Topic 2.

The Plant Body: Organ Systems and

Organs, Tissues, and Cell Types
Plant Body Organization

Each organ (roots, stems, and leaves) include all three tissue types
ground
vascular
dermal
Different cell types comprise each tissue type, and the structure of each
cell type influences the function of the tissue it comprises
Plant Organ System
Vascular plants have two distinct organ systems:
Shoot system
Root system
Shoot System
Consists stems, leaves, and the reproductive parts of the plant
(flowers and fruits)
Generally grows above ground, where it absorbs the light needed
for photosynthesis
Stems
Provide support to the plant, holding leaves, flowers and buds
Connect the roots to the leaves, transporting absorbed water
and minerals from the roots to the rest of the plant, and
transporting sugars from the leaves (the site of photosynthesis)
to desired locations throughout the plant
Types
Herbaceous stems are soft and typically green
Woody stems are hard and wooded
Unbranched stems have a single stem
Branched stems have divisions and side stems
Characterized by the presence of nodes and internodes

Notes by J.M. Cascon

 Nodes-points of
attachment for leaves
and flowers
Internodes are the
regions of stem
between two nodes
The tip of the shoot contains
apical meristem within the
apical bud
Axillary bud is usually found
in the area between the base
of a leaf and the stem where it
can give rise to a branch or a
flower
Leaves
Main sites for
photosynthesis
Most are usually green,
due to the presence of
chlorophyll in the leaf
cells
However, some leaves
may have different
colors, caused by other
plant pigments that mask
the green chlorophyll
Typical leaves are attached to the
plant stem by a petiole, though
there are also leaves that attach
directly to the plant stem
The vascular tissue (xylem and
phloem) run through veins in the
leaf, which also provide structural
support
The midrib is a vessel that
extends from the petiole to the leaf
tip
Veins branch from the midrib
The lamina is the wide, flat part of
the leaf.
The margin is the edge of the leaf
Thickness, shape, and size of leaves are adapted to specific
environments
Coniferous plant species that thrive in cold environments, like
spruce, fir, and pine, have leaves that are reduced in size and
needle-like in appearance
These needle-like leaves have sunken stomata (pits that
allow gas exchange) and a smaller surface area: two
attributes that aid in reducing water loss

Notes by J.M. Cascon

 In hot climates, plants such as cacti have leaves that are reduced
to spines, which in combination with their succulent stems, help to
conserve water
Many aquatic plants have leaves with wide lamina that can float on
the surface of the water, and a thick waxy cuticle (waxy covering)
on the leaf surface that repels water
Root System
Supports the plants and absorbs water and minerals, is usually
underground
Anchoring the plant to the soil, absorbing water and minerals and
transporting them upwards, and storing the products of
photosynthesis
Some roots are modified to absorb moisture and exchange gases.
Most roots are underground
Some plants, however, also have adventitious roots, which
emerge above the ground from the shoot
Two types of Root system
Tap root systems
Have a main root that grows down vertically, and from which
many smaller lateral roots arise
Tap roots penetrate deep into the soil and are advantageous
for plants growing in dry soils.
Tap roots are typical of dicots such as dandelions
Fibrous root systems
Located closer to the surface and have a dense network of
roots
Can help prevent soil erosion
Fibrous roots are typical of monocots such as grasses
Different Root Structures/Types
Bulbous roots store starch
Aerial roots and prop roots are two forms of above-ground
roots that provide additional support to anchor the plant
Some tap roots, such as carrots, turnips, and beets, are
adapted for sugar/starch storage
Epiphytic roots enable a plant to grow on another plant

