Constitutive theories based on the multiplicative

decomposition of deformation gradient: Thermoelasticity,

elastoplasticity, and biomechanics
Vlado A Lubarda
Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of California, San Diego;
La Jolla, CA 92093-0411; vlubarda@ucsd.edu

Some fundamental issues in the formulation of constitutive theories of material response based
on the multiplicative decomposition of the deformation gradient are reviewed, with focus on
finite deformation thermoelasticity, elastoplasticity, and biomechanics. The constitutive theory
of isotropic thermoelasticity is first considered. The stress response and the entropy expression
are derived in the case of quadratic dependence of the elastic strain energy on the finite elastic
strain. Basic kinematic and kinetic aspects of the phenomenological and single crystal elasto-
plasticity within the framework of the multiplicative decomposition are presented. Attention is
given to additive decompositions of the stress and strain rates into their elastic and plastic
parts. The constitutive analysis of the stress-modulated growth of pseudo-elastic soft tissues is
then presented. The elastic and growth parts of the deformation gradient and the rate of defor-
mation tensor are defined and used to construct the corresponding rate-type biomechanic
theory. The structure of the evolution equation for growth-induced stretch ratio is discussed.
There are 112 references cited in this review article. 关DOI: 10.1115/1.1591000兴

1 INTRODUCTION configuration is introduced here by a conceptual isothermal

The objective of this survey is to give an overview of the
application of the multiplicative decomposition of the defor-
mation gradient in constitutive theories of finite deformation
thermoelasticity, elastoplasticity, and biomechanics. The
multiplicative decomposition of the deformation gradient is
based on an intermediate material configuration, which is
obtained by a conceptual destressing of the currently de-
formed material configuration to zero stress. The significance
of such configuration for material modeling was pointed out
by Eckart 关1兴, Kröner 关2兴, and Sedov 关3兴, but its formal in-
troduction in nonlinear continuum mechanics can be attrib-
uted to Stojanović et al 关4兴 in the case of finite deformation
thermoelasticity, and to Lee 关5兴 in the case of phenomeno-
logical finite deformation elastoplasticity. The decomposition
was subsequently extended and used with much success in
modeling the elastoplastic deformation of single crystals
关6 –10兴. More recently, following the work of Rodrigez et al
关11兴, the multiplicative decomposition of the deformation
gradient was applied in biomechanics to study the stress-
modulated growth of pseudo-elastic soft tissues 关12–15兴. A
survey of the application of the multiplicative decomposition
in these three areas of nonlinear continuum mechanics is
presented in this review.
The formulation of the constitutive theory of finite defor-
mation thermoelasticity is first presented. The intermediate
destressing of the current material configuration to zero
stress. The total deformation gradient is then decomposed
into the product of purely elastic and thermal parts. Such an
approach was first used by Stojanović et al 关4,16兴 in the con-
stitutive study of nonpolar and polar thermoelastic materials.
However, in contrast to the decomposition of elastoplastic
deformation gradient, discussed below, the decomposition of
the thermoelastic deformation gradient received far less at-
tention in the mechanics community. Some revived interest
has recently been shown in the work by Miehe 关17兴, Holza-
pfel and Simo 关18兴, Imam and Johnson 关19兴, and Vujošević
and Lubarda 关20兴. The presentation in Section 2 follows the
latter work. The considerations are restricted to elastically
and thermally isotropic materials, with an outlined extension
to transversely isotropic and orthotropic materials. The stress
and entropy expressions are derived in the case of quadratic
dependence of the elastic strain energy on the finite elastic
strain.
Some fundamental kinematic and kinetic aspects of finite
deformation elastoplasticity theory within the framework of
the multiplicative decomposition are presented in Section 3.
The intermediate configuration is obtained from the de-
formed material configuration by elastic destressing to zero
stress. It differs from the initial configuration by the residual
or plastic deformation, and from the current configuration by

Transmitted by Associate Editor LA Taber

Appl Mech Rev vol 57, no 2, March 2004 95 © 2004 American Society of Mechanical Engineers
96 Lubarda: Constitutive theories based on the multiplicative decomposition
the reversible or elastic deformation. The corresponding de-
composition of the elastoplastic deformation gradient into its
elastic and plastic part was introduced by Lee 关5兴. Related
early contributions also include Backman 关21兴, Lee and Liu
关22兴, Fox 关23兴, Willis 关24兴, Mandel 关25,26兴, and Kröner and
Teodosiu 关27兴. The decomposition received a great deal of
attention in the phenomenological theory of elastoplasticity
during past three decades. Representative references include
Freund 关28兴, Sidoroff 关29兴, Kleiber 关30兴, Nemat-Nasser
关31,32兴, Lubarda and Lee 关33兴, Johnson and Bammann 关34兴,
Simo and Ortiz 关35兴, Needleman 关36兴, Dashner 关37兴, Dafalias
关38,39兴, Agah-Tehrani et al 关40兴, Van der Giessen 关41兴, Mo-
ran et al 关42兴, Naghdi 关43兴, Aravas 关44兴, Lubarda and Shih
关45兴, Xiao et al 关46兴, and Lubarda and Benson 关47兴. The
multiplicative decomposition was further extended and suc-
cessfully applied to model the elastoplastic deformation of
single crystals, in which the crystallographic slip is assumed
to be the only mechanism of plastic deformation. The plastic
part of deformation gradient accounts for the crystallo-
graphic slip, while the elastic part accounts for the lattice
stretching and rotation; Asaro and Rice 关6兴, Hill and Havner
关7兴, Asaro 关8,9兴, Havner 关10兴, Aravas and Aifantis 关48兴, Bas-
sani 关49兴, Lubarda 关50兴, and Gurtin 关51兴. The constitutive
analysis of single crystal plasticity within the framework of
multiplicative decomposition is also presented in Section 3,
with an accent given to additive decompositions of the stress
and strain rates into their elastic and plastic parts.
The third area of nonlinear continuum mechanics in
which the multiplicative decomposition of deformation gra-
dient was applied is biomechanics. The soft tissues, such as
blood vessels and tendons, can experience large deforma-
tions during their stress-modulated growth. In describing this
process, Rodrigez et al 关11兴 decomposed the corresponding
deformation gradient into its elastic and growth parts. Such
decomposition was further utilized by Taber and Eggers 关12兴,
Chen and Hoger 关13兴, Klisch and Van Dyke 关14兴, Lubarda
and Hoger 关15兴, Taber and Perucchio 关52兴, and Hoger et al
关53兴. In Section 4, we present an analysis of the stress-
modulated growth of isotropic pseudo-elastic soft tissues by
using this decomposition. The rate-type biomechanic theory
is constructed, based on additive decomposition of the rate of
deformation into its elastic and growth parts, and an appeal-
ing structure of the evolution equation for the growth-
induced stretch ratio. The concluding remarks on the multi-
plicative decomposition of deformation gradient and its role
in nonlinear continuum mechanics are given in Section 5.
2 THERMOELASTICITY
In the constitutive theory of thermoelastic material response
the intermediate configuration B␪ is introduced by isothermal
elastic destressing of the current material configuration B to
zero stress 共Fig. 1兲. If the isothermal elastic deformation gra-
dient from B␪ to B is Fe , and the thermal deformation gra-
dient from Bo to B␪ is F␪ , the total deformation gradient F
can be decomposed as
F⫽Fe•F␪
Appl Mech Rev vol 57, no 2, March 2004
This decomposition was introduced in finite-strain ther-
moelasticity by Stojanović and his associates 关4,16兴, and fur-
ther employed by Stojanović 关54兴, Mićunović 关55兴, and Lu
and Pister 关56兴. For the inhomogeneous deformation and
temperature fields, only F is a true deformation gradient. The
mappings from B␪ to B and from Bo to B␪ , on the other
hand, are generally not continuous one-to-one mappings, so
that Fe and F␪ are defined as the point functions or the local
deformation gradients. The decomposition 共2.1兲 is not unique
because an arbitrary rigid-body rotation can be superposed to
B␪ preserving it unstressed. However, the gradient F␪ can be
specified uniquely in each considered case, depending on the
type of material anisotropy. For example, for an orthotropic
material with the principal axes of orthotropy parallel to unit
vectors mo, no, and mo⫻no in the configuration Bo , the
gradient F␪ is specified by 关57兴
F␪ ⫽ ␽ I⫹ 共 ␤ ⫺ ␽ 兲 mo 丢 mo⫹ 共 ␥ ⫺ ␽ 兲 no 丢 no (2.2)
The stretch ratios due to thermal expansion in the orthogonal
directions mo and no are ␤ ⫽ ␤ ( ␪ ) and ␥ ⫽ ␥ ( ␪ ), while ␽
⫽ ␽ ( ␪ ) is the stretch ratio in the direction mo⫻no. The
second-order unit tensor is denoted by I. The modification of
the representation 共2.2兲 for transversely isotropic materials is
straightforward.
The elastic Lagrangian strain and its rate are
Ee⫽F⫺T ⫺1
␪ • 共 E⫺E␪ 兲 •F␪ (2.3)
Ėe⫽F⫺T ⫺1
␪ •Ė•F␪ ⫺L␪ ⫺Ee•L␪ ⫺L␪ •Ee
s T
(2.4)
where L␪ ⫽Ḟ␪ •F⫺1
␪is the velocity gradient in the intermedi-
ate configuration, and Ls␪ ⫽(L␪ ⫹LT␪ )/2 stands for its sym-
metric part. The elastic and thermal strains are defined by
1 1
Ee⫽ 共 FTe •Fe⫺I兲 , E␪ ⫽ 共 FT␪ •F␪ ⫺I兲 (2.5)
2 2
Fig. 1 The intermediate configuration B␪ at a nonuniform tem-
perature ␪ is obtained from the deformed configuration B by iso-
thermal destressing to zero stress. The deformation gradient from
initial to deformed configuration F is decomposed into elastic part
(2.1) Fe and thermal part F␪ , such that F⫽Fe•F␪ .
Appl Mech Rev vol 57, no 2, March 2004 Lubarda: Constitutive theories based on the multiplicative decomposition 97

