Appendix to Chapter 13 Appendix 1 ISO 8501-1 Preparation of steel substrates before application of paints and related products — Visual assessment of surface cleanliness Equipment Standard ISO 8501-1 Flashlight Procedure 1 Either in good diffuse daylight or in equivalent artificial illumination, examine the steel surface and compare it with each of the photographs. _, 2. The assessment shall be made using normal vision, the use of magnifying glasses or microscopes is prohibited. 3. Place the appropriate photograph in the ISO 8501-1 close to, and in the plane of, the steel surface to be assessed. 4. For rust grades, record the assessment as the worst grade that is evident. 5. For preparation grades, record the assessment as that grade nearest in appear- ance to that of the steel surface. 6 If the appearance of the blast cleaned steel surface is different from the photo- graph in the standard, the ISO 8501-1 Supplement 1994 may be used as a guide in case of differences in colour caused by the abrasive used. Notes to ISO 8501-1 In addition to the type of cleaning method used, for example dry blast cleaning using a particular abrasive, the following factors can influence the result of the visual inspection: The initial state of the steel surface other than any of the standard rust grades A, B, C and D, colour change of the steel itself, uneven lighting, marks from tools, embedded abrasives. 370 Corrosion PROTECTIONAppendix 2. ISO 8501/ Suppl:1994 Visual assessment of surface cleanliness — Informative Supplement to part 1: Representative photographic examples of the change of appearance imparted to steel when blast cleaned with different abrasives Information ISO 8501-1 (Appendix 1) provides written specifications and representative photo- graphic examples of a number of rust grades and preparation grades. The photo- graphic examples A Sa 2 to D Sa 3 show steel surfaces that have been subjected to dry blast cleaning with abrasives containing silica (quartz) sand. The use of silica sand as an abrasive is subject to a number of prohibitive regulations in many countries. The basis of this Informative Supplement is that many different abrasives are used for blast cleaning. Some of the abrasive remains impacted on a blast cleaned surface and the colour of the abrasive affects the appearance of the surface. Dark abrasives will result in an overall darker, duller appearance than if sand is used. Procedure 1 Place the appropriate photograph given in ISO 8501-1 close to, and in the plane of, the steel surface to be assessed. 2 Record the assessment as the grade nearest in appearance to that of the steel surface. 3. If the appearance of the surface to be assessed is different from that illustrated in ISO 8501-1, use the examples given in the Informative Supplement as a guide to the change ih colour depth and tone that may be due to the abrasive used to prepare the surface. 4 The examples illustrated in the Informative Supplement meet the written de- scriptions of ISO 8501-1, preparation grade Sa 3 5 Inall cases, compliance shall be assessed against the written descriptions for the preparation grades given in ISO 8501-1. Appenpix To chapteR 13 371. E {Appendix 3 ISO 8501-2 Preparation grades of previ- ously coated steel surfaces after localized removal of previous coatings Equipment Standard ISO 8501-2 Powerful flashlight Information In the standard a number of preparation grades, indicating the method of surface preparation and degree of cleaning, are specified. Localized blast cleaning of previously coated surfaces, P Sa Localized hand and power tool cleaning of previously coated surfaces, P St (not machine abrading) Localized machine abrading of previously coated surfaces, P Ma The standard contains 7 sets of pictures showing typical cases of very thorough localized blast cleaning (P Sa 2) and of localized machine abrading (P Ma). The surfaces can be compared with the sets of photographs in the standard. 372 Connosion prorecrion tsAppendix4 1SO 8501-3 Preparation grades of welds, cut edges and other areas with surface imperfections Information This part of the standard deals with imperfections on welds, cut edges and steel surfaces in general There are three preparation grades for making the steel suitable for the application of paints and related products P! Light preparation Minimum preparation considered necessary before application of paint P2 Thorough preparation Most imperfections are remedied and surface prepared for painting P3 Very thorough preparation Surface is free of visible imperfections The different types of imperfections and preparation grades are illustrated in the standard. AppeNvix To CHAPTER 13 373Appendix5 1SO 8501-4 Preparation grades of coated and uncoated steel substrates after removal of rust and previous coatings by high-pressure water-jetting Equipment Standard ISO 8501-4 (not final, in progress) Powerful flashlight Procedure 1 Examine the steel surface either in good daylight or in artificial illumination and compare it with each of the photographs in the standard using normal vision. Place the appropriate photograph close to. and in the plane of, the steel surface to be assessed. 3. For initial surface conditions, record the assessment as the worst condition that is evident, ic. DC A, DC B, DC C1, DC C2 or DCD. 4 For preparation grades. record the assessment as the nearest cleanliness that is evident, 5 Assessment of the preparation grade shall be made before flash rusting occurs. 6 For flash rust grades, record the assessment as the nearest cleanliness with re- spect to flash rust that is evident in accordance with the standard. 7 Assessment of the flash rust grade (if any) shall be made immediately prior to paint application. we 374 Corrosion PROTECTIONAppendix6 ISO TR 8502-1 Field test for soluble iron corrosion products Equipment Standard ISO 8502-1 Distilled water Indicator paper impregnated with 2,2/-bipyridyl Soluble iron(II) salt, for example ammonium iron(II) sulphate Sulphuric acid, diluted Three absorbent pads of pure cotton, of mass approximately 2-3 g Two containers (a and b), approximately 400 ml capacity each, one of them con- taining SO ml of water and the other empty Glass rod Ruler and chalk Procedure On the surface mark out an area of 250 x 100 mm to be examined. Use gloves or tweezers when making the test. Use cotton wool and 50 ml distilled water for swabbing the marked out area. Use more cotton pads for the test and keep both cotton pads and swabbing water in a separate container. Dry the surface with the last cotton swab and keep all collected in the container. Dip a piece of the indicator paper in the solution and compare the colour change with a reference. 6 Using 50 ml of water and a test area of 25000 mm”, twice the iron (II) concen- tration, in milligrams pr litre, indicated by the indicator strip is equal to the concentration of dissolved iron (II) corrosion products in mg/m*. ROS w Remarks Also other methods are available for determining soluble iron-containing corrosion products, including Conductivity measurement Potassium hexacyanoferrate(IIJ) test papers Appenpix To chapter 13 375Appendix 7 !SO 8502-2 Laboratory determination of chloride on cleaned surfaces Equipment Ruie* and chloride-free chalk or similar Absorbent cotton pads, 1-1.5 ¢ Spatula or knife Plastic gloves Beakers and glass rods Funnel Filter paper Measuring cylinder, minimum 50 ml Volumetric pipettes Volumetric flasks (50 ml, 100 ml, 1000 ml) Device for titration Procedure 1 First carry out a blank titration of the water to find the end-points. In order to do this take out 20 ml, add an indicator solution and titrate in accordance with the standard. : 2. Mark out an area of approximately 250 x 100 mm using ruler and chalk or similar. 3. Mark two beakers A and B. Pour 45 ml of water (corresponding to purity degree 3 in ISO 3696) into beaker A. Soak the cotton pad in the water and swab the surface. Do not allow water to run or drip from the surface. Remove the water with a cotton pad and squeeze the washings into beaker B. 4. Repeat the procedure until all the water has been used up. This process should take at least 5 minutes. 5 Filter the wash water through a filter paper and pour it into a small volumetric measuring flask of 50 ml. Wash the cotton pads and filter paper with water (purity degree 3 in ISO 3696), 5 ml in total. This is done in beaker B. Transfer everything to the volumetric measuring flask and make up to the mark with water. 6 Shake the volumetric flask and then take out 20 ml of the wash water with a pipette. Transfer this wash water into a clean beaker. Determine the chloride volume by titration. 7 Record the chloride contents of the water to the nearest 10 mg/m. 376 —CoRROSION PROTECTIONAppendix 8 1SO 8502-3 Assessment of dust on steel surfaces prepared for painting (pressure-sensitive tape method) Equipment Standard ISO 8502-3 ‘Transparent self adhesive, pressure sensitive tape of width 25 mm, having an adhe- sion peel strength of at least 190 N per metre width Display board, for example glass or black or white glazed tiles, cards or paper Spring-loaded roller Hand lens, capable of magnification x 10 Procedure 1 Remove the three first turns of tape from the roll. Remove a piece of tape ap- proximately 200 mm long. Press about 150 mm freshly exposed tape firmly on to the surface of the steel. Rub the tape thoroughly against the steel with the thumb or with the roller. Do this three times in each direction so that each stroke takes about five-six sec- onds. 4 Remove the tape and place it on a piece of glas sure it adheres well to the surface. 5 Assess the quantity of dust on the tape by comparing visually an area of the tape with equivalent-sized areas of the pictorial references shown in the standard. 6 Assess the predomination dust particle size on the adhesive tape by reference to the table in the standard which defines 6 dust particle size classes, designated 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. 2 3 cardboard, or paper. Make APPENDIX To CHAPTER 13. 377Appendix 9 Determination of relative humidity and dew point on steel surfaces prepared for painting Equipment Standard ISO 850? 4 Sling psychrometer Steel thermometer, either magnetic or digital Dew point calculator Procedure 1 Check that the thermometers on the sling psychrometer show the same reading. 