10 Concrete repair Objective When you have gone through this chapter you should be able to explain how concrete deteriorates know which conditions are particularly important to examine during a condi- tion survey be able to explain the procedure for mechanical repair of concrete know of electrochemical methods used for concrete rehabilitation Introduction During the last twenty years concrete corrosion has received increasing attention. By concrete corrosion is meant deterioration of the concrete material itself and of the reinforcement steel. The cause of the corrosion is attacks by acidic pollutants. Formerly, concrete was considered to be almost everlasting. Today, concrete repairs have become a major field of work. In some cases the work is carried out by anticorrosion contractors, in other cases by other specialists. Extensive knowledge and experience is required in order for the repair work to be carried out properly. Many rehabilitation jobs have been carried out which did not come up to standard. This chapter only provides a brief introduction to the subject and begins with a description of the composition of concrete, and which are the causes of a corrosive attack. The most important steps in an ordinary concrete repair procedure are to assess the condition on the basis of certain investigations clean the concrete remove damaged concrete clean reinforcement bars apply corrosion protection on the reinforcement bars prepare the surface of the reinforcement bars and the repair area to ensure adhe- sion fill repair areas prepare the surface of the concrete and apply plaster and paint. Finally, three methods for electrochemical concrete rehabilitation will be discussed, which are a supplement to traditional repair procedures. 10 Concrete RePaR 259Concrete, composition and properties In order to understand why deterioration of concrete arises and how it can be re- paired, it is necessary to have some knowledge about the composition of concrete and its properties. Concrete contains cement, fine gravel, stone, water and admixtures. The prop- erties of the concrete especially depend upon the amount of cement and the mass ratio between cement and water. Particle grading and type of aggregate, stone and sand, also play important parts. Cement is the binder in the concrete. The cement reacts with the curing compo- nent water. This reaction is called hydration. The water included in this reaction is called crystallization water. The cement type most widely used in concrete is Port- Jand cement. The standards for cement have changed considerably in the course of time. Properties and composition are now standardized in EN 197. The new stand- ard uses the prefix CEM before each type of cement. There are 27 cement types within the standard, grouped into five main cements: CEM1 Portland cement CEM II Portland-composite CEM III Blastfurnace cement CEM IV Pozzolanic cement CEM V_ Composite cement The different cement qualities are divided into strength classes, for example 32.5 and 42.5. The figures indicate the compressive strength which a cube cast in the cement must have obtained after 28 days. The compressive strength is measured in MPa (MegaPascal)=N/mm?. Pozzolan is a material which in itself has no binder properties, but which enters into a reaction with water and calcium hydroxide from the cement. Fly ash and silica fume are examples of pozzolan. Pozzolan can be mixed into the cement when itis manufactured. It can also be added during the production of concrete. In modi- fied Portland cement fly ash is used. The fly ash reduces the cost of the cement without impairing its properties. The mass ratio (weight ratio) of water to cement determines the strength of the concrete. This ratio is called the water-cement ratio or the w/c ratio. Approximately 0.4 kg water is required to react with 1 kg cement. Consequently, in that case the w/c ratio is 0.4. With this amount of water the consistency will be unsuitable for placing. If the water contents are increased, the strength and compaction become less. A w/c ratio of 0.5 is considered to be optimum. When pozzolan has been added to the concrete, this is included together with the cement when the mass ratio is calculated. Various different admixtures are available which are to serve different purposes. Air entraining agents are employed in order to improve the resistance to frost. These agents create a pore structure with large and small pores which prevent water freezing inside the concrete from causing cracking. Plasticizing agents result in a better workability of the concrete, even if it contains little water. These sub- stances are also called water-reducing agents. 