The subsequent analysis will be restricted to isotropic mate-
o ⳵␺e

rials, for which the thermal part of the deformation gradient T⫽ (2.15)
␽ 2 ⳵ Ee
is
⳵␺e ⳵ ␺ e d␺ ␪
F␪ ⫽ ␽ 共 ␪ 兲 I (2.6) ␩⫽␣ : 共 I⫹2Ee兲 ⫺ ⫺ (2.16)
⳵ Ee ⳵␪ d␪
The scalar ␽ ⫽ ␽ ( ␪ ) is the thermal stretch ratio in any ma-
In view of the relationship
o⫽ ␽ 3
␪ , between the densities
terial direction. In this case, the elastic and thermal strains

o in the configuration Bo and
␪ in the configuration B␪ ,
become
the stress response in Eq. 共2.15兲 can also be written as
1 1 ⳵␺e
Ee⫽ 共 E⫺E␪ 兲 , E␪ ⫽ 共 ␽ 2 ⫺1 兲 I (2.7) T⫽ ␽ Te , Te⫽
␪
␽2 2 ⳵ Ee
(2.17)
The relationship holds For example, suppose that ␺ e is a quadratic function of
I⫹2E⫽ ␽ 共 I⫹2Ee兲
2
(2.8) the elastic strain components, such that

Since the thermal stretch ratio ␽ and the coefficient of ther- 1

␪ ␺ e⫽ ␭ 共 ␪ 兲共 trEe兲 2 ⫹ ␮ 共 ␪ 兲 Ee :Ee (2.18)
mal expansion ␣ are related by 2
1 d␽ where ␭共␪兲 and ␮共␪兲 are the temperature-dependent Lamé
␣共 ␪ 兲⫽ (2.9) moduli. It follows that
␽ d␪
Te⫽⌳e共 ␪ 兲 :Ee , ⌳e共 ␪ 兲 ⫽␭ 共 ␪ 兲 I 丢 I⫹2 ␮ 共 ␪ 兲 II (2.19)
the rate of elastic strain can be written as
The temperature-dependent elastic moduli tensor is ⌳e( ␪ ),
1 while II stands for the fourth-order unit tensor with rectan-
Ėe⫽ 关 Ė⫺ ␣ 共 ␪ 兲共 I⫹2E兲 ␪˙ 兴 (2.10)
␽ 2共 ␪ 兲 gular components
1
2.1 Stress response II i jkl ⫽ 共 ␦ ik ␦ jl ⫹ ␦ il ␦ jk 兲 (2.20)
2
Within the model of the multiplicative decomposition, the
Helmholtz free energy can be conveniently split into two The rectangular components of the second-order unit tensor
parts, such that are the Kronecker deltas ␦ i j . Consequently, by substituting
Eqs. 共2.10兲 and 共2.19兲 into T⫽ ␽ Te , the stress response be-
␺ ⫽ ␺ e共 Ee , ␪ 兲 ⫹ ␺ ␪ 共 ␪ 兲 (2.11) comes
where ␺ e is an isotropic function of the elastic strain Ee and 1
the temperature ␪. This decomposition is physically appeal- T⫽ 关 ␭ 共 ␪ 兲共 tr E兲 I⫹2 ␮ 共 ␪ 兲 E兴
␽共 ␪ 兲
ing because the function ␺ e(Ee , ␪ ) can be taken as one of the
well-known strain energy functions of the isothermal finite-
strain elasticity, except that the coefficients of the strain-
dependent terms are the functions of temperature, while the
⫺
3
2 冋
␽共 ␪ 兲⫺
1
␽共 ␪ 兲 册
␬共 ␪ 兲I (2.21)

function ␺ ␪ ( ␪ ) can be separately adjusted in accord with The temperature-dependent bulk modulus is ␬共␪兲. This is an
experimental data for the specific heat. Other representations exact expression for the thermoelastic stress response in the
of ␺ are possible, such as those used by Lu and Pister 关56兴, case of quadratic representation of ␺ e in terms of the finite
and Imam and Johnson 关19兴. The time-rate of the free energy elastic strain Ee . If the Lamé moduli are taken to be
in Eq. 共2.11兲 is temperature-independent, and if the approximation ␽ ( ␪ )
⬇1⫹ ␣ o( ␪ ⫺ ␪ o) is used ( ␣ o being the coefficient of linear
⳵␺e ⳵␺e d␺ ␪ thermal expansion at ␪ ⫽ ␪ o), Eq. 共2.21兲 reduces to
␺˙ ⫽ :Ėe⫹ ␪˙ ⫹ ␪˙ (2.12)
⳵ Ee ⳵␪ d␪ T⫽␭ o共 trE兲 I⫹2 ␮ oE⫺3 ␣ o共 ␪ ⫺ ␪ o兲 ␬ oI (2.22)
Upon the substitution of Eq. 共2.10兲, there follows When E and T are interpreted as the infinitesimal strain and

冋 册
the Cauchy stress, this equation coincides with the well-
1 ⳵␺e ␣ ⳵␺e ⳵ ␺ e d␺ ␪
␺˙ ⫽ :Ė⫺ 2 : 共 I⫹2E兲 ⫺ ⫺ ␪˙ known Duhamel–Neumann expression of isotropic linear
␽ 2 ⳵E
e ␽ ⳵ Ee ⳵␪ d␪ thermoelasticity 共eg, Carlson 关58兴 and Nowacki 关59兴兲.
(2.13)
2.2 Entropy expression
The comparison with the energy equation,
In the case of quadratic strain energy representation 共2.18兲,
1 there is a relationship
o␺ e⫽ ␽ 3 Te :Ee/2, so that
␺˙ ⫽ T:Ė⫺ ␩ ␪˙ (2.14)

冉 冊 冉 冊

o
⳵␺e 3 d␽ 1 ⳵ Te

o ⫽ ␽2 Te :Ee⫹ ␽ 3 :Ee (2.23)
establishes the constitutive relations for the symmetric ⳵␪ E
2 d␪ 2 ⳵␪ Ee
Piola–Kirchhoff stress T and the specific entropy ␩. These e

are Alternatively, by using Eq. 共2.8兲, this can be recast as

98 Lubarda: Constitutive theories based on the multiplicative decomposition Appl Mech Rev vol 57, no 2, March 2004

o 冉 冊
⳵␺e
⳵␪ E
3
2
e
1
2 冋
⫽ ␣ T:E⫺ 共 ␽ 2 ⫺1 兲 tr T 册 tic bulk modulus, then the specific heat becomes l E
⫽3 ␽ ␣␪␬ I/
o , while the entropy expression 共2.29兲 reduces
to
1
⫹ ␽3
2
⳵ Te
⳵␪ 冉 冊 :Ee
Ee
(2.24) ␩⫽
3

o 冋 3
␽ ␣ ␬ tr E⫺ 共 ␽ 2 ⫺1 兲 ⫺
2 册
d␺ ␪
d␪
(2.32)