2. If required, add water to the small water container on the sling psychrometer. Wait until the wick around one of the thermometers is sufficiently wet. 3 When using the sling psychrometer, whit! it through the air away from the body for about 30 seconds. 4 First read the wet bulb temperature, then the dry bulb temperature. Keep the temperatures in mind or note them down. 5. Sling the psychrometer again at an even pace for about 30 seconds. First read the wet bulb temperature, then the dry bulb temperature. 6 If the temperatures vary from previous readings, continue whirling until the values stabilize. When the values determined no longer vary from the previous readings, the wet bulb and dry bulb temperatures have been determined. 7 A photograph of a sling psychrometer is shown on page 322. By means of this psychrometer the relative humidity can be determined directly by setting the wet and dry bulb temperature opposite each other on the top scale. The RH% is indicated by an arrow on the bottom scale. 8 By using the temperature of the air, wet bulb temperature and the relative hu- midity of the air, the dew point can be found by means of the dew point calcula- tor. Procedure for assessing the dew point, using for example Elcometer 114 dew point calculator Set the read wet bulb temperature (red scale) opposite the read dry bulb tem- perature (black scale). Do not turn the inner scale until you have determined the dew point. 2 Determine the dew point temperature by reading the value above your set wet bulb temperature. 3. Tum the inner scale approximately 90 to the left so that you have the dew point temperature (red scale) opposite the dry bulb temperature (black scale). 4 Set the read dry bulb temperature (black scale) opposite the determined dew point temperature (red scale) and determine the relative humidity. 5. Then measure your actual steel temperature by use of a magnetic or digital steel thermometer. Note For most paints the steel temperature shall be at least 3C above the dew point temperature and the relative humidity below 85%. 378 CoRROSION PROTECTIONAppendix 10 ISO 8502-6 Extraction of soluble contami- nants for analysis - The Bresle method Equipment: Standard ISO 8502-6 Conductometer Glass beaker Adhesive patches Reusable syringe (max. volume 8 ml, max. needle diameter | mm, length 50 mm) Distilled water Contact thermometer Procedure 1 Take an adhesive patch of a suitable size (12.5 cm). Remove the protective paper and the punched-out material. 2 Press the adhesive side of the patch against the steel surface in such a way that the minimum amount of air is trapped in the compartment of the patch. 3. Filla small beaker with 15 ml of distilled water and, by use of a conductometer, determine the conductivity (wS/em). 4 Fill the syringe with distilled water (3 ml) from the beaker. 5 Insert the syringe needle at an angle of about 30 to the test surface near the outer edge of the patch, passing it through the adhesive foam body of the patch into the compartment formed between the elastomer film and the test surface. 6 Inject the distilled water (3 ml), ensuring that it wets the whole test surface. If necessary to avoid air remaining trapped in the compartment, evacuate the air through the needle by reverse operation of the syringe. Remove the syringe after injecting half of the distilled water. Holding the syringe with the needle pointing upwards, expel the air. Re-insert needle and inject the remainder of the water. 7 After a suitable period of time, to be agreed between the interested parties, suck the distilled water back into the syringe. 8 Re-inject the distilled water back into the compartment. Repeat at least ten times. 9 Atthe end of the last cycle, retrieve as much as possible of the distilled water in the compartment. 10 Transfer the water back to the beaker and by use of the conductometer, deter- mine the conductivity (4¢S/cm). 11 Determine the actual conductivity (uS/cm) by subtracting the initial value (#S/ cm) of the distilled water from the final value (#S/cm). 12 To determine the result in mg/m’, multiply the actual conductivity by a factor of APPENDIX TO CHAPTER 13. 379Appendix 11 ISO 8502-9 Field method for the conductometric determination of water-soluble salts Equipment Standards ISO 8502-6 and ISO 8552-9 Conductometer, operating from 0 mS/m (0 ~S/cm) to 200 mS/m (2000 S/cm) Glass beaker Adhesive patches Reusable syringe (max. volume 8 ml, max. needle diameter | mm, length 50 mm) Distilled water Contact thermometer Procedure 1 Pour into the glass beaker approximately 10 - 20 ml of distilled water. 2 Fill the syringe with the distilled water from the beaker and then empty the syringe back into the beaker. 3. Immerse the electrodes of the conductometer fully in the water in the beaker and agitate gently. Remove the conductometer and discard the water. , 4 Fill the beaker with the same amount of water as under | and immerse the electrodes again. 5 Record the conductivity. 6 Fill the syringe with about 3 ml of the water in the beaker. 7 Inject the distilled water (3 ml), ensuring that it wets the whole test surface. If necessary to avoid air remaining trapped in the compartment, evacuate the air through the needle by reverse operation of the syringe. Remove the syringe after injecting half of the distilled water. Holding the syringe with the needle pointing upwards, expel the air. Re-insert needle and inject the remaining water. 8 Without removing the syringe needle from the patch, re-inject the water into the patch compartment and then suck the water back into the syringe cylinder. Re- peat until at least 10 cycles of injection and sucking have been completed. 9 Retrieve as much as possible of the water and carry out a conductometer read- ing. 10 The total surface density of the salts depends on the total amount of water used and the size of the patch compartment. 380 Corrosion PROTECTIONAppendix 12 Use of ISO 8503-1 to determine the rough- ness on blast cleaned steel surfaces Equipment ISO 8503-1 for grit or shot Hand lens, with magnification not exceeding x 7 Flashlight Procedure Remove all loose dust and debris from the test surface. 2. Select the appropriate surface profile comparator (whether selecting ISO 8503- 1 for Grit or Shot depends on the abrasive used). 3 Place the comparator against an area of the surface. 4 Compare, in turn, the test surface with the four segments of the comparator, using hand lens if necessary. 5 Assess the profiles on the comparator that are the nearest to the profile of the test surface and, from these, determine its grade. 6 The roughness measured is the maximum roughness, R, . According to ISO 8503- I the profile is graded as fine, medium and coarse followed by a G or an S depending on the type of abrasive used, 7 Limits of profile grades: | Fine Profiles equal to segment 1 | | and up to but excluding segment 2 Medium | __Profiles equal to segment 2 | and up to but excluding segment 3 | | Coarse Profiles equal to segment 3 | and up to but excluding segment 4 | Remarks When a mixture of shot and grit abrasives is used to blast clean a substrate, the grit abrasive reference comparator G should be used. If disagreements arise, the methods mentioned in ISO 8503-3 (Focusing micro- scope procedure) or ISO 8503-4 (Stylus instrument procedure) should be used. APPENDIX To CHAPTER 13 381Appendix 13 Use of wet film gauges in accordance with ISO 2808 to determine the wet film thickness of coatings Equipment Comb gauge Wheel gauge Procedure Comb gauge Immediately after application of the paint place the comb gauge firmly onto the substrate in such a way that the teeth are normal to the plane of the surface. 2 Remove the gauge and examine the teeth to determine which is the shortest one to touch the wet film. 3. Record the film thickness as a range lying between the last itouching? tooth and first inon-touchingi tooth as shown on the tooth calibrations marked on the gauge. 4 Remove paint remains from the comb gauge by suitable means 5 Measure the wet film thickness in different places in the same manner to obtain representative results over the painted area. 6 If none of the teeth or all of the teeth on the comb gauge are wetted by paint, a different range must be used Wheel gauge Immediately after application of the paint, place the rims of the wheel gauge into the paint film so that the two outer rims are in contact with the substrate at the point of maximum gap. 2. Rotate the wheel nearly 360 along the surface and remove it. 3 Examine the centre rim to determine the position at which contact was made with the wet film. 4 For uneven films, note the first and last complete and continuous contact made with the film surface. 5. The scale shows the wet film thickness at these points. Read the film thickness at the next lower and next higher scale divisions and calculate the mean. Record the result. 6 Measure the wet film thickness in different places in the same manner to obtain representative results over the painted area. 382 Corrosion PROTECTIONAppendix 14 Adjustment of dry film thickness gauges based on magnetic pull-off principle Equipment Thickness gauge with permanent magnet Calibration standards, chromium-plated panels in various thicknesses Procedure 1 Place the permanent magnet of the instrument on top of a calibrated standard (chromium plated steel). The thickness of the chromium layer should preferably be within the same range as the coating to be measured. 2 Turn the measuring wheel with the thumb (away from you) until the magnet is in contact with the metal. 3. Press the instrument firmly against the substrate and slowly turn the measuring wheel towards you until the magnet is either seen or heard pulling off from the substrate, 4 Repeat |, 2 and 3 several times. 5. If the thickness read on the instrument does not correspond to the thickness of the chromium layer, 6 applies. 6 Press the instrument firmly against the substrate. Carefully turn the scale in one or the other direction, depending on whether the instrument shows too high or too low value in relation to the chromium layer. APPENDIX TO CHAPTER 13 383Appendix 15 Adjustment of dry film thickness gauges based on magnetic induction principle Equipment Magnetic induction gauge Uncoated test plate, at least 3 mm thick and with minimum dimensions of 25 x 25 mm Foils/shims with verified thickness Procedure 1 Place the probe on the uncoated test plate. 