260 Corrosion PROTECTIONFigure 10.1 A proper pore structure prevents the water from causing damage by expansion when freezing. The water first fills up the narrow pores Other admixtures may accelerate or retard curing. Calcium chloride has been used. in connection with casting in wintertime as an accelerating agent. This is unfortu- nate because it increases the risk of corrosion. Other substances are available which have an accelerating effect without having the same negative impact as calcium chloride. The casting method and curing conditions also have an influence on the quality of the concrete and on the risk of corrosion damage later on. When casting during wintertime it is important that the temperature of the concrete does not get below the freezing point before the concrete has obtained a certain hardness. Frozen water cannot react in the curing process. Even though the hydration resumes when the water thaws again, the concrete will be extra porous and not very strong. By segregation is meant that the materials in the concrete mixture form separate layers. This can especially be the case of stone and water. Stone segregation results in honeycombing, pockets of stone poorly filled with cement paste. In a water segregation cavities are formed underneath coarse aggregates and underneath the reinforcing steel. This may also result in channels within the concrete. Such cavi- ties and channels are detrimental to the concrete in respect of corrosion later on. Concrete has high compressive strength but low tensile strength. In order to be able to tolerate higher tension the concrete is reinforced with steel bars. Ribbed steel bars are the most widely used reinforcement steel. In some cases the steel is subjected to tensile stresses when the concrete is cast. This is termed pre-stressed concrete. Ever since the 1920’s requirements for the concrete cover over the reinforce- ment steel have been stated in guidelines and standards. The concrete cover means the depth of the concrete from the surface to the reinforcement steel. Previously a distinction was made between slabs and walls on the one hand, and pillars and beams on the other. In the case of concrete in the open air the requirements were previously 15-20 mm on walls and 30-35 mm on beams and pillars. According to Norwegian standards the concrete environments have been di- vided into these classes: Severely aggressive Very aggressive 10 Concrete REPAIR 261.Moderately aggressive Mildly aggressive In the “severely aggressive” class strong chemical attacks may occur and special preventive measures may be necessary. In the case of the other classes requirements for minimum concrete cover and maximum permitted mass ratio have been laid down as follows: Table 10.1 Environmental class Mass ratio Cover | Very aggressive <0.45 >40 mm Moderately aggressive <0.60 >25 mm Mildly aggressive <0.90 >15 mm The cover requirements in the table apply to ordinary reinforcement steel. In the case of pre-stressed reinforcement higher requirements are in force. A European standard for concrete, EN 206, has been worked out. This standard also defines various exposure condition classes which determine the composition of the concrete. The standard will replace national standards in the European coun- tries. Before: 15:20 mm| Conerete cover Now: 15-40 mm Figure 10.2 Concrete cover is the depth of concrete over the steel Carbonation Concrete exposed to external environmental influences, like polluted air and rain undergo chemical changes. The pore water in the concrete contains hydroxides 0 calcium, potassium and sodium. This imparts a high pH value, 12-14, to the water These hydroxides react with carbon dioxide (CO,, carbonic acid) and other acidi« gases present in the air. In this reaction the calcium hydroxide (slaked lime) i transformed into calcium carbonate (i.e. limestone), and the pH is reduced to ap proximately 9. The process usually designated carbonation is actually a neutralization proces where also other compounds than carbonate are formed, including some calciur 262 CoRrROSION PROTECTIONae sulphate (gypsum), which is water soluble, but the carbonation is the predominan: reaction. Carbonation is a natural process taking place as soon as there is any carbor dioxide present in the air. The carbonation makes the concrete more compact and stronger. When the concrete has carbonated, it will no longer protect the reinforce- ment steel against corrosion when conditions are humid. However, if the concrete is not exposed to water which can penetrate to the reinforcement steel, the carbona- tion will have no detrimental effect. In this chapter we will concentrate on carbona- tion as a precursor of the corrosion process. =}— Anode: iron corroaes j— Cathode: OH is frre Figure 10.3 a and b Carbon dioxide (carbonic acid) in the air reacts with ri concrete. This is called carbonation. In carbonated concrete the reinforceme: steel is no longer protected against corrosion 50 100 RH(%) Figure 10.4 The carbonation rate varies with the relative humidity (RH). Tie highest carbonation rate is found at 60-70% RH The carbonation rate depends on several factors, including - Air humidity: the rate is highest at a relative humidity (RH) around 61-70%. Concrete exposed to large amounts of precipitation will carbonate more slowly. Water to cement