instead of being left as waste.
The process of making compost from
surplus food materials is an effective
way of managing those waste which has
been obtained from food.
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Note:1. Composting is the process C. The effects of organic waste is

during which organic matter is turned gradually educed with time
into manure which serves as a rich source D. Organic waste is cheaper to produce.
of plant food.
5. The harmful materials that can poison
2. The composting process must be the environment is collectively known
done in a composting bin/bag which termed as ....
can be tightly sealed to prevent the A. pollutants B. waste
escape of foul/bad smell and the visit of C. metabolic waste D. smoke
houseflies.
6. The major difference between
excretion in plants and animals is .......
A. plants produce little waste but
animals
LIKELY EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
produce more
B. plants do not produce nitrogenous
1. The toxic materials that are produced
waste but animals do
within the bodies of living things is called
C. plants store most of their waste
......
produced but animals do not
A. waste B. metabolic waste
D. plants produce waste only at some
C. pollutants D. excretion
special body parts but animals do not
2. Humans constantly get rid of waste
7. i. Name the two major forms of waste.
materials from their bodies because
ii. Tabulate three differences between
when waste accumulate over time, it
them
becomes ......
A. heavy B. poisonous
8. I. Define the term recycling
C. safe D. smelly
ii. Name three common waste
materials that can be recycled.
3. The best way of dealing with the various
iii. Give two benefits of recycling.
forms of waste that are generated by
humans is .....
A. burying them in the ground
B. recycling them in recycling plants
C. throwing them into the sea
D. keeping them in covered containers

4. The harmful effects of organic waste is

not as severe as those of inorganic waste
because; .....
A. Organic waste is light but inorganic
waste is heavy.
B. Organic waste is directly produced by
living things but inorganic waste is not.

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SUB - STRAND 2: HUMAN HEALTH

INDICATORS and EXEMPLARS Communicable or pathogenic

diseases are diseases that are caused
At the end of this sub strand, the by a micro-organism [pathogen].
student should be able to:
Infectious diseases are easily transmitted
1. Explain the symptoms, effects and [transferred] from one organism to
prevention of common communicable another organism through a vector
diseases. such as an insect or by a medium like;
2. Analyze risk factors of communicable air, water or food.
diseases.
Examples of communicable diseases in
humans include; hepatitis, HIV/AIDS,
measles , corona virus [ Covid-19 ]
tuberculosis , syphilis , dysenter y ,
cholera, typhoid, etc.
COMMUNICABLE [INFECTIOUS]
DISEASES OF HUMANS Note: Communicable diseases are also
known as infectious diseases because
they can spread from one organism to
A disease is any disorder that interferes another organism.
with the proper [normal] functioning of
the body of an organism in a negative
way. 2. Non-Communicable [non-
pathogenic] diseases
Diseases are of various types/kinds and Non-communicable or non-
as such they are classified into formal pathogenic diseases are those diseases
categories. that are caused by either the absence or
deficiency of certain nutrients in the
Diseases at this level is classified as either body but not micro-organisms or
communicable [pathogenic] diseases pathogens.
and non-communicable [non- Note: Non-communicable diseases
pathogenic] diseases. cannot be transferred from one
organism to the other.
They are also called non-
1. Communicable [pathogenic] pathogenic/deficiency diseases.
diseases
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Examples of non-communicable or
non-pathogenic diseases include
deficiency diseases in humans like;
goitre; i.e the deficiency disease which is
caused by the absence of iodine,
kwashiorkor; i.e. the deficiency disease
which is caused by insufficient protein in
children, marasmus; i.e. the deficiency
disease which is caused by insufficient
carbohydrate and protein in adults, etc.
Note: Even though some non-
pathogenic diseases are also caused by
certain micro-organisms, yet those
micro-organisms can only grow and
multiply when the required conditions
like; insufficient proteins, iodine and so
on are present.
Terms under diseases
Like every other technical topic, there
are certain terms [terminologies] that
are related to diseases which must be
known.
These include;
1. Vector [carrier]
A vector is an organism that carries and
transmits the causative agent; i.e. the
disease causing micro-organism from
an infected/sick person to a healthy
person without having the disease.
For instance; the female anopheles
mosquito is the vector/carrier of
plasmodium; i.e. the pathogen/micro-
organism that causes the disease
malaria because it carries and
transports plasmodium from infected
[sick] people to healthy people.
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2. Causative agent [causative
organism]
The causative agent of a disease is a
microscopic organism that causes a
particular disease when it enters the
body.
Note:1. A microscopic organism is an
organism that is too small to be seen with
the naked/unaided eyes.
2. Microscopic organisms can only
be seen with a microscope; i.e. a device
that can enlarge/magnify very small
bodies hundreds or thousands of times.
For instance; plasmodium is the
causative agent of malaria because
when the plasmodium parasite enters
the body; i.e. blood, you get the malaria
disease or infection.
3. Cause [causes]
The cause of a disease is the specific
pathogen or condition that is
responsible for bringing about that
disease.
Note: For communicable diseases, the
cause is the same as the pathogen; i.e.
causative organism, but for non-
communicable diseases, the cause is
the condition that leads to the
occurrence of the disease.
4. Infection
Infection is the term that describes the
contraction or entry of the pathogens of
a disease into the body.

For instance; A person gets the malaria
infection/disease the very time that the
female anopheles mosquito bites
him/her and injects/introduces the
plasmodium parasite/pathogen into
his/her body/blood.
5. Symptoms
Symptoms are the outward/physical
signs that are seen/present on the body
of a sick person to confirm that he/she
has contracted a particular disease or is
a carrier of that disease.
For instance, a person who is suffering
from the malaria disease may have pale
[yellowish] eyes, a hot body with frequent
shivers, may sweat profusely, may lose
appetite for food, etc.
The feverish symptoms of sweating,
shivering, loss of appetite, etc. can be
symptoms of either malaria or typhoid.
This similarities in the symptoms of
certain related diseases is what makes it
proper for every sick person to be
diagnosed by a qualified health
professional such as a doctor or a nurse
before he/she can take/drink any
medication.
This is the reason why self medication is
not advisable as the drugs used for the
treatment of typhoid fever are different
from the drugs used for the treatment of
malaria fever, even though the two
diseases shows the same/similar
symptoms in their patients.
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6. Incubation period
Incubation period is the time between
the day of infection; i.e. entry of
pathogens into the body and the day of
the appearance of the symptoms of
that disease.
Note: It is only after the incubation period
that outward signs and symptoms can
show/confirm that a person is suffering
from a particular disease.
It is also for this same reason that makes it
difficult to tell whether or not a person
has HIV/AIDS.
For HIV has a very long incubation
period of about 5 to 10 years before it
turns into AIDS; which is the symptoms
stage.
AIDS is the deadly stage [period] of the
disease HIV when all the symptoms like;
vomiting, diarrhoea, skin rashes,
growing lean, frequent coughing,
fever, etc. are seen on the sick person
i.e. the AIDS patient.
7. Mode of transmission [means of
spread]
The mode of transmission of a particular
disease refers to the various ways/means
by which a healthy person can contract
that disease.
This can either be by a direct contact
with the causative agent of that disease
or by an indirect contact with the body
fluids like; sweat, saliva, blood, etc. of an
infected/sick person.
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8. The control of a disease
The control of the spread of a particular
disease refers to those measures that
can be put in place/taken in order to
prevent the spread of the causative
organism of the disease from either its
vector or sick [affected] people to
healthy [unaffected] people.
9. Prevention of a disease
The preventive measures that are taken
against the outbreak of a disease are
those proper practices that are done
[carried out] in order to prevent the
disease from occurring.
The preventive measures that can be
taken to prevent a disease like cholera
from occurring may include; avoiding
open defecation, the proper cooking of
food and boiling of water before
consumption, the washing of hands after
visiting the toilet, etc.
10. Contamination
The contamination of food or water is
said to have occurred when the food or
water is mixed with pathogens [disease
causing micro-organisms].
In explanation, if you drink water that has
been contaminated or been mixed with
salmonella bacteria [the causative
agent of typhoid fever], the salmonella
enters your body and will make you sick
and to show symptoms/signs of typhoid
fever after the incubation period.
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11. Immunity [defence response]
Immunity refers to the ability of the body
to fight against diseases and infections.
Immunity is the main part of the
immune system and has two [2] forms
based on its source; i.e. where it is
obtained.
Inborn immunity is the protection
against diseases that we inherit from our
mothers at birth while as acquired
immunity is the protection against
diseases that we obtain from external
sources like drugs/medicines.
12. Vaccination
Vaccination refers to the use of vaccines
to stimulate your immune system to
protect you against infection or disease.
It can be done by injection; i.e.
introducing the liquid drugs/medicines
through the skin using a hypodermal
syringe.
Note: 1. Vaccine is a weakened/killed
disease pathogen that stimulates a
person’s immune system against a
disease when it is introduced into the
body.
2. Immune system is a network of
body organs and processes provides
resistance to pathogens and their
toxins; i.e. waste products
13. Immunization [inoculation]
Immunization is the process of masking
a person immune/protected/resistant to
a communicable disease through
vaccination.

