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    English Handbook Lutrin

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    A Comprehensive English Reference Book ‘COVERS THE FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGLISH AND COMPLEMENTS ANY CLASS TEXT Senior Primary to Matric and Beyond BERYL LUTRIN AND MARCELLE PINCUS Headings and Sub-headings Roles | Changes ond Emphasis | Emphasis Exceptions (*) SEE Edison - ideas, reminders and suggestions ‘opr RLU HOOKS CE 2002, 2004, 2007 Capri sain hs wos AIL NGS RESERVED. No port fh work mayb cop dope eroded, apc or ‘adn oy frm by ony mas grep sacha or machi ning phteepyig recog opin, information ‘erage end ial senor deal wih, wth he rir writen cane! f BERIT BOOKS Ci bing cies. ny sch wewhartd acs esis copyright ntiagemet cod exe th inkinge fe con ede ei lew end in eran COMMENT a TADLMARK ATTORNEYS: Sper her Sophen Goldberg (0126761111 golber@spoorcom ENGLISH HANDBOOK AND STUDY GUIDE? peter Soya BeRLUT BOOKS cc 0 bor 37172, Sram Pork 2015, South Aico Beryl Loin: 082-821-2358, Morel Pincus: 089-448-8845 ek {011) 884-7687 (mornings ony) Fox (011) 834-7406 a boryleluin.c.ze Website: wwanglishhandbook.co.20 TABLE OF CONTENTS FOREWORD. LANGUAGE Sentences Phrases Clovees Punctuation The Aporrophe Feats of Speech Nouns Pronouns Plurals Aviles Gender Diminutives ‘Animal Sounds ‘Actives, Degrees of Comparison Verbs Active ond Passive Verbs Voice ‘Adverbs Concord (Agreement Conjunetons Prepositions Diroet ond Indirect Speech BRUBseisatges Figures of Spaach Levels of tonguoge Prafnes Sines Synonyms Strong Verbs Antony (Opposes) Words chen Confused Homonyms Homophones Figurative Expressions/idoms Abbrevitons| Dictionary ond Thesaurus Skil COMPREHENSION Gili Answering Techniques ‘ype of Questions (ther Questioning Techniques Additonal Skil 61-66 62 ry 65 TL THe wort oF READING o BL THe warning process 6893 1 Planning your Weiiog 2 Paragraphs 3. Hints te Enhance your Weting 4 Whoto Avoid 5 The Editing Process Essay Writing 7 Tronsoconel Weng 8 Activites a develop 0.8 EE trersrure T literary Analysis 2 The ierary Esay 3 Poetry 4 Analysis of Poetry 5 Poetic Forms 101 VISUAL LTERACY voany 1 Fil Std 105 2 Cinemotogrophic fects 108 3 Film Creators 109 4 Photogrphs,Pcres and Cartons 110 5 The Valve of Vivo Literacy 01 (ORAL COMMUNICATION mane Pb Speckng Techniques 113 2 The Prepared Speech 4 3 The Impromptu Unprepared Speech 115, 4 Debating 16 5 Teom Speaking Ww & Presenting Poetry/Prose 8 7 Group Specking/Choral Verse 9 TD setuns vos T vocasutary -userut worDs 135-145 HDs Hasericat inoex 146-147 Ta tench yourseir encust 48 Later to Stdent DE A TeAcHER’s GUIDE 16 Di) A80ur THE AUTHORS inside bock cover 2 FOREWORD |The English Handbook an Sud Guide™ covers every cipect fhe Engl Lnguoge yu wil seed tam Srior Priory to Mai ond beyond so comprehensive rfrnce bok hat wil company you thoughout your school years and wil ten in he Diconary ond Taso on your becahall. This bosk may be ured in conjunction with anyother English Text Book or Urey Sud The presentation is simple, logical and colour-coded for easy understanding and recall Through constant usage, the information will became familiar and will be retoined, Lnlike photocopied notes, which are usually dacarded athe nd ef each year. The English Hondbook ond Swudy Guide™ will provide a ready-made, user-friendly schome cof work Nis not meont 1 be used in isolation, bt rather in conjunction with regular lstone tnd other tot book The basic structure of the English Longuage it constont, only the application will ifr between classes. This book will replace the notes you give of diferent levels every year Inwill save you the ime, effort and expense of compiling ond photocopying noes. You will have the security of knowing thot your students have comprehensive sa of no, which an be edd to or omited according to he lve beng tough. These oles may be ved in cost for irstution or revision, The book may also be used indepandantly by your stents for sell study and homework tsks. Once taught, each section con simply be revised ond updated ech year, reing you from hovng 0 reteach it The main bone i that you will be able o teach English in content. You will have the freedom to use whatever is current, relevant and of interest Yo your students. They will have 0 constontsoure of reference and you will therefore be able fo teach without having to stop for note-taking or loath explanations oo Bs ‘The English Handbook and Study Guide™ assumes o bosic knowledge of English ‘The user-iendly presentation will enable you to davelop ond extend your English language | skills. The Spelling and Vocabulary Sections, in particular, will prove invaluable 49 you ‘We wou ike tor ou ons fr ont spp ord wneauragement Our since | ton alo ge ot Adve) Prcheodes, Edi, Groplic Deine an Pte This book could not have been envisaged nor erect without our years in he clasrcom and cll our studens who have enriched our lives. It encapstltes the sum tool of our teaching experience. We have loved writing this book. We hope that you, in ten, wll enjoy using i BERYL LUTRIN, BA (Wis)-H. Dip Ed. (CE) MARCEILE PINCUS —TTHD UCE) LICL nity College London) TLSD [UNISA) 3 ete tes LANGUAGE SUMMARY OF CONTENTS SenTENcES 1 Types ofsentences a Sutera 5, Qieston «. Exdorations 4. Connands 2. Fore Cluicoon «. The Simple Sentence 1. The Compovnd Serene The Complex Sra 3. Sbjec od Preise 4 Obj Draco nde PHRASES Adjecival Phrases Noun hres ‘Ader Pros + Adria Prose of Manner + Adve Prose of Tne + Adwertol Prose of Pace + Advil Pro of Reazon + Advartial Prot oF Conesion cunuses 1 Main Coase 2 Subordinate Close «New lowe 1 acct Cowe © Advert Close 2 Adve Cle of Tine 5 Acre Clone of ace + Avil Clue of omer + Advil Clu of Reson 5 eid Cline of Concern + Adie Clune of Ret + Advil Clue of arose + Adil Chun of Conon PUNCTUATION Copiers Full Sop Commas Sem Calons Calne uetion Marks Eaclamason Marks Quottion Mork vce Carens) Porenhess Bracks) Hyphen| Das 67 6 12 3 “4 v 2 a a v 2 3 ules Bliss te THE APOSTROPHE Contrtions Position or Ownenhip PARIS OF SPEECH NOUNS Comman Nouns Proper Nouns ‘Abo Nouns Callectve Nouns PRONOUNS Personal Pronoun Powetsve Pronouns Relive Pronouns Interogtive Pronoune Demensiraive Pronouns Indefinie Proncune Relative Pronouns Common Errors PURALS ARTICLES Definite Arties Indie Ailes ENDER DiMunuives ANIMAL SOUNDS ADJECTIVES Kinds of Adjctives Descriptive Adiecves Proper Adjectives ‘Adjectives of Guetiy ‘Adjcives of Order Demonsrtve Adjectives Posesive Adjeaives Interogoive Adjectives Compound Adjectives Degrees of Comparison 2 2s 7 waNeonon vere The Thre Tenses Frit Verbr The inf Ausiary Verbs “he tnking Varo “Tonite ond inkansive Vos The Mood ofthe Vero Porc Gerunds = Verba Nuns leregular Verbs ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VERBS VOICE -ADveRas Types of Adverbs Adverbs of Manner 1. Adverts of lace , Advets of Tine Adverbs of Degree ©. Adverbs of Frequency Sentence Modif: Comparative Adverbs ‘CONCORD [AGREEMENT ‘CONJUNCTIONS. Corrinaing Conjunetons Suborinating Conjuncons Reloive Pronouns Connecing/Urking Words Pealion PREPOSITIONS DIRECT AND INDIRECT REPORTED) SPEECH FIGURES OF SPEECH Comparisons . Siile . Metophor © Peronifcton 4. Aposrophe «Allison Sound Devices «.Alierson bs Aworance ‘= Onomatgpesio Rhyme Conrodisions ‘. Antheis b. Oxymoron 3637 38.39 40-43 a ayaa 3 4 5 6 7 «,Parodex ony Soren 1 Satie 9-Porody Appropriation (Berowing oer Exoggeration ond Understatement 42-43 2. Hyperbole tote «, Eaphemism 4. Innvondo © Cinax 1 sina (Baths) Others a ©. Pins 1, Bhaorical Questions € Sypecdoche 4. Mtorymy «2: Malopropism £. Speenerim LEVELS OF LANGUAGE auas Fermel Longuoge 44 Informal Languoge 44 3. Callen Slang Jorgen Buzzwords) 4 Poiiealy Cored onguoge 4s Eat Language 45 «2. Sbjetvity and Objectivity 'b.Foct ond Opinion « Danottion ond Connotton| 4 Bias/Prjudico « Propogonda { Senaionalm VOCABULARY EXTENSION, oot Words Pree ond Sulfioe 46-47 Spoons 48:50 @. Synonyms for eversed wards! 49 . Syronyms for ‘rice 50 Aajctvesiteod of very” 50 Sirong Verbs 31 Antonyms 2 Words of confued 53 Homenyms 54 Homophones 55 FIGURATIVE EXPRESSIONS/IDIOMS 56:57 ABBREVIATIONS 58-59 DICTONARY AND THESAURUS SKILS 60 THE SENTENCE A sentence is « group of words which expresses a complete thought. + sentence begins with «copitl letter ond ends wih oul sop, a question mark or an ‘exclamation mark, depending on the neture and moaning ofthe sentence. + sentence must contin subject and a finite verb. eva 2812 In order to check whether you have 0 whjec, ask who or what before the vr ‘This subject may be replaced wih © pronoun e.g he, she oi The boy plays. > Who plays? He plays. THERE ARE FOUR TYPES OF SENTENCES IN ENGLISH 9, _ STATEMENTS ‘These supply information. Shaun is going te schoo b. QUESTIONS There ok for information, Where is Soon going? &. EXCLAMATIONS These express emotions such or surprise, feo, olarm or anger Ws ghostl This work isunoceeptalal 4. COMMANDS (IMPERATIVES) These ore used 1o give orders or insrucions Do not enter trough hat dace Leave th room immediatly! neo r ers 2. _ THE SIMPLE SENTENCE This hos one finite verb ond deals with one ideo [Anne reads o book THE COMPOUND SENTENCE Tiss two or more Finite verbs. may be made up of Wo or more simple sentences joined by @ co-ordinating conunetion. on plays soccer at schoel and works on his computor at home THE COMPLEX SENTENCE This contains one main clause or thought and one or more subordinate avs which provide ‘ediional information. They are joined by subordinoting