ratio (w/c ratio): the rate increases with increasing w/c ratio. At the w/c ratio = 0.4 carbonation is very slow. Cement contents in the concrete and the strength of the concrete: Concreiz with high strength and high cement contents is carbonated more slowly ther a wpe with lower strength.Corrosion of the reinforcement steel As long as the concrete has not carbonated all the way down to the reinforcement steel, there is good protection against corrosion. The concrete around the reinforce- ment steel is alkaline. Due to the high pH value the steel is “passivated”. A thin, but nevertheless protective, passive film has been formed on the steel surface. The film is made of iron oxide (Fe,O,). This passive state can be disrupted or destroyed in two ways: The concrete is carbonated, and the pH value reduced to around 9, Salts (chloride) have penetrated to the reinforcement steel. How soon the carbonation will result in corrosion attack on the reinforcement steel depends, among other factors, on how deeply the steel is embedded. We have previ- ously discussed the factors influencing the rate of carbonation. If the carbonation front has reached the reinforcement steel, the corrosion attack will start. Rust takes up a higher volume than the steel from which it is made. This results in expansion and cracking, perhaps to the extent that the concrete starts spalling. It is assumed that both humidity and oxygen can affect the concrete. Water and oxygen may penetrate into crevices so that the rust attack is accelerated. Concrete which is intact and undamaged will not be impervious to oxygen and water either. In concrete which is not exposed to water and where the relative humidity is low, for example generally below 70% relative humidity (RH), the risk of corrosion is slight even if carbonation has reached the steel. Chlorides may destroy the passivation even if the pH value is still above 9. Chlorides often result in deep pitting corrosion, whereas carbonation usually re- sults in general corrosion. Pitting corrosion is particularly dangerous because the strength of the steel is reduced to a greater extent. |-— Passive layer Cathode IL Fer wee © Figure 10.5 a and b Chloride in the concrete may result in deep pitting corrosion. The passive layer on the steel is destroyed Condition survey In order to determine what must be done in order to repair the damage, a condition survey of the surface and the construction must be carried out. 264 Corrosion PROTECTIONThis is principally a visual inspection, but not only that. It is important to deter- mine if the damage is constructional or aesthetic. By constructional damage is meant damage which may have impaired the load-bearing strength. Such damage is especially found on balconies, beams, pillars and other load-bearing constructional elements. Aesthetic damage is especially found on facades or on constructions which are non-load-bearing or only subject to minor loads. If in doubt about whether a damage has impaired the load-bearing strength, we should call in expert assistance. The objective of the survey is to determine the type and cause of damage determine the extent of the damage assess the need for repair and determine which methods will be suitable for such repair work. A visual inspection is carried out in order to form a general view of the extent of visible damage. When registering the damaged areas, it will be an advantage to use a printed form. Such forms can be adapted to the objects inspected. Several compa- nies making condition reports have worked out their own forms. Accamera should be brought along for the inspection in order to obtain the best possible documentation. Photographs refresh one’s memory when decisions about repairs are to be made. Further investigations generally include measuring the carbonation depth measuring the cover over reinforcement steel measuring the chloride contents checking the degree of corrosion on reinforcement steel and steel profiles mapping the extent of cracks and crevices mapping efflorescence examining the strength and porosity of the concrete examining’ previous repairs Itis common practice to grade the damage types according to four levels depending on how extensive they are and to which degree they have developed. Damage level 1 Minor damage - mostly aesthetic Damage level2 Medium damage - resulting in reduced lifetime Damage level3 — Major damage - resulting in reduced lifetime and a certain safety risk Damage level4 Quite extensive and serious damage - for example collapse of balconies This grading has primarily been used for the assessment of balcony damage, but can also be used in other connections. In recent years a number of publications have been issued which provide guidance for condition survey and concrete reha- bilitation. 