2. The instrument shall display 0 jm. If other values are displayed on the instru- ment, adjustment must be done. 3. Place a verified foil/shim, for example 200 jim, and place it on the uncoated test plate. The instrument shall display 200 ym. If other values are displayed on the instrument, adjustment must be done. 4 Repeat 1, 2 and 3 until the instrument shows 0 ym and 200 ym, respectively, with and without adjustment The instrument has been adjusted for measuring within the range of 0-200 pm. 6 Itis advisable to recheck on both uncoated stee] and with the foil/shim. 384 Corrosion PROTECTIONAppendix 16 Measurement of, and acceptance criteria for, the dry film thickness on rough surfaces (ISO 19840 (in progress)) Equipment ISO 19840 (not final, in progress) Dry film thickness instrument Verified foils/shims Pre-coated test panels Uncoated steel panel, min. 3 x 25 x 25 mm Procedure 1 Before use it shall be ascertained that the instrument is in good working condi- tion 2. Verification shall be carried out on uncoated test panels at zero and with verified foils/shims above and below the specified dry film thickness. 3 Pre-coated test plates may be used instead of verified foils/shims. 4 Measurement is carried out, but correction for the surface roughness is neces- sary. 5 When the surface profile is known and conforms to ISO 8503-1, correction values are given as follows: Fine 10 pm Medium — 25 xm Coarse 40 pm 6 When the surface profile is unknown or not available, a correction value of 25 yim shall be used. 7 The correction value is subtracted from the individual reading to give the indi- vidual dry film thickness. For example, the surface roughness is Medium and the individual reading is 275 ym, this gives an individual dry film thickness of 250 ym. APPENDIX TO CHAPTER 13 385Appendix 17 Measuring dry film thickness by destructive means (ASTM D 4138) Equipment Standard ASTM D 4138 Cutting instruments Type: Paint Inspection Gauge (PIG) Type: S%erg Thickness Drill Marker pen: red. blue or black Procedure using Paint Inspection Gauge 1 On the painted surface, mark a line of contrasting colour about 50 mm long. 2 Select a cutting tip based on estimated film thickness (usually tip no. 2 for thicknesses up to 1000 ym). 3. Place the instrument slightly above the marker line, grasp the instrument firmly and make an incision down to steel across the marker line. 4 If bits of paint remain, blow them away or remove them carefully with your finger. 5. Turn the instrument, hold it parallel to the scratch and use the illuminated mi- croscope to read the thickness of the coat. 6 Film thickness per coat or the total film thickness of the paint can be determined if the lens of the microscope is placed exactly on top of the incision in the marker line. (When the readings are taken exactly on this spot, it is easy to see where the cut starts). 7 The length of all divisions seen on the scale in the microscope is the same. Consequently, it does not matter where you start measuring. Record the nymber of divisions between each of the coats. 9 The thickness is related to which knife has been used. Incase knife no. | has been used, the number of divisions must be multiplied by 20 to obtain the correct film thickness in pm. Incase knife no. 2 has been used, the number of divisions must be multiplied by 10 to obtain the correct film thickness in pm. Incase knife no. 3 has been used, the number of divisions must be multiplied by 2 to obtain the correct film thickness in pm. Procedure using S%cberffhickness Drill 1 First place the oblong support for the drill on the paint and then insert the drill in the hole on the support. 2 Turn the drill with your finger until all paint coats have been penetrated all the way down to the steel Remove the drill and place the microscope on top of the drilled location. Looking in the microscope, the different coats can easily be seen and the thick- ness of each of the coats can be determined. 5 Inorder to obtain the correct film thickness in jm each division is multiplied by 20. RY 386 Corrosion PROTECTIONAppendix 18 Measuring adhesion using the Cross Cut Test (ISO 2409) Equipment Standard ISO 2409 Scalpel or knife with break-off blades Multi-blade instrument Stee] template with milled 2 mm and 3 mm spacings Soft brush Transparent tape with a width of 25 and an adhesion of 10 N per 25 mm tape width Magnifying glass with 2-3 times magnification ‘The spacing of the cuts in each direction shall be equal and depends on the thick- ness of the coating and on the type of substrate as follows: [- Coating Thickness ~yT Substrate Spacing ——— ++ ———| | 0-60 um | Hard 1mm | 0-60 ym | Soft 2mm i 61 - 120 um | Hard and soft 2mm j 124-250 pm |___ Hard and soft 3mm Procedure Long, single cuts are preferable, but a multi-blade instrument (with six knives) can also be used if the thickness of the paint film is less than 120 pm. 1 Measure the thickness of the paint with a film thickness gauge. Select an appro- priate cutting instrument and knife spacing in accordance with the thickness of the paint film. 2 Make an approximately 40-50 mm long cut with a constant pressure through the paint film and down to the steel. If single cuts are made, the procedure is repeated six times. 3 Atright angles to and across the first cut an approximately 40-50 mm long cut is made with a constant pressure through the paint film and down to the steel. In case of single cuts, also this procedure must be repeated six times. 4 Brush the area where the cross cut is made a few times. Place the centre of a 75 mm long piece of tape over the cut. 5 Rub the tape firmly against the surface so that the paint is seen clearly through it. Pull off the free end rapidly at an angle of approximately 60 to the substrate. Keep the tape for reference. Carefully examine the cut area of the test coating in good lighting using normal or corrected vision or a hand lens. Classify the test area according to the table in the standard,:by comparison with the illustrations. Classification 0 indicates that the edges of the cuts are completely smooth, while classification 5 indicates that the coating is flaking beyond 65%. APPENDIX TO CHAPTER 13. 387Appendix 19 Measuring adhesion using the tape test (ASTM D 3359) Equipment Standard ASTM D 3359 Scalpel or utility knife with break-off blades Cutting guide or hard metal straightedge Transparent tape with a width of 25 mm and good adhesion Rubber eraser on the end of a pencil Illumination Information ASTM D 3359 includes two methods for determination of adhesion, test methods A (X-cut) and B (Cross Cut), respectively. Test Method A is primarily intended for use at job sites while Test Method B is more suitable for use in the laboratory. Also, Test Method B is not considered suitable for films thicker than 5 mils (125 jm). Test method A (X-cut test) : Two cuts in the film are made using a scalpel. The cuts are made in such a way that they intersect near their middle with a smaller angle of between 30 and 45. Procedure 1 The two cuts are each made in a length of about 40 mm with sufficient force to penetrate the coating film. 2. The angle of intersection must be between 30 and 45. 3 Remove two laps of pressure-sensitive tape and discard. Remove an additional length of tape about 75 mm in length. 4 Place the centre of the tape on the intersection of the cuts with the tape running in the same direction as the smaller angles. Smooth the tape into place by finger and then use an eraser and rub firmly. Within 90 + 30 seconds of application, remove the tape by seizing the free end and pulling it of rapidly back upon itself at as close to an angle of 180 as possible. 7 Inspect the X-cut area for removal of coating from the substrate or previous coating and rate the adhesion in accordance with the following scale: 5A No peeling or removal 4A — Trace peeling or removal along the incisions or at their intersection 3A Jagged removal along incisions up to 1.6 mm on either side 2A Jagged removal along most incisions up to 3.2 mm on either side 1A Removal from most of the area of the X under the tape OA Removal beyond the area of the X au Test Method B (Cross Cut test) : The test is carried out in the same way as for the ISO 2409 Cross Cut Test. The main difference between the tests is the classification of the adhesion results. Classification SB indicates that the edges of the cuts are completely smooth, while classification OB indicates that the coating is flaking beyond 65%. 388 Corrosion protectionAppendix 20 Adhesion testing using pull-off test equip- ment (ISO 4624) Equipment Standard ISO 4624 Pull-off test equipment Test cylinders (dollies) Glue, two-pack epoxy or cyanoacrylate glue Tape Circular hole cutter Procedure Grind the dolly plane with abrasive paper 180-240. Wipe off dust with dry tissue paper. Grind some areas on the painted surface with abrasive paper 180-240. Wipe off dust from the painted surface with dry tissue paper. Using standard epoxy glue (two-component): Mix base and curing agent of a standard epoxy glue (blue) in the ratio 1: 1 before the glue is applied to the dolly in a suitable quantity. Press the dolly against the substrate and squeeze out as much excessive glue as possible along the edge. Cross-tape the dolly to keep it in place. The glue must cure for minimum 24 hours at room temperature. 6 Using cyanoacrylate glue (one-component): Apply a suitable quantity of glue on the dolly. Press the dolly against the substrate and keep it there with a firm pressure for at least 15 seconds. , The glue should cure for minimum one hour. 7 With a circular hole cutter with a diameter corresponding to that of the dolly make a cut around the dollies down to steel and pull off the dolly with the pull- off instrument. 8 Record the breaking strength, in megapascals, and the nature of failure. 9 For convenience, the following scheme may be used to describe the results ob- served: BREN Cohesive failure of the substrate Adhesive failure between substrate and first coat Cohesive failure of first coat Adhesive failure between first and second coats Adhesive failure between final coat and adhesive Cohesive failure of the adhesive Adhesive failure between adhesive and test cylinder APPENDIX TO CHAPTER 13 389Appendix 21 Holiday detection of coatings using the low voltage wet sponge method (ASTM D 5162) Equipment Standard ASTM D 5162 Low voltage wet sponge test equipment with ground wire and sponge Thickness gauge Water Non-oil containing chalk Procedure 1 Measure the film thickness of the coating with a non-destructive dry film thick- ness gauge. If the coating film exceeds 500 jm, use the procedures for high voltage spark testing. 