The function ␺ ␪ can be selected according to experimental

The coefficient of thermal expansion ␣ is defined by Eq. data for the specific heat c E ⫽ ␪ ⳵ ␩ / ⳵ ␪ . For example, if we
共2.9兲. It is readily verified that take

␽ 冉 冊 冉 冊
⳵ Te
⳵␪ Ee
⫽
⳵T
⳵␪
⫹ ␣ 共 T⫹3 ␽ ␬ I兲
E
(2.25) ␺ ␪ ⫽⫺ 冉
1 c Eo
2 ␪o
o
9
冊
⫹ ␣ 2o ␬ o 共 ␪ ⫺ ␪ o兲 2 (2.33)

then Eq. 共2.32兲 becomes

and

冉 冊 冉 冊冋 册
3 c Eo
⳵ Te ⳵T 1 ␩⫽ ␣ o ␬ o tr E⫹ 共 ␪ ⫺ ␪ o兲 (2.34)
␽3 :Ee⫽ : E⫺ 共 ␽ 2 ⫺1 兲 I
o ␪o
⳵␪ E
⳵␪ E
2
e
which is in agreement with the classical result from the lin-

冋 1
⫹ ␣ T:E⫹ 共 1⫹ ␽ 2 兲 tr T
2 册 (2.26)
earized theory of thermoelasticity 关58兴. The approximations
␣ ⬇ ␣ 0 and ␽ ( ␪ )⬇1⫹ ␣ o( ␪ ⫺ ␪ o) are used in the above deri-
vation.
Inserting Eq. 共2.26兲 into Eq. 共2.24兲 gives

冉 冊
3 ELASTOPLASTICITY
⳵␺e 1

o ⫽2 ␣ T:E⫹ ␣ 共 2⫺ ␽ 2 兲 tr T The intermediate configuration in finite-deformation elasto-
⳵␪ E
2 plasticity is obtained from the current configuration by elas-
e

冉 冊冋 册
tic destressing to zero stress 共Fig. 2兲. It differs from the ini-
1 ⳵T 1 tial configuration by a residual or plastic deformation and
⫹ : E⫺ 共 ␽ 2 ⫺1 兲 I (2.27)
2 ⳵␪ E
2 from the current configuration by a reversible or elastic de-
formation. The corresponding multiplicative decomposition
When this is substituted into Eq. 共2.16兲, the entropy becomes of elastoplastic deformation gradient into its elastic and plas-

␩⫽
1
2
o 冋
3 ␽ ␣␬ I⫺
⳵T
⳵␪ 冉 冊 册冋E
1
: E⫺ 共 ␽ 2 ⫺1 兲 I ⫺
2
d␺ ␪
d␪ 册 tic part was introduced by Lee 关5兴 as
F⫽Fe•Fp (3.1)
(2.28) In the case when elastic destressing to zero stress is not
Recalling the standard expression for the latent heat l physically achievable due to possible onset of the reverse
E, we
finally have plastic deformation before the state of zero stress is reached,
the intermediate configuration can be conceptually intro-

␩⫽ 冉
1 1
2 ␪
3 1
冊冋
l E ⫹ ␽ ␣ ␬ I : E⫺ 共 ␽ 2 ⫺1 兲 I ⫺

o 2
d␺ ␪
d␪ 册 duced by a virtual destressing to zero stress, locking all in-
elastic structural changes that would occur during the actual
destressing. The deformation gradients Fe and Fp are not
(2.29)
uniquely defined because the intermediate configuration is
This is an exact expression for the entropy ␩ within the ap- not unique; arbitrary local material rotations can be super-
proximation used for the elastic strain energy function. The posed to intermediate configuration preserving it unstressed.
second-order tensor of the latent heat l E can be calculated This has been extensively discussed in the literature by
from Eq. 共2.25兲 as Green and Naghdi 关60兴, Lubarda and Lee 关33兴, Casey and

l E ⫽⫺
1
␪
⳵T

o ⳵␪ 冉 冊 E
Naghdi 关61兴, Kleiber and Reniecki 关62兴, Dashner 关37兴, Casey
关63兴, Dafalias 关38兴, Lubarda 关64兴, and others. In the applica-
tions, however, the decomposition can be made unique by

冋冉 冊 册
1 ⳵ Te additional specifications dictated by the nature of the consid-
⫽⫺ ␪ ␽ ⫺ ␣ 共 T⫹3 ␽ ␬ I兲 (2.30) ered material model. For example, for elastically isotropic

o ⳵␪ Ee materials which remain isotropic in the course of deforma-
tion the stress response from Bp to B does not depend on the
which gives rotation Re appearing in the polar decomposition of elastic

l E⫽
1

o 再
␪ ␣ 共 T⫹3 ␽ ␬ I兲 ⫺
1 d⌳e
␽ d␪
1
: E⫺ 共 ␽ 2 ⫺1 兲 I
2 冋 册冎 deformation gradient Fe⫽Ve•Re . Consequently, the interme-
diate configuration in this case can be defined uniquely by
requiring that elastic unloading takes place without rotation.
(2.31)
Other choices are possible and are discussed in 关64,65兴.
If the elastic moduli are independent of the temperature, In contrast to finite-strain thermoelasticity, considered in
and if the stress components are much smaller than the elas- the previous section, the elastoplasticity is a path-dependent
Appl Mech Rev vol 57, no 2, March 2004
deformation process, which is commonly analyzed by an in-
cremental procedure, following the prescribed loading or de-
formation history. This requires the use of the rate-type mea-
sures of deformation. By introducing the multiplicative
decomposition of deformation gradient 共3.1兲, the velocity
gradient in the current configuration L⫽Ḟ•F⫺1 becomes
L⫽Ḟe•F⫺1 ⫺1 ⫺1
e ⫹Fe• 共 Ḟp•Fp 兲 •Fe
The rate of deformation D and the spin W are given by the
symmetric and antisymmetric part of L, so that
D⫽ 共 Ḟe•F⫺1 ⫺1 ⫺1
e 兲 s⫹ 关 Fe• 共 Ḟp•Fp 兲 •Fe 兴 s
W⫽ 共 Ḟe•F⫺1 ⫺1 ⫺1
e 兲 a⫹ 关 Fe• 共 Ḟp•Fp 兲 •Fe 兴 a
For the later purposes, the second spin tensor appearing on
the right-hand side of Eq. 共3.4兲 is conveniently denoted by
␻p⫽ 关 Fe• 共 Ḟp•F⫺1 ⫺1
p 兲 •Fe 兴 a
3.1 Partition of elastoplastic rate of deformation
Large plastic deformations can affect elastic properties of the
material and change its elastic symmetry group. This, for
example, can happen due to grain 共lattice兲 rotations in a
polycrystalline metal sample and resulting crystallographic
texture. In such cases, the damage variables 共scalars, vectors,
second- or higher-order tensors兲 can be introduced to de-
scribe the degradation of elastic properties and their direc-
tional changes caused by plastic deformation 关66 – 68兴. On
the other hand, in the range of small or moderately large
deformations, it may be appropriate to assume that plastic
deformation does not affect elastic properties of the material.
In this case, the elastic response of an isotropic material is
independent of the rotation superposed to intermediate con-
figuration, and is given by
Fig. 2 The intermediate configuration Bp is obtained from the de-
formed configuration B by destressing to zero stress. The elasto-
plastic deformation gradient is decomposed into its elastic and plas-
tic part, such that F⫽Fe•Fp .
Lubarda: Constitutive theories based on the multiplicative decomposition 99
⳵ ⌿ e共 Ee兲 T
␶⫽Fe• •Fe (3.6)
⳵ Ee
The elastic strain energy per unit unstressed volume (⌿ e
⫽
o ␺ e) is here an isotropic function of the Lagrangian
strain Ee . The plastic deformation is assumed to be incom-
pressible (det Fe⫽det F), so that ␶⫽(det F) ␴ is the Kirch-
(3.2) hoff stress 共the Cauchy stress ␴ weighted by det F). By dif-
ferentiating Eq. 共3.6兲, we obtain
␶˙⫺ 共 Ḟe•F⫺1 ⫺1 T ⫺1
e 兲 • ␶⫺ ␶• 共 Ḟe•Fe 兲 ⫽L̄e : 共 Ḟe•Fe 兲 s (3.7)
(3.3) The rectangular components of the fourth-order elastic
moduli tensor L̄e are
(3.4)
⳵ 2⌿ e
L̄ei jkl ⫽F im
e
F ejn Fe Fe (3.8)
⳵ E mn
e
⳵ E epq kp lq
Equation 共3.7兲 can be rewritten as
(3.5)
␶˙⫺ 共 Ḟe•F⫺1 ⫺1 ⫺1
e 兲 a• ␶⫹ ␶• 共 Ḟe•Fe 兲 a⫽Le : 共 Ḟe•Fe 兲 s (3.9)
with the modified instantaneous moduli given by
1
L ei jkl ⫽L̄ei jkl ⫹ 共 ␶ ik ␦ jl ⫹ ␶ jk ␦ il ⫹ ␶ il ␦ jk ⫹ ␶ jl ␦ ik 兲 (3.10)
2
The elastic deformation gradient Fe is defined relative to
intermediate configuration which evolves during elastoplas-
tic deformation. This causes two difficulties in the identifi-
cation of the elastic part of the rate of deformation 关45兴.
First, since Fe and Fp are specified only to within an arbitrary
rotation, the velocity gradient Ḟe•F⫺1
e and its symmetric and
antisymmetric parts are not unique. Second, the deforming
intermediate configuration also contributes to elastic rate of
deformation, which is not in general given only by (Ḟe
•F⫺1
e ) s . To overcome these difficulties, a kinetic definition
of elastic strain increment is adopted according to which
De dt is defined as a reversible part of the total strain incre-
ment D dt, recovered upon loading-unloading cycle of the
Jaumann stress increment ␶˚ dt. Thus, if L⫺1 e designates the
instantaneous elastic compliances tensor, the inverse of the
instantaneous elastic moduli tensor 共3.10兲, we require that
De⫽L⫺1
e : ␶,
˚ ␶˚ ⫽ ␶˙⫺W• ␶⫹ ␶•W (3.11)
The remaining part of the total rate of deformation,
Dp⫽D⫺De (3.12)
is the plastic part, which gives a residual strain increment left
upon the considered infinitesimal cycle of stress. If the ma-
terial obeys the Ilyushin 关69兴 postulate of positive net work
in an isothermal cycle of strain that involves plastic defor-
mation, the so defined plastic rate of deformation is codirec-
tional with the outward normal to a locally smooth yield
surface in the Cauchy stress space. This definition of plastic
rate of deformation was introduced in the constitutive analy-
sis of elastoplastic deformation by Hill and Rice 关70兴 and
Hill 关71兴.
To identify in Eq. 共3.9兲 the elastic strain rate, in accord
with the kinetic definition 共3.11兲, we eliminate (Ḟe•F⫺1e ) a in
terms of W and ␻p , to obtain
100 Lubarda: Constitutive theories based on the multiplicative decomposition Appl Mech Rev vol 57, no 2, March 2004