10 Concrete repair §=265,DRCTEGH KRISTOFFER APELAND WS FAGERBORGGT, 12,0360 OSLO CONDITION REPORT FOR ‘TELEPHONE (02) 46 80 60 - TELEFAX (02) 6903 19 BALCONIES Tecate ‘Guarir "Your Bae SreenambaTiCor Facade wards Cenataction ypalauppon sysiom: Repaired provuaiy: Sarlace wndorie Twa Sutoce ap ob: ating WpaTmalananslaiabon TYE OF DAMAGE TSS Tae OF DANAE Tet CONTROL 1 poms Cras REINFORCEMENT WT Spating Saaling Droste Exposed rnforsomont caked fabed Tabane D [exposed reiniorcament WW PFrost damage, & & | secretion WS [rang | Conosion on sael patie Nar heokod Robed rare [ Comosion on alee profi Taoked emo Tare = rao Til damage on range Nar hooked amt robaTe Spaling (p (Spated concrete 9, [Exposed anorconeni [cracked concrte ‘Coating defers [Eiposed reniorcoment WATER DRAINAGE. ° ae = tears pal & ‘Comosion on seal pia Waasuing poi] CARBONATION DEPTH * Mar] Exiensive damage | damage Moasuring place “Top of stab Undergo of 35 | Edges I railings Ranforament cover DRAWIN( Side edge > Top of sla Front edge Underside of sab Tnapocied by. © Undemaged, no repair, ordinary maintenance z | Minor repair 5 | Smarr Dao of napecton: Q | CSee rpoiatinchment Figure 10.6 Example of form used for condition survey 266 CorROSION PROTECTIONCarbonation depth In order to determine how deeply the concrete has carbonated, a piece of the con- crete is removed by chipping or drilling. The surface of the fracture is cleaned of dust and slightly wetted. Then a phenolphthalein solution is sprayed onto the sur- face. On areas where the concrete has not carbonated, the phenolphthalein will change to red-violet. If no colour change is seen, a deeper cut must be made. Phenolphthalein is an indicator substance which is used dissolved in spirit. Indi- cators change colour with the pH value. Phenolphthalein is red-violet if the pH value is above approximately 9, and is colourless at a pH value below 9. s ¢ s = & Figure 10.7 The.carbonation depth can be determined by use of a phenolphthalein indicator Cover depth With an electrical instrument producing a magnetic field of measurement (Covermeter or Proceq Profometer) the thickness of the concrete over the reinforcement steel can be measured. The cover depth can also be measured if the concrete above the rein- forcement steel is removed by chipping. The results of the readings for the cover and carbonation depths are compared in order to determine whether there is any risk of reinforcement steel corrosion. An assessment must also be made of how much water the surfaces are exposed to. Figure 10.8 With a covermeter the cover depth is measured 10 Concrete rePaiR §=267Chloride contents On concrete where we have a suspicion that salts have penetrated or calcium chlo- ride has been added to the casting, a chloride test should be carried out. First, use your tongue to test for a salty taste. If this is the case, the chloride content should definitely be measured. It can be measured in different ways and with varying accuracy. In order to get an impression of how the chloride content is distributed further down in the concrete, a core drill sample can be taken. The sample is divided into slices of approximately 5 mm. Then an extraction is made by immersing a crushed sample of each slice in water. A mixture of a weighed-in amount of finely ground concrete and a known amount of water is boiled in order to dissolve the salts. Then the concrete particles are filtered from the water. It is also possible to extract the salt with cold water, but then the extraction should proceed over several hours. If a measurement is taken after a 16 hours” extraction with cold water, 50-70% of the water-soluble chloride is included. The chloride contents of the water are measured with an electrode which only reacts to chloride, and which is connected to an electrical instrument (potentiometer). The chloride contents are assessed in relation to the critical threshold of 0.4% by weight of cement. This usually corresponds to approximately 0.05% by weight of concrete or 1.2 kg chloride per cubic metre of concrete. The chloride contents of the water can also be roughly estimated by means of indicator strips (of the Quantab type). Chlorides produce a colour change on the strips when they are dipped into the water. The chloride contents can be read by the length of the colour change. Aquick test for chlorides can be carried out in the following way. A 5% solution of silver nitrate (AgNO,) is brushed onto the concrete surface. Where free chloride ions are present, a milky white colour appears. This is left to dry for 5-10 minutes. Then a 5% solytion of potassium dichromate (K,Cr,O,) is applied on top. If the result is a yellow colour, this indicates that the concrete contains chlorides above the threshold value, whereas in the case of a red-brown colour the concrete is chlo- tide-free or below the threshold value. The methods described for measuring the chloride contents are not particularly accurate. The best procedure is to send samples to a laboratory having equipment and competence to carry out such measurements. Corrosion degree on reinforcement steel and steel profiles After having exposed the reinforcement steel or steel profiles by chipping away the concrete, an