conjunctions. Conde received her resls/while she wes recuperating in hospitol/fter she had broken her leg Oot ate ‘6 (AE ered aes a THE The Subject reflects who or what we are talking about. ‘tis the person ortho thing who/thar/whichis performing the ction. + The word that fllows the linking ver tobe snot the object: itis hnown os the complement. {the complement enlarges on the subject - se pg 29) 2g. The race was exciting The author became forous THE PREDICATE The Predicate is the rest ofthe sentence. + expands onthe subject and alwys begins with he verb. it the sondeas “he boys in Grade 7 ‘were hoppy 10 90 to High School ANALYSING THE PREDICATE Ina fuller analysis, the predicate con be divided inte: Verb, Direct Object and Indirect Object. + Direct Object - answors who or what after th verb, + Indirect Object - obvoy alls you to whom /what or for whom /what oer the Direct Object. sussect ven ‘mmect INDIRECT owecT ——OBleCT (what The dog brought the boll tohismaster, ‘Matric || opens doors for the fre. PHRASES A phrase is a group of words without a finite verb. ‘+ -Aphraseis sensibly arranged within the sentence and conveys 0 single ideo, + -Aphrase con never stand alone, but is always part of «sentence. + Aphraseiselso referred 1 05 fragment’ of sentence. The shop eround the corner is open twenty-four hous 2 doy. The company, specialising in travel, recived the award ASE V BE CU i [ADJECTIVAL PHRASES These qualify (tellus more about) the noun. The model with the dazzling smile came fom Durben, NOUN PHRASES Thave answer (Wha stood when the judge entered?) ADVERBIAL PHRASES These modify the verb and answer the questions as indicated. + -Advorbial Phrase of Manner (How?) The gil entered th room happily o (How did she enter the room?) confidently, + Adverbial Phrase of Time When?] The girl entered the room at nine 0! lock, (When did she enter the room) + -Adverbial Phrase of lace (Whore?) The gil inthe room wes reading a book (Where wos het) + -Adverbio! Phrase of Reason (Why?) Th girl, wanting 1 reed, entered the room. (Why did she enter th room?) + -Advetbial Phrase of Concession (Although, even though.) The gi, although tired, read her book (Even though she wos tired, whet did she det) The Adve ee pa 39) end the Adverbial Phrase are aves ADVERBIAL PHRASE sngry non angry manner tomorrow the following doy here inthis pce CLAUSES 19 0 finite verb, wil ell you how mony clauses there or in each sentence to clossical music. ee 1, THE MAIN CLAUSE (elso known as the Independent Clause) + The Main Clouse isthe main idea of he sentence. + iis able to stond alone and makes complete sense, The von come to @ altar it had run out of petra. 2. THE SUBORDINATE CLAUSE (elso known os the Dependent Clause) + This always contains a verb but cannet stand alone. + Wi dependent on the Main laure for is meaning, + A.comma often separates the Main Clause from is Subordinate Clouse. ‘While the engine wos running, the man jumped out ofthe cr. RII 2, NOUN CLAUSES *+ Noun Clauses perform the same functions as Nouns, They con be replaced by i rth 1+ Thay may be the subject or abject ofthe sentence and answer to who or what. What they eornt at school helped them inthe work ploce ADJECTIVAL CLAUSES ‘+ An Adjectival Clause always qualifies a word or words inthe Main Clause. + Inusualy begins with who, which, that, whom ond whose * Iti similar to adltonal information that is found in parenthesis The git who had the longest hale won the beauty competion & ADVERBAL CLAUSES ‘Adverbil Clauses perform the same functions as Adverbs They may be classified os follows: 1 Time (When?) wen the sun set + Place (Where?) where it hung suspended + Manner (How?) 5 Fst as she could ‘+ Reason (Why?) because it wes rining + Concession (though, although and however) although the weather wos threatening Result (0.-thet) ‘She wos 40 ill hat she was hospitalised. 1 Purpose (so thot +0 thot he could hove a beter view Condition (if, unless) if you choose the correct numbers PUNCTUATION Punctuation marks make the written text easier to read and understand. Without punctuation, writing would not make sens ‘A. CAPITAL LETTERS: always stort with copitl letters. 2. Proper Nouns and Proper Adjectives need capital letters 3. The main words ints of books, ims or ploy ore writen in capital leer. 4. The fiat word in diet speach ie "Ym petrified!” whispered the frightened women, [QUOTATION MARKS {INVERTED COMMAS) |. Quotation marks ore ved to indicate Direct Speech ‘Quotation morks are used to quote (repeat) someone else's words Single quotation marks were todtionally ‘sed to indicate the fils of books and films. In medern usoge, however, these tiles are cohen underlined. ‘Qvotation marks are ved to “excuse? ‘oneself for using slong or foreign words. Quotation marks indicate metaphoric soge ‘Me Thompson sid, “There will bene homework over his weekend.” Mortn her King sod, “Ihave a reo ‘Vile Women’ by Lovize M. Alco may now be ‘writ os litle Women by Lovisa M. Alc. ‘Our new station wagon is used for ‘schlepping” the soccer teom. om the "baby’ ofthe foil A pocraton ms ell wii the inated conmes. “Ope te windows fing in bre.” PARENTHESIS (BRACKETS) (_) When something is writen in parenthesis cor brackets, itis usvlly an explanetion, ‘on aside or some additional information. is often possible o use commas oF doshes instead of brackets + The Chihuahue the smallest dog inthe word) con fitintoo teacup. + The Chihuahuo, the smallest dog in the word, con fitintoo teacup. + The Chihuchve = the smllst dog in the world = confit ino.0tacop. HYPHEN [-] ‘Aliyphen links prefixes fo word ‘ho words in order to form compound words 2, Ihelps to diferentiote mesnings. 3. Inorder to facilitate speling ond pronunciation, « hyphen i inserted fo prefix ends in a vowel andthe word joined to the prefix begins withthe some vowel ‘A. Words that connot be completed on one line inked tothe next hyphen. K. DASH [=] {the dos ines silyl 1. dash serves siilor purpose to @ comme, | eelon ore semi-colon I separates pars of @ sentence and forces uso pause. In order to give addtional information, the dash con be ured inthe some way oF commas or brackets. 3. I separetes a comment or afterthought from the rest of he sentence. 4. tt exeates a dramatic pause, leedng to | elimox oF anti-limax. ‘nti-dandra shampoo pre-school wwalldeservad| eshreotening She had to remake the gorment The remake of Gone wth the Wind is mos enjyeble coop! reexamine no-one delightul or daight-ful The hyphen may ony be sed athe end of the hyphen fined @ ‘heres more to schoo thon @ syllabus ~ fess, Friendships ond sponsmanship ore gained cong the wey. Next week we are gong 1 Port Elizabeth ~ the Windy City | checked ond there war no-one there ~ or 20 thought ran tothe window; | ocked out and sow — the cll L BULETS (+) processors, ‘esuled in the popular use ofthe bullet format. ‘Although not necessarily correct English the use of bullets ison effective way t: mise pons in a simple and visual manner + avoid using ltrs, b el or numbers (1 2,3) + ue portil sentences o save ime ond space + omit punetation ot sentences are incomplate 1, The three elipsis dots indicate thot. sentence is incomplete or that something hes been omitted 2. We can vvelly guess the meoning from the context ofthe senten ITAUCS (sloping waiting) alc is used to highlight ond emphasise Certain words or phrases such ites ond foreign words 2. With the ease of computer etng, inserting italics has become very popular. He walked fo the edge ofthe cif and {To be continued. You had beter tidy your room or elie. + A burrcone is 0 wind of erremevilenes «2 tornado iso violent ropicel thunderstorm + Déid wie theillcion of having experienced something previously @ TITLES, i hondwriten, usually oppear in inverted commes or under Hi ween on a computer, ais or beld font mey also be used. 2 THE APOSTROPHE The Apostrophe indicates Contraction or shows Posse: : ‘+ We often jon two words for informality ond inthe proces, one or more eters are omited. 0 “+ The opostrophe shows where these letters have been remov n (Ownership). We've boon here = Wehave been here x Ididn't know = id not know *+ Contractions should not be used informal writing. ‘COMMON CONTRACTIONS 1 loom shod 1 shal atm avd =" Yous yous ore you + howe you + had you + wall = you're “you've = you'd = you'll Wes wo + ore we + have we shod we + shall = were we've we'd ll They + they + ore they + have they + hod they + wil they're = they've = they'd = they'll + Not hove + not rust + ot could + not would + not = haven't = must = couldn't ‘would “SNot will not do + not (exceptions = won't = don't + Hove should hove Remeber sould bone vg = should've shouldat x The apostrophe i ke the souvenir of holiday. When we lok ot photographs, ards or keying, we are reminded tht the holiday i gone but na forgotten. ‘Words thot contain apostrophes tll us thot the 13 en ‘Madonna's song = the song of Madonna 1. Af the owner is singular the apostrophe comes immediately afer the singular form ofthe novn, The cor af he Fry = the family's cor ‘he thoal of the boy = the boy's shoo! 2. tthe owners are pra, the apostrophe is placed after he poral form of he noun. The school of he boa =the boys’ school ‘Tha scoters ofthe boys = the boys scooters [Note the pla scoters ot writen with on apostrophe.) @ ee z RT ia eel (seri = 4. fe Biblical or Classico! nome ends. Hercules’ strength wos legendary ons, we simply add on opostrophe 5. fe common noun ends ins, we add ans. There re many bose in the frm but Hilary is the head boss's