Plant Tissues
Fall into one of two general types:
Meristematic tissue
Analagous to stem cells in animals: meristematic cells are
undifferentiated continue to divide and contribute to the
growth of the plant
Permanent (or non-meristematic) tissue
Permanent tissue consists of plant cells that are no longer
actively dividing
Meristems produce cells that quickly differentiate, or specialize,
and become permanent tissue and such cells take on specific roles
and lose their ability to divide further
Notes by J.M. Cascon
Each plant organ (roots, stems, leaves) contains all three tissue types:
Dermal tissue
Covers and protects the plant, and controls gas exchange and
water absorption (in roots)
Dermal tissue of the stems and leaves is covered by a waxy
cuticle that prevents evaporative water loss
Stomata are specialized pores that allow gas exchange
through holes in the cuticle
Unlike the stem and leaves, the root epidermis is not covered
by a waxy cuticle which would prevent absorption of water
Root hairs, which are extensions of root epidermal cells,
increase the surface area of the root, greatly contributing to
the absorption of water and minerals
Trichomes, or small hairlike or spikey outgrowths of epidermal
tissue, may be present on the stem and leaves, and aid in
defense against herbivores
Ground tissues
Carries out different functions based on the cell type and
location in the plant, and includes
Parenchyma (photosynthesis in the leaves, and storage in
the roots)
Collenchyma (shoot support in areas of active growth)
Schlerenchyma (shoot support in areas where growth has
ceased)
The site of photosynthesis, provides a supporting matrix for
the vascular tissue, provides structural support for the stem,
and helps to store water and sugars
Vascular tissue
Transports water, minerals, and sugars to different parts of the
plant.
Vascular tissue is made of two specialized conducting tissues:
Xylem tissue transports water and nutrients from the roots to
different parts of the plant, and also plays a role in structural
support in the stem

Phloem tissue
transports organic
compounds from
the site of
photosynthesis to
other parts of the
plant
The xylem and
phloem always lie
adjacent to each
other in a
vascular bundle

Notes by J.M. Cascon

Plant Cell Types
Each plant tissue type is comprised of specialize cell types which
carry out vastly different functions:
Vascular tissue cells:
Tracheids
Vessel elements
Sieve tube cells
Companion cells
Dermal tissue cells:
Epidermal cells
Stomata or more accurately, guard cells
Trichomes
Ground tissue cells:
Parenchyma
Collenchyma
Sclerenchyma
Important feature of plant cells:
All plant cells have primary cell walls, which are flexible and
can expand as the cell grows and elongates.
Some (but not all) plant cells also have a secondary cell wall,
typically composed of lignin (the substance that is the primary
component of wood)
Secondary cell walls are inflexible and play an important role
in plant structural support
Cells in Dermal Tissue
Outer layer of tissue surrounding the entire plant is called the
epidermis, usually comprised of a single layer of epidermal cells
which provide protection and have other specialized adaptations in
different plant organs
In the root, the epidermis aids in absorption of water and minerals
aided by root hairs
In the stem and leaves, epidermal cells are coated in a waxy
substance called a cuticle which prevents water loss through
evaporation.
The cuticle is NOT present on root epidermis and is the same
as the Casparian strip, which is present in the roots.
Contains openings known as stomata (singular: stoma) to
permit gas exchange for photosynthesis and respiration
Two cells, known as guard cells, surround each leaf stoma,
controlling its opening and closing and thus regulating the
uptake of carbon dioxide and the release of oxygen and
water vapor.
Stems and leaves may also have trichomes

Notes by J.M. Cascon

Cells in Vascular Tissue
Transports from one extreme end of the plant to the other (eg, water
from roots to shoots)
Made of two specialized conducting tissues: xylem and phloem
A single vascular bundle always contains both xylem and phloem
tissues.
The vascular system in plants is made of cells (not tissues) – the
substance (water or sugars) actually moves through individual cells
to get from one end of the plant to the other
Xylem tissue transports water and nutrients from the roots to
different parts of the plant, and includes vessel elements and
tracheids, both of which are tubular, elongated cells that conduct
water
Tracheids are found in all types of vascular plants, but only
angiosperms and a few other specific plants have vessel
elements
Tracheids and vessel elements are arranged end-to-end, with
perforations called pits between adjacent cells to allow free flow
of water from one cell to the next
Tracheids and vessel elements are both dead at functional
maturity, meaning that they are actually dead when they carry
out their job of transporting water throughout the plant body
Phloem tissue, which transports organic compounds from the site
of photosynthesis to other parts of the plant, consists of sieve cells
and companion cells.
Sieve cells conduct sugars and other organic compounds, and
are arranged end-to-end with pores called sieve plates
between them to allow movement between cells
They are alive at functional maturity, but lack a nucleus,
ribosomes, or other cellular structures.
Supported by companion cells, which lie adjacent to the
sieve cells and provide metabolic support and regulation