For instance; children under the age of 5
years are immunized against polio
[poliomyelitis] in order to prevent them
from contracting the polio disease later
in life.
Relationship among some common
terms under diseases
A communicable disease is one that is
able to spread from one person to
another through a variety of ways that
include;
a. contact with blood and bodily fluids;
b. breathing in an airborne virus; or
c. being bitten by an insect [vector] of
the disease .
A communicable disease can generally
spread from person to person or from an
animal to a human.
Note: A disease that can spread from an
animal to a human is called a zoonotic
disease.
Pathogens such as; viruses, bacteria
and fungi cause such these diseases.
Communicable diseases can be
transmitted through contact with bodily
fluids , insect bites , contaminated
surfaces, water, food or even through
the air.
A communicable disease is any disease
that passes; i.e. can be transferred
between people or animals.
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They are also known as transmissible
d i s e a s e s . Pa t h o g e n s i n c l u d i n g
bacteria, viruses, fungi and protozoa
cause communicable disease.
Symptoms of communicable disease
Once a pathogen has entered a
person’s body, it usually begin replicate;
i.e. divide into many forms.
The individual may then begin to
experience some symptoms. Symptoms
will vary depending on the disease.
Some people may not experience any
symptoms at all. However, they can still
transmit the pathogen.
Most symptoms comes about as a
direct result of the pathogens damage
they cause to the host body’s cells.
Others are caused by the body’s
immune response to the infection.
Some communicable diseases may be
mild and such symptoms can show only
after a few days of infection.
Others can be serious and potentially life
threatening. Symptoms severity varies
depending on a person’s overall health
condition and immune function.
Symptoms of diseases differs and are
usually because of the causative agent
[pathogen]
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Pathogens of communicable disease
Four [4] main types of pathogens cause
infections. These are; viruses, bacteria,
fungi and protozoa.
Viruses
Viruses are tiny pathogens that contain
g e n e t i c m a t e r i a l . U n l i ke o t h e r
pathogens, viruses lack the complex
structure of the cell.
To replicate; i.e. multiply/eproduce, they
must enter the cells of other living things.
Once inside, they use that cell’s already
established mechanism to make more
copies of themselves, which are then
released to attack new cells.
Bacteria
Bacteria are microscopic, single-celled
organisms. They exist in almost every
environment on earth, including inside
the human body.
Many bacteria are harmless and some
even help the body to function well.
However, some bacteria can also cause
infections that are harmful the body.
Fungi
Fungi are a family of organisms that
includes; yeast, molds and mushrooms.
There are millions of different fungi.
However, only about 300 of them cause
harmful illnesses. Fungal infections can
occur anywhere in the body but they
commonly affect the skin and mucus
membranes.
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Protozoa
Protozoa are microscopic organisms
that typically consists of a single cell.
Some protozoa are parasitic; meaning
they live either on or inside another
organism and use the host’s nutrients for
their own survival.
Parasitic protozoa can cause various
diseases.
Common communicable diseases
Common viral, bacterial, fungal and
protozoan diseases include;
Corona viruses
Corona viruses are a large group of
viruses that mostly affect the respiratory
system.
This family includes; the SARS-CoV-2
virus and the COVID-19 virus.
Some corona virus can cause common
cold and flu symptoms, while others can
cause more severe outcomes.
Influenza
Influenza viruses are infections, that
attack the respiratory system.
Some potential symptoms include;
fever or chills, stuffy/runny nose, sore
throat, cough, headaches, muscle or
body aches, fatigue, etc.
A person can catch the influenza virus
by inhaling contaminated droplets from
the cough or sneeze of another person.
Similarly, influenza viruses are spread
when people touch their nose, eyes or
mouth after touching items/surfaces
that have come into contact with the
virus.