wife 6, Ifthe word is already in plural frm, wo edd an 's. women’s clathing children’ rights man's clubs foe sid eps do ene tt ck yore. Hie RES Tngcrca seats and tcl are Seti . G The gids diary Did you want 1 s0y the dior of he git? The gi’ diets id you wont 1 sy oth g THE FOLLOWING CASES DO NOT TAKE APOSTROPHES: Possessve pronouns Thi is ours, yours, the Abbreviations ‘Allthe VIPs PMs, MPe, CEOs and MDs - were there. Plorol Does The 1960s and 1970s produced some af he bes! music eb take 14 PARTS OF SPEECH Every word in a sentence is named according to its function. [NOUN Naming Word Common Noon Neer era the ‘There oe desks ond chairs everyday thing in every classroom Proper Noun Names of Copia et My toocher, Mrs Jones, places es. comes from England Collective Neun Names collecion Replaces ‘ots of." Atal ofteochors er group ‘Adlass of students Abstract Noun Something which is not visible or tangible PRONOUN Stands in place of ‘Mary is given homework the noun very day ond Mary (shel oes homework it igor ADIECTIVE Describing Word The folonted teacher rotivated the enthusiastic students vers, Doing Word We work inthe merings swe play sport inthe cernoont: wo study inthe evenings. ADVERB Modifies (ells you Tells you when, where or He ron fas (how! atthe ‘more about the verb. how something is dane. athletics meeting (hors) yesterday (when. CONJUNCTION Joining Word Joins two words, She wea! to schoo! although phrases or clavier she was falng il PREPOSITION “Smell words’ which Usually precede nouns, The techer satan the choir wswaly relate hwo warde pronouns or articles behind hor table inthe lor phrases to one classroom and spake te her nother. student “ARTICLE The words 'o", ‘an’ or Jeho won a prize for History, "the which precede Undine - nonspecfie) nouns or adjectives. Por won the History Prize [Definite - specific) NOUNS ‘noun is a naming word. identified with 2 neme, without which we would not be oble ‘onother rmmon Nouns, Proper Nouns, Collective Nouns and + Every person, place or thing to communicate or understand + There ore four types of nouns Abstract Nouns. 1, COMMON NOUNS Common Nouns are names given to ordinary objects + Common nouns are usully identified by the, @ or an preceding them the #00, 0 fy, an orange + They follow portessive adjectives: bis book, her hondbog, it ti + They donot begin wth capital eters weles they stort sentence Books ae found in brie, + They are usualy the Fit words tought in ony language: table, chai, book + There are ste of common nouns Fruits pricots, honanas, cher + Thace are phrotes thot contin Wo commen nouns the roof of a house, the hae ofthe gle + There are common nouns thot porta ane another: hoese ond earviage, fish and chips ‘+ Common nouns ela! what people ore doctor, tsacher. ‘+ noun has gender ond is wther masuline prince, feminine (princess, common (teacher) cexneuter book). (seeps 24) @ ‘+ Two nouns together, are krown os compound nouns: hond + bag = handbag book + shell = bookshelf 2. PROPER NOUNS ©, Proper Nouns always begin with CAPITAL LETTERS. 'b. Proper Nouns ore the names given ‘+ Persons ~ Shaun, Professor Jones + Placer London, University of California + Days Tuesday, New Yeor, Easter, Hunan Rights Day + Months - Jonvory, Decomber «Ideologies and educational subjects ore writen wth copitel laters inorder to eccord thom respect ~ Anthropology, Philosophy, History, English <4. Titles of books, films, songs ord plays re Proper Nouns and always begin wih Capital laters ~ One More River by Lynne Reid. 1 Note hat in fitles such os Rll of Thunder, Hear my Cry only the first ler of each noun i coptlise. ‘a common noun forms part ofthe nome, the frst eter ofboth nouns must be capitlised: * Sounders Stee, the Donubo River | Q bnemei ears is usualy writen without cpt lters:engiries@englithendbock.oz0 eb ts 6 3. ABSTRACT NOUNS + An Abstract Noun usually refers to something that we cannot se, touch oF mecsure 12s epposed to a Common Noun which is concrete + is eft a feeling or an emotion. ©. These indicators wil help you to identify absiro 1. You can give ‘i 1 someone, but no in @ box She gave her son love and he responded with resp&Gh Gnd abedionce, someting | ofthe git /boy. 2. Heishlof something 2. The b. Many abstract nouns end with the fellowing sulixes: [Not how thee fit nto the shove ndcotors | “ege courage ‘optimism ‘ance nulsance Helis reading. He was reading He will be reading I poricipota. = lem pertcpating.. Iwas participating I shall be participating. (OTHER WORDS ENDING IN ING: ] + GERUNDS {verbal nouns! When @ word ending in ing is used os « noun, itis called o gerund. {the gornd is eal indested by the word of. ‘The understanding of the teacher wor opprcioted The eying ofthe child alarmed vs. She has for of fying. | + aonscrves Ard may oligo vd ox fe The underoading wore we opprecie by he ceo, vying child olormed us The sy was darkaned by Aying ons, b. PAST PARTICIPLES They help to moke the post lense ofa verb and usally end in ed, den orn + They follow varbs sich 0: has, had, have, was and were to form new tenses: The present was give tthe child The fngerorints were matched to he suspect He had received o warning but ignored i. 1+ There ore excepions eg, buy = have bought. (os Ieguar Verbs 31) @ ‘A csetl way to form o Past Porticipe i imagine | he offer my services, >| have offered my service, before the verbs ‘OTHER WORDS ENDING IN ED: The post perticipla wey sla be wid ot on adjective, The search por cone sro fhe deserted vilage the village which hod ben deserted @ alates 30 IRREGULAR VERBS Snail verbs do not follow the usual patterns. tal el olen feed one Wien | pend bean ba” | oi vm one vo ‘ies biel tae Se aoe trove | Se) Seah sr been ton wld old vroaht Tol a beim re a waa teow ~ [Ly eo toot Wemed | Sed ma cout | Se ‘len Som | oo ma a ten | top on = ae a oul Wed | he ae seat tar | ote ae os md a ia era os al Soon a [ae = eal SIT eee ee Sreoned fol | the ven Soa Mam | teach ‘owt en eee = Sool mo | a wu oa = pee ‘out ‘en ai wee a ta Se ae eee a aE oe fot a beet olen | Seep Men cep town = (soln for | Sa Wile To feet fore! franen ie |[we wre ae feet ees ae ht ty ied ted iat (ae = eee = @ Sed gomd yal at a BT | tee wethametconme Soy Rage herged mt sal ronieryes (pans vad iat) = ts = ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VERBS (VOICE) In the Active Voice the subject of the sentence does the action. In the Pas: Voice the object becomes the subject and is having the action done k A ‘Subject ‘Verb Object - Subject heel Thoboy tds heb eb! rkthad by they Pow Thebey tied heb, Te bl washed by heb ftw Thay wlliek heb, Te bell wl hed bythe by EIEN CN (ea ' sentence may only be ved in drat obec see 9029 ‘2, THE GENERAL RULE 1. Underline the verb. 2. Divide he centonce into: Subject Verb Object 2. Bogin wah the object. a ties et shine ‘he magician / performs / the trick The Wik i performed by the magicon. b. PRONOUNS (see po 191 Pronouns change from the subject Form tothe objec form: He/they completed the enry form.» The enry form wos completed by him/her. subjeet subject object 1st person ' we us 2nd parson you yeu you you Sed person —_he/she/it io hee they them In some postive sentences, the agent (det) is not mentioned * This is the case when i is understood and it would be clumsy to mention the doer. + This is especialy tue ifthe agent ita pronoun, We keep ove coflee cups here, = Our affee cups are kept here. (byw They wil toke « decision soon.» —Adecision willbe ken soon. (by them) COMMANDS Read the bok by Tuesday! = The book must be read by Tuesday. 4. QUESTIONS Who wrote the once? = By whom wor the orice writen? Eo oad tie more natralto use the active voice, but the posive voice is often used for eect: + "hon it isnot necesory to mention the subject [doer] Refreshments will be served + hen we ar ot sure who did the action The diamonds were stolen ‘+ when demends are made cnonymously Smoking is not permitted inthe cinoma, + han nameless accusation is mode This shirt hot been ruined inthe work ADVERBS Adverbs are words that modify or tell us more about Verbs. They may also modify Adjectives, other Adverbs or even the tone of the whole sentence. Peo [Adverbs may be identified by their functions: (0, MANNER (how?) quill, hungry imaginatively, at, wal (svolly end in hy) Refer 2 Adveril Phrases pp 8 Ss Adverbil Cowes pg 9 1b. PLACE (where?) here, ther, nowhere, up, down, home, fer, near TIME (hon?) today, tomorrow, yesterday, now, then, soon, immediatly DEGREE_ to what extent?) very, quite, ther, 29, almost, fairly, rodialy, hardly, extremly, wel, ely, ju FREQUENCY {how often?) ‘lays, never, ofe, seldom, once, usvlly, occasionally, Frequently Se The insertion ofthese words changes the nature ofthe sentnce and usvlly expresses the speaker’ opinion: ‘cially, cortoily, definitely, frtuntely, honestly luckily, netualy, obviously, perhaps, surly unfortunately + They ore ustally placed a the begining of the sentence Naturally, nobody owned vp tothe deed Pd As with odjectves, adverbs hove degrees of comparison es fast faster: Sthefoset 1100, nearly Two or more syllabh carefully ‘most carefully “teguler Cty (exceptions) @ lie uch a | He ton quickly. (Regul Form) He gorns less than his brother [Comparative Form comporing to ations '¥ you work harder, you will ern more, (Comparative Fem - comparing two actions] (fel his hobbies, be likes chess the best. (Superlative Form comparing mee thon two ions) Be carl af incorect usage Theyspokelovd. Hong on ight. ¥ wos very fon, He moved quick, They spoke loudly. ¥ Hong on tight. v war um CONCORD (ALSO CALLED AGREEMENT) The words in a sentence must match or agree with one another. Pe ed Te decide whether the verb should be singulr o plural: 1 Find the subjee., ‘+ Decide whether itis singular or plural ‘Match the verb 1 the subject. 