assessment can be made of how extensive any corrosion attack is. Where the chloride contents are above the threshold value, special attention must be given to pitting corrosion. In the case of balconies it is particularly important to check the thickness remaining on the steel profile or reinforcement steel close to the wall. Consequently, several centimetres should be chipped out of the facade. Fur- thermore, the installation of the railings should be closely examined. Any rust must fe scraped off in order to allow us to form an impression of how deeply the attack jas gone. 268 Corrosion PROTECTIONThe corrosion condition can also be controlled by electrochemical measure- ments. In that case we measure the voltage between the reinforcement steel and a reference electrode (normally a copper/copper sulphate electrode) on the concrete surface or reference electrodes (normally Jead electrodes) embedded in the con- crete. The readings are compared with the stated corrosion threshold values. This method requires professional experience and special equipment and is normally only used by consultancy companies in connection with condition monitoring of major constructions. if Volimeter Reference electrode |— Carbonated concrete Incipient corrosion of the reinforcement Figure 10.9 Measurements using suitable reference electrodes provide more in- formation regarding the corrosion condition on the reinforcement steel Extent of cracks, crevices and corner damage Both the extent zind width of crazing and individual cracks are mapped. For this control a simple magnifying glass with 8-10 times magnification may come in handy. When making registrations, the crevices and cracks can be divided into classes of below 0.2 mm, between 0.2-1.0 mm and above | mm width, At the same time we record whether any broken corners or edges are found. Efflorescence Efflorescence results in white calcareous deposits or light discoloration where ex- tensive passage of water has taken place, for example on the underside of balco- nies. Strength and porosity of concrete For measuring the density a concrete test hammer or rebound hammer (Schmidt hammer) is used. The plunger of the Schmidt hammer is pressed at right angles against the concrete surface until the hammer is released. The rebound can be read from a scale. By means of the readings taken and graphical curves, a value for the 10 Concrete repain §269compressive strength of the concrete can be obtained. With some experience an impression of the strength can also be obtained by chipping by hand into the concrete. In this case attention should be paid to the sound of chipping on good, firm concrete and on poor concrete. Figure 10.10 By using a Schmidt hammer the compressive strength of the con- crete can be assessed. Hammer and chisel also provide an impression of the strength If we want a picture of the porosity, the capillary uptake of water is measured. This can be done by means of a special MAT (Masonry Absorption Test) tube attached to the surface by putty. Arelatively dense, but not water-repellent surface can be expected to absorb 0.3 ml water per minute by this method. A more open concrete type will absorb 0.5 ml. Figure 10.11 Measuring water uptake in concrete Previous repairs Old repairs can be more or less successful. Random checks should be made of how well the repair mortar adheres to the substrate, and it should also be investigated how successful the corrosion protection of the reinforcing bars has been. 270 —CoRROSION PROTECTIONSurface preparation for concrete repairs Cleaning of concrete surfaces Old paint, loose concrete and dirt on the surface can be removed by abrasive blast- ing, slurry washing, steam cleaning, or water jetting. ‘When removing paint or dirt, we must check whether the mechanical impact of the water jet from a high pressure unit is sufficient, or whether a combination with chemicals (paint removers) must be employed. An assessment must also be made whether it is expedient to clean the damaged concrete before it is removed. If the entire surface is cleaned first, weak spots in the concrete are revealed. Check whether there is any reinforcing steel which needs to be further exposed, thereby requiring removal of concrete. On the other hand, in many cases when concrete is removed the surfaces will be covered by dust. Removing deteriorated concrete So far the most widely used method has been to use electric or pneumatically driven chisels. A method which will gain more widespread use in the future is water jet cutting where water under extremely high pressure is used, up to 1500 bar. How much of the concrete should be removed? All loose concrete must be re- moved. This applies to concrete with blow holes and cracks or concrete which is extra porous due to unfavourable composition, poor casting, or because the cement paste has been washed out. All concrete above reinforcing bars which have cor- roded must also be removed. It is important to examine the concrete in order to uncover latent damage. They need not be visible on the concrete surface. In such cases the corrosion has not reached such a degree that it has spalled away concrete. It is not always necessary to remove all carbonated concrete. The humidity exposure may have been so moderate that there is no corrosion on the steel, even though the concrete has carbonated. When the carbonation has penetrated past the steel or almost to the steel, and corrosion damage on the steel is also visible, the concrete should be removed. Ap- proximately 20 mm concrete should be removed behind the steel. If the carbonation has not got all the way to the steel and only signs of beginning corrosion are present, the concrete should be removed down to the steel. 