2 Wet the sponge with water and if necessary with a low sudsing wetting agent (for example fluid soap). 3. Connect the ground wire from the instrument to the metallic substrate. 4 Check a bare spot on the substrate to ensure that the instrument is properly grounded. Do not check on the ground wire alligator clip. 5. If pinholes or holidays down to electrically conducting coatings or bare metal are registered, an audible signal is heard. 6 Ifa pinhole or holiday is detected, turn the sponge on the end to determine the exact location of the defect. 7 To prevent telegraphing (current travelling through a moisture path to a discon- tinuity, giving an erroneous indication), take care that the surface is wiped dry from previously detected discontinuity before continuing the test. Otherwise the conductive water film may cause an already identified defect to be registered several times. 390 Corrosion PROTECTIONAppendix 22 Holiday detection of coatings using the high voltage spark test method (ASTM D 5162) Equipment Standard ASTM D 5162 High voltage spark test equipment with ground wire and steel brush or rubber coated probe Thickness gauge Non-oil containing chalk Procedure Measure the film thickness of the coating with a non-destructive dry film thick- ness gauge. If the coating film is less than 500 ym, consider using the proce- dures for low voltage testing. Adjust the test instrument to the proper voltage for the coating thickness being tested, suggested voltages are given in the table. 3 Connect the exploring electrode and grounding cable to the terminals of the detector. _ 4 Connect the ground wire alligator clip from the instrument to the metallic substrate. 5 Check a bare spot on the substrate to ensure that the instrument is properly grounded. Do not check on the ground wire clip. Adjust the correct voltage on the instrument. The standard recommends an exploring rate of 30 cm per second, This may be too fast, so a reduction to 5-10 cm per second is recommended. If pinholes or holidays are detected, either an audible signal or a light in the probe will be produced. Identify the holidays with a marker for repair. wv om ID Table 13.11 Suggested voltages for high voltage spark testing Total dry film thickness | Suggested Inspection L mils mm | Voltage, V 8-12 0.20.0.31 | 1500 | 13-18 | 0.32-:0.46 | 2000 | 19-30 Oe Ae = | 2500 | 31-40 0.78-1.03 4000 | 41-60 1.04-1.54 | 5000 | 61-80 1.55:2.04 | 7500 81-100 | 2,05-2.55 10000 | 101-125 2,563.19 | 12000 | 126-160 3.20-4.07 15000 | 161-200 | 4,085.09 20000 | 201-250 5.10-6.35 | 25000 APPENDIX To CHAPTER 13. 391.Appendix 23 Measuring MEK resistance of ethyl silicate (inorganic) zinc-rich primers by solvent rub (ASTM D 4752) Equipment Standard ASTM. D 4752 Construction applied with zinc ethyl silicate Water Cheesecloth Solvent Methyl! Ethyl Ketone (MEK, also called butanone) Procedure 1 Measure the film thickness and compare it to the specification. 2 Remove all residues of loosely adhering zinc dust by washing with water, before carrying out the test. 3 Fold the cheesecloth into a pad containing four thicknesses of cloth and saturate it with methyl ethyl ketone. 4 Rub the test area with the saturated cloth, exerting a moderate pressure with the thumb, using a 50 mm long stroke that encompasses the test area, Continue rubbing the surface with the MEK-saturated pad, wetting the pad as necessary without lifting it from the surface until either the metal substrate is exposed or 50 double rubs have been completed. 6 Select an adjacent area to be used for control. Repeat 1-5, except use a dry cheesecloth to establish the effect of burnishing without the influence of MEK. w Scale for resistance rating: | Resistance rating | Description | 5 No effect on the surface, no zinc on cloth | | | after 50 double rubs | 4 | Burnished appearance in rubbed areas; | slight amount of zinc on cloth after 50 double rubs 3 | Some marring and apparent depression of the film | after 50 double rubs 2 Heavy marring; obvious depression in the film after 50 double rubs 1 Heavy depression in the film but no actual penetration to the substrate after 50 double rubs 0 Penetration to the substrate in 50 double rubs or less Note In order to overcoat zinc ethyl silicate paint with a good result, the paint must be completely cured to a rating of 5 or 4 according to the description above. 392 Corrosion PROTECTIONTable 13.12. Example of a surface treatment report ‘SURFACE TREATMENT REPORT Tien reer: Porchave Order Draning Convector ‘Surface Preparation ated of aeaning Baie Te fartenp: | Soaitenp Oe pom WaSST aE Tennesse [aba eaN aT ROE Tareas [Gradng [et ceaneds USO ROTTS Painting ean Ts z 7 7 oY inspeaea ty eave . Prod name: atiod a apaieanon Reaued ay Ti ess Siar date Tame Fished eae ie Faaive Ro 7 Tiare [> Ties am *E Dew pont © ies 7 ‘ax Ti wiewess ame aan tim emnass pm akesan WF "ype: Fir hiciness arama WER sta ASTM ATES — [Bae om "Type Aanasion ister Remar ‘Date and Sotace prepavaton Parsing strate: Sapaier Convector Sie APPENDIX TO CHAPTER 13 39314 Health, safety and environment Objective When you have gone through this chapter you should be able to explain the most important hazards to health and environment know rules and regulations governing safety, health and fire hazards be able to explain which kinds of substances cause problems in the working environment be able to select coatings and other materials on the basis of the safety data sheet be able to participate in an assessment of the working environment be able to take proper measures for protecting yourself from any health haz- ards understand what may'cause fire in your workplace be able to prevent fire know how to handle residues of abrasives, paint and other chemical products to avoid polluting the environment Introduction During surface treatment projects the working environment creates several situa- tions that pose health and safety hazards. Therefore, we must be alert while work- ing. There are also several laws and regulations providing guidelines on how to work. These laws and regulations vary from one country to another, however, there will often be features in common. The working environment comprises both physical and chemical conditions. The physical conditions include the scaffolds we work on noise created by the work light and climatic conditions heavy lifts and incorrect working positions The chemical conditions include dust floating in the air from blast cleaning and spray application solvents in the form of liquids or vapours epoxy, polyurethane and other substances that may cause allergy Very often the materials used are flammable. ‘We must plan our work in such a way that these hazards are reduced and we 394 CoRROSION PROTECTIONmust protect ourselves when necessary. In order to protect ourselves properly we need information on the elements of risk. This is obtained from warning symbols and risk and safety phrases on the labels and in the safety data sheets. We also have a responsibility for the environment outside the place of work. Our working procedures must ensure that the environment is not polluted. Our work concerns corrosion protection. By our work we contribute towards preserving in the best possible way those resovrces that man has extracted from nature. Health and safety laws and regulations Many countries have introduced laws and regulations containing provisions for protecting employees against work-related hazards. Such laws and regulations pro- vide the legislative basis for achieving improvements and for preventing harmful effects caused by hazardous conditions in the working environment. Through inter- national organizations like the European Union (EU) and the International Labour Organization (ILO) harmonization of the rules in the different countries takes place. The EU has adopted a number of directives concerning the working environment which member countries must comply with. One thing is the existing laws and regulations, another is how the businesses in the different countries live up to the good intentions of the legislation. In practical working life there are huge differences in the working environment standards and use of protective equipment. It will be distortion of competition if one company intends to carry out work in a manner which is to provide the workers with full safety against injuries, while another company does not take the adverse impact on either workers or the external environment into consideration. Everybody involved in corrosion protection work, either as a painter or sand blast operator, inspector or engineer, must know the hazards related to the work, as well as the rules and regulations which are in force. The Norwegian standard NS 476 “Rules for the approval of surface treatment inspections” states that “The inspector shall ascertain that... safety and environmental regulations are adhered for The most important laws and regulations related to our field of work are Occupational health and safety legislation: general provisions governing the rights and duties of employers and employees, protection against injuries caused by physical and chemical exposures Laws and regulations on chemical substances: labelling, data sheets, special protective precautions Laws and regulations on flammable products Regulations concerning special work operations and equipment, for example abrasive blast cleaning, high pressure water hosing, and work on scaffolds Laws and regulations governing protective equipment Laws and regulations concerning protection of the external environment: han- dling of waste, hazardous waste 14 HEALTH, SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENT 395Company procedures for compliance with laws and regulations Itis the responsibility of the competent authorities in a country or region to ensure that laws and regulations are being observed. The companies must establish a sys- tem for complying with these provisions. Many companies have introduced proce- dures for ensuring that they achieve a certain quality of work, a quality manage- ment system. In the same way the companies must establish procedures