HIV/AIDS
HIV attacks the immune system of its
host. This makes the person more
vulnerable to other infectious diseases.
A person can contract HIV as a result of
contact with blood or other body fluids
containing the virus.
The symptoms of HIV may develop
gradually and in stages. They can
include; fever/chills, rash, mouth sores,
sore throat, swollen lymph nodes, night
sweats, muscle aches and fatigue.
The only way a person can be certain
he/she have HIV is to have an HIV test.
Although there is no present cure for HIV,
medications [drugs] can help to keep
the virus under control or even make it
undetectable.
Without such treatment, HIV can
develop [advance] quickly into AIDS.
Tuberculosis
Tuberculosis [T.B.] is a bacteria infection
that primarily attacks the lungs.
It may cause the following symptoms; a
cough continuing for more than 3 weeks,
loss of appetite, unintentional weight loss,
fever, chills, night sweats. etc.
A person can catch TB by inhaling tiny
droplets or “aerosols” from the cough or
sneeze of a person who has the
infection.
Ringworm
Ringworm is a common fungal infection
of the skin. The main characteristic
symptom of ringworm is a ring-shaped
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rash. It may be dry, scaly or itchy.
People may contract ringworm through;
close contract with a person who has
ringworm, sharing towels/beddings with
a person who has ringworm, close
contact with animals with ringworm like
cats, etc.
Without treatment, ringworm may
spread to other parts of the body.
Athlete’s foot
Athlete’s foot is a common fungal
infection that affect the skin of the feet.
It causes sore, itchy, white patches
between the toes.
People can contract athlete’s foot
through a direct contact with someone
who has the fungus or surfaces that
have been in contact with the fungus .
For example, an individual may
contract athlete’s foot after walking,
barefoot in locker roams, showers or
swimming pools.
Plasmodium
The protozoa plasmodium germ causes
the tropical disease malaria. The
parasite primarily transmitted through
mosquito bites.
Malaria causes symptoms such as; fever
and chills, headaches, vomiting,
diarrhoea, muscle pains.
Without a proper treatment, malaria
can be life threatening. Vaccination
programs are also effectively protecting
people from malaria fatalities [deaths].
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Causes of communicable diseases
A person may show the symptoms a
communicable disease after becoming
infected by the pathogen [causative
organism].
This can happen through;
A direct contact with a person carrying
the pathogen, a contact with any bodily
fluids containing the pathogen, inhaling
pathogen-containing droplets from
another person’s cough or sneeze,
receiving a bite from an animal or insect
carrying the pathogen, consuming
contaminated water or foods, etc.
How to prevent transmission
People can reduce their risk of
contracting and transmitting disease-
causing pathogens by the following
steps below;
1. Washing their hands thoroughly and
regularly.
2. Disinfecting surfaces at home often,
especially door knobs and handles of
commonly used devices.
3. Disinfecting personal items such as
phones.
4. Practicing good personal hygiene
when preparing and handling food.
5. Avoid touching; i.e. making contact
with wild animals.
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6. Receiving available vaccination.
7. Taking anti-malaria medications
when traveling to places with high
malaria risk; i.e. mosquito infested
areas.
8. Controlling parasites that serve as the
vectors of various diseases.
Treatment of communicable diseases
Vaccines are highly effective for treating
specific viral infections. There are
several different types of vaccines.
When a person receives a vaccine, they
receive a form of the causative
virus/pathogen but in a weak/killed
state.
The immune system then responds by
producing antibodies that are capable
of killing an active form of the virus in the
future.
If a person already has the virus, they
may require/need antiviral medication
to keep the virus replication/growth
under control.
Bacteria infections can range from mild
to life threatening. A person with a
bacteria infection may require/need
some antibiotics to help control the
infection.
Antibiotics are medications [drugs] can
either kill the bacteria or slow their
growth.
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This will enable the immune system fight RELATED PAST QUESTIONS
the bacteria.
1. Which of the following encourages the
However, many bacteria species/types spread of veneral diseases.
are fast developing a resistance to A. Poor family planning
antibiotics. This situation is much likely in B. Drug abuse
people with self-medication records. C. Mental ill health
D. Parental wealth
People should thus take antibiotics only E. Indiscriminate sexual intercourse
on a medical recommendation [BECE 1993 obj. 22]
[advice].
2. Which of the following is a
communicable disease ?
A. Small pox B. Chicken pox
Most fungal diseases are treated with
anti-fungal creams because they C. Influenza D. Pneumonia
directly affect the skin. Mild fungal E. Tuberculosis
infections like; ringworm and athlete’s [BECE 1994 obj 5]
foot [foot rot] can be treated with over-
the-counter creams. 3. Which of the following organisms
causes malaria ?
Often times, a severe/chronic fungal A. Tsetsefly B. Fungi
infection may require/need some C. Virus D. Plasmodium
prescription drugs; i.e. anti-fugal E. Bacteria
medications. [BECE 1994 obj. 34]

4. Which of the following preventive

measures is not used in the control of
tuberculosis ?
Effects of communicable diseases A. Isolating the patient
B. Spitting carelessly in the environment
Communicable diseases alone or in C. Keeping separate cutlery, plates and
combination with malnutrition; i.e. non- cups for the patient.
communicable diseases, is the cause of D. Vaccinating young babies with B. C. G
most deaths or complex medical vaccine.
emergencies. E. Spitting into a container partly filled with
disinfectant.
[BECE 1994 obj. 36]

5. The purpose of vaccination is to

A. replace poisoned tissues.
B. kill disease producing organisms
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C. increase the activity of white blood 11. Micro-organisms that cause

cells. diseases are collectively called
D. introduce the production of antibodies A. bacteria B. infections
E. cure the disease. C. pathogens D. viruses
[BECE 1997 obj. 8] [BECE 2016 obj. 16]

6. Which of the following activities is 12. Ringworm is a disease which attacks

amode of transmission of AIDS ? the
A. Shaking hands with an infected person. A. skin B. lungs
B. Eating with an infected person. C. liver D. kidneys
C. Having sex with an infected person. [BECE 2018 obj. 17]
D. Sharing clothes with an infected person
E. Sleeping in the same room with an 13. Name two diseases that can be
infected person. controlled by immunization.
[BECE 1999 obj. 25] [BECE 1991 Q 4 cii]

7. Casual and loose sex can result in the

spread of 14. State one symptom each of the
A. AIDS B. cholera following diseases:
C. poliomyelitis D. malaria α). Athletic foot;
[BECE 2000 obj. 29]. β). Corona virus.

8. An example of a disease transmitted

through air is
A. bilharzia B. cholera
C. measles D. typhoid
[BECE 2002 (A) obj. 34]

9. Which of the following diseases is

spread by a mosquito ?
A. Blindness B. Cholera
C. Dysentery D. Typhoid
[BECE 2002 (B) obj. 14]

10. One disease which is transmitted

through eating half cooked meat is
A. guinea worm B. hook worm
C. thread worm D. tape worm
BECE 2002(B) obj. 20]

195

SUB - STRAND 3: SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY
INDICATORS and EXEMPLARS
At the end of this sub strand, the student
should be able to:
1. Examine the relationship among science,
technology, innovation and society.
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, INNOVATION
AND SOCIETY
Science, technology and innovation are
related in several areas. Each of them
represents a successfully larger category
of activities that are interdependent on
each other even though there are some
variations among them.
The integration/bond between science
and technology gives rise/birth to
innovation. This is because science
supports; i.e. contributes to technology
research and innovation.
Likewise, technology, research and
innovation also supports the study of
science.
Science and technology are like the
opposite sides of the same coin. Science
involves investigating the natural world to
obtain knowledge from it.
Technology is the application and use of
scientific knowledge to achieve certain
goals.
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Science
Science is the study of the natural world
by the use of the scientific method; i.e.
collecting data through a systematic
process.
Importance [benefits] derived from
science
Science forms the backbone of all
technological advancements.
We rely on the theories of physics,
chemistry, material science and
electricity to develop new technologies.
Scientists are still working to create a lot
of potentially useful materials using our
current scientific
.
According to the above, the more our
scientific theory/knowledge
develops/grows, the more it can inform
and provide useful information to guide
our technological agenda.
For instance; in the quest to create
more powerful computers, quantum
computers are been developed based
on the scientific knowledge/findings on
quantum physics.
As and when this project becomes a
 it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume
success, it will advance [further] the
computing processing power to
unimaginable levels.
Technology
Technology involves the application of
science to create devices that can solve
problems; i.e. perform different tasks.
Simply, technology is the application of
science and as such it is nearly
impossible to separate them.
Technology also brings some important
benefits to the study of science.
For instance; since Galileo discovered
the technology that he used to
invent/make the telescope, it has greatly
impacted space research and studies.
This has led to some improvements; i.e.
refinement in our knowledge base of
heavenly/celestial bodies which has also
improved science.
The invention of some space
exploration devices like; spacecrafts
[rockets], probes like; the Voyager and
the Cassini have further advanced our
space studies.
Voyager
space craft
Cassini
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In addition to the above, technological
advancement in computer power; i.e.
work ability and storage capacity has
improved data collection and use in
various study fields like; medicine
sociology and economics.
From the above, technology has
completely changed our world and the
way humans live.
So in effect, modern computers that are
being developed using scientific theory
and findings are also helping us to do
further/advanced scientific research.
Society and Technology
Society is formed by a group of people
who live and interact among
themselves to form a community.
From the above definition, the influence
of technology on society is mainly
around the area of communication and
interaction.
The influence/effect that technology has
on society is very significant; i.e. cannot
be overlooked as it can be
experienced/felt everyday.
The Internet and its subsidiary arm like
Social media would not have been in
existence today but for technology.
Even before the invention of the internet
and social media, the role that
technology had played in bringing
society to its present state of
development/civilization cannot be
downplayed/belittled.