30 mm behind the steel should be removed if the concrete is contaminated by chlorides and corrosion has started on the steel. Table 10.2 [ Carbonation depth Corrosion on the Concrete to be removed | reinforcing steel Not all the way to the steel | None or slight All the way to the steel All the way to the steel__| Yes Up to approximately | | 20 mm behind the steel | [All the way to the steel Yes (pitting corrosion?) | Up to 30 mm behind the steel | 10 Concrete RePaR §=271Figure 10.13 Removal of carbonated concrete above the reinforcing steel The steel to be exposed should include 50-100 mm of bare steel in the longitudinal direction from a damaged area. During the removal of the concrete it may be necessary to bring in a specialist to assess the load-carrying capacity of the construction. If extensive pitting corrosion on the reinforcing steel is found, the load-carrying capacity may be impaired. The load-carrying capacity is also weaker if a large quantity of damaged concrete has to be removed. An important element in connection with the removal of damaged concrete is how the repair area is shaped. The principal rule is that the edges must be squared at right angles to the surface. It is especially important that the repair patch does not flatten out to zero at the edge of the wound. The top side of the repair area must always slope slightly upwards. See Figure 10.14. If the concrete is removed by chipping, it is important not to hit the reinforce- me steel. If we pound at the steel, the concrete may spall and new cracks may be formed. 272 —CoRROSION PRoTEcTiONFigure 10.14 Shaping of a repair area Cleaning of the reinforcement steel The most effective method for cleaning reinforcing bars is to use abrasive blastinz The abrasives are the same as those used for blast cleaning of steel in gen quartz-less sand types and different types of slag. Using metallic abrasive is cost! if it cannot be recycled. : The degree of cleanliness according to ISO 8501-1 must be assessed as clo as possible. It is difficult to assess the cleanliness degree on the stee] because th: surfaces are so small. Generally, the steel must be almost metallically clean. Figure 10.15 On steel only partly exposed vacuum blasting may be an option. In that c: abrasives are recovered by means of a vacuum Cleaner system. Irrespective of which. type of cleaning method is chosen it is difficult to get to clean the back of the steel sufficiently if required. To a certain extent the rebound of the abrasive from the concrete surface behind the steel can be utilized. Needle gunning may also be a suitable method for cleaning the steel. One disaé- vantage of this method is the vibrations in the steel. When cleaning steel. it is natural to blast clean or needle gun repair area surfaces after having chipped off the 10 Concrete rsdamaged concrete in order to ensure that the old and the new concrete are firmly attached to each other. After having removed loose concrete. shaped the repair area in the correct man- ner and cleaned the reinforcing steel, the actual repair is carried out. By concrete repair is meant both cosmetic repairs and repairs comprising corrosion preventive measures. Repairs with the objective of increasing the load-carrying capacity of the construction are not considered in this context. Anticorrosion treatment of the reinforcing steel Barrier treatments with epoxy paints are to exclude the substances which acceler- ate corrosion. Cementitious products have a passivating effect on the iron by creating an alka- line environment. Cementitious paints appear to be the best products for anticorrosive treatment in connection with concrete repairs. Itis important to cover all exposed reinforcing steel with the anticorrosive paint. By using a mirror we can check that also the back of the steel has been painted. Bonding coat In order to ensure adhesion between the old concrete (and any surface treated rein- forcing steel) and the new repair mortar a special layer is often applied, called a bonding coat. It can be a cementitious slurry admixed with plastic dispersions. The repair mortar is applied while the bonding coat is still wet. In some cases it is recommended to apply epoxy repair mortar “wet-in-wet”. The epoxy layer is then used as a glue,.Filling of