␶˚ ⫽Le : 共 Ḟe•F⫺1
e 兲 s⫺ ␻p• ␶⫹ ␶• ␻p (3.13) ␣
˚ ⫽2h Dp⫺c ␣共 Dp:Dp兲 1/2 (3.20)
Consequently, the elastic rate of deformation is given by it follows that

De⫽ 共 Ḟe•F⫺1 ⫺1 1 共 ␴⬘ ⫺ ␣兲 丢 共 ␴⬘ ⫺ ␣兲
e 兲 s⫺Le : 共 ␻p• ␶⫺ ␶• ␻p 兲 (3.14) Dp⫽ : ␶˚ (3.21)
2h 共 1⫺m 兲 共 ␴⬘ ⫺ ␣兲 : 共 ␴⬘ ⫺ ␣兲
The associated plastic rate of deformation is
where
Dp⫽ 关 Fe• 共 Ḟp•F⫺1 ⫺1 ⫺1
p 兲 •Fe 兴 s⫹Le : 共 ␻p• ␶⫺ ␶• ␻p 兲 (3.15)
c 共 ␴⬘ ⫺ ␣兲 : ␣
Since L⫺1 e and ␶ in Eq. 共3.11兲 are independent of the super-
˚ m⫽
2 h 关共 ␴⬘ ⫺ ␣兲 : 共 ␴⬘ ⫺ ␣兲兴 1/2
(3.22)
posed rotation to intermediate configuration, Eq. 共3.14兲
specifies De uniquely. In contrast, its constituents, (Ḟe The parameters h and c are the material parameters. Other
•F⫺1 hardening models are discussed in the books by Khan and
e ) s and the term dependent on the spin ␻p , do depend on
the choice of intermediate configuration. Similar remarks ap- Huang 关72兴 and Simo and Hughes 关73兴. The formulation of
ply to plastic rate of deformation Dp in its representation the elastoplastic constitutive theory by using the yield sur-
共3.15兲. It is Dp that is normal to the yield surface, and not the face in strain space is presented by Hill 关71兴, Casey and
first term on the right-hand side of Eq. 共3.15兲. In transform- Naghdi 关74兴, Naghdi 关43兴, and Lubarda 关75,76兴. Additional
ing the velocity gradient Ḟp•F⫺1 from intermediate to cur- references are available in Naghdi’s review 关43兴.
p
rent configuration by elastic deformation, the corresponding The partition of the total rate of deformation into its elas-
tic and plastic parts within the framework of the multiplica-
rate of deformation 关 Fe•(Ḟp•F⫺1 ⫺1
p )•Fe 兴 s is equal to plastic
tive decomposition has been a topic of active research and
rate of deformation Dp , with an elastic contribution due to
some debate for number of years. Representative references
stress rate ␻p• ␶⫺ ␶• ␻p subtracted off; Hill and Havner 关7兴.
include Kratochvil 关77兴, Nemat-Nasser 关31,32兴, Lubarda and
If elastic components of strain are infinitesimally small,
Lee 关33兴, Johnson and Bammann 关34兴, Simo and Ortiz 关35兴,
then the instantaneous elastic compliances tensor is obtained
Needleman 关36兴, Moran et al 关42兴, Agah-Tehrani et al 关40兴,
by an explicit inversion of the elastic moduli tensor as
Dafalias 关38,39兴, Van der Giessen 关41兴, Naghdi 关43兴, Lubarda
L⫺1
e ⫽
1
2␮ 冉
II⫺
␭
2 ␮ ⫹3␭
I丢 I ⫽
1
2␮
J⫹
1
3␬ 冊
K (3.16)
关64,78兴, and Xiao et al 关46兴. For elastically anisotropic ma-
terials, the papers by Aravas 关44兴, Lubarda 关79兴, and Stein-
mann et al 关80兴 can be consulted.
where J⫹K⫽II, and
1 1 3.2 Analysis of elastic rate of deformation
II i jkl ⫽ 共 ␦ ik ␦ jl ⫹ ␦ il ␦ jk 兲 , K i jkl ⫽ ␦ i j ␦ kl (3.17)
2 3
The elastic rate of deformation of an elastically isotropic
The right hand side of 共3.14兲 is the correct expression for material can be expressed in terms of the kinematic quanti-
the elastic rate of deformation, and not (Ḟe•F⫺1 e ) s alone.
ties only, as
Only if the intermediate configuration 共ie, the rotation Re
during the destressing program兲 is chosen such that the spin De⫽ 共 Ḟe•F⫺1 ⫺1 ⫺1
e 兲 s⫽ 共 Ḟe•Fe 兲 s⫹ 共 Fe•⍀p•Fe 兲 s (3.23)
␻p⫽0, the rate of deformation (Ḟe•F⫺1 e ) s is exactly equal to The Jaumann derivative of Fe is here defined by
De . Within the framework under discussion, this choice of
the spin represents a geometric 共kinematic兲 specification of Ḟe⫽Ḟe⫺⍀p•Fe⫹Fe•⍀p (3.24)
the intermediate configuration. It is not a constitutive as- which represents the rate of Fe observed in the coordinate
sumption and has no consequences on 共3.14兲. We could just systems that rotate with the spin ⍀p in both the current and
as well define the intermediate configuration by requiring the intermediate configuration. The spin ⍀p is defined as the
that the spin (Ḟe•F⫺1
e ) a vanishes identically. In this case, solution of the matrix equation
␻p⫽W. The end result is still equation 共3.14兲, as can be
checked by inspection. 共 Ḟe•F⫺1 ⫺1
e 兲 a⫹ 共 Fe•⍀p•Fe 兲 a⫽W (3.25)
The constitutive structure for the plastic part of the rate of The proof for the representation 共3.23兲 proceeds by applying
deformation tensor is constructed by using the concept of the the Jaumann derivative with respect to ⍀p to both sides of
yield surface. This gives Eq. 共3.6兲, which gives