Science and Technology
Science plays a major role in
technological advancements. We rely
on theories of physics, chemistry,
material science and electricity to
develop new technologies.
Work is in progress in creating a lot of
potentially useful materials that we can
proof that they exist, based on our
present scientific knowledge
[information].
The development of scientific theories
has a direct impact/effect on the rate of
our technological advancements.
The creation of powerful computers
which are products of technological
advancements are based on current
scientific knowledge.
For instance; the knowledge for the
development of quantum computers is
sourced/obtained from quantum
physics.
Technology also affects science in
several ways, particularly in the way that
it is studied.
For instance; the invention of the
telescope has greatly influenced
research work and studies in astronomy;
i.e. space exploration.
More so, the launch of space
exploration devices like; the Voyager,
the Cassini probe, the Huygens lander
have led to several discoveries that have
added to the present scientific
knowledge-base.
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Furthermore, the recent technological
advancement have permitted the
creation a virtual telescope which is as
large as the entire Earth, scientific
studies into the black hole possible.
On computers, computing power,
storage and capacity have enabled
the use of data in scientific study areas
l i ke; m e d i c i n e , s o c i o l o g y a n d
economics.
So in effect, the same computers that
are being developed using scientific
theories and evidence which also helps
in scientific research/studies.
Technology and Society
In some ways, the influence that
technology has had on society is
obvious as well as profound.
Considering a person’s ability to obtain
for answers using a search engine like
Google or from an intellectual
community like Quora, are presently
possible because of technology.
Social media, the Internet as a whole
and blockchain technology have all
had some significant influences on
society.
Compared to the primitive/olden ways
of doing things like farming, our present
ability to feed a large number of people
from a small farm size is due to
technological advancements and
innovations.
 it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume
The invention of storage facilities like silos
has made it possible for some
perishable agricultural produce to be
kept, all-year-round.
A silo for storing and preserving corn
In addition to the above, the
combination of science and
technology in the management of
waste and in the combat against
pollution is yielding some positive results.
Seldomly, societal demands/needs can
also direct research efforts, which then
uses technology to bring about new
discoveries and inventions.
Most often, a technology emerges
which leads to invention through
scientific effort in order to solve a
societal problem; i.e. human need.
For instance; the invention of the
aeroplane was based on the
assumption that air travel is faster thant
that of land or water.
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The realization of this dream is a proof of
the above claim as any person who has
ever traveled in an aircraft can testify.
The present telephone in use was
developed from a technology that the
inventor originally made to be able
communicate/talk with his deaf
relatives.
The GPS [Global Positioning System] was
originally invented to help the United
States Militar y Ser vices in their
operations. However, its high level of
effectiveness has made it the most
effective way of finding specific
locations in the world today.
Science and Society
Just as technology often develops
because there is a need for it, science
also help us solve the needs of society.
While as a major goal of science is to
simply better our understanding of our
surroundings, we can also use science to
solve real problems in society.
The need for a better understanding of
an epidemic like Covid-19, often drives
much research works into it.
Science also improves our
understanding of society. Disciplines
like; sociology, economics and political
science help us to get a better
understanding of human nature and
society as a whole.

Furthermore, since science affects our
understanding of the world. it has a
significant impact on our belief systems,
our norms, and our values as well as daily
behaviour.
Germ theory, for instance; has changed
our sanitation habits and hygiene, as
well as food safety protocols.
Hand washing is now an essential
frequent habit that we have primarily
adopted as a new way of life because of
our understanding of how pathogens
spread.
The above is just one of the many ways in
which scientific theory and evidence
has changed our behaviour.
Science, Innovation and Technology
Science is the study of the natural world
by the scientific method; i.e. collecting
data through a systematic process.
Technology is at play when we use
scientific ideas to create devices that
can perform various tasks.
Innovation is an attempt to use research
work to uncover/reveal workable
solutions to problems which have been
in existence but were hidden/unknown.
Each of the above terms represent a
successfully larger category of activities
that are different from each other but
interdependent in how they work.
A tri-factor
The science behind understanding how
the world functions shapes and alters
how we behave.
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Technology alters [changes] how we
behave.
Society drives technological innovations
and scientific research.
As Science gives us insight into the kind
of technologies that we could
potentially create and how to create
them, while technology allows us to
conduct further scientific research.
The three [3] domains are strongly
connected together to the degree that
it is difficult to be able to pull them apart.
However, an understanding of how they
relate to each other and work together is
very important because each one
drives the future of the other.
Technological advancement
Technological advancement is the
improvement and innovation in the use
of science.
Science uses an ordered methodology;
i.e. scientific method, to describe,
understand, explain and predict
natural occurrences around us.
In Ghana and other developing
countries, science is systematically
weeding out bad/false ideas from our
ways of doing things.
Te c h n o l o g y i s a n u t i l i t y a n d
applicability of scientific
understanding. Simply, technology is
the application of science for practical
use and purposes.
 it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume
For example, levers and pulleys are
technology that apply understanding of
geometry and physics.
A pencil is technology in-use because
the writing material, uses an
understanding and physical properties
of its main component; graphite.
Technological advancements occurs
when applied science [technology]
becomes more precise, accurate,
efficient and more powerful/capable.
Scientific technological advancements
have made many important changes
throughout history, with some better than
others.
Important scientific advancements in
history
There are several notable scientific and
technological advancements
throughout history.
Some examples of scientific
advancements have been developed
from geometry and algebra.
These fundamental rules of shapes and
equations have allowed for the creation
of advanced structure in construction
and architecture.
Mathematical laws have been
discovered to govern the motion of
heavenly bodies and the galaxies in the
universe.
Newton’s laws of motion and the laws of
gravity have been the pre-requisites for
the invention of aeroplanes and rockets.
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Additionally, mathematical laws have
helped to predict the speed of galaxies
based on their emitted light waves,
have expanded human understanding
of the universe.
A popular law under this concept is the
Hubble’s law which has provided
evidence of the continuous expansion
of the universe; supporting the Big Bang
theory.
It is important to confirm that, present
and future technological
advancements is built upon
past/previous scientific/technological
findings that came before them.
Technology has made us better today
than in the past. The use of the phrase;
‘good old days’ is just a
metamophorical speech since there
has been no time in history that can be
compared to this present age due to the
advancement and impact of
technology on our lives.
People presently, live longer and
happier than in the olden times due to
improvement in medical care.
Less work can now be used to produce
the same quantity of goods due to
improved machinery.
There are now many options for
entertainment as the result of the
invention of smart phones and its
connection to the internet.
Negative uses of Science and
Technology
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Despite these benefits of technology, it is The above effects have brought

difficult to conclude/argue that all such immense suffering to a lot of people
changes have been good. world wide.