repair areas The repair area is filled with a cement-based mortar. It must cure without cracking and without detaching from the edge of the repair area. When the mortar work is carried out, the temperature must be at least 5°C. Some of the mortars can be applied in relatively dry consistencies. These can be manually applied whereas other mortars can be spray-applied. It is important that the water does not dry too quickly from the repair area Consequently, sprinkling with water should be carried out if at all possible. An- other solution could be to cover the area with plastic foil or use a curing membrane. In order to prevent the concrete and repair patch from expanding/contacting quite differently when temperatures and humidities vary, great weight should be attached to the compatibility of certain properties. It must be assumed that the modulus of elasticity of the repair material is lower than that of the concrete. In the case of repairs not aiming at increasing the load-carrying capacity, the compressive strength of the material may be less than that of the concrete. The shrinkage of the material should be as low as possible. The supplier of the repair materials should be able to present documentation for these properties. After having carried out the repair, the reinforcing steel should be covered in accordance with requirements. Generally, the requirement is at least 10 mm cover. Figure 10.17 Filling of the repair area Surface treatment Surface treatment of patch-repaired concrete in most cases includes both slurrying and carbonation-inhibitive paint. . The slurries are to even out the surface texture and seal static surface cracks. It is also desirable for the slurry to halt carbonation. The paints should be carbona- tion-inhibitive and possibly also protect against other gases, chloride. and other aggressive chemicals.‘Slurry Carbonation-inhibitive paint Figure 10.18 Build-up of cover and carbonation-inhibition Another requirement is that the resistance to migration of water vapours is less in the surface layer than in the concrete underneath. On the other hand, this layer must have the highest resistance to water penetration. It can be difficult to satisfy all the various requirements at the same time. The resistance to diffusion of carbon dioxide (CO,) is given as the equivalent air layer, which is the thickness of an atmospheric layer with the same carbon dioxide diffu- sion resistance as the paint. In Germany it is a requirement that this resistance, $,CO,, must be at least 50 metres. The equivalent resistance to water vapour diffusion, S,CO,, must be below 3 metres. 2 Paint selection Several types of paint have been tested and evaluated for how well they perform on concrete. Such paints have to comply with completely different requirements than paints for steel or plaster. Asa primer or sealer on concrete often a solution of styrene butadiene or similar binder is used. Sealer is a thin binder solution which can bind loose particles to the substrate. The solvent is white spirit. Primer coats usually has a certain content of pigments, but are non-hiding as opposed to ordinary paints. This type of primer is used both in combination with water-borne paints and with solvent-borne paints. Water-borne paints based on acrylic dispersions provide a good carbonation- inhibiting effect. The optimum effect is obtained if combined with the sealers men- tioned above. This type of paint is available with coarse fillers so that the paint has a texture smoothening effect and a film thickness above 400 pm is obtained. These paints also prevent chloride from penetrating and reduce the water uptake in the concrete. Also paints based on styrene acrylate or viny] toluene acrylate dissolved in xy- 276 CorROsioN PROTECTIONlene or white spirit seem to provide good resistance to carbon dioxié: Such paints are also available with a coarse texture, which is to be preiexez. paints with binder in solution may have a high resistance to diffusio: vapours. Consequently, an increased water vapour pressure undemec== film may cause it to peel off. Cementitious paints do not halt carbonation, and they do not preven: &: of water in the concrete substrate. Usually, silicate paints do not have any carbonation-inhibitive effect ei also only prevent water uptake to a limited extent, but have a cenair. prevent ingress of chloride. In Norway paints based on silicone products or paints used togethe: and siloxane impregnating agents only find limited use. However. in fun: products of this type may become available on the market. On 4 2732 surface a good water repelling effect is indeed obtained without p-2: diffusion of water. The ability to prevent carbonation may vary quite = Dense paints and coatings based on thermosetting materials like e7 urethane can only be used on concrete surfaces where it is not expect: will be any ingress of moisture which can cause frost/thaw damage o vapour will not permeate through the concrete.Such paints can be ¢ $: concrete in particularly aggressive environments. These paints are hi to several chemicals. However, it is necessary to check the manufacte- mation regarding how well these paints tolerate individual chemicals. Electrochemical concrete rehabilitation Various electrochemical methods for stopping a corrosion attack on the =: ment steel are available: cathodic protection electrochemical realkalization electrochemical chloride extraction Generally, these methods must be combined with mechanical repair of the 2252 as discussed above. Cathodic protection Cathodic protection is a well-known concept in connection with prote=ao=, and offshore oil platforms below the water line. The same principie 2. 