The xylem and phloem

are always next to
each other
In stems, the xylem
and the phloem
form a structure
called a vascular
bundle; in roots,
this is termed the
vascular stele or
vascular cylinder

Notes by J.M. Cascon

Cells in Ground Tissue
Parenchyma
The most abundant and versatile cell type in plants
They have primary cell walls which are thin and flexible, and most
lack a secondary cell wall.
They totipotent, meaning they can divide and differentiate into all
cell types of the plant, and are the cells responsible for rooting a
cut stem
Most of the tissue in leaves is comprised of parenchyma cells,
which are the sites of photosynthesis, and parenchyma cells in
the leaves contain large quantities of chloroplasts for
phytosynthesis
In roots, parenchyma are sites of sugar or starch storage, and are
called pith (in the root center) or cortex (in the root periphery)
Can also be associated with phloem cells in vascular tissue as
parenchyma rays

Collenchyma
Lack secondary cell walls but have thicker primary cell walls
than parenchyma.
Long and thin cells that retain the ability to stretch and elongate;
this feature helps them provide structural support in growing
regions of the shoot system
They are highly abundant in elongating stems
The “stringy” bits of celery are primarily collenchyma cell

Schlerenchyma
Have secondary cell walls composed of lignin, a tough substance
that is the primary component of wood
Cannot stretch, and they provide important structural support in
mature stems after growth has ceased
They are dead at functional maturity.
Schlerenchyma give pears their gritty texture, and are also part of
apple cores. We use sclerenchyma fibers to make linen and rope

Roots also contain specialized ground tissue called endodermis,

which is found only in the roots and and serves as a checkpoint for
materials entering the root’s vascular system from the environment

Casparian strip is a waxy substance is present on the walls of the

endodermal cell, forces water and solutes to cross the plasma
membranes of endodermal cells instead of slipping between the cells

Notes by J.M. Cascon

Notes by J.M. Cascon
Plant Cell Types

Each plant organ contains all three tissue types, with different
arrangements in each organ. There are also some differences in how
these tissues are arranged between monocots and dicots

Roots
In dicot roots, the xylem
and phloem of the stele are
arranged alternately in an
X shape
In monocot roots, the
vascular tissue is arranged
in a ring around the pith

Stems
In dicot stems, vascular
bundles are arranged in a
ring toward the stem
periphery
In monocot stems, the
vascular bundles are
randomly scattered
throughout the ground
tissue
Leaves
Include two different types of photosynthetic parenchyma cells
Palisade
Spongy
Like all plant organs, they also contain vascular tissue (not shown).

Notes by J.M. Cascon

Notes by J.M. Cascon
 Practice exams
Module 1
It is the main component of plant cell walls.
Ans. Cellulose
The site for cellulose synthesis.
Ans. Cell membrane
It refers to the combined pressure of the cell and vacuoles wall that supports the shape of cell.
Ans. Turgor pressure
It is the outermost layer of the cell wall.
Ans. Middle lamella
What does phragmoplast consist of?
Ans. microtubules, actin filaments, and vesicles
It refers to the substance that is deposited between the plasma membrane and the cell wall and
is mainly located around the openings of the plasmodesmata.
Ans. Callose
A protein that is responsible for the relaxation or loosening of plant cell wall by hindering the
hydrogen bonds.
Ans. Expansins
The site for hemicellulose synthesis.
Ans. Golgi apparatus
A cell that provides metabolic support and regulation to the sieve cell.
Ans. Companion cell
Hairlike outgrowths on the epidermal tissue that aid in the defense against herbivores
Ans. Trichomes
Water-impermeable material that binds to the plasma membrane of the endodermal cells
Ans. Casparian strip
Attachment of leaves to the stem
Ans. Petiole
A ring of cells that surrounds the xylem and phloem
Ans. Pericyle
Comprised of tightly packed columnar cells in the mesophyll
Ans. Palisade
Perforations between adjacent cells that allow free flow of water from one cell to the next
Ans. Pits
Primary component of the wood
Ans. Lignin
Future stem in the seed embryo
Ans. Hypocotyl
Serves as a checkpoint for materials entering the root’s vascular system
Ans. Endodermis
Pores between sieve cells
Ans. Sieve plates
It is considered as the warty layer of the secondary cell wall due to the irregularity of its surface.
Ans. S3