These negative uses of technology have

also brought about some hardships to a
lot of people globally [world wide].
LIKELY EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
These includes; cyber [internet] fraud,
the manufacture of atomic bombs and 1. One benefit of technology to
other weapons of mass destruction. industrialization is
A. environmental pollution
1. Computer fraud B. reduction in skillful labour
Cyber fraud/crime involves the use of the C. provision of machinery
internet to collect money from people D.increase in cost of production of goods
through impersonation; i.e. the pretence [BECE 2011 obj. 32]
of some guys as ladies in order to collect
money and certain favours from other
men and hacking; i.e. the use of certain
computer software to steal money from
the bank accounts of other people have
brought some severe hardships to the
victims of such crimes.

2. War fares
Technology has also been used to
manufacture of weapons of mass
destructions like; atomic bombs and
intercontinental ballistic missiles.

These lethal/deadly weapons have

caused the death of millions and
thousands have also been maimed
[handicapped] by them.

Diseases like leukemia; i.e. cancer of the

blood, which is caused by breathing the
smoke from these atomic bombs is a
common ailment at places that have
experienced wars in recent times.
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SUB - STRAND 4: CLIMATE CHANGE AND GREEN ECONOMY
INDICATORS and EXEMPLARS
At the end of this sub strand, the
student should be able to:
1. Explain the concept of climate change and
its effects on the environment.
2. Describe climate change and green
economy.
CLIMATE CHANGE AND GREEN
ECONOMY
The climate of a place describes the
prevalent/dominant weather
conditions at that place.
Over the years, cer tain human
behaviours as well as natural causes has
brought about some variations/changes
in the conventional/usual atmospheric
conditions of many places.
These alterations in nature is called
climate change.
Climate change deals with the
deviation [alteration] from the
expected conventional weather
conditions at a place.
Climate change has been one of the
greatest environmental concerns of our
time.
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Climate change has various causes, but
the primary ones among them includes;
1. The excessive use of fossil fuel like
petrol, diesel, firewood and charcoal as
source of energy for various activities.
2. Decreasing the number of plants that
reduce the percentage of carbon
dioxide gas for photosynthesis; i.e. food
production in plants.
The concerns raised about climate
change is mainly as a result of its
devastating; i.e. strong and negative
effects on all living things.
Effects of climate change
Climate change affect the
environment in the following ways;
1. It is responsible for prolonged and
intense drought periods.
2. The melting of glacier ice which
brings about strong rainfalls that
characterized by storms and lead to
rising sea levels.
Note: The negative effects of severe
rains and rise in sea-levels is strongly felt
by those who live in and around coastal
cities and towns.
 it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume
3. It also leads to a rise in the
temperature of water bodies which
affects the aquatic ecosystem; i.e.
plants and animals that live within them.
A REPORT ON CLIMATE CHANGE
A scientific report is a written analytical;
i.e. step-by-step account of an observed
problem with details on the causes,
effects as well as solutions to address the
said challenge which is backed by; i.e.
supported with proven data/analysis.
A good report work goes beyond the
very problem under discussion to
capture related issues that can affect its
outcome.
On Climate change, some related
topics that can also be discussed as
result of its correlation includes;
industrialization, energy conservation
and air pollution.
On industrialization, enrergy alternative
sources that do not produce smoke and
soot unlike coal, oil, gas and other fossil
fuels must be encouraged.
Electricity generated/produced from
sustainable sources like;
hydroelectricity, wind or solar can be
used to power industrial machines.
When electricity is produced from these
renewable sources, it helps in the
conservation of those non-renewable
alternates that can also pollute the
environment.
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On the account of air pollution, the
chimneys from the combustion
components of machines can be
erected high into the atmosphere.
The release of smoke and soot at high
altitudes has little to no effects on those
living things that are present on land.
Soot from the combustion engines of
machines can be turned/converted
back into solid forms that is incapable of
causing air pollution.
Afforestation in the area of tree
planting, should be seriously embarked
upon by the government and other
stake holders like schools and churches.
This will reduce the volume of the green
house gas in the atmosphere.
As and when the above measures are
properly implemented, it will prevent the
accumulation of carbon dioxide and its
associated gases that can cause green
house effect and global warming.
With a check on green house effect,
and global warming by the observation
of the above policies, the changing
weather patterns and its related
adverse/negative effects can be
prevented.
Adaptation to climate change
The link between climate change, a
global economic challenge like food
security and poverty is ver y
straightforward.

In Ghana and other developing
countries, a greater percentage of the
population whose livelihoods are
dependent on economic activities like
subsistence; i.e. small scale farming are
seriously affected.
The changes in the months of the year
when farmers can expect rain to prepare
for crop cultivation can be no longer
predicted with accuracy like in previous
years.
This affects both the farmer’s income as
well as those people and industries who
depend from these farm produce.
The solution to climate change goes
beyond that which can be resolved by
any single country. This realization is
reason for the series of global summits
that is frequently held on the subject.
The following are some of the resolved
measures can be used by the
governments of various countries to
address the occurrence of climate
change and its negative effects.
1. Addressing deforestation; i.e. the
indiscriminate cutting down of trees
without replanting and encouraging
afforestation; i.e. tree planting
This combined effort can help absorb
atmospheric carbon dioxide; i.e. the
greenhouse gas, regulate its quantity in
the atmosphere, and minimize global
warming by reducing the greenhouse
effect.
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2. The re-use and recycling of numerous
products like paper, plastic, glass and
metal may also contribute to the fight
against global warming.
For instance, the recycling of paper will
ensure that the large-scale felling of
trees for paper production is reduced.
These trees will, in turn, absorb the
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to
reduce global warming.
3. Encouraging the use of organic
foods. Organic soils which are used to
cultivate organic foods have a far
higher capacity to absorb carbon
dioxide than the other soils.
This validates the need to move to
sustainable agriculture like; ecological
and organic farming which are
environmentally friendlier.
4. Encouraging the use of new vehicles.
Old and rickety vehicles emit a high
quantity of carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere.
This makes them one of the primary
sources of pollution. The new and
modern vehicles that emit less carbon
will means less pollution.
5. Switching to renewable energy like;
solar and wind is one of the most
discussed global warming solutions.
These natural resources can serve as an
environmentally friendly energy that
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can replace fossil fuels. challenging. It will require the

The replacement of fossil fuels will
reduce the quantity of carbon dioxide
that is released into the atmosphere on a
daily basis.
6. The government could make laws to
ban the burning of bushes for game
hunting and also as a means to control
weeds.
The practice of burning the land during
land preparation before crop cultivation
should also be substituted with a
beneficial alternative like mulching.
combined efforts of all stakeholders in
order for it to be attainable.
As every seemingly difficult activity has a
huge aftermath benefit/reward, moving
towards a green economy will improve
the living conditions of people in
developing countries in the long run.
A restoration in the weather patterns will
improve the produce of farmers and
increase their income levels.
This will also secure the jobs of those
whose are involved in off-farm
agribusiness like industry workers who
process these raw materials into finished
goods.

Climate change & Green economy By securing livelihoods and promoting

sustainable jobs, the green economy
Every occurrence/action in this world has can eradicate/reduce poverty.
a related/resultant effect/impact.
Likewise, climate change poses several
threat to the places, species and
livelihoods of all living things.

This is one of the main reasons why

urgent measures must be taken to
address this crisis and reduce carbon
emission.

In a green economy, societal progress

and growth is strictly guided so that the
environment is not harmed through
activities like reduced carbon emissions
and pollution.

