NURRULAINI BINTI AHMAD

INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA

Using REBT Techniques for Secondary School Students in SMK Selayang

Bharu with Childhood Trauma Issues That Affect Their Development

ABSTRACT
This study is aim to identify the factors that lead to the childhood trauma issues faced by secondary
school students and how the REBT techniques which are ABC’s framework, dispute irrational belief
to rational belief would be able to help them deal with their childhood trauma issues. This qualitative
study was using interview as the research methodology through counseling session that has been
conducted for about two months. This study also explains about the action research process from
planning the research until the reflection part. This study was able to identify the factors that lead to
childhood trauma and how it affects the victim of the childhood trauma physically and mentally. This
study showed that REBT techniques are applicable to the trauma victim by disputing their irrational
belief to rational belief. Lastly, it is hope that everyone either community, school or authorities, would
be able to come together and help those CT’s victim get out from their horrible environment to a
better environment and get a happy life.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Childhood trauma (CT) is something that we commonly heard nowadays as many

childhood abuse cases were reported. This is proven via statistic under Department of

Welfare where until November of 2022, they had handled 5572 of abuse and abandoned

cases where the abuse cases was including, physical, sexual and emotion aspect (Awani,

2023). CT can be defined as a terrifying, hazardous, or violent experience that endangers a

child's life or physical integrity (Bartlett & Steber, 2019). As example when they are being

abuse physically, sexually or emotionally, they felt scared and it was something that they will

never forget as it was a horrific and terrific experiences for them. Usually, they will always

obey to their abuser as they did not want to be punished because the abuser had more power

than them and had the upper hands on the situations which make them took for granted of it.

In other situation, the abuser also may be someone that the children know and depend on

which make them had no other choice but to obey their instruction. It is just either they do not

have anybody to seek for help or their abuser was someone they loved and belief.

1
NURRULAINI BINTI AHMAD
INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA
Witnessing a horrific situation that endangers a loved one's life or physical safety can

also be stressful. This is especially crucial for young children, whose feeling of safety is

dependent on their attachment figures' perceived safety (Bartlett & Steber, 2019). This is

usually happened towards children with domestic abuse issues where they became the

witnesses of their parents’ conflict and argument as well as when their mother or father being

hit physically by their partners. They were being trapped with the broken family environment

where violent was the solution to the problems which can give negative effect towards the

children’s development especially when they are in teenagers age. As we know, during this

time, they were in the moment where they wanted to learned new things and they are battling

with their own identity crisis as they are in the phase of looking for their own identity.

Traumatic situations experienced by the youngsters also can elicit intense emotions

and physical reactions that might last for a long time after the occurrence. Terror,

helplessness, or dread may be felt by children, as well as physiological symptoms such as

heart palpitations, vomiting, or loss of bowel or bladder control. Children who are unable to

defend themselves or who lack protection from others to prevent the repercussions of a

stressful encounter may also feel traumatised (Bartlett & Steber, 2019

Bartlett & Steber (2019), stated that childhood trauma exposure is typically defined as

the chronic and consecutive instances of child maltreatment, including emotional abuse and

neglect, sexual abuse, physical abuse, and witnessing domestic violence. Furthermore, initial

traumatic experiences (e.g., parental neglect and emotional abuse), as well as the resulting

emotional dysregulation, loss of a safe base, loss of direction, and inability to detect or

respond to danger cues, frequently lead to subsequent trauma exposure (e.g., physical and

sexual abuse, or community violence). This study will be focusing on how childhood trauma

will affect the teenagers’ development and how REBT techniques would be able to help them

encounter with their issues.

2
NURRULAINI BINTI AHMAD
INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA
1.1 Problem Statement

The problem addressed by this study is how the childhood trauma affect the children’s

development especially the teenagers where they will be rebel and may be doing something

risky or dangerous to themselves. This is supported by few research cited in Kerig (2019),

which stated that trauma exposure and Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms (PTSS) are associated

with engagement in hazardous behaviours, including unsafe sexual activity, substance misuse

non-suicidal self