1118 person singular eat We (1s perton plural) eat You (2nd person singular] eat Ail oF you (2nd perion plural eat Joe the [rd person singular eas Joe and Bobby (they) (3rd person poral) eat The subject may consist of «group of word ‘Acommon example is he collective noun, which refers to the group asa single wni The class of students was kept in ater school, (The subject isthe cass not the students My beaher and sister ere coming fro visi, The abject my brather ond sister) © ‘& _ The subject may govern more than one verb. All there verbs most agree with the subject. The film deal with the dangers of dug abuse and is targeted o eenagers (The abject singular therlore el the verbs or singular) @® z CI Ts mr 12. A pronoun must ogree with the noun thet its replacing in number and in gender: ‘The woman paid for her ticket. The women paid for her tickets. Some pronouns ate peired with singular pronouns: ‘onyone, everyone, nobody, no-one, somebody, someone, each, every, sither, neither... nor Everyone is doing his bet. v- [No-one moy hond ins / her work ote. is doing thie best 5 No-one moy hand in their worklote. x {A group of teenager is planing a trip othe Orange River. lertng tthe grovel Roger ond | have been invited o lao this excursion [Neither of ur is afraid of his responsibil, (On behalf of Roger and me, I woud like to thank the team fr its confidence in us. The cot ofthe canoes ie expensive ‘They wil spend many hous rowing in thelr conces. Every boy i looking forward fo water-rating with his frends onthe Orange River: {All the boys ore expaced to do their bes Every one ofthe boys has possed his First Aid Examination ‘The vse ofthese sills often saves lives. (ne has to make sure that one's Ks comet and upto standard, (Ones vay llowedby ene orone's) @ NNovone is exerp rom wearing his ifejackt My silhiend, Poy, jcovs when she heors ofthese outings, but they would no sit her personaly. Fish and chips is special rat for these rafters Fc end chips regarded os single uit) Experiences of ths notre ore unforgettable Sasol a4 CONJUNCTIONS Conjunctions are connecting words that join two or more sentences into a single sentence. They also join words, phrases or clauses. Examples of conjunctions fend although but becouse for however if or since so hen though unless until when whether while yet 1. CO-ORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS Co-ordinating conjunctions join hwo words or ideas of equal weight fish and chips tired but happy He completed the course and received a celica, ‘he car wos repoired but itil gave rouble, Ibis your choice fo goto the movies er othe restaurant. He wos in grat pain, yet he never complained 2. SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS Subordiratng conjunctions join a mon clause to @ subordinate clos They played a soccor match although a storm threatened. ‘You may not vst Indio unless you hove hod Yellow Fever njction 3, _ RELATIVE PRONOUNS AS CONJUNCTIONS. Relative pronouns also perform the functions of conjunctions: Who, whom and whose are used for persons/people: ‘The boy could not complete his homework. He lef his school bag on the bus, ‘he bey whose schoo bog was let onthe bus, could not complete his homework, what reploe hi) Thot, which and what refer to onimols ond inanimate objects Hedovig isthe owl. He oppears inthe Hory Potter books, Hedwig i the ow thet appears inthe Horry Potter books. het replaces he 4. CONNECTING UINKING WORDS inking words often add flow and meaning othe sentences tht follow them. late, meanwhile, othe some time, finaly, before, oext, 2 100m as, now, afor showing ronoopzal order) @ couse/etfoct therefore, becouse, 0 «resvt, consequently furthermore, its leer thot similery,cernaively, in contrat, on the one/other hand, ‘however, meanwhile, in he zame way, comparatively specking, cof equal importance ‘comporsson/contrs 5. POSITION metons ere usually found inthe middle of sentences, lowever, cersin conjunctions may be used 1 begin a sentence: Although he had ne chance of winning, he enter the race, When wring or speaking, ty to vary your conjunctions ‘Avoid he repetitive use of conjunctions such ox and, then or 80 PREPOSITIONS Prepositions are the ‘small words’ that usvolly relate two words or phrases to one another. | 1. Prepositions are words that show th relationship of one thing to another. The computer son the tobe, [Wheres he computa in elation othe tbl? Prepositions vsvally precede nouns, proncuns, ates or gerund | went with Petor/him/the boy. His lve of fishing kept him ocupi ‘&Prepositions are often confused with adverbs of ime ond place. Remember « noun or pronoun must fallow a preposition, otherwise its on adverb The dog wor borking outside the house, (reposition) We pul the dog outside, (adver of poe) She promised todo it efter the event. She promised te doit ofterwords (erepsiton (oder fine 4. Prepositions may be used iiomatcally (figuratively) Hels.a man after my own heat It goes agent! the grin for met ride when | can wok ‘6. Phrases moy contain more than one preposition. {am writing on behalf of my frend who iil "You must playin eecordance withthe ues Avoid ending @ sentence witha preposition What ae yu storing at? > At what ore you saring? DM ‘There ore certain recognised combinations of 2. Adjectives + Prepositions om olridof —proudof—fondof —_—diflerontfrom god afer bad ot/for been on roty for tired of opposed to sored of inspired by intrested in satisied with sorry about/for b. Verbs + Prepositions (I. believe in approve of object to insist on wot for scan in carefor —ralyon espoir of agree/dizogroe with accuse somabody of Something is shored between two persons Semthing is shored among several persons. ‘the Ford parked beside the Valswagen. Everyone besides the Grade 8s wos there Kiaoiodn 36 My money isin my wallet He jumped int the swimming pool The book i ifferen from the fle. ‘The book is diferent tothe fim. PREPOSITIONS USUALLY REFER TO PLACE, POSITION, TIME, MANNER OR REASON The wlrs are aboard he ship. | By noon she ha rived. He weot ont High Sheol She rovele by bus He cinbed onto the rook Pleos ink ebout he moter. _ he wos inspired by he each. Don't beat kur te bush ‘We prove coe by voccnonon, | Thelawyerloked over he contre. Tomsory aboot he mss, He ok over the lore. We ake down the posters He locked over his shoulder. The hy i above the earth He'came down wth fa He ithe bal over the ne. Thisis'above her ably. Santo came down the chimney. | He over is pin ‘The sade! thes over the lesson, She wolked cero he rood Sivas leap dering wine. eles ghana ood, . ele pot te sos ‘Al except Joan were hee twos pont mihigt when she cme She reed afer the mea. hoe Hovokes sles fer ee sory for baagor He isemanaiermy own heort | Sweet ore bod for your eth. The mountains hove ben there Sho wos oody for fer guess. | since ime immemorial She sood ogeint the wal Time wats for no mn, Skee ben on fia snc May. This goes opens my principles, | Voglbles are good For you The dauginr care forhormother | He welled tthe cole She walked clna the poh He come round her woy of She weed clngside her iver. This pockogearved fom Austia. | thinking. From fine 1 ine he vised her. She was tld t stp smeking Thetooks wr dvd among ihe cher areingated rom Fone. Compared Tomon err chiden Fie provented the fre from The Finis slr Yo the novel. Tepe mck lent amongst the apenigy | Bros exports cll fo te word rockers. Boye ore diferent from girk(N.B.) Everyone s opposed thigh foxes “ . Feber to your rudeness ‘They ron ord the fl, Koyleearved inher new cor. The rebel came fo his senses, Therumour ws spread oround Tha concer iin he evening. town, She isin Grade 10, The rece! lew towards Mors The clothes are the suitcase, | Towards evening Il ale, ‘We met ot cirprt Shei inerered in oeroogy She ot o dif sage Do you baler n ghosnt The only entrance is hreugh the She act loggerhwoss wih we, He toceaded in ding job. nna {he wo courier are ct war” They ned Toke in th facts | He seed by me through hick ond He's good a por but weak ot thin Mote The cot flint the stream. Thar it through he gropevine. Theale sprinted int ft place. The bride was before her etn, Her spars were under the bed Dovirn belore you con welt Jone Austen isan auhor afrenown. He fees under the weather. She ood belo fe eater | herd f your wind yxordoy. Hejogs daly before breodfst, | She wos avin crime. The porents waited up for he chil Tam proud of your ccs, The Belson sored up chove the The dustin is behind the door. || Wa ered of your complains. bulings. Tm behind in. work The French are nd of mail” She waked up andl down the rood He worked behind he scenes. || Mostofus oe scared of sakes, The houses up for sal We approve of your oie. ‘She wos up in ams over he runout First floors blow second floor. | Hen bean gezied of sealing, Ths remark below ihe Bek” || Fatber kos o lve a ishing. ‘She came with me. This works Blow standard, | She aso loro Bing She et clang wh he propo Wit eleronce to your suey Moles live beneath the ground, the lock el ofthe pedestal. He wa dsoppined wth hs Tis enecth my din. ‘She went fn oh Bonus Sho shor her icecraom wit The ruse stood beside the bed. | the portit hongs onthe wal am aiid wth he resus Sho ebesdeberalfwih giel || The Wein oived on fine ‘helish doesnot agree with me, The wove inate ble Fe disagrees wih he nding. This is benwoen you ond ne Ihplyed on his eoacone. tiwor divided befween te wo. | Hews cngrahloted on his The meanings win he exo ‘Thecorporkad bobween eines. | cen Initia your power t succeed Fe aes on his ineligence. ‘The ship sale beyond he horizon. | He ivery heen on go Theiabepond myandertording, He insit on punky They lwbeyend mans He eon nw lng DIRECT AND INDIRECT (REPORTED) SPEECH ‘+ Direct speech uses the exact words ofthe speoker + Wis indieoted by inverted comes. +A new paragraph is sed for each new speaker, 2 enero tears) 1. DIRECT SPEECH CONSISTS OF TWO PARTS: «2. A louse containing on introductory verb such as sid oF asked: This indcots the speaker. The inroductory verb is clwaysfllowed by a comma. 