This state of environmental friendliness is

a goal which is possible to reach but
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SUB - STRAND 5: UNDERSTANDING THE ENVIRONMENT

INDICATORS and EXEMPLARS The differences in the properties of the

different soils give every soil its unique
At the end of this sub strand, the ability to be able to support the growth
student should be able to: of a particular/specific crop plant.

1. Discuss the physical properties of the soil.
2. Analyze the physical properties of the soils
and demonstrate their importance in crop
production.
UNDERSTANDING THE
ENVIRONMENT
Soil is the uppermost part/layer of the
earth crust in which plants grow.
Soil is formed from rock particles by the
process of weathering.
Soil is a heterogeneous mixture of
various components like; weathered
rock materials [soil particles], soil
organisms, mineral elements, water
[soil water], air [soil air], organic matter
[humus], etc.

The environment comprises of three [3] A cross section of the soil showing the
components/parts. These are; air, water major components
and land.
Each component of the environment
has some special features which also
determines those living things which can
survive on it.

Land as a part of the environment is

needed/used for crop cultivation. The
most important component [part] of any
farmland that is relevant to crop
cultivation is its soil; i.e. uppermost layer.
Mite
Fungus
Different lands [farm lands] have Nematode
Bacteria
different soil types and each soil type Root
has its own set of properties/behaviour as Protozoa
well as nutrient contents. Root nodules;
nitrogen fixing
bacteria

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Soil types and their properties
Soil consists of particles and spaces. The
particles can be described as either;
organic or inorganic based on the
source. The organic particles are
decomposed organic matter,
in various/different sizes. The inorganic
particles are pieces of rock that have
been reduced in size; i.e broken down
by natural processes like; erosion and
weathering.
Soil type has a lot to do with its texture
which is also determined by the different
amounts of gravels, sand, silt, and clay
which are present in it.
The gravels, sand, silt and clay are the
soil particles and they are also
responsible for the soil properties.
During soil formation, these soil particles
combine together in varying amounts to
give the type; i.e. name as well as
behaviour; properties of the soil type
being formed.
Soil names [types of soil]
In every given soil, the most abundant
component/part is the soil particles; i.e.
weathered rock materials. It takes a
period of about 500years for the process
of weathering to be completed.
The four [4] common types of soils are;
sandy soil, clay [clayey] soil, silt soil and
loamy soil.
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1. Sandy soil
Sandy soil is the type of soil that has a
greater amount/percentage of sand
particles than the other soil particles.
Sandy soils have mostly large sand
particles, with wide spaces between
them.
Sandy soil is a good soil type for
growing crops like; Groundnut, Carrots,
Radishes, Potatoes, Lettuce, Tomatoes,
Asparagus, Watermelon, Beans,
Cucumber, Rosemary, Maize and oil
palm.
2. Silty soil
Silt as particle is much smaller in size as
compared to sand but larger in size than
clay.
In silty soils, the particles are much
smaller and fit together more closely,
leaving them with smaller spaces.
And as such, silty soils hold water much
better than sandy soils due to the
smaller size of their particles.
This same nature makes them easier to
transported [carried away] by moving
currents; i.e. running water and are
deposited along the banks of rivers,
lakes and other water bodies.
The silty soil is more fertile compared to
the other three [3] types of soil.
As a result of the above, this soil can be
added to any of the remaining soil types
before cultivation to improve soil fertility.

3. Clayey soil
Clayey soil is the type of soil that has a
greater percentage/amount of clay
particles than the other soil particles.
With clay soils, the particles are so small
that they fit well together with very
smaller spaces between them.
Clayey soil is a good soil type for growing
crops like; Sugar cane, Lettuce,
Broccoli, Cabbage, Carrot, Potatoes,
Radishes, Cauliflower, Peas, Beans,
Sweet potato and Rice.
3. Loamy soil
Loamy soil is the type of soil that has a
relatively equal amounts of sand and
clay particles together with some humus.
Loamy soil has an almost equal mix of all
the soil types above. This gives it an
average [medium] qualities.
Loamy soil is ta good soil type for growing
crops like; tomato, corn, okra, egg
plant, spinach, strawberries, pepper,
green beans, onion, lettuce, sugar
cane, cotton, cabbage, beans, etc.
SOIL COMBINATIONS
Apart from the four [4] major soil types,
there are several instances/situations
when two [2] or more of the above soil
types are combined/mixed together.
Some soils could be a mixture of silt and
another like; loam, clay or sand.
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This combination is ideal for cultivating
crops that require/need the good
qualities of more than one of the main
soils in order to grow well.
Some common soil combinations
include; sandy loam, silty clay, silty
sand, silty loam, etc.
Soil properties
The arrangement of soil particles and
their spacing determines/controls soil
qualities; aeration, drainage, activities
of plant roots and soil organisms as well
as nutrient uptake/absorption.
The above also affects / influences
plants growth, general health and
productivity.
Soil properties are the various features of
a soil that contributes; i.e. determines to
its unique behaviour as well as natural
abilities/uses.
Some of the soil properties can even be
used to distinguish between the various
forms of soils.
The physical properties of soil include;
color, texture, structure, porosity,
density, consistence, aggregate
stability, and temperature.
The above properties affect soil
qualities like; water infiltration, aeration,
nutrient content and uptake, and
activities of soil organisms.
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The basic soil properties that can also
influence the other soil characteristics
are; Soil structure and Soil texture.
1. Soil texture
Soil texture refers to the proportion of
sand, silt and clay particles that are
found in a given soil.
In a more simpler form, soil texture refers
to the look and feel of a soil sample.
It is also responsible for the resistance of
the soil to erosion. A strong soil structure
can provide sufficient water, nutrients,
and oxygen to support plant growth as
well as provide enough space for plants
root to penetrate/enter the soil.
On the other hand, a poor soil structure
impedes/interferes root growth, water
movement [drainage], activities of soil
organisms, etc.

From the above definition, the texture of With equal amount of supplied water,
a given soil sample is determined by the how sandy soil, loamy soil and clayey
sizes and the kind of the soil particles soil permit water to enter its particles
that make up that soil.
sand loam clay
Note:1. Those soils that have a high/more
amount of sand than clay particles are
called light soils while as heavy soils
have a greater percentage of clay than
the other soil particles.

2. Light soils are easier to work on

than heavy soils especially when they are
wet; i.e. during rainy seasons.