for ensur- ing that the work is carried out in compliance with the authorities’ requirements. This means that the top management of the company must ensure that such a system is established. The employees must participate in the establishment of the correct procedures for the work. They must know about the laws and regulations which are in force. Furthermore, they must know the elements of risk, health risks and the risk of pollution of the environment. The employees must cooperate to ensure that the procedures are being observed, but management must follow up by organizing the work and ensuring that the necessary protective equipment is avail- able. It is a requirement that the company which is to carry out a job must perform a risk assessment first. This involves an assessment of the potential hazards that the workers may be exposed to in connection with the different work operations to be carried out. Furthermore, the employer must decide on which measures must be taken in order to eliminate or reduce the risk. The employees must be informed about the hazards involved and the preventive actions taken. Coating contractors must have written procedures for carrying out risk assessments and competent per- sonnel for-performing them. The safety data sheets (SDS) for the products to be applied are a source of information in connection with the risk assessment. Companies that have established an environmental management system may aim at having it certified. ISO 14001 is an international environmental manage- ment system standard similar to the ISO 9000 quality management standard. EMAS is a similar arrangement based on an EU regulation. Safety from accidents and injuries Several hazardous conditions at the worksites result in a risk of accidents. Such hazardous conditions include an untidy workplace, poor lighting conditions, lack of safety devices on machinery, lack of toe boards on scaffolding and lack of rail- ings. To this can be added hazardous acts due to insufficient training or incautious conduct. This may result in personal injuries and, in the worst case, death. ‘A major part of the accidents are fall accidents and accidents caused by falling objects, often in connection with work on scaffolding. We should wear helmets and well-fitting safety shoes as well as clothes that are not loose about the body and easily caught on something. 396 Corrosion PROTECTION| Figure 14.1 Scaffold types A Tube and coupler scaffold Wi]| B Systems scaffold C Bracket scaffold D Mobile scaffold E Suspension scaffold 14 HEALTH, SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENT 397Scaffold work When working on scaffolding it is important that you feel safe. Poor and unsafe scaffolding generally causes work to progress at a slower pace than anticipated. Work also becomes more costly and it is more difficult to comply with the quality requirements. If regulations for scaffolding are available, they will provide for how to erect the scaffolding, the maximum load of the different scaffolds, etc. The scaffolding must be a safe and efficient place of work. The provisions must ensure that this is the case. Often the scaffold builders are not the same persons as the users of the scaffold. The scaffold must be provided with a sign which clearly tells whether it is ready for use or whether it is being erected or dismantled. Itis important to plan the scaffolding in cooperation with the users. Scaffolding that is not user-friendly will turn into an unsafe workplace, irrespective of its hav- ing been erected according to the regulations. SCAFFOLD D BUILDER/ERECTC ah a j WARNING | vl SCAFFOLD | BEING ERECTED/ | | DISMANTLED | Figure 14.2. Signs for scaffolding There will often be special demands as to how the scaffolding should be constructed, for example in the case of surface preparation or paint application work. When performing such work, protective equipment must be used, for example masks and hoods. This will reduce the range of vision of the operators. Furthermore, dust and difficult conditions of light may cause poor visibility. This requires safe scaffold floors without loose planks. Preferably decks should be used. However, for abra- sive blasting purposes it may be advantageous to use planks with small gaps in- between to avoid that spent abrasives accumulate on the scaffolding. To avoid extensive touch-up work afterwards it must be carefully evaluated how many anchorage and support points are required in or at the surfaces to be treated. For such work the operator must otherwise move the planks or decks and loosen fastenings. Afterwards he may forget to replace the planks or decks and to secure the scaffolding again. Touch-up work is often carried out simultaneously with pulling down or dis- mantling of the scaffolding, in which case there is a great risk of fall accidents. 398 Corrosion PROTECTION‘To prevent paint and abrasive from drifting around, causing harm to people and surroundings, the scaffolding must be provided with containment covers. This must be effected in such a way that strong winds will not blow them down. When using scaffolding, we must especially make sure that the scaffolding must have a non-skid and fixed platform the guard rails must protect people or objects from falling. There will generally be both a handrail, a knee-high rail and a toe board. Itis an established fact that lack of or poor railing is the cause of many accidents in connection with scaffolding work. Mobile scaffolds have one or more levels of working platforms. They have been fitted with wheels in order to be mobile, but the height cannot be adjusted. They must only be used on plane surfaces in order to ensure they are stable both when in use and when they are moved. No people must be present on the scaffold while it is being moved, and objects must be removed or secured from falling down. Suspension scaffolds can be power-operated or manually operated. It must not be possible to lower the platform by means of braking power. The platform must be operated by the motor or by a hand-operated hoisting winch. It is no longer permit- ted to use two ordinary tackle blocks for hoisting the scaffold. The work platform must be provided with wheels or guards against the wall or hull in order to prevent the platform from getting stuck. When blast cleaning from a suspension scaffold, ropes and hoisting gear must be protected from being damaged by the abrasive. Ladders should preferably only be used for providing access, not for working on. The regulations do not contain any maximum length for ladders leaning against a wall. If the length exceeds five metres, the ladder must be fastened at the top. Figure 14.3 Protecting hoisting gear from abrasives 114 HEALTH, SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENT 399.Working with blast cleaning and grinding equipment Open-nozzle blasting The working environment problems arising during the abrasive blast cleaning process are primarily caused by the dust. Pneumoconioses, such as silicosis and siderosis, are caused by inhalation of dust. Due to the risk of silicosis many countries have prohibited the use of abrasives containing more than 1% quartz. Respirable dust (mgm) ——— Abrasives: Fo] Quartz sand | e Copper slag 20 1 | fi E Z Pressure: -2 7 7-0 07 © -2-3-37 7 7 7 -w-10ber Addedwatero © © 0 0 11 11 41 a2 19 45 10 44 13 min Dry open-nozzle Vacuurn Wet open-nozzle blasting blasting blasting Figure 14.4 Dust quantities, total dust and respirable dust resulting from differ- ent abrasives Large quantities of dust are generated by open-nozzle abrasive blasting using dis- posable abrasives. Some of the dust is already present as part of the abrasive. During blast cleaning the abrasive grains are crushed against the substrate. Thereby even more quantities of dust are produced. Old paint, rust and other contaminants being torn from the surface impair the working environment. When metal slags are used for blast cleaning, there may be a risk of producing dust containing heavy metals. The shape of the object and our choice of abrasive, blasting pressure, abrasive 400 Corrosion PROTECTIONquantity, volume of air and also the ventilation at the workplace determine how much dust is being produced. Especially fine dust with particles below 5 um tend to end up in the lungs. Persons other than the operator are also exposed to the dust. Personnel perform- ing tasks associated with the blast cleaning work are in highly exposed positions. The blast pot attendant, who fills abrasive into the pressure pot, is in danger of inhaling dust, especially if he does not wear any protective equipment. There are also other elements of risk than the dust. If somebody is hit by the sand blast from a short distance, the clothes will be ripped apart. Abrasives hitting the skin may produce nasty and painful wounds. If several blast operators are working simultaneously, there must be sufficient distance between them in order that they do not get into each others way. Make sure that hoses and couplings are in order and that defective parts are replaced. Near-accidents have happened because the rubber lining on the valve in the abrasive hopper has become worn. The compressed air, which should have caused the valve to close, instead made the valve shoot out like a projectile. Relative dust concentration 20 : Particle size 0-5 pm | 2 | 20 4 18 al 1 7 | . 