Module 2

a) xylem
b) phloem
c) endodermis
d) cortex
e) epidermis
f) vascular cylinder

Notes by J.M. Cascon

 The interior part of the plasma membrane is not identical to the exterior.
Ans. True
Plasma membranes are amphiphotic: they have hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions.
Ans. False- amphiphilic
Heavier molecules diffuse faster.
Ans. False- slower; Heavier molecules move more slowly; therefore, they diffuse
more slowly
Higher temperatures slow the rate of diffusion.
Ans. False- increases; Higher temperatures increase the energy and therefore the
movement of the molecules, increasing the rate of diffusion
Tonicity describes how an extracellular solution can change the volume of a cell by affecting
osmosis.
Ans. True
Osmolarity describes the total solute concentration of the solution.
ANS. True
It refers to the exudation of water in liquid form onto the plant's aerial surfaces.
Ans. Guttation
Which of the following effects of environmental factors is not true about the rate of
transpiration in plants?
Ans. Wind decreases transpiration
A protein channel that facilitates the entry of water into the cell membranes of the plant.
Ans. Aquaporins
Which of the following factors disrupt the water movement along the SPAC (soil-plant-
atmosphere continuum)?
Ans. tyloses, plant-derived gels and gums, pathogenic organisms and their by-
products
It is considered as the most limiting abiotic factor to plant growth and productivity, and a
principal determinant of vegetation distributions worldwide.
Ans. Water
Active transport expends no energy while passive transport requires energy to move
molecules across the plasma membrane.
Ans. False- needs energy
Which of the following is true about the rate of diffusion?
Ans. The closer the distribution of the material gets to equilibrium, the slower the
rate of diffusion
What is the principal force driving movement in diffusion?
Ans. Concentration gradient
The oxygen atom acquires a partial positive charge, while the hydrogen atom acquires a
partial negative charge.
Ans. False- oxygen(partial negative); hydrogen (partial positive)
Water is a molecular compound consisting of polar molecules that have a bent shape.
Ans. True
Nitrogen is the most abundant molecule in the atmosphere.
Ans. True
Module 3
Effects of mineral nutrient deficiency in plants.
Sulphur → stalks are small and spindly with short and slender; fruits do not mature fully and
remain light green in color,
Calcium → small, distorted, cup-shaped, crinkled, and dark green leaves,
Nitrogen → short and spindly appearance; poor tillering; chlorosis on leaves and eventually
leads to necrosis,
Potassium → chlorosis along the leaf boundary followed by scorching and browning of tips of
older leaves; shriveled grains,
Boron → young leaves are deformed and form rosette arrangement; shortened internodes,
withering or dying of growing points and reduced bud, flower and seed production,
Iron → leaves become almost pale white; alternate yellow and green stripes along the length
of the leaf blade,
Copper → narrow, twisted leaves and pale white shoot tips; mottled leaves in citrus plants,
Phosphorous → decreased shoot/root ratio; older leaves are narrow, short, very erect, and
has a "dirty" dark green color,
Zinc → leaves with light green, yellowish, bleached spots; leaves with chlorotic bands on
either side of the midrib; brown rusty spots on leaves,
Magnesium → interveinal chlorosis of older leaves in which the veins remain green but the
area between them turns yellow; leaf tissue becomes uniformly pale, then brown and necrotic
Notes by J.M. Cascon