Unique soil properties

2. Soil structure
Soil structure describes the
arrangement of soil components like; Each of the above soil types compare
sand, silt, clay, organic matter, and differently with the known soil properties.
fertilizers together to form
aggregates/peds.
SANDY SOIL
Soil structure is an important physical Per its name, Sandy soil has a greater
property that influences/controls the amount/percentage of sand particles;
movement of water and nutrients, the i.e. about 60% than the other soil sand
flow of air to plants and soil organisms. particles.
211

The size of the sand particles ranges
from 0.2mm to 2.0mm. This makes
sandy soils to be fairly aerated; i.e. filled
with air with good drainage; i.e. poor
water holding ability.
When enough compost/manure is
added, sandy soils becomes good for
growing vegetables crops . This is
because the added compost supplies
and increases the soil’s ability to
hold/retain nutrients.
Due to the high proportion of sand, this
soil is light; i.e. a light soil, warm, dry and
can be easily acidic with low nutrient
content.
When organic matter is added, it
improves the soil structure to be able to
hold/retain water as well as decays to
supplement its nutrient contents.
The above also increase soil
compatibility and help bind the
aggregates together. This prevents the
erosion; i.e. washing away of the soil
particles.
Generally, this soil has a light texture with
a loose structure, this contributes to; i.e.
is responsible for its good drainage; i.e.
poor water holding ability.
The drainage ability of sandy soils
makes it easier for water to reach the
inner parts of the soil. This can lead to
leaching; i.e. the movement of water-
soluble plant nutrients deep into the soil
beyond the reach of plant roots due to
rain or excess irrigation.
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Leaching can be checked/prevented
by the addition of compost/organic
matter.
The loose arrangement of this soil; i.e.
sand particles allows for the easy
penetration of plant roots and facilitates
the movement of soil organisms.
CLAY SOIL
Per its name, clay soil is made up of a
greater percentage of clay particles
than the other soil particles.
It can hold/retain water and nutrients for
plants use. The good water storage
ability; i.e retention of this soil is as a
result of the small particle sizes of clay
that are tightly packed together with
little air spaces between them.
Clay soil is a heavy soil and as such it is
difficult to work on it during the rainy
seasons when it is mostly wet or
waterlogged.
A waterlogged soil can impede; i.e.
slow down crop growth and can even
cause plant roots to rot. This soil can also
get/become hard when it is dry.
Out of all the disadvantages of clay soil,
the most serious one amongst them, is its
high water retention. This increases the
tendency; i.e. likelihood of clay soil to
be easily flooded after rains may even
become waterlogged to cause root rot
and infections.
Adding some amount of organic
manure to this soil can help improve its
good qualities to be suitable for crop
cultivation.
 it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume
From the above, Cover crops can be
grown and ploughed into the soil in the
form of green manuring.
A liming agent like calcium or lime can
be added to this soil, to enable the
particles bind together to form clumps,
especially when they are dry.
Apart from vegetables, tree plants like;
apple and pear as well as shrubs like;
Weigela, Berberis and Forsythia do well
in clay soils.
Clay particles have a smooth texture
due to their small-sized nature and as
such a large quantity can occupy a
small space.
LOAMY SOIL
Loamy soil is a combination of sand, silt
and clay particles, together with some
humus.
This soil is also referred to as agricultural
soil because it combines the good
qualities; i.e. advantages of all the
constituent particles .
The high calcium content of this soil
causes it to naturally break into clods or
lumps, when it is dry. The different
constituents of this soil makes it
impossible that the negative effects of
each of its components to be to
seen/expressed.
This soil is fertile, simple to work with and
provide good drainage for crops. Per the
concept of soil combinations, the
dominant/majority of the three [3]
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components can be used to uniquely
describe it as sandy loam, clay loam,
silt loam, etc.
This soil type combines of the good
attributes of a fertile soil like; good
water-holding ability , sufficient
aeration, adequate nutrient retention
as well as encourages the activities of
soil organisms.
The roots of plants, growing in loamy
soils have enough water, air and space
to grow.
Apart from vegetables, this soil type is
ideal/best for gardening; i.e.
agricultural purposes and is good for
cultivating crops like; sugarcane,
cotton and the Rose plant.
The above qualities of loamy soil is
possible because;
1. The sand content/particles keep the
loamy soil open so that air, moisture,
and sunlight can reach the root of the
plants;
2. The clay and the silt content/particles
slows drainage and evaporation, retain
water and nutrients for plants use.
This soil type is also popular with mixed
farming , cereal cultivation and
potatoes.

The role of soil in plant growth
Soil plays an important role in plant
growth and development. This is
because it supplies essential
requirements of growth like; water,
mineral salts, root support, etc.
Every soil type has some advantages as
well as disadvantages. This is because of
factors like; climate, topography, and
crop type.
On the other hand, various/different
plants need the above growth
requirements in different proportions for
healthy growth.
During large scale [commercial]
farming, wide land areas cannot really
be easily modified to suit a particular
crop.
It is therefore advisable to choose a crop
type that can do well in the available soil.
For example, if when given a land with
sandy soil it is not economically
advisable to transport clay or silt to the
place to make the soil suitable for maize
farming.
Instead of the above, a crop like potato
that grows well on a lighter, sandy soil
can be grown.
Some of the soil properties that affect
plant growth includes: soil texture,
particle size, drainage, aeration and
water holding capacity.
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Although rain is the main source of water
for plants use; i.e. photosynthesis. The soil
is also responsible to hold/retain a
portion of this water for plants and soil
organisms to live on and use.
The amount of water a given soil can
retain/hold against the downward pull
of gravity is called its water holding
capacity.
The rate of downward water movement
into the soil is known as infiltration. This is
influenced by its texture; i.e. particle
sizes.
Coarse [sandy] soils allow rapid
infiltration, with less water holding
ability, due to their large pore sizes.
Not all plants grow well in well-drained
soils. Sand particles have less nutrient
content, because of their reduced
surface area.
Plants with little water and nutrient
requirements are best for cultivation on
sandy soils.
Fine textured soils have smaller
holes/pores which allow them to retain
water which gives it a slow rate of water
infiltration.
Clay particles are small in size, have a
high water holding capacity and rich in
soil nutrients.
One of the important functions of the soil
is to store and supply nutrients to plants.
The extent to which a given soil can
 it's the millennium success series : Integrated Science for Junior High Schools Volume
perform the above function is referred to
as its fertility.
The clay and organic matter content of
a given soil directly influence its fertility. A
higher clay and organic matter content
means a greater soil fertility.
Fertile soils have a surface/appearance
colour that ranges from dark brown to
black.
Different soils have different nutrient
contents. In general, all plants require
two [2] forms of nutrients, based on the
quantity needed for normal growth.
These are; macronutrients [major
elements] and micronutrients [minor
elements].
The macronutrients are needed by
plants in high quantities for proper
growth. They are; nitrogen [N] ,
phosphorus [P] and potassium [K].
Additionally, other nutrients like: Calcium
[Ca], magnesium [Mg] and sulphur [S],
are sometimes considered as
secondary macronutrients, because
they are required in amounts higher
than the micronutrients.
Lastly, the micronutrients are needed
by plants in smaller quantities for a
healthy growth.
They include; molybdenum [Mo] ,
copper [Cu], chlorine [Cl], iron [Fe],
manganese [Mn], Boron [B], zinc [Zn],
nickel [Ni], etc.
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The above nutrients are attached to the
surfaces of the various soil particles
accordance to their respective areas as
a measure of cation exchange
capacity [CEC].
Different soil types have different CECs.
Clay particles have a higher CEC than
sand particles. For this reason, clay soil
is more fertile than sandy soil.
Note: Organic matter has a very high
CEC and as such it can be added to
sandy soils to increase its nutrient
content as well as water holding ability.
A soil which is low in nutrients will
produce plants with small leaves and a
poor root system.
On the contrary, a soil that is rich in
nutrients will cause the roots of plants to
grow bigger. This will improve nutrient
absorption which will cause the entire
plant to grow well and yield much
desired produce; i.e. fruits.
The water requirements of all plants are
not the same. Some plants need more
water than others. The soil in which the
plant is found must be able to provide
this water need.
The drainage and water holding
abilities are the factors that are used to
determine the above.
Clay soils are thus advisable to be used
in growing crops that need abundant
water for their growth.