1 The actual words that are spoken: ‘These re enlosed in quotation marks Tho frst word begins with 2 capital ete. Mory sid, "Wis cold today.” Mary ask, “eit cold todaye" 2. FORMATS OF DIRECT SPEECH: 1. The introductory verb usualy comes before the words that ore spoken: The supporters shouted, "Come on, Monchester United! ™ The spoken words wil hen be followed by @ comme, exclamation mark ora question mark, but never ofl sop "How long until haf time?” asked on exited spectator. "Ym so sore this is he lst match of he season,” sighed the schoolboy. ‘The introductory verb may be found in the middle ofthe sentence, This wil pit he sentence into two pats ‘he second port is called the follow-on sentence. The follow-on sentnce wil nt begin wih «copia eter. "You guys are hopeless,” shouted the coptan, “and ore going to cost vs the rphy!® (Mitek) : nce from Directo Reported Speech: Many changes ocur when we convert os0 1. PUNCTUATION Remove the inverted commas, question matks, exclamation marks o (Bo nt remove he copia ler the fra word in the inverted comms Mother asked, "Whore have I et ny keys?” ‘Mother asked whare she had ether hes, ‘Mother asked, "John, have you tidied your room?” ‘Mother asked John fhe hod tidied his room. the copitel eters Proper noun 2. PRONOUNS Pronouns change to ensure thot the sentence retain its meaning. ‘Shahida soi, "My family and I are going othe flea morke day.” ‘Shahida Sod hat she and her family would be going to he flac market that day. tenes 38 3. INTRODUCTORY VERBS + THAT Inset the word that fo link the introductory verb fo the spoken words ‘2g. Sid, s07s,stoted,declred, exclaimed, complained, [Annabel says, “I lve the sounds, smells and vibe ofthe fas more” ‘Annabel sys that she loves the sound, smells ord vibe ofa Nea market 4. QUESTION WoRDS 1. Insert the words if or whether after questions using question verbs 2. asked, enquired, questioned. The children enquired, "Are there funvides ot this lea market" ‘The cildren enquired f/whother thee were furrides of tht flea marke. 1, tf the fist word of question is « question word, ure this word os the connecting word 12. who, what, when, shar, shy how ‘Why cont Ihave anaher candy flrs” otked Roxane. Roxane csked why she couldn’ hove another candy Hoss 5, TENSES OF THE INTRODUCTORY VERB 2. Ifthe introductory verb is in the preven ens, report the speech os if Joanne sys, “Lam Feling dizzy today Joanne 123s that she is Feeling dizzy today. 1, Hf the introductory verb i inthe pos ense and whet is reported has already occured, report the spoken words in the past tense by putting them one stage back in terms of fens Joanne s9id, “tom fling cizzy today.” ‘oanne said thot she was feling dizzy that day. @ This similor to Court Room Longuoge: "Your Honour, Joanne sid that she was feling dizzy thot doy.” '6. ADVERBS OF TIME AND PLACE CHANGE IN THE PAST TENSE: here ~ there yesterday the previous doy this ~ thot the day before yesterday —~ two days ago ow ~ then the fellowing dey today ~ that dey the day ater tomorrow two days! time 7. COMMANDS the sertenc is © command, either of two ways moy be used: The teacher ordered, "Children, do your homework" 1. The tocher ordered the children te de their homework . The teochor ordered that the children should do their homework, 8, EXCLAMATIONS Exclomatory words such at ouch! hooray! wow! and good heavens! may not be used in reported speech Exclomatons and emations should, however, sill be expressed and we do so by describing them. "Ouch! fve stumped my tol” sereomed the gi ‘he gid creamed in pa that she hed stumped her too. ‘he players shouted, “Hooray! We've won the trophy! ‘The players shouted with oy that they had won the trophy. FIGURES OF SPEECH We use Figures of Speech to create images or mind-pictures in order to express ourselves visually, imaginatively and powerfully. Language may be used either in oltre or Figurtive sense. neyo 45) 2 terol or denotativelonguoge Is facta Nicky's boyfriend broke his leg The ecient eoly/ectly cure) Figurative or connotative longuage mokes use of comparisons ond suggestive ides. [Nicky's boyfriend broke her hear hiss igurtiv longuage, suggesting tot sei hoetbroken) FIGURES OF SPEECH ARE COMMONLY CLASSIFIED AS FOLLOWS: ‘These are used to compare two objects (animate or inanimate in dtet or indirect woys. (Oflen on expressive phrovs replaces @simplaedjactve or adeer . SIMILE [A simile is diceet comperison that He isos weathy a Bill Goes ‘ways contains the words os or Her personality like a bubble in. bote of champogre, METAPHOR. | ‘A metaphors a comparison withou He is Bill Gots. they are bath rich) tse of or She is @ bubble n bate of champagne + Ametaper refers to one person oF [she hes personality bet (os) being ike) onather + The comparison is implied rather thon |The lieutonant roared hs commands stated diet, [We re implying tht he Lstenant is oggrenive) Extended Metophors ‘These ore recting metaphors or analogies. She was the bud blooming into womanhood Thay ore extaed over © poste OF Sho was the pla, colorl and fragile, ‘heaughout« poem, | Allower in the making! Mixed Metoghors These ore incongruous and incompatible Mountains of strawberries ond cream were terms used fo describe the some objector consumed during the titone bate at Wimbledon, event, (We oe erating cononing image of emi, Mixed Metophors should be avoided os srowberis, mourns, giants and wel they controdit one anther. PERSONIFICATION Persoifcation gives human ah 10 Autumn artved in his coo of exange, re ond gold. inanimate objects or ebsroc ideas. ‘The clouds looked down and wept onthe drought Porsonifiation and metophors ve similar trick earth in thot they re both indirect comparisons. Pride embraced heros she wen up to receive hor coward <4, APOSTROPHE es on inninat be of ad ak ples be threw tow de {person who is no longer living i "Oh Shakespeare if you could see your Globe Ceddressed or spoken tas fit were humon, —Theotre rebuilt” “lon ope oom, "Reredise Los’, dels wih he Biblical themes of he Tampon ond the Fl of Man, ke the Crecton or Flin “0 . ALTERATION Aliteretion isthe repetition of consosant sounds ofthe beginning of words. oon highlights the expression of movement. Footbell fever Fel fans Rompont Rooney eruthes Croat, . ASSONANCE Assonance isthe repetition of vowel sounds, Short vowel sounds may create 0 mood of speed, vio, joy or wspense tang vowel sounds slow down he pace con tamper te me The eccentric Ether enthused er listeners (lop your hands and stamp your fet! Gite in ers swirled around the stage He slowly mowed the overgrown lawn, & ONOMATOPOE COnownatopocte uses words that imitate cand reproduce reali sounds and actions. The sound effect heightens he visual efet, The sky exploded with « eash, bang and ‘biasing of reworks he tranquility ofthe scene wos enhanced bythe rusling of he roede ond the whiting ofthe wind. 4. RHYME Rhyme depends on sound, rather than on the writen word. Ii sed For effect. ‘2. ANTITHESIS “Anithesiscompores ond contradicts ideas ‘or statements withie@ sentence, These are Figures of Speech thot appeer to contain conflicting {om certain thot hie curtain Was damaged inthe rain again, You wil ot laugh IF you only get hal opposing ideas. Don't underestimate him; he's a mouse in stature, colon in strength The Inoret i © master of technology ond o ‘hi time. lnony implies the opposite of what is sid The intention is forthe opposite fo be ‘understoed tis the fone hich tempers or conveys this meaning, [eontinved on pg 421 Q b, OXYMORON ‘An oxymoron places two seemingly ‘The mother waved her son off to war with painful teotrolidery words wet te woch oho, | pride (Onanolysis, hese words evoke o ‘The accused fll angry relief when she was poweetl image. proved innocent The Iter wor @ pretty waly sgh PARADOX ‘A poradox is © seemingly absurd or You wil kill him with your kindness." contradiiory statement which, when (Your kind deeds ore daing mere harm thor good] cnalysed, is found fo be true. She is only happy when she hos something te © opposites ore not nas worry about Ut happy wonton) but are found in the same sentence 4. IRONY “1c weit for my detention on Friday afternoon.” 19 into the empty cinema, the women exclaimed, runaely, we booked Here the opposite of whet is expected occurs. Dramatic rony ‘When the audfence hos knowledge of senching which he cor oe enowere, to os dramatic irony. The ‘Shue kph tention nd onpctton 6. SARCASM Sarcasm, like irony, occurs when ove thing ‘is said, but something else is intended or ‘ndersioed. However, sarcasm s used with the expres purpose of hurting, insulting cor humiliating shorp wit irony or sarcosm used to highligh, expose or ridicule human, social cor political weaknesses or stupidies, he otic aims Yo change the station, ‘dicate ond enterton through humour. 