Dp⫽ 冉
1 ⳵f
丢
H ⳵␴ ⳵␴
⳵f
: ␶˚ 冊 (3.18) ␶˙ ⫽ 共 Ḟe•F⫺1 ⫺1 T
e 兲 • ␶⫹ ␶• 共 Ḟe•Fe 兲 ⫹Fe• 冉 ⳵ 2⌿ e
冊
:Ė •FTe
⳵ Ee 丢 ⳵ Ee e
where H is a scalar parameter of the deformation history, and (3.26)
f ⫽0 defines the yield surface. For example, in then case of Since
kinematic hardening with the von Mises type yield condition
Ḟe•F⫺1
e ⫽De⫹W⫺⍀p (3.27)
1
f ⫽ 共 ␴⬘ ⫺ ␣兲 : 共 ␴⬘ ⫺ ␣兲 ⫺K 2 ⫽0 (3.19) the substitution into Eq. 共3.26兲 yields
2
and the Armstrong–Frederick evolution of the back stress ␶˚ ⫽Le :De , De⫽ 共 Ḟe•F⫺1
e 兲s (3.28)
Appl Mech Rev vol 57, no 2, March 2004 Lubarda: Constitutive theories based on the multiplicative decomposition 101

The two contributions to the elastic rate of deformation De where Fp is the part due to slip only, while F is due to
*
in Eq. 共3.23兲 depend on the choice of intermediate configu- lattice stretching and rotation 共Fig. 3兲. Denote the unit vector
␣
ration, ie, on the elastic rotation Re of destressing program, in the slip direction by so and the unit normal to the corre-
but their sum giving De does not. If elastic destressing is sponding slip plane in the undeformed configuration by m␣o ,
performed without rotation (Re⫽I), the spin ⍀p⫽⍀op is the where ␣ designates the slip system. The vector s␣o is embed-
solution of ded in the lattice, so that it becomes s␣ ⫽F •s␣o in the de-
*
formed configuration. The normal to the slip plane in the
共 V̇e•V⫺1 o ⫺1
e 兲 a⫹ 共 Ve•⍀p•Ve 兲 a⫽W (3.29) deformed configuration is defined by the reciprocal vector
This uniquely defines ⍀op in terms of W, Ve and V̇e . The m␣ ⫽m␣o •F⫺1 , ie,
*
elastic rate of deformation 共3.23兲 is in this case
s␣ ⫽F •s␣o , m␣ ⫽m␣o •F⫺1 (3.34)
* *
De⫽ 共 V̇e•V⫺1 ⫺1 ⫺1
e 兲 s⫽ 共 V̇e•Ve 兲 s⫹ 共 Ve•⍀p•Ve 兲 s
o
(3.30) The velocity gradient in the intermediate configuration is a
The first term on the far right-hand side represents the con- consequence of the slip rates ␥˙ ␣ over n active slip systems,
tribution to De from the elastic stretching rate (V̇e•V⫺1
e )s ,
such that
while the second term depends on the spin ⍀op and accounts n
for the effects of deforming and rotating intermediate con-
figuration 关31,44,62兴.
Ḟp•F⫺1
p ⫽ 兺
␣ ⫽1
␥˙ ␣ s␣o 丢 m␣o (3.35)

The representation of the elastic rate of deformation in

Using 共3.34兲, the corresponding tensor in the deformed con-
Eq. 共3.23兲 involves only kinematic quantities (Fe and ⍀p),
figuration is
while the representation 共3.14兲 involves both kinematic and
kinetic quantities. Clearly, n

共 Fe•⍀p•F⫺1 ⫺1
e 兲 s⫽⫺Le : 共 ␻p• ␶⫺ ␶• ␻p 兲 (3.31)
F • 共 Ḟp•F⫺1
*
⫺1
p 兲 •F ⫽
* 兺
␣ ⫽1
共 P␣ ⫹Q␣ 兲 ␥˙ ␣ (3.36)

Note also that the elastic strain expression 共3.23兲 can be re- where the second-order tensors P␣ and Q␣ are defined by
cast in the form
P␣ ⫽ 共 s␣ 丢 m␣ 兲 s , Q␣ ⫽ 共 s␣ 丢 m␣ 兲 a (3.37)
1
De⫽ F⫺T •Ċe•F⫺1
e , Ċe⫽Ċe⫺⍀p•Ce⫹Ce•⍀p (3.32) By decomposing the lattice velocity gradient L into its
2 e *
symmetric and anti-symmetric part, the lattice rate of defor-
The expressions 共3.23兲 and 共3.32兲 hold for elastoplastic de- mation D and the lattice spin W , there follows
* *
formations of elastically isotropic materials, regardless of n n
whether the material hardens isotropically or anisotropically
during the deformation process.
D⫽D ⫹
* ␣ ⫽1
兺 ␣
P ␥
˙ , ␣
W⫽W ⫹
* 兺
␣ ⫽1
Q␣ ␥
˙␣ (3.38)
Additional analysis of the elastic rate of deformation and
the partition of the total rate of deformation into its elastic
and plastic parts can be found in cited papers. There has also
been an extensive research devoted to plastic spin and its role
in phenomenological elastoplasticity theory. The papers by
Lee et al 关81兴, Loret 关82兴, Dafalias 关83,84兴, Zbib and Aifantis
关85兴, Van der Giessen 关86兴, Nemat-Nasser 关87兴, Lubarda and
Shih 关45兴, and the review by Dafalias 关88兴 can be consulted
in this regard.

3.3 Crystal plasticity

In single crystals for which crystallographic slip is assumed
to be the only mechanism of plastic deformation, the mate-
rial flows through the lattice via dislocation motion, while
the lattice itself, with the material embedded to it, undergoes
elastic deformation and rotation. If the discrete dislocation
substructure is ignored, the plastic deformation can be con-
sidered to occur in the form of smooth shearing on the slip
planes and in the slip directions. This continuum slip model
from the pioneering work of Taylor 关89兴 was employed and Fig. 3 Kinematic model of elastoplastic deformation of a single
further developed by Hill and Rice 关90兴, Mandel 关91兴, Asaro crystal. The material flows through the crystalline lattice by crys-
and Rice 关6兴, Hill and Havner 关7兴, and Asaro 关8,9兴. The de- tallographic slip, which gives rise to deformation gradient Fp . Sub-
formation gradient is decomposed as sequently, the material with embedded lattice deforms elastically
from the intermediate to current configuration. The corresponding
F⫽F •Fp (3.33) deformation gradient is F .
* *
102 Lubarda: Constitutive theories based on the multiplicative decomposition Appl Mech Rev vol 57, no 2, March 2004