3: used for protecting the reinforcement steel in concrete. Also in concrete 93> =e ods are used: sacrificial anodes or impressed current cathodic protectioz The concrete must have been repaired so that there are no spalling. oma: other defects which can disrupt the necessary connection between the rz: ment and the anode. It must also be ensured that there is electrical contaz: = entire reinforcement steel system and not only with a small part of i:. The reinforcement steel is connected to the negative pole on z causes the reinforcement to become cathodic. The anode is connzctz¢ i: tive pole. The anode can be a coating on the concrete surface. Bo: coating or a thermally sprayed zinc layer on the concrete surface havanode. Or the anode can be mesh, wires or rods in contact with the concrete. On concrete in sea water sacrificial anodes can be used instead of impressed current. On concrete buried in humid soil sacrificial anodes can also be used. Electrochemical realkalization Electrochemical realkalization is a method where a voltage is impressed between the reinforcement and the concrete surface in order to make the concrete more alkaline. It is common knowledge that as long as the concrete is alkaline, with a pH value of between 11 and 12, there is no risk of corrosion of the reinforcement steel. The risk of corrosion is created by neutralization with carbon dioxide and other acidic gases. First, electrical contact between the various parts of the reinforcement mesh must be established. Then a network of electrodes is mounted on the concrete sur- face, after which an electrolyte is applied to the surface. The electrolyte can be a thick mass consisting of water, a dissolved salt, for example soda, and a thickening agent such as cellulose fibres. See Figure 10.19. The reinforcement steel is connected to the negative pole and the electrode net- work to the positive pole of a rectifier which can produce the required voltage. The reinforcement steel then becomes the cathode where hydroxy ions are formed. This means that the alkalinity increases. In addition, alkali is driven into the concrete from outside. Normally, the voltage must be maintained for about a week. The electrolyte must be kept moist all the time. In order to control that increased alkalinity has been obtained inside the con- crete, core drill samples must be taken which are tested with phenolphthalein. After the process has been finalized and the current switched off, the electrode network is dismantled and the surface is cleaned of electrolyte. For some time deposits of salts may occur, which must be removed. Concrete Reinforcement steel Electrode network +—— Alkaline mass Rectifier source 6-12 V 4 | Figure 10.19 Electrolytic chloride extraction Electrolytic chloride extraction is carried out according to the same principle as realkalization. Due to the impressed voltages chloride ions migrate from the nega- *)278 —CoRROSION PROTECTIONtive pole, the reinforcement mesh, and out to the electrolyte. This process takes from one and a half months to three months. The method is suitable where the concrete contains chloride having penetrated from without, perhaps all the way down to the reinforcement steel. The method is not suitable where the concrete has cast-in chloride and the chloride contents there- fore are high over the entire cross-section. Literature 1 EN 197-1:2000 Cement - Part 1: Composition, specifications and conformity criteria for common cements. EN 197-2:2000 Cement - Part 2: Conformity evaluation EN 206-1:2000 Concrete - Part 1: Specification, performance, production and conformity n Control questions 1 What are the main constituents of concrete? 2 What does the w/c ratio mean, and what is its influence on the quality of the concrete? 3 What is meant by the expression carbonation? Why does reinforcement steel embedded in carbonated concrete start to rust? 4 You have examined a concrete construction and found that the cover is ap- proximately 20 fim, but in some spots the steel only has 5 mm cover, and cracking in the concrete above the steel is present. The carbonation goes down to 15 mm. Also chloride has penetrated to the reinforcement steel, but not any deeper. Which types of further investigations will you make? Which repair methods would you consider? 1 | | | 10 Concrete repar 279