7 | 4 ° Cast iron Atonide Alsiicale Olvine Quartz sand sand Figure 14.5 The bar chart shows the relative dust quantities resulting from differ- ent abrasives. The particle size is less than 5 um Protective measures All work with abrasives requires the use of respiratory protection, irrespective of whether we are blast cleaning, fill in abrasive, inspect, or remove abrasive and dust before painting. The operator must use an air-fed hood or helmet. The hood or helmet must protect the operator against abrasive dust, spray and bounce-back. Most hoods provide good protection against spray and bounce-back. However, the ability to prevent dust from penetrating varies from one hood to another. Measurements have shown that the operator is exposed to large concentrations of dust also when using acompressed-air fed hood. Poor fit, inferior material and poor maintenance of the 14 HEALTH, SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENT 401.protective equipment increase the danger of inhaling large quantities of dust. It may be advantageous to use an approved type of disposable mask together with a com- pressed-air fed hood. We must carefully check that the breathing air to the air-fed hood is sufficiently pure. If our job is to remove spent abrasive, we must use a mask with P2 dust filter, or P3 filter if the dust from the abrasive also contains toxic particles. Larger quan- tities of micro-fine dust are present in the spent abrasive than in the unused abra- sive. Blast and centrifugal cleaning methods to improve the working environment In order to reduce the dust problems and improve the working environment alterna- tive cleaning methods can be employed. Vacuum blasting Vacuum blasting presents great benefits for the environment. If the operator takes care to ensure that the nozzle fits closely against the surface to be cleaned, we achieve an almost dust-free environment for ourselves and the surroundings hardly any bounce-back or waste of abrasive that other persons in the area can carry out their work almost undisturbed. Figure 14.6. Principle and mode of action of a portable vacuum blasting unit Centrifugal blast cleaning The advantages for the environment when we use centrifugal blast cleaning are two-fold, both in a workshop and at the steel suppliers: the cleaning process takes place in a closed system use of centrifugal blast cleaned and shopprimed steel may reduce the use of open-nozzle blasting of welding seams and for repair of damaged areas. Open-nozzle abrasive blasting with the addition of water or steam If water, in one form or the other, is added to the abrasive, the dust is reduced. The 402 Corrosion PROTECTIONdust-reduction largely depends on the quantity of water added. For the benefit of the environment the contamination in the surroundings, the range of spread, and to a large extent also the quantities are diminished. As far as occupational health and safety is concerned, it is much easier to protect oneself against the harmful effects from the abrasive when water is added, even in the case of dry blasting. The opera- tor is exposed to a fog of abrasive and water. This may produce visibility problems if slurry settles on the glass or shield. In cold weather it may be unpleasant for the operator to get wet. The object and the workplace must have a temperature above the freezing point. The transition from dry dust to a fog of abrasive and water may be rather dif- fuse. In case of doubt the same respiratory protection must be used as against the effects from dry abrasive dust. When working with wet open-nozzle blasting, in addition to respiratory protection, we must use a helmet with shield or pull-over hood, rainwear, rubber boots. protective clothing and rubber gloves. Other mechanical surface preparation methods In addition to abrasive blast cleaning, steel can be prepared by several other meth- ods before paint is applied. In the workshop industry it is common practice to carry out cleaning manually or by using pneumatic or electrically powered grinding or wirebrushing machines. Corrosion contractors use power wirebrushing and grinding less and less. Today manual wirebrushing and grinding is used only in situations where the require- ments to surface preparation are limited, where minor constructions are to be painted for the first time, or are repainted. Also needle gunning and scraping are on their way out. The effectiveness of the cleaning method is a good measure of how much con- tamination the method generates. For example, power tool wirebrushing and grind- ing tear off more loose rust from the surface than if it is done manually. Thick layers of rust and dld paint produce more dust. In addition to rust and old paint also steel particles (shavings) contaminate the environment around the operator when they are torn loose. The same applies to dirt and contamination on the surface. In addition to the contaminants also steel wires from the cup brushes and bits from the grinding discs come off when brushing and grinding with power tools. In the case of thermal surface preparation, flame cleaning, relatively little dust is gen- erated. On the other hand, the smoke may be a problem, in particular when old paint is removed. Chromium, lead- and zinc-containing paints as well as antifoulings may produce extremely toxic fumes when flame cleaning is carried out. Protective measures Protective measures against rust dust, paint residues, etc.: half-mask with dust filter (P2) paper filter mask (P2) for slightly contaminated environments Protective measures against torn-off steel bits, steel wires, etc.: protective goggles or shield, gloves Protective measures against smoke from flame cleaning: half-mask with filter cartridge(s) against dust, metal fumes and smoke 14 HEALTH, SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENT 403,Working with airless equipment The use of airless spray equipment may involve a number of hazards. A jet of paint or other material under high pressure against the skin may cause serious damage, even amputation. Consequently, the gun must never be pointed towards the body. The gun must be secured against unintentional release. Hoses must be reinforced and should be covered by wire braiding. Hoses showing signs of damage and wear must not be used. When replacing nozzles or cleaning the gun, we must make sure that the pump has stopped and the material pressure has been released. The mate- rial flow in the hose will cause static electricity. In order not to produce sparks the gun must be earthed. Figure 14.7 Do not point the gun at another person In recent years it has become quite common to clean painted constructions by jet- ting with water tinder very high pressure (water cleaning, water jetting). The pres- sure may be between 300 and 3000 bar (30-300 MPa). The operator performing such work must have been properly trained in the use of the equipment and in- formed about the hazards from the work. Remember that a jet of liquid under high pressure can injure the body almost in the same way as a projectile. The operator must wear protective equipment in order to protect eyes, hands and the body. The protective clothing must be specially made for the purpose. The nozzle must only be pointed at the surface to be cleaned. The system must never be activated while the water jet nozzle is directed towards the feet of the operator. In many countries both the use of high pressure equipment for paint application and high pressure jetting are subject to special regulations. Electric equipment The power required for mechanical equipment at the mobile worksites is often generated by provisional electric units. Cables must be laid out in such a way that they are least exposed. Insulation damage on the cables is often the cause of acci- dents. Make sure to repair or replace damaged cables, contacts and plug outlets immediately. Skilled electricians must be in charge of the repairs, both on the power 404 CoRrRosion PROTECTIONsupply unit and on tools. Electric hand tools must be double-insulated, A plate on the tool must provide information on voltages and motor power. Working in confined areas and tanks Tanks haviag been in use must be emptied, ventilated and cleaned, and gas detec- tion must be carried out before the blast cleaning and painting work is started. Blast cleaning The operator uses the same personal protective equipment as when blast cleaning, in the open air: helmet or hood for blast cleaning dust mask long gloves protective boots with rubber tops boiler suit Furthermore, the use of dust-proof clothing with a hood instead of a boiler suit or in conjunction with a boiler suit is recommended. Lighting must be arranged in such a way that it is not dimmed by stirred-up dust. The work lighting is mounted on the hose or nozzle holder. Thereby the light follows the movements of the blasting nozzle. The communication between the operator and the blast pot attendant takes place by means of sound or light signals. In special cases radio communication should aiso be employed, for example when blasting inside turbine pipes. Paint application _ There will always be a health hazard associated with painting in narrow and poorly ventilated spaces, especially if the products contain solvents or other substances hazardous to health. Do not use filter masks under such conditions because they only provide protection for a limited period of time. The safest solution is to use an air-fed mask or pull-over hood with a continuous supply of air. This especially applies if the air is oxygen-deficient. Safety rules when using air-fed masks with air supply through hoses from a compressor: 1 Make sure that the breathing air is pure. Check that the compressor does not draw in exhaust pollutants through the air-inlet. Install filters and condensation traps in order to remove smell, oil, water vapours and rust particles from the air supplied to the supply hose (breathing air hose). Check that the breathing air equipment is in order. Make sure that the air hose is sufficiently long and without extensions. Regulate to a suitable inlet pressure on the air hose. Adjust mask, helmet or hood for a proper fit. It can be extremely dangerous to take off the mask inside the tank in order to make an adjustment. Regulate the volume of air to a comfortable level after the air supply has stabi- lized. But make sure that the volume of air is sufficiently high to keep the con- taminated air in the tank or room away from the user’s breathing zone. For face wa a 14 HEALTH, SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENT 405,masks the volume of air should not be less than 100 litres per minute and for hoods or helmets 170 litres per minute. Be careful when you enter the contaminated area. Exit the same way that you entered. 