Since crystallographic slip is an isochoric deformation n

process, the elastic strain energy per unit initial volume can ␶˚ ⫽L :D⫺ 兺 C␣ ␥
˙␣ (3.47)
* ␣ ⫽1
be written as ⌿ e⫽⌿ e(E ). The scalar function ⌿ e depends
*
on the strain components expressed in the coordinate system where
with fixed orientation relative to the lattice orientation in Bo
and Bp . This is noted because for anisotropic crystals ⌿ e is C␣ ⫽L :P␣ ⫹ 共 Q␣ • ␶⫺ ␶•Q␣ 兲 (3.48)
*
not an isotropic scalar function of E , and its representation
* The elastic part of the stress rate ␶˚ is
depends on the selected coordinate system. It is also assumed
that elastic properties of the crystal are not affected by the
crystallographic slip. The symmetric Piola–Kirchhoff stress 共 ␶˚ 兲 e⫽L :D (3.49)
*
with respect to lattice deformation is then since only the remaining part of the stress rate depends on
⳵⌿e the slip rates ␥˙ ␣ . This is the plastic part
T ⫽ (3.39)
* ⳵E n
*
The stress tensor T is related to the Kirchhoff stress ␶ by ( ␶˚ ) p⫽⫺ 兺
␣ ⫽1
C␣ ␥
˙␣ (3.50)
*
T ⫽F⫺1 • ␶•F⫺T (3.40) For the rate-independent elastoplastic crystal, it is com-
* * *
The plastic incompressibility is assumed, so that det F monly assumed that plastic flow occurs on a slip system
⫽det F. The rate of the Piola–Kirchhoff stress Ṫ can be
* when the resolved shear stress ␶ ␣ ⫽P␣ : ␶⫽s• ␶•m on that
␣
*
expressed in terms of the convected rate of the Kirchhoff system reaches the critical value ( ␶ ␣ ⫽ ␶ cr ). The rate of
stress ␶ as 关92兴
䉱
change of the critical value of the resolved shear stress on a
given slip system is specified by the hardening law
䉱 䉱
Ṫ ⫽F⫺1 • ␶•F⫺T , ␶ ⫽ ␶˙⫺L • ␶⫺ ␶•LT (3.41) n0
* * * * *
It can be readily verified that
␣
␶˙ cr ⫽ 兺
␤ ⫽1
˙ ␤,
h ␣␤ ␥ ␣ ⫽1,2, . . . ,N (3.51)

䉱 䉭
␶ ⫽ ␶⫹ 共 L⫺L* 兲 • ␶⫹ ␶• 共 L⫺L* 兲 T (3.42) The total number of all available slip systems is N, while n 0
䉭 is the number of critical 共potentially active兲 slip systems, for
where ␶ is the convected rate of the Kirchhoff stress with ␣
which ␶ ␣ ⫽ ␶ cr . The coefficients h ␣␤ are the slip-plane hard-
respect to total velocity gradient L. Similarly, ening rates 共moduli兲. The moduli corresponding to ␣ ⫽ ␤
n represent the self-hardening on a given slip system, while
␶˙⫽ ␶˚ ⫹ 兺 共 Q␣ • ␶⫺ ␶•Q␣ 兲 ␥˙ ␣ (3.43) ␣ ⫽ ␤ moduli represent the latent hardening. Different latent
␣ ⫽1 hardening theories, with the reference to original work, are
where ␶˙ and ␶˚ are the Jaumann rates of the Kirchhoff stress examined in the book by Havner 关10兴. It can be shown that
with respect to the lattice and total spin (W* and W兲, n

respectively. ␥˙ ␣ ⫽ 兺 g ␣␤
⫺1 ␤
C :D (3.52)
␤ ⫽1
On the other hand, taking the time derivative in Eq.
共3.39兲, there follows where n⭐n 0 is the number of active slip systems, and
⳵ ⌿e2
g ␣␤ ⫽h ␣␤ ⫹C␣ :P␤ (3.53)
Ṫ ⫽⌳
¯ :Ė , ⌳
¯ ⫽ (3.44)
* * * * ⳵E 丢 ⳵E
* *
In Eq. 共3.52兲, it is assumed that the inverse matrix, whose
Substituting the first of 共3.41兲 into Eq. 共3.44兲, we deduce components are designated by g ␣␤ ⫺1
, exists. The substitution
䉱 into Eq. 共3.50兲, in conjunction with Eq. 共3.49兲, yields the
␶ ⫽L̄ :D , L̄ ⫽F F ¯⌳ FT FT (3.45) final constitutive structure for elastoplastic deformation of a
* * * * * * * *
If the Jaumann rate corotational with the lattice spin is used, single crystal

冉 冊
Eq. 共3.45兲 can be recast in the form n n

␶˙ ⫽L :D
* *
(3.46) ␶˚ ⫽ L ⫺
* 兺 兺
␣ ⫽1 ␤ ⫽1
⫺1 ␣
g ␣␤ C 丢 C␤ :D (3.54)

The relationship between the corresponding elastic moduli

tensors is specified by an equation such as 共3.10兲. Along
elastic branch of the response 共elastic unloading from an
elastoplastic state兲, the total and the lattice velocity gradients
coincide, so that L ⫽L and ␶˙⫽ ␶˚ .
*
The rate-type constitutive framework for the elastoplastic
loading of a single crystal is obtained by substituting Eq.
共3.43兲 into Eq. 共3.46兲. The result is
4 BIOMECHANICS
The analysis of the stress-modulated growth of living tissues
and other biomaterials has been an important research topic
in biomechanics during past several decades. Early work in-
cludes a study of the relationship between mechanical loads
and uniform growth by Hsu 关93兴, and a study of the mass
deposition and resorption processes in hard tissues by Cowin
Appl Mech Rev vol 57, no 2, March 2004 Lubarda: Constitutive theories based on the multiplicative decomposition 103

and Hegedus 关94兴. The latter work provided the governing
equations of the so-called adaptive elasticity theory, in which
an elastic material adopts its structure to applied loading.
Fundamental contribution was further made by Skalak et al
关95兴 in the analytical description of the volumetrically dis-
tributed mass growth, and the mass growth by deposition or
resorption on the surface. The origin and the role of the
residual stresses in biological tissues have been examined
both analytically and experimentally by many researchers.
The review papers by Taber 关96兴 and Humphrey 关97兴 contain
an extensive list of pertinent references. In contrast to hard
tissues 共bones兲, which undergo only small deformations, soft
tissues such as blood vessels and tendons can experience
large deformations. An important step toward the general
analysis of finite volumetric growth of pseudo-elastic soft
tissues was made by Rodrigez et al 关11兴, who decomposed
the total deformation gradient into its elastic and growth part.
The subsequent work includes the contributions by Taber and
Eggers 关12兴, Taber and Perucchio 关52兴, Chen and Hoger 关13兴,
Klisch and Van Dyke 关14兴, and Lubarda and Hoger 关15兴.
We assume that material points are everywhere dense dur-
ing the volumetric mass growth, so that in any small neigh-
borhood around the particle there are always points that ex-
isted before the growth. This assumption enables us to treat
the problems of volumetric mass growth by using the usual
continuum mechanics concepts, such as deformation gradient
and strain tensors. The deformation gradient in the biome-
chanic theory of volumetric mass growth is due to both, the
mass growth and the deformation caused by externally ap-
plied and the growth-induced stresses. The intermediate con-
figuration Bg is defined by an instantaneous elastic destress-
ing of the current material configuration B to zero stress 共Fig.
4兲, such that
F⫽Fe•Fg (4.1)
In addition, we have
g J g⫽
J and
g⫽
J e , because dV
⫽J e dV g and J⫽J eJ g . The Jacobian of the elastic deforma-
tion is J e⫽det Fe .
Consider an isothermal deformation and growth process.
Denote the set of structural tensors that describe the state of
elastic anisotropy in both initial and intermediate configura-
tion by So. For simplicity, it will be assumed that the state of
elastic anisotropy remains unaltered during the growth and
deformation processes. The elastic strain energy per unit cur-
rent mass is then an isotropic function of the elastic strain Ee
and the tensors So, so that ␺ e⫽ ␺ e(Ee ,So,
og) and
⳵ 共
og␺ e兲 T ⳵ 共
og␺ e兲 T
␶⫽Fe• •Fe ⫽2Fe• •Fe (4.6)
⳵ Ee ⳵ Ce
For example, suppose that the material in the initial configu-
ration B 0 is characterized by an orthogonal network of fibers
as orthotropic. Let the unit vectors m0 , n0 , and m0 ⫻n0
specify the principal axes of orthotropy in both the initial and
the intermediate configuration. The intermediate configura-
tion has the same fiber orientation relative to the fixed frame
of reference as does the initial configuration. The orthotropic
symmetry will remain preserved during the mass growth if
the fibers are embedded in the material, and if Fg is defined
such that m0 and n0 are its eigendirections, ie,
Fg•m0 ⫽ ␩ g m0 , Fg•n0 ⫽ ␨ g n0
Fg• 共 m0 ⫻n0 兲 ⫽ ␽ g共 m0 ⫻n0 兲 (4.7)
The stretch ratios ␩ g and ␨ g are the stretch ratios in the
directions m0 and n0 , while ␽ g is the stretch ratio in the
direction m0 ⫻n0 . The infinitesimal fiber segments in the
configuration B are obtained from those in the intermediate
configuration by elastic embedding. For example, m⫽Fe