The roots of every plant perform an
important function for that plant. For the
root to be able to carry-out its required
mandate/function, it must be able to
penetrate/enter the soil.
Plants root are able to penetrate/enter
sandy soils much easier than clay and
loamy soils.
Sandy soils are thus recommended
[advised] to be used for the cultivation of
root and tuber crops a taproot that
grows deep into the soil.
The root of plants may have difficulty
entering a dry, clay soil and as such
crops that have deep penetrating roots
may not do well in clay soils.
On nutrient retention and leaching
resistance, clay soil performs better
than sandy soil.
This is because clay soil has a
higher/greater surface area per unit
volume and as such it holds nutrients
much better than other soil particles.
The above explains why clay soil is said to
be more fertile than sandy soil.
Air is an important need of all living
things; including plant roots and soil
organisms. The ease with which air can
move into and out of the soil promotes
crop growth.
A soil type with plenty of sand particles
has large spaces between them to allow
for free air movement.
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Similarly, water is needed to be present
in the soil for various functions. Water
supports various life-forms in the soil.
In addition to the above, water helps in
the dissolution of minerals for easy
uptake.
Soils with good drainage as a result of
the fair ratio of sand to silt/clay have just
the right-space sizes to hold/retain
enough water for the above uses.
The above is the reason why soil
combinations always yield a good
production outcome.
Different soils affect plant growth and
development in several ways. Not all
plants grow well in the same soil type.
The differences in soil components alters
their physical and chemical properties.
In order for a plant to grow well, it needs
water and nutrients to be available in
their adequate/required levels.
Several experiments have proven that;
soils that are dark in colour have much
nutrient content than those that are light
in colour.
The black/dark colour of a soil is directly
related to the amount of organic matter
[humus] content that it contains.
Loamy soils [black soils] have a greater
nutrient content due to the amount of
organic matter that it contains.
It can be concluded that; different soil
types affect plant growth differently,
due to their varying abilities in providing
the conditions of growth.
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The table below compares the three [3] different types of soils using some basic soil
properties

Soil property Sandy soil Clayey soil Loamy soil

Sandy soil has coarse, Clayey soil has fine, Loamy soil has an
large, irregularly small, spherical equal amount of sand
shaped particles [sand particles [clay particles] and clay particles; i.e
1. Soil texture
particles] with large that are closely packed average texture
spaces between them. together. packed together.

2. Water holding Sandy soil has a low Clayey soil has a high Loamy soil has an
ability water holding ability or water holding ability or a v e r a g e [ m e d i u m ]
[water retention] retention retention. water holding ability.

3. Soil Sand par ticles are Clay par ticles are Loamy particles are
compactness loosely arranged. c l o s e l y p a c k e d slightly [moderately]
or soil t o g e t h e r ; i . e . a r e compact.
arrangement very compact.
Has large air spaces Has small air spaces Has normal air spaces
4. Air content
and it is highly aerated and it is poorly aerated. and it is fairly aerated.

Rough in nature when it Smooth in nature when Medium in roughness or

5. Nature of is felt in between the it is felt in between the nature when it is felt in
particles fingers. between the fingers
fingers.

6.Organic matter Poor in organic matter Very poor in organic Rich in organic matter
content matter

Out of all the requirements of plant The water holding abilities of the three
growth that are taken from the soil, the [3] major soil types are briefly discussed
most used component is water. by the experiment below;

The above statement is due to the fact Aim: To show that different soil types; i.e.
that about 90% of a plant’s volume is sandy soil, loamy soil and clayey soil
water. have different water holding abilities.

Water is thus an essential growth Apparatus used: Three [3] measuring

requirement of plants but different soil cylinders, three funnels, samples of the
types have different water provision three [3] different soils; i.e. sandy soil,
abilities. loamy soil and clayey soil.

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Procedure: The cotton wool is securely Observation: At the end of the

fitted into the openings of the funnels to
cover their mouth.
The funnels are then put into the
measuring cylinders and equal
quantities of the different soil samples;
i.e. sandy soil, loamy soil and clayey soil
are put into each funnel.
Equal volumes of water is also put into
each of the three [3] funnels.
experiment; i.e. about twenty [20]
minutes, the level of the drained water is
found to be highest in the set-up
containing sandy soil, it is followed
closely by loamy soil and lastly clayey
soil with the least volume of drained
water.
Conclusion: Clayey soil has the highest
water holding ability OR Sandy soil has
the least water holding ability.

Clayey soil Loamy soil Sandy soil

Funnel Funnel
Garden
soil + water

Funnel

Drained
water

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RELATED PAST QUESTIONS C. loam D. sand

1. Which of the following soils is likely to be [BECE 2002 [B] obj. 31]
found in a waterlogged area ?
A. Sand B. Clay 7. Which of the following agricultural
C. Gravel D. Black soil practices prevents the loss of water from
E. Loam the soil ?
[BECE 1990 obj. 24] A. Addition of manure B. Mulching
C. Addition of humus D. Composting
2. The most productive soil in agriculture is [BECE 2007 obj. 25]
A. clayey soil B. loamy soil
C. sandy soil D. humus 8. The physical property of the soil
E. silt which is determined by the feel method
[BECE 1997 obj. 5] is soil
A. structure B. temperature
3. The breakdown of rocks into smaller C. texture D. water
pieces is known as [BECE 2013 obj. 16]
A. Decomposition B. Erosion
C. Ploughing D. Terracing 9. The feeling of soil between the fingers is
E. Weathering used to determine the
[BECE 1998 obj. 18] A. texture of the soil
B. drainage of the soil
4. Leguminous crops such as beans are C. capillarity of the soil
cultivated to D. water holding ability of the soil
A. Add humus to the soil. [BECE 2016 obj. 19]
B. Increase the nitrate content of the soil.
C. Add nitrogen to the soil 10. The relative proportion of sand, silt
D. Make the soil loamy and clay in a given sample of soil is soil
E. Add protein to the soil. A. profile B. porosity
[BECE 1999 obj. 40] C. structure D. texture
[BECE 2017 obj. 35]
5. The best soil for plant growth consists of
correct proportions of 11. The type of soil which becomes
A. Clay, gravel and sand. water-logged after rainfall is made up of
B. Clay and humus a large amount of
C. Clay, humus and sand A. silt B. sand
D. Clay and sand C. gravel D. clay
[BECE 2002 [A] obj. 22] [BECE 2018 obj. 16]

6. The component of the soil which is 12. The relative proportions of the
made up of the finest particle is different particle sizes in a soil sample
A. clay B. humus refer to soil
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A. temperature B. texture 13. i. List three physical properties of soil.

C. structure D. porosity ii. What is the texture of clayey soil?
[BECE 2018 obj. 36] [BECE 2018 Q 5d]

14. The funnels in the diagram below contain equal amounts of different types of soils
labeled K, L, and M.
Equal volumes of water were poured onto each soil at the same time and allowed to drain
for 20 minutes.
Study the diagram carefully and answer the questions that follow.
soil K soil L soil M
Cotton wool
Funnel

Measuring cylinder

i. What is the aim of the experiment? v. Which soil is most likely to be

ii. Which soil has the highest rate of
drainage?
iii. Which soil has the highest water
retention capacity?
waterlogged after rainfall?
vi. Which of the soil types would be
suitable for maize cultivation?
[BECE 2016 Q 1d]

iv. Which soil is most likely to lose water

and dry faster after rainfall?

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