8 When using helmet or hood for blast cleaning, you must ensure that the safety glass or protective film and the protective mesh are in place. x Physical working environment factors Noise Noise is unwanted sound. In connection with anticorrosion painting high noise levels are generated. Just think of the sound from compressors, abrasive blasting pots, grinding machines, needle guns and paint spray guns. Generally speaking, this is sound which we do not want. To this can be added the noise from other people at the construction site or in the workshop. Noise causes hearing loss or impairment. Hearing can be impaired instantane- ously if the noise is too loud, or by loud blasts. This is the result of small nerve cells in the inner ear being destroyed. Also constant noise at the workplace over several years will impair hearing. The person beginning to suffer from hearing damage does not feel the loss of hearing himself. It is primarily the comprehension of speech which is affected. In this case one is inclined to think that other people mumble. Remember that loss of hearing lasts forever. In case of sudden exposure to a loud noise, the body will be thrown into a state of shock. Such states of shock are inju- rious because they result in premature attrition. Sleeping problems at night and a higher level of stress are the results. It is a proven fact that workers exposed to intense noise are more susceptible to heart diseases than people in general. Noise can be prevented.’ Before discussing how noise exposures can be reduced, we will touch upon the subject of sound levels. Sound can be characterized by means of intensity (the loudness of the sound) and frequency (low bass, high treble sound). The unit of measurement for the sound intensity is decibel, abbreviated dB. For frequency the unit of measurement is Hertz, abbreviated Hz, which is the number of cycles per second. In order to be able to measure sound as close to how it is perceived by the ear weighting curves have been introduced which imitate the sensitivity of the ear. For measurements carried out using such a weighting curve the designation dB(A) is generally used for the sound level. In principle, noise can be reduced in three different ways: at the source of noise on its way to the receiver on the receiver (using hearing protection) Sources of noise The optimum solution is to reduce the noise at the actual source. When purchasing equipment it is a joint task for both employees and the employers to acquire tools with the best possible sound control, and also otherwise provide the best possible protection. 406 Corrosion PROTECTIONThe sources of noise in connection with anticorrosion painting are, in particu- lar, the blast pot and paint sprayers. They generate such a high level of noise that it is necessary to take measures in order to reduce the noise. In the case of spray application the noise level is around 100 decibel, dB(A). ‘Thermal spraying (arc or flame spraying) generate a noise level around 100-110 dB(A). Open-nozzle abrasive blasting results in largely the same level of noise. Itis technically difficult to do something about this noise. The noise is generated both when the material (abrasive, metal or paint) leaves the nozzle and when it hits the object to be treated. Air or gas streaming out also create noise. Furthermore, compressors and other machines make noise. The compressors usually result in 80- 90 dB(A) at the place of the operators. In connection with abrasive blast cleaning the noise can to some extent be re- duced by using a venturi nozzle. However, the use of hearing protection is still mandatory. Regulations concerning noise often set the maximum allowable noise level over an eight-hour day to 85 dB(A). This is the level applying to the workplaces being dealt with here. If this requirement is not met by the equipment used, we must implement sound insulation or use hearing protection. Work zones where hearing protection is mandatory, noise level above 85 dB(A), must be provided with signs: “NOISE ZONE ~ use hearing protection”: Figure 14.8 Noise can be reduced in different ways: 1 at the source of noise 2. on its way to the receiver 3. on the receiver (using hearing protection) Sound control The method most easily handled in order to reduce noise on its way from the source to the receiver is by using screens and absorbers (for example mineral wool slabs). If at all possible, several noise-making units, for example compressors, can be collected behind the same screen. The best noise-insulating effect is achieved if as many sides as possible of the source of noise are screened off. This may prove difficult in practice. However, two screens should be used which are placed close to the source of noise in such a way that they reduce the noise in the direction where most people are working. The screen must be arranged with the absorber towards the source of noise. By means of screens a noise reduction of 5-15 dB (A) can be obtained. 114 HEALTH, SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENT 407.The optimum solution is if the sources of noise can be enclosed completely. In order to obtain a good effect from the enclosure, the machine must also be vibration dampened, for example by placing it on rubber pads. Hearing protection The simplest way of reducing noise is to use hearing protection. This should not be accepted as a permanent solutio 1 to the noise problem. However, sometimes it is not possible to avoid the use of hearing protection such as ear muffs, earplugs, etc. If the noise is permanent and extremely loud, hearing protection with a reduction of 30 dB must be used, i.e. ear muffs. When blast cleaning we must make sure that the reduction is sufficiently high between 1000 and 800 Hz. There the levels are par- ticularly high. Light Proper lighting is essential for us to utilize our faculty of vision. Light at the workplace must be arranged to ensure higher safety better work. Additionally, it is also a question of performing work more efficiently, thereby optimizing profitability, and improving the environment and job satisfaction. Light is necessary for safety The workplace must be organized in such a way that it is safe even if the light should disappear because of a power cut. This requires separate emergency light circuits connected to units powered by petrol or diesel. Escape routes should be fitted with 40 W bulbs hanging at a height of 2.5 metres and 5 metres apart. The emergency light circuits should be specially marked to prevent them from being disconnected by mistake. Phosphorescent paint emits light long after the light source has been switched off. Escape routes and dangerous zones can be marked with phosphorescent paint, plastic pieces or signs. Avoid junction boxes on the floor and keep the transport zones free from objects that may be damaged or which may inflict damage. Light is necessary for carrying out work When pretreating and painting a surface, it is a prerequisite for a good result that we are able to see properly. How can we determine whether a surface has been blast cleaned to Sa 2% if the light is not adequate? The workplace should generally have good lighting. The light should be uni- form and arranged in such a way that distinct, shadowy parts are not produced. Additionally, work lights should be directed towards the surfaces to be treated. When blast cleaning a light mounted directly on the blast hose is often used. This assists us to see the site being blasted quite clearly. A good work light in general does not help us during the actual blasting. Due to the volume of dust we are working like in a sea of fog. Only after 10 minutes, when most dust has settled, is it possible to assess larger areas. 408 Corrosion PROTECTIONNormally, it is assumed that a painting job requires a work light of 300 lux. The general light at the workplace should be 200 lux. These figures apply to workers of less than 40 years of age. For older workers we should expect to double these levels. Poor lighting does not cause the vision to be impaired. However, it is poor economy to have lighting which affects the quality of the work. Dazzling is the result of unshielded lig'tt sources in our field of vision or reflec- tions from light sources. The most exposed part of the field of vision is plus/minus 30 degrees from the direction of vision. Climatic conditions The climatic conditions include the temperature, humidity of the air, and air cur- rents (wind or draught). These conditions are often regulated according to the re- quirements of the paint, but with no consideration of the painter. Usually draught and a feeling of a too low temperature are felt to be the biggest problems. At 20°C most people accept an air current of 0.1-0.2 m/s. Ata lower temperature, this is felt as draught. Working clothes should help to regulate the body temperature and pro- tect us against physical and chemical injuries. Often two-piece working clothes, trouser and shirt, are used. because this pro- vides maximum freedom of movement. The disadvantage is that many people be- come chilled when bending or stretching. This may cause back injury problems. Such injury often develops over a period of many years. As long as we are exposed to draught or low temperatures, working clothes should be worn which cover the small of the back in all positions. Figure 14.9 Strain Unfortunately, strain injuries are not unknown phenomena in the type of work dealt with here. Many people get afflicted with pains in the back, shoulders and at the back of the head. This is caused by incorrect use of muscles, heavy lifts and harm- ful working positions. Muscles working dynamically are alternately tight and relaxed. This is advanta- geous as long as the speed of the alternations is not too high. In connection with static muscular action the muscles are tight for extended periods of time. This 14 HEALTH, SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENT 409°impedes blood circulation and waste products are accumulated in the muscle cells. Unfortunately, work often results in heavy, static muscle loads. Work is particu- larly heavy when blast cleaning and with hands held above shoulder level. In itself the blasting hose is heavy to handle. It is particularly toilsome to blast clean in the case of a high pressure (above 7-7.5 bar) and a large nozzle opening (for example 12 millimetres in diameter). When, in addition, the arms must be held high, the result is injurious static muscular action. It is only possible to a certain extent to train the muscles to tolerate one-sided and static work, It is necessary to introduce many short breaks during work. Furthermore, it is important to rotate jobs. If we alternate between blasting and attending the pot, other muscles are used. Whenever possible we should use devices for suspending hoses and the like in order to relieve the load on shoulders and arms. In workshop halls for blast clean- ing this should be an option. It is also important to arrange scaffolding correctly in order to reduce the loads in connection with static work. When we are at the right height, we may avoid working with the arms held high for long periods of time. Often heavy lifts have to be performed. In such cases make sure to lift in the correct way: stand as close to the object as possible, legs spread and with good balance. Then lift with a straight back while bending knee and hip joints. Avoid lifting from the floor level. Many lifts from a height lower than 40 centimetres increase the risk of back injury. Sacks with abrasive should preferably be accessi- ble from pallets at a suitable height. fF Figure 14.10 Heavy sacks Correct lifting technique: 1 Raise the sack in an upright position. 