This decomposition is formally analogous to the previously

considered thermoelastic and elastoplastic decompositions.
The modification of the decomposition to account for the
residually stressed reference configuration was suggested by
Hoger et al 关53兴.
If the mass of an infinitesimal volume element in the ini-
tial configuration is dm o⫽
o dV o, then the mass of the cor-
responding element in configurations Bg and B is

dm⫽
g dV g⫽
dV (4.2)

Since

dm⫽dm o⫹ 冕 0
t
r og d␶ dV o (4.3)

where r 0g is the time rate of the mass growth per unit initial
volume, and having regard to

dV g⫽J g dV o, J g⫽det Fg (4.4)

Fig. 4 Schematic representation of the multiplicative decomposi-
it follows that
tion of deformation gradient into its elastic and growth parts. The

冕 t
mass of an infinitesimal volume element in the initial configuration

g J g⫽
o⫹ r og d␶ (4.5) B o is dm o. The corresponding mass in the configurations Bg and B
0 is dm.
104 Lubarda: Constitutive theories based on the multiplicative decomposition Appl Mech Rev vol 57, no 2, March 2004

•m0 and n⫽Fe•n0 . The elastic strain energy per unit initial Eq. 共4.15兲 gives

冉 冊
volume is in this case an isotropic function of the elastic
⳵␶ o
strain tensor Ee , and the structural tensors m0 丢 m0 and n0 De⫽D⫺dg⫺L⫺1
e : ␻g• ␶⫺ ␶• ␻g⫺ r (4.17)
丢 n0 .
⳵
og g
According to Eq. 共4.11兲, this is the elastic part of the rate of
4.1 Partition of the rate of deformation deformation tensor. The growth part of the rate of deforma-
The stress-modulated growth of pseudo-elastic soft tissues is tion is accordingly

冉 冊
a path-dependent process, since the whole stress history dur-
⳵␶ o
ing the growth process may affect the current state of the Dg⫽dg⫹L⫺1
e : ␻g• ␶⫺ ␶• ␻g⫺ r (4.18)
grown tissue. Thus, similarly to path-dependent elastoplastic- ⳵
og g
ity, we proceed with the introduction of the rate-type kine-
matic quantities. In view of the decomposition 共4.1兲, the ve- 4.2 Isotropic mass growth
locity gradient in the current configuration can be expressed For isotropic materials, which remain isotropic during the
as mass growth and deformation, the elastic strain energy is an
isotropic function of elastic deformation tensor Ce⫽FTe •Fe ,
L⫽Ḟe•F⫺1 ⫺1 ⫺1
e ⫹Fe• 共 Ḟg•Fg 兲 •Fe (4.8) ie,
The symmetric and antisymmetric part of the second term on
␺ e⫽ ␺ e共 Ce ,
og兲 ⫽ ␺ e共 I C ,II C ,III C ,
og兲 (4.19)
the right-hand side will be denoted by
The principal invariants of Ce are
dg⫽ 关 Fe• 共 Ḟg•F⫺1 ⫺1
g 兲 •Fe 兴 s , ␻g⫽ 关 Fe• 共 Ḟg•F⫺1 ⫺1
g 兲 •Fe 兴 a
(4.9) 1
I C ⫽trCe , II C ⫽ 关 tr共 C2e 兲 ⫺ 共 tr Ce兲 2 兴 , III C ⫽det Ce
The total rate of deformation tensor can be additively decom- 2
posed into its elastic and plastic part, such that (4.20)
D⫽De⫹Dg (4.10) The corresponding Kirchhoff stress follows from Eq. 共4.6兲,
The elastic part of the rate of deformation tensor will be ␶⫽2 共 c 2 I⫹c 0 Be ⫹c 1 B2e 兲 (4.21)
defined by the kinetic relation
The left Cauchy–Green deformation tensor due to elastic
De⫽L⫺1
e : ␶,
˚ ␶˚ ⫽ ␶˙⫺W• ␶⫹ ␶•W (4.11) deformation is Be⫽Fe•FTe . The scalar coefficients appearing
where ␶˚ is the Jaumann rate of the Kirchhoff stress, and Le in Eq. 共4.21兲 are
is the instantaneous elastic moduli tensor of a considered ⳵ 共
og␺ e兲 ⳵ 共
og␺ e兲
tissue. The remaining part of the total rate of deformation c 0⫽ ⫺I C
(Dg⫽D⫺De) will be referred to as the growth part of the ⳵IC ⳵ II C
rate of deformation. To derive an expression for Dg , we dif- ⳵ 共
og␺ e兲 ⳵ 共
og␺ e兲
ferentiate Eq. 共4.6兲 to obtain c 1⫽ , c 2 ⫽III C (4.22)
⳵ II C ⳵ III C
␶˙⫽ 共 Ḟe•F⫺1 ⫺1 T
e 兲 • ␶⫹ ␶• 共 Ḟe•Fe 兲 ⫹Fe• 共 ⌳e :Ėe 兲 •Fe
T
If the mass growth takes place isotropically, the growth
⳵␶ part of deformation gradient is
⫹ o r og (4.12)
⳵
g Fg⫽ ␽ g I (4.23)
where The isotropic stretch ratio due to volumetric mass growth is
⳵2
共
og␺ e兲⳵ 2
共
og␺ e兲 denoted by ␽ g . This is the ratio of the corresponding infini-
⌳e⫽ ⫽4 (4.13) tesimal material lengths in the configurations B o and Bg . It
⳵ Ee 丢 ⳵ Ee ⳵ Ce 丢 ⳵ Ce
readily follows that the velocity gradient in the intermediate
and configuration is
⳵␶ ⳵ 2 共
og␺ e兲 T ⳵ 2 共
og␺ e兲 T
⫽Fe• •Fe ⫽2 Fe• •F (4.14) ␽˙ g
⳵
og ⳵ Ee ⳵
og ⳵ Ce ⳵
og e Ḟg•F⫺1
g ⫽ I (4.24)
␽g
The structural tensors So remain unchanged during the dif-
The velocity gradient in the current configuration is conse-
ferentiation. Equivalently, Eq. 共4.12兲 can be written as
quently
⳵␶ o
␶˚ ⫽Le : 共 Ḟe•F⫺1
e 兲 s⫺ ␻g• ␶⫹ ␶• ␻g⫹ r (4.15) ␽˙ g
⳵
og g L⫽Ḟe•F⫺1
e ⫹ I (4.25)
␽g
The rectangular components of the elastic moduli tensor Le
are defined by Eq. 共3.10兲. Since Since the spin tensor ␻g⫽0 in the case of isotropic mass
growth, the growth part of the rate of deformation tensor
共 Ḟe•F⫺1
e 兲 s⫽D⫺dg (4.16) becomes
Appl Mech Rev vol 57, no 2, March 2004 Lubarda: Constitutive theories based on the multiplicative decomposition 105

Dg⫽
␽˙ g
␽g
I⫺L⫺1
e : 冉 冊
⳵␶ o
r
⳵
og g
(4.26)
Lubarda and Hoger 关15兴 studied the structure of the evo-
lution equations for the stretch ratios in different types of
anisotropic biomaterials. For an isotropic tissue, they pro-
which follows from Eq. 共4.18兲. The explicit representation posed the following expression
for the rectangular components of the elastic moduli tensor ␽˙ g⫽ f ␽ 共 ␽ g ,tr Te兲 (4.33)
Le can be found in Lubarda and Hoger 关15兴. In contrast to
phenomenological elastoplasticity, where appropriate plastic- The tensor Te is the symmetric Piola–Kirchhoff stress with
ity postulates can be used to guide the construction of the respect to intermediate configuration Bg . Equation 共4.33兲 in
constitutive expression for the plastic rate of deformation, effect specifies the volume increase by mass growth, since
the growth part of deformation tensor in the considered
model of tissue growth is deduced from the representation of
the growth part of deformation gradient, and the evolution
冉 冊
d dV g
dt dV o
⫽ 共 det Fg兲 tr共 Ḟg•F⫺1
g 兲 ⫽3 ␽ g ␽ g
2 ˙
(4.34)