1 Ths poy allows one to express oneself Jina way that would normally be consid os libellous, + Soir i used in plays, cartoons and come tripe + Caricatves in cartoons ore often the voile: for satire PARODY "isis th nition ond enaporan of coher text ype «9. poems {afr or coats humour Pare inalen used in cartoons or comedy. Ins siumed that he reader fomilir with the origin work Situational rony ‘A detective who is employed to cotch othe, might Fimsell be areted for dthonesy In the play/im The Lite Shop of Heros, the uence fs owore tha he plant craves human blood The charactors, however, oe bist unaware of his “You mut hava worked very hard o be botiom of “the dal” "Are you always the hear and soul of he party?” “Fic Dirk Uys, in his ‘persona of Evita Bervidenhou, perfected soi oto agains the then South Alican Government end is Apartheid policies, Jonathan Swift satried the times in which he lived inhis novel, GullversTeavels In Anim Farm, Gorge Orwell stiises the communis way of Mad Moaozine sfrises American pop cubs, This is THE HOUSE’ thet mon uit, [And this the Flag of he Woman's Franchise, ‘Which making ovr Ministre open thir yee Fighting wih grt othe font iby bit, Determined in Prcmest one doy The bold Serogete who i ure eget yet Into "THE HOUSE" tht mon bul ole on Gon Wik atm, Si ing ol M2 h. APPROPRIATION (BORROWING) Tiss smilor to porody in thot ports of on cotgial ext re Used in @ different context fora diferent audience. eg fairy tls and jhe ore borrowed and reconsced Roald Dahl makes vse of this is book, evoing Rhymes, |. EPIGRAM ‘An epigrm is bref ond pointe stotement ‘which een contains humour or irony. There ‘Ssullye deeper underlying meaning, "Frordship i who! one expect rom others if you think eduction is expensive, ty literacy!” “Employ 6 Yeager while he/she sil ows everything! Q Ts NDERSTATEME! . HYPERBOLE ‘an Hyperbole ison overexaggeration, not meont fo be tke literally. it cme to Create humour or to emphasise o point. ‘The teacher complained tht she hod hod hundreds of interruptions hat doy. ‘She prepored enough food to feed an army. », urorEs titotes uss 0 negative + an opposite to Uunderstot what is intended He iso Einstein. ei ecademically weak) ‘The grueiome sight wos for rom prety. Ut war oy) a EUPHEMISM Euphemism expresses an unplesson of se sitvtion inc mere sensiive, Kind ond toclal monner. Toe parpre is sohen the Blow, protect elings orto be poltcallycorach. The comp forbids any form of chemical stimulonts, (drugs ond aeohl) He passed away. [He ded) 4. INNUENDO ‘An innuendo is. disopprov ‘which hints et something, wi directly. r ie build-up of iding ide ‘climax sa build-up of oxendng deo. Irreocheso peak, ceaing excianent snd heightatng Caio ©: “How did you ike my production? “The sets were beat ©: Do you ports « dother-brsh? (Thi imps that you lok cay “| sow, | stared, | sreomed!” He stood on the choir, looked oround, tuck his hand inthe cookie jar and wes cought red-handedt {end bot dart id mecinge be double ‘meaning is uted fo convey humour ins moke vse of puns inorder to rob attention, + Pins are often used in jokes or vides, buld-up of ideos, room war luxuriously furnished, becutlly ‘ond il tastefully decorated and eawling wth cn words liken One of tw nos fangs pun out weddings ond marriage i" Alsle alae hymn, Cricket Coptin stumped! ayer have nso? (ela in the or, 5, RHETORICAL QUESTIONS A thetorical question expects no answer The speclortaer io make his point nd sivenghen i gent Wise power 2 allows the reader or audience fo focus on and afr pred auton” + Pobliespeokers often moke effective use ofthis dev he spear en elaborates, ating hi opintns SYNECDOCHE in syneedoche, «partis used fora whole, | My heart grieved when my puppy ded ora whole is ined for @ port Uk ofime was Sod vo ny beat ‘Ausrlis won the echt. {was the eam, not the county tht won he cricket) 4. METONYMY ‘That hotel has an excellent able, The food i wary good) pela afer ass ergy cbve his or her undertonding in order fo impress, The connonbells ate the missionoros. anno) 1 con ensure you tha his correct. sure SOONERISM, isthe transposition or mii "of spaken words. He hissed the mistory lesson (th end the tory fsvo a ‘ents LEVELS OF LANGUAGE Language may be formal, informal or emotive depending on its purpose ‘and the relationship between its user and the recipient. Se This is the language needed in situations which demand respect and sophisicston {job interview, debote or writen essay Vocabulery is corfuly chosen to exprets oneself acuroely and coherently Sentence stucure is varied - simple, compound ord complex setences are used Formal grammar is uted. The love moy be serfous or pel. EM ee to bat pre and cdo boweet ee Veron sles ec andl opted Sipe elress niy ved nd ee my coin conan anderen Gromer mayb neal — = Catoctin end srg maybe ed. we nt | The ain fn eg ern ‘The tone is warm and friendly. = = . COOQUAUSM [sl eid an edn den spd yn oilsconmuicons) @ Cetiillngonge ie cry, serve pwc epee plc nd tn pad Wie Gash Goedel uote + coats nas Ym and we've cleqis hl make ngage ed nd sound ronal on coving «Tampa et callomlin woul be ward bang (Ane), orbit ond frei cach ac) tom eeprom eed Mme on Pope dP, Mate ond a Mommy ond Deddy, Mom ond Dad SLANG [slong is wnoceptbl in formal writing situations unless tocar in cee speech} ‘long is informal, made-up language tha s found in @ porticulr place at @ poricular Hime. + Each generation formulates is own brand of slang and these words are ually ‘posing phos’ (Over the yeors films hove been refered fo 0: movies, licks, othe pictures. + Slang is cn used to promote a hip” or “coo!” image nis wvally mede vp by a carain group af people ©. teenager, then copied by others and ‘nay later be occeped nt colloquial, spoken language. Some exomples ore coo, chick, dode ond nerd + Use ol slang is often undignified but ot fimes may be humorous ond expressive Ife teenage el another tenager thot he wll get he monay from hs old man, thsi eccapable, However, fhe ill his headmaster tht he'll get the money from hs old man, his i nslting cond inapprepricte & JARGON Jargon isthe inside tenguog ‘20 of people or profess 2° The medical profession, the medio ond the computer industry each hes its own jargon. {och spott hats own organ Aowles tlk obou! he kity, deliveries ond taking grass. Golfers ick abou birdies, eagles ond the nineteenth hoe. ‘+ Yu ore living inthe Computer Age. Computer jargon such os mouse, byte, download sofware ond hard drive is probably familiar to you f words, phroses or expressions used exdusively by particular eninteds a“ 4. POLITICALLY CORRECT LANGUAGE {is importont 1 be PC In modern times we ae careful ¥o avoid words that refer to: ‘29, gender, race, socal status, physical appearance ard physical or intellectual disabilities. We ofter replace ‘offensive’ words with euphemisms. These words tend to chonge with tne. 1 The chaieman or chirwoman is now refered 1-0: he choirperson + Old people cre vfered to a senior citizens, + A-housewife moy prefer tobe called « home executive, ‘+The modern women, married or unmorced, moy with tobe referred too: Ms Ta Emotive langvoge eppeals emotions rather than te intellect. ‘2. SUBJECTIVITY AND OBJECTIVITY ‘Subjectivity is personal and biased. Its one-sided point of view. "ink she hos posed with fying colours Objectivity is fair ond unbiased. It toker all i personal flings. Bosed on her marks, she hor possed with fying colours into eccount and is not influenced by FACT AND OPINION ‘Most stotoments reflect fects or opinions ‘Afoct isa dfisite stotement thats unquestionably tre. The Nile isthe longest ver in Aiea ‘An opinion is hosed onthe subjective or emotional views ofthe writer Shakespeare is extremely interesting o read ‘& DENOTATION AND CONNOTATION Denottion i the ste, dictionary mean Connotatin isthe emotional and figuretive association surrounding 9 word Ivis what he word implies o¢insiuates for personal, emotional, clturel or political reasons poke abou! the students in my elas - denotatin je dicted the students | chatted abou! he students in my class - connotation ws hod rend, ope convrstion | gossiped about the students in my cass = connotation [ve spke negatively about he seh] 4. BIAS /PRELUDICE 38 or prejudice is « personal, pre-conceved belief not based on evidence or fact. tis iterally pre-udging ~ making up your mind about something or someone before you know the relevent facts, ‘often resus from ignorance or generalisations. Women are bad drives ‘e. PROPAGANDA, Propogands cms to persade od brainwash moss oudences wih subjective, based ides or values Evidence and uth are distorted to Further these motives. + Opinions are usually sted at Facts ond there fcts ore selectively chosen + Techniques sch os motive language, exaggeration (hyperbole, generalisations ond thetovieal questions are aon ured. ‘+ Intimes of war, prepaganda is ved to jutify and glorify @ couse 1 Adventising may be sid o be «form of subs propogendo, The connotations, however, are not negative or malicious SSENSATIONAUISM Sensatinalism isthe deliberate use of dramatic words inorder to excite, horily orto capture interest. + Sonstionalism is ohn used by the media especially in headlines ‘+ Sensetanelim may be found in propaganda, often inthe form oF untruhs ond insinuations 45 telat ROOT WORDS, PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES Profixes may create new words: Prefixes may create antonyms: The following re commonly used F We can change the meaning of « word by putting something before or after the root. loss/hal immigrate unfriendly dsstishied The cove of he word i ale the root. Q Wher comes before is called the prefix. What comes aftr called he sufi preoccupied 2+ that modily the words they precede: ove "0 be bi de is fore byper inv, ki mmol mid mmol poly pre semihomi sub tele ta stra before geist salt good ceround ean ‘geist ‘eway, down, remove tke in ‘out of, previous, from in front, before ‘extreme, exaggerated not bed middle mony not mony cher befor, infront ‘egcin half under ta distance ceroplane aeronautical aerodynamic fntencial ante: nuptial contract nficlckwvse ennucest antisocial fquerism —aquamorine tvlebiography evtegroh automatic benefactor beneficial bene Hoyle bisoeuor biennval tircumference creumoovigate corpiot co-operate cole ounteroc! counteratack. counterpart dercend dearer: decompose Gsombark disengage dsceroy fmt emigration engulf enjoy endeor fexiract “exPresidant exNow Yorker foreground foresee forecast hyperroniive hypermarket hyperbole insufficient improper ireguloriiverote malisnction malvtrition mmidwoy mideb midstream misunderstood misvsoge ‘monatonovt monologue monorail tmultiocil multimilionaire multiparty fomioxic non-beliver nonenity polygamy _polydinie post wor postpone Premeditated premature prefix rewind reopply_renegotite femicircle semi-conscovs » hemisphere submarine subdivide sub-edtor feleghone television telescope transport translate. tronscribe tricycle triangle tlogy tltresenitive "lrasonie uninspired uncooperative unconventional 4“ “They modify the words to which they are connected and often chonge the Ports of Spech ofthese words. A verb con become an ebstret noon os in cly = reblonce) ge l/l erlerl orylery corylory dom od fa % hood ing forms novns forms adjectives forms abstract nouns usualy refer to careers or ‘occupations Forms novns or adjectives forms verbs {orm abstract nouns Forms adjectives or verbs forms adjectives or verbs {ull of/comprising of forms verbs a sate of forms abstract nouns [commen nour) forms abstract or collective nouns without forms adjectives orms nouns from verbs with/comprising of lus forms bse! nous) the aclonce of forms abstract nouns forms nouns or verbs inthe hate simple ~ complicated ‘orcond descend easy lificalh—mony > few sink floet ik» reply,answer energetic -lethorgie modern el-fashioned smooth - rough aileep awake opilogve - prologue norcow - wide someone - no-one awe bility everything * nothing nearer further somewhere ~ nowhere bockwards - forwards everywhere - nowhere neot > untidy straight” crooked boul ~ ugly fail succeed noise silence strength ~ weakness beginning - end False ~ true sincere noisy» quiet strong benelicil -detimentol fomilor - strange alten = seldom = succood big, lorge - small fearful - courageous open - dloted tall blunt sharp flexiblo rigid, optimistic = pesimisie tome borrow. ~ lon dogmatic order = chaos thin brave cowardly forget - remember pass fail’ franguil break repeir freedom - captivity peace > war true ~ dia/mistust buy ~ idle friend enemy” play ~ fight = truth Kes bey sell frown smile pleasure palin vain ~ modest calm > ogitated fll empty alte - impolite, rude victory ~ defeat cosuol ~ formal gather__~ disperse positive - negative war = peace | cause Sesh generous = miter poverty = wealth woot poverty Covtious reckless guily- innocent praise rice writen ~ oral, spoken cheap harsh = gentle present absent young = old clean diy” heathy > sek prety ugly youth eld age lor = murky heaven = earth profesional --emateur lever typi prosperty ~ adversity WORDS OFTEN CONFUSED ‘he Policion offered his advice tothe Cabinet. noun He edvsed them in mater: of tote. (wb) This table will fet you. (eb) The effect of the tablet wos disstous. noe) The child sings like on angel She spoke from a diffrent angle “The loys were shored between the to boys Someone, among oll of you, has the answer May | borrow this book ram you, please. "shal lend it te you wih pleasure. Like o brethe inthe feth mountain sic The osfmati child wos shor of breath She com dive theca file) ‘he oaks if she may drive theca, (hove permission Iv hardly ever rains inthe desert ‘My fovourite dessert i ice-cream ‘Anne Frank hep! 2 very fomous diary. ‘Our milk comes from the dry | did my work ' hove done my work he has done his work. [Done mus be preceded by has or eve) @ Hes lige to be chosen for he position cannot read your illegible handwriting, ‘hare were fewer han ten people athe ‘meeting. umber) She wos ess qualified thon the othr oplicant (degre or qty We learn from one enather sbiin knowledge) They teach us mony things ot schoo. lave knowledge The rae wos stuck by ight His jokes had o lightening effec on the crowd This des is Foote becouse | have la weight Toke care nat to lose your paper. ‘We may hove he opportunity ows the museum, [Theres air chance of ths happening) He might get heres tomorrow IW uly, but thre ise pss) ‘The dant in my cri very noticeable. Iris notable thot she hos never been absent. ‘She is fod of her pats ‘She el off he ladder. She wos os quit as 9 mouse, nis quite hot in hore 1 sow the film lst week have sen it afore Mary has ols sen it before ‘Seen must be preceded by hes or hove.) @ We were the last ones lo ore fhe party. We're clways the lost ones fo oxive a 2 pay (weer! This isthe man who won the medal. eron) Thisisthe cow whih/that won the medal (crime thing She won he fenis mach. you win somethin! | beat her ot ches, (you bet someone] ‘This is your book, #21 mine You're the one who has bean choten. (yu re) @ weewor She did os she wos told. She dd lke sho wos tld, Tey toavoid the heowy rac, Try and ovoid he heowy toe. Yu should have been thar. Yeu should of been there. x HOMONYMS Homonyms are words spelt and pronounced in an identical way, but they have different meanings and functions. [Pe i bs eid so perder werd stata eer «own Alla oF Wr He hit the ball ver he oe. “he prince mat Cinderela a the ball The dog hor old bork. The bork of theres showed ts ope. ‘The bot fw it the cove. noo) Fis cc! bot was brand naw. ovnl Fe wl bat fr his farmer "vi ald in Alok, facing) reed medication for my eld. nour Her conduct is exemplary. He wil conduc the orchastra.* The weather it cool Hee manner was coal ond unfriendly Ho pays rich ot school The eicket chips mer She iso daar, hind child The shoos ore ory dear loxpensive). Teachrs should ahwoys ry oe fae Thar wos plany fo buy ofthe fi He works for ort fir Her paren firm, but ot The fomes ore causing ollaton. ‘She fumes when she's angry She poured the drink in glosses. Her loses ore broken ond she con se propery. The corgo wor inthe hld of he sip. Her prans havea frm hl on bor. Hold my hand while cos the rood He eck inthe rf jm. Showers jm sdlcious on tos. Be care moto fm the poper i the printer She has @ wart on her knuckle You mus mvc down and apply yoursale She i uncial othe minute. The chips the minute brain of the computec* The abject lay on the abe I objets your behaviour Ce tirade fo per through he window. Your peat gfup influences your inking. ‘he loved her bithdoy presen Janes wil present he school wth Wophy* ‘She wrole her eaoy inthe preen ten, ony paope were presenta the ose Thebinh of he child wl preserve ho Foil nome. The jom preserve wor made om fig. Be corfu oto pres to har The pros aps us informed of ll incidents Don't press ns moter: sf lie consequence ‘gate presi 0 uel gage. The chlte won the race (Oar new conan forbids race dsincon Iris rece aginst inet find the cre Thet oage oF munis vary yh ‘The shop he wonder vange of foley Ther ope range Yom ano fies ors The chlte broke his previous record. The record hos boon replaced bythe CO, Trl record your moi in the schedale* Every second counts He come second in th rce. Tram hoppy fo second your propel ‘They might second you Te enother deportmen!* Not 9 tound could be heard Hels of sound mind ond boty. She an spell ony word ‘The wich costo wicked spl He wos therefor onl hot opel Spring heals the begining of ues Tee tprng oh mca en ‘he Bremen spring io action oe fit call. She gave the waitress o 10% Hp. ‘This evdonce sony the fp oF he iesborg Tip the watar into te nk This pen hora Hine pe ‘She gave me ipa my horse won We enborked on ang ecoreil t you don * There word ore exceptions and ere pronounced diferenly. HOMOPHONES Homophones are words that are pronounced in the same way, but differ in spelling and meaning. Woo owed ego The poral led the my. {se the woves ofthe sa, teed very hear. He was sen tthe seen of the The bide wed down hc. | Sh asker divers neo) Sin Romitical an! ene tone (tal ee We by sho sone, Ihe pr ok bre tangata ketcten The posmen bowat heme PERCE, | meen. tha ens eo ATT Terese Doattboat tal eatin d tc ec, rasta worn Rien mltereien. | Soka | epee crt, |] Yew cre dant | BEng ead | eal eae, Lod he child try, Weta many, | ast by hee Apel ene roe bt | Te a eon || AERESESSIIPESEM | a ty wast | PS oe oe fps sabachape, | ethno LEE RTASEST Ee ces, | Robcihettnkrene, | they tr ogg tre, | Toor ee he Tetoncomdl nak Bal, || Wo wed poate cea, | avon eager ceatoe'™ | Nepened Ret, eto bal gh eh OF course you must go. He travels by plane. anuen een ice Telecipltrnrpy Henao sd wy reser Vac aie, The carbon he Th ttre wed ia eryto || tend ne foe Poe he Ratoni, | act una Se She oro mal wit Ede arehied few mc ietattest || Wopertocpomm Wratten laced oe she ac bon hing: Metoe wc’ Soeris oom The bern mad ood pr Theorie hee Reber pele ce | waar wg or ded on Week Re wens: ‘he rnp hos igh rine. The i os ae Were inyoutfomewet? MRSS aan odin Won oslo, Rotd tl bok The ait has ono henge Wohnort MESA ae | ate dec ing Her om 2 co hy a hoe her ih ny or Thin eh rot tered he ike ang te red Ls } Wet noching othe door? Twenga ine calor He very Srebrenica ‘hey wonder round heal ‘Th dogs ints kone | Tashi wi ait oon, hook vison Weert day TRooght on yok the yellow ofthe e66 vee Eee The dchoro yoke oro nek FIGURATIVE EXPRESSIONS/IDIOMS Words and expressions may be used either literally or figuratively. e been of ee nding LITERAL moons in the strict or actel son The Madgeings have ll the nest FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE, os the nome implies, makes use of Figures of Speech such os comparisons, transference of deos, exaggerations or contradictions. we pgs 40-49) Ther cildran hove laf the nest to mck lve of thee awn. They hove grown vp andl home. bolt fom the blue ‘bene of contention © chip off the ald block © dog in the monger «feather in one's cop. fencer fish ou of water © flash inthe pan (red herring ce redslater day @ reugh diamond storm in @ teacup 2 wet blanket white elephant wild cto snail's pace ‘ot someone's beck ond cll «the eleventh hour beat bout the bush be let high and dry behind one's Boek behind he scenes bite the dost blood is thicker thon water blow hot ond cold break the ico bring the house down, build costes in the oir born the candle ot both ends bury the hatchet calle spode a spode lect the cir ‘cross the bridge when ‘sudden and unexpected accurrence ‘ccxuse for dpa, fo ongue the po 1 ron thot closely resembles his father ‘one who selfishly refuses to allow others to ut thot For which he has no use ‘on honour, on achievement ‘one who doesn’ tke sides batween two opinions or courses of ection cout of place unusual, not ily to be repeated tenvathing which divert people’ atention from the main cergumet or issue 0 day to celebrate, a day of importance ‘person with good qualies, but witha rough or unrefined exterior tnuch fuss made of something unimportant ‘person wha discourages others, dampens fn, o spll-sport ce ureles, unwanted or burdensome possesion ‘plan or scheme with no posbiliy oF success ‘pan, with nothing to hide make matters thot ore okreody dic, wor Fisk everything in one verte tomething which swell own, although it hasn't yet been made public very slowly ‘vellable ot ll ines the las minute ‘epproach a matter in an indirect or roundabout way sranded ‘without one's knowledge, in one's absence in private, ou af sight be defeaed/ie cone takes ones Foly’s part again! those not eeted chop and change one's opinions continually ‘he Fist begin cause ropturous opplavse ‘make plon in ones imagination ‘overwork oneself by working night and day make peace, smooth over diferences speak one's mind, pu things bluntly remove doubts or dfcuties nolo worry about a sition until one i faced witht cut and dried full faire ond graces get out of bed on the wrong side handle with kid gloves hove an axe to grind have a bee in one's bonnet have a bone o pick with someone hove cold fost hhen-pecked his Bork is worse thon his bite hit below the bel in black and white in cold blood in seventh heaven inthe some boot ‘make or break jum the gun keep person at arm’ length kop the bell raling/ keep the ketle boiling Lill two birds with one stone lot the cot out ofthe bog look o gift hors inthe mouth long inthe tooth make ends mest move the goalposts neither here wor there not cricket ‘off one's own bot ‘on edge ‘on the cords ‘once ina blue moon ‘one's tue colo ‘pour cil on troubled waters put your cards onthe table ‘ain cots ond dogs ted ope Rome wos not bu in one doy salt ofthe earth ‘aye it fore rainy doy sour grapes spill the beens sort from sratch strike while the ion is ht the Achilles heel the black sheep ofthe Family throw inthe sponge/towel tum over @ new lef tworfoced under @ cloud walk on air pre-oronged Someone who thinks a great dea of herslf or himself bod/tempered, grumpy fret very geily pursue an unresolved ise have one's mind continally on one topic, to be cbsosted have controversy to aele feel anxious ond sncerain about an undertaking, think of withdrowing co husbond ruled by hie wife he speoks strongly but acs ily cet unoirly, soy something hurl veritn on paper Aalibertaly, without heart in stot of intnse happiness, bls in the public ey, the canto of tention ‘bout fo hoppen, about tobe implamented in the ome misfrtone or circumstances there are no aleratives host in embarking on oeourse of action ‘void coming into contect with the person beep things going cochiove « double result wth a single effort ‘reveal a secret examine agit rial old live within one’s income change the rules of ve eotaogenc not good sportsmanship ‘on ones own responsibly or iiaive possible ‘very rore occurrence ‘one realy is try stop a quaral, calm @ hecled ergument be hones or Frank rain heavily bureaucracy, formfiling big undertakings take time 1 complete solid, dependable, kind: hecried person save itfor atime of need pretend fo despise something becour itis unatoinable ‘reveal the truth oro secret, stort ot the beginning wih no help or advontoge ft when the opportnity oisee fe weok spat, a wulnerable area ‘one who brings disgrace to his family codmit defeat, give up begin again, resolve to do eter 1 hypocrite, s0ying one thing ond mecning enother Lunde sspicion, with somathing amiss be excited and hoppy 7 ABBREVIATIONS « shortened or brief form of « word or phrase. It is often used to save tim 1. ebbevation tual fod in the writen form ond isnt pronounced otis write, When we ipesk we pronounce Mos Mister @ 2. An obbreviton vually ends in ill stop. | Wik common soe Rowers al pi ho oie, fem. move. Fok Geog, Pe nt remade! ee ae by chen any eet ed penne er tog 4. Ifthe abbreviation ends inthe lst later of the word, then the Full stop is omited. Dr Mr Mes 4. In modern uroge fhe inital laars of words oe used, he fll stop is omit USA ~ United tots of Americo CNN. ~ Cable News Network SAA.» Sout Alican Airwoys SCA ~ Society for the Prventon of Cruelty to Animals 5. Ifthe initials ofa group of words are used fo form a new word, we oll hs an serony, 1+ The word is pronounced os iis spt 4+ Nol ops ore vied here AIDS Acquired nmune Deficiency Syndrome UNICEF ~ Usted Nofons International Cilren’s Emergency Fund NASA. Notional Aeronautics ond Space Administration SET no Thete are thousends of recognised abbreviations which can be found in mos dictionaries. This list covers only @ ew of the mest commonly used abbreviations. ‘TITLES, QUALIFICATIONS, JO8 DESCRIPTIONS, BUSINESS TERMS Bachelor of Arte Mistress Bachelor of Commerce Member of Parliament Bachelor of Slence Miser Captain Distress (merced CCharterad Accountont Mrs oe Miss Closed Corporation (Oceopational therapy Chief Executive Officer Prive Investigator Company Fersonol Aston | Colonel Doctor ofPilsophy Denti Prime Minister Division President Doctor Public Relations Officer General Professor Fonorory Proprietary (Limited) danior Secretary tievtenant Senator Mortr of Ceremonies Senior Manoging Diretor/Madkial Doctor Sergeant MONTHS Days Jul, ly Sun. Sunday Thor, Thursday. ‘hug. August Mon. Monday Fri Friday Sept. September Tues. Tunsdoy Sa. Saturday Oe. October Wed, Wednesday Nov. November Dec. Dacember TIMES ‘apo Domini (nthe yar ofthe lord) Belore Christ Before the Common Ero tents meridian Ibsfre middoy) post merigiom (aftr midday] | per annum Iyecrly EDUCATIONAL TERMINOLOGY Degree Diplome Head of Department Preporatory (Scheel) Universi (MEASUREMENTS Genny f erred Sipe a PLACES ‘" Avenve & ccner kn m af CcouNTRies Republi of South Aico Unted Kingdom Unie Soe of America aos Republica China a el POLITICAL TERMINOLOGY cen ‘Aion National Congress ovo ‘Absent without leave emvol Cental intaigence Agency fox minal vetigaton periment || HIV Fedora brea treangaton " Feromee! Une Not LANGUAGE TERMINOLOGY rom ‘abbreviation sans adjective: sas over am ‘answer © conan ona” Eenioneton Somple ry scoee From he some source ere ot bon, note well, very importont ober porogroph ove pal Pot serpt (odtion Please turn over Inorg wh ceo Sng se aso rough, by mayo ramely 59 [MODERN TERMINOLOGY vired inane Deficiency Syndrome ‘Site Toler Moshne” 7 Compt Dice caller Cable News Network Dail Video Bac focsimife Homon inmunodetciony Virus Information Technlogy policaly correct, Personal computer Random Accots Memory Reod Only Memory Sou Alcon Revenue Service Severe Acie Reeprtory Syndrome thon mesioge rence MISCELLANEOUS ‘Automobile Associaton ‘Acchoies Anonymous Aten Dekh Corder Betish Airways British Brood%asing Corporation Cash on Delivery Corricelum Vitos Interotinal Business Machines Please reply. Society forthe Provetion of Cushy to Anime DICTIONARY AND THESAURUS SKILLS z pT ‘A Dictionary contains the words of a language ané cerranged in strict alphabetical order, ‘Two words, called headwords, usually appear in bold lettering a he top ofeach page. 1+ The word on the lft indicates he frst word ofthat poge 1+ The word onthe eight i the lest word of that poge. + This help ime-savng device in finding a word. ‘his dictionary etry was token from a modern dictonery: calligraphy, kolig-o-h nine penmanship: characterise syle of writing: arti serpt produced with a brush or special ib/pen: line or ines inert suggesting this 1s - ealligrapher/clligraphist one who procises cligrophy djs. cal al gn using the leer ofthe word. (Gr kallor,beowy,grophein, to write) It provides you withthe fllowing information: ‘The meaning of the werd The pronunciation oF the word

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