2 Pull the sack over the thigh. Lean backwards. 3. Shift the sack to the other knee. 4 Embrace the sack. Stand up. Avoid lifting or moving heavy objects while bending forward. When we have to carry a heavy object, for example a sack with abrasive, it is better to carry it on the shoulders than in the arms. The back should be without a twist and as erect as possible. The sack should be carried as close to the neck and thereby as close to the centre line of the body as possible. Ergonomics is the word used for planning and arranging work and working environment to accommodate the biological conditions of human beings. In some cases we have not been very good at making such adjustments. The tasks may also be of such a nature that it is difficult to accomplish. One example is when we have 410 Corrosion PROTECTIONto blast clean and spray apply paint above shoulder level. How can we then avoid having a static load on the muscles in the arm and shoulders? Remember that you work ergonomically correctly when you allow your muscles to work dynamically because they then alternate between being tight and relaxed avoid incorrect working positions, for example stand at a higher level in order to avoid lifting the arms, and move the body instead of working in a twisted posi- tion avoid prolonged and repetitive work resulting in static loads by employing job rotation at the workplace stretch the joints of the body fully every day, during work or leisure. Chemical hazards in the working environment Substances that we get into contact with during work are foreign to the body. The substances may affect the body when they are inhaled, ingested or are in skin con- tact. The more we are exposed to the substances, the higher the risk of injury. We human beings are very different when it comes to how easily we react and how soon we suffer damage from such substances. Solvents, dust and various allergy-caus- ing substances are the major problem areas in connection with anticorrosion paint- ing Solvents When we inhale air containing solvent vapours, we take up the solvent in the blood via the lungs and circulate it to the different parts of the body. Solvents are stored in the body for shorter or longer periods of time. When work is heavy, we inhale more air, and the blood circulates more quickly. Consequently, we take up more solvents and circulate them in the body. The volume of solvents taken up by the body also depends on the solubility in the blood and in the tissue. Sparingly soluble solvents are not taken up by the body to any great extent. However, if the solvent is easily soluble in the blood and tissue, for example styrene and xylene, we can, by heavy manual labour, take up volumes equivalent to six times the volume we take up when at rest. Solvents are stored in fat. Consequently, persons with big fat deposits take up more solvents than skinny people. If we are continuously exposed to influences from solvents, they will eventually accumulate in the fatty tissue. Solvents can therefore cause damage for a long period after the actual exposure. Solvents can also be taken up directly through the skin, also if the skin is un- damaged. Through damaged skin or skin suffering from other diseases some solvents are more easily taken up in the blood. When exhaling, we get rid of part of the solvents. Furthermore, they are broken down in the liver. The breakdown products are excreted together with urine via the kidneys. 11.4 HEALTH, SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENT 414Brain and nerves, Fe Respiratory passages Skin Heart and blood Kidneys, Liver Reproductive ‘These organs are especially sensitive towards solvents Figure 14.11 The body takes up harmful substances by skin contact, ingesting and inhalation How do solvents affect the body? Short-term effects As explained above, solvents are circulated by the blood through the body. The brain is affected fairly quickly if the concentration of solvents is high enough. We become intoxicated, become more careless, reckless and eventually dizzy, and fi- nally we loose consciousness. These reactions are typical if we are influenced by solvents in a quantity which increases as work progresses. However, if we attempt to enter a freshly-painted tank where the paints contained strong solvents, for example xylene or toluene, without a protective hood, we will probably not be able to stand it. Solvent vapours attack the eyes. Bleary and smarting eyes make it unbearable to remain in the tank. All these effects will pass after some time in fresh air. The time it takes to recover depends on how strong the exposure was. It may take from a few minutes to several hours before we no longer feel dizzy or otherwise unwell. Smoking does not go together with the use of solvents. If the vapours from methylene chloride are inhaled through a lit cigarette, the substance phosgene is formed. Phosgene is then transformed into hydrochloric acid in the lungs. Long-term effects Constant exposure to solvent vapours for extended periods of time affects the brain and the entire nervous system. Symptoms of this type of exposure can be that we become tired, dull, develop poor coordination, become irritated and dizzy. Also the internal organs may be damaged. Especially liver and kidneys are at high risk. 412 Corrosion protectionDust When we are exposed to dust, it can irritate eyes, throat and respiratory passages and cause inflammation of the throat. Furthermore, we may contract serious pul- monary diseases. The more frequently and the longer periods of time we are ex- posed to the dust, the higher the risk of afflictions and diseases. Inhaled dust contains different-sized particles. The particles are pickec up» at different places in the respiratory passages, depending on their size. The coarse particles get caught in the nose and in the throat. This is usually dust with a particle size from 5 to 30 ym in diameter. Further down particles from | to 10 pm are deposited in the bronchial tubes. There can easily be a risk of silicosis when quartz sand is used for abrasive blast cleaning. Many national regulations impose a maximum limit for the contents of quartz of 1%. This means that quartz sand cannot be used for open-nozzle abrasive blasting. A number of other abrasives than sand may contain more quartz than 1%. Also slag abrasives may contain large quantities of substances which we should not inhale. This especially applies to many heavy metals like chromium, nickel, arsenic and others. When we work in the open air with iron-containing dust, we may contract the pneumoconiosis disease of siderosis. Wind pipe Primary bronchus Secondary bronchus Tertiary bronchus Bronchus Terminal Respiratory bronchus Alveole (cross-section) Alveole Figure 14.12. The finest dust can penetrate all the way to the alveoli and get caught there 14 HEALTH, SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENT 413Occupational exposure limits for substances in the workplace air When assessing the quality of the air we inhale, we require some guidelines for how large quanti of contamination we can accept. For this reason, standards have been established which provide information on the maximum limits which concen- trations of gases, vapours, smoke or dust should not exceed. It is difficult to establish such standards. They should not be considered as a sharp borderline between dangerous and harmless concentrations. If the standards are exceeded, it is necessary to provide better ventilation or use personal protective equipment. On the other hand, we must always try to improve the working environ- ment, even if the standards are not exceeded. Health damage may also occur if the concentrations are lower than required by the standards. This is for example the case of solvents. These standards have not been imposed to prevent damage to the nervous system. The only safe method for not contracting injury from chemical substances is to avoid getting into contact with them. Unfortunately, this is not always possible. The workplace air will always contain a certain quantity of for- eign substances like gases, vapours, smoke and dust. In many countries standards or limit values for maximum concentrations of foreign substances in the workplace air have been introduced. These standards have different names and their basis may have been defined differently. The stand- ards also have different legal status. In some countries they may be part of a law, while in other countries they are only intended as a guide. European countries have their own national standards which may vary from one country to the other. In the USA various authorities and organizations have worked out standards: threshold limit values and permissible exposure limits are the designations of such standards. The standards are adjusted every few years. For each substance the standards list the concentrations which must not be exceeded (usually as an average during a working day) before workers have to wear personal protection. In the lists are stated concentrations of vapours or gases in mg/m} (1 mg = 1/1000 g) or in parts per million (ppm). In the case of dust the standards are given as mg/m?. Examples of occupational exposure limits Table 14.1 lists the occupational exposure limits for some substances which may be used in connection with anticorrosion work. The values are taken from the Nor- wegian list (2002) and may deviate from one country to another. The figures in the right column of the table indicate the concentration level of some substances in so far as we are able to smell them. These figures are not part of the list of occupa- tional exposure limits. 414 CoRrosion protection