equation for the corresponding growth stretch ratio. For isotropic mass growth, only the spherical part of the
Various forms of the strain energy function were proposed stress tensor Te is assumed to affect the change of the stretch
in the literature for different biological materials. The articles ratio. The spherical part of Te can be expressed in terms of
by Holzapfel et al 关98兴 and Sacks 关99兴 contain a number of the Cauchy stress ␴ and the elastic deformation as
pertinent references. Following Fung’s 关100,101兴 proposal
trTe⫽J e B⫺1
e :␴ (4.35)
for vascular soft tissues, modeled as incompressible elastic
materials, the elastic strain energy per unit initial volume can The simplest evolution of the stretch ratio incorporates a
be taken as linear dependence on stress, such that
1 1 1 ␽˙ g⫽k ␽ 共 ␽ g兲 tr Te (4.36)

og ␺ e⫽ ␣ 0 关 exp共 Q 兲 ⫺Q⫺1 兴 ⫹ q⫺ p 共 III C ⫺1 兲
2 2 2
This implies that the growth-equilibrium stress is equal to
(4.27)
zero ( ␽
˙ g⫽0 when trTe⫽0). The coefficient k ␽ may be con-
Here, Q and q are the polynomials in the invariants of Ce , stant, or dependent on ␽ g . For example, k ␽ may take one
which include terms up to the fourth order in elastic stretch value during the development of the tissue, and another
ratios, ie, value during the normal maturity. Yet another value may be
Q⫽ ␣ 1 共 I C ⫺3 兲 ⫹ ␣ 2 共 II C ⫺3 兲 ⫹ ␣ 3 共 I C ⫺3 兲 2 (4.28) characteristic for abnormal conditions, such as occur in
thickening of blood vessels under hypertension. To prevent
q⫽ ␤ 1 共 I C ⫺3 兲 ⫹ ␤ 2 共 II C ⫺3 兲 ⫹ ␤ 3 共 I C ⫺3 兲 2
(4.29) an unlimited growth at non-zero stress, the following expres-
The incompressibility constraint is III C ⫺1⫽0, and the pres- sion for the function k ␽ in Eq. 共4.36兲 is suggested
sure p plays the role of the Lagrangian multiplier. The ␣’s
冉 冊
⫹
␽⫹
g ⫺␽g
m␽
and ␤’s are the material parameters. In order that the inter- k ␽ 共 ␽ g兲 ⫽k ␽⫹0 , tr Te⬎0 (4.37)
mediate configuration is unstressed, it is required that ␤ 1 ␽⫹
g ⫺1
⫺2 ␤ 2 ⫽Jp. The effects of supra-physiologic temperatures where ␽ ⫹g ⬎1 is the limiting value of the stretch ratio that
on the mechanical response of tissues is discussed by Hum- can be reached by mass growth, and k ␽⫹0 and m ␽⫹ are the
phrey 关102兴. appropriate constants 共material parameters兲. If the mass
growth is homogeneous throughout the body, ␽ ⫹ g is constant,
4.3 Evolution equation for stretch ratio but for a non-uniform mass growth caused by non-uniform
The constitutive formulation is completed by specifying an biochemical properties, ␽ ⫹g may be different at different
appropriate evolution equation for the stretch ratio ␽ g . In the points 共for example, inner and outer layers of an aorta may
particular, but for the tissue mechanics important special have different growth potentials, in addition to stress-
case, when the growth takes place in a density preserving modulated growth effects兲. It is assumed that the stress-
manner (
g⫽
o), we have from Eq. 共4.24兲 modulated growth occurs under tension, while resorption
takes place under compression. In the latter case
␽˙ g r g
tr共 Ḟg•F⫺1
冉 冊
⫺
g 兲 ⫽3 ⫽ (4.30) ␽ g⫺ ␽ ⫺ m␽
␽g
k ␽ 共 ␽ g兲 ⫽k ␽⫺0
g
, trTe⬍0 (4.38)
1⫺ ␽ ⫺
Thus, recalling that r g /
⫽r og/
og , the rate of mass growth g

r og⫽d
og/dt can be expressed in terms of the rate of stretch where ␽ ⫺g ⬍1 is the limiting value of the stretch ratio that
ratio as can be reached by mass resorption. For generality, the re-
sorption parameters k ␽⫺0 and m ␽⫺ are taken to be different
␽
˙g
than those in growth.
r og⫽3
og (4.31)
␽g Other evolution equations were also suggested in the lit-
Upon integration of Eq. 共4.31兲, taking into account the initial erature, motivated by the possibilities of growth and resorp-
conditions ␽ og⫽1 and
og⫽
o, there follows tion. The most well-known is the evolution equation for mass
growth in terms of a nonlinear function of stress, which in-

og⫽
o␽ 3g (4.32) cludes three growth-equilibrium states of stress 关103兴. The
106 Lubarda: Constitutive theories based on the multiplicative decomposition
material parameters in these expressions are specified in ac-
cordance with experimental data for a particular tissue. Ap-
pealing tests include those with a transmural radial cut
through the blood vessel, which relieves the residual stresses
due to differential growth of its inner and outer layers. The
opening angle provides a convenient measure of the circum-
ferential residual strain, as discussed by Liu and Fung
关104,105兴, Humphrey 关97兴, Taber and Eggers 关12兴, and
others.
5 CONCLUSIONS
Some fundamental issues in the formulation of constitutive
theories of material response based on the multiplicative de-
composition of the deformation gradient are reviewed in this
paper. Large deformations of thermoelastic and elastoplastic
materials are considered, as well as large growth-induced
deformations of pseudo-elastic soft tissues. The use of the
multiplicative decomposition of the deformation gradient in
thermoelasticity and phenomenological polycrystalline plas-
ticity can be regarded to large extent as optional, since these
constitutive formulations can also proceed without the intro-
duction of the decomposition 共eg, Truesdell and Noll 关106兴
for thermoelasticity and Hill 关71兴 for elastoplasticity兲. Some
of the results derived on the basis of thermoelastic decom-
position, however, appear to be more suitable for the incor-
poration of experimental data for the temperature dependent
elastic moduli, thermal expansion, and specific heats 共Sec-
tion 2兲. The kinematic and kinetic aspects of the partition of
the stress and strain rates in phenomenological elastoplastic-
ity are richer or more illuminating when addressed in the
framework of the multiplicative decomposition, which was
discussed in Section 3. This is particularly the case when
large elastic deformations accompany plastic deformations,
as occurs under high pressure dynamic loading. Furthermore,
there is an important application of the multiplicative
decomposition of the deformation gradient in damage-
elastoplasticity 关66,67,107兴, where plastic deformation sig-
nificantly affects the initial elastic properties of the material.
The multiplicative decomposition was also successfully em-
ployed in the constitutive analysis of various polymeric ma-
terials 关108 –112兴. In monocrystalline plasticity, the multipli-
cative decomposition of the deformation gradient is regarded
and commonly adopted as the most suitable framework to
cast the constitutive analysis of large slip-induced elastoplas-
tic deformation of single crystals 关8 –10兴. The application of
the multiplicative decomposition to the study of the stress-
modulated growth of pseudo-elastic soft tissues, such as
blood vessels and tendons, is more recent and least explored.
This was reviewed in Section 4. The extent of the utility of
the decomposition for such problems and its possible advan-
tages, in spite of some early promising results by Klisch and
Van Dyke 关14兴 and Lubarda and Hoger 关15兴, remain to be
seen.
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Vlado A Lubarda received his mechanical engineering degree from the University of Montenegro in
1975 and his PhD from Stanford University in 1980. He has been a Docent and Associate Professor
at the University of Montenegro from 1980–1989, and a Fulbright Fellow and Visiting Associate
Professor at Brown University from 1989–1991 and Arizona State University from 1992–1997.
Presently, he is Adjunct Professor of Applied Mechanics in the Department of Mechanical and
Aerospace Engineering at the University of California, San Diego. He has done research work in
constitutive theory of large deformation elastoplasticity, damage mechanics, and dislocation theory.
He is the author of 95 journal and conference publications and two books: Strength of Materials
(University of Montenegro Press, 584 pages), and Elastoplasticity Theory (CRC Press, 638 pages).
He has served as a reviewer to numerous international journals of mechanics and applied math-
ematics and was elected in 2000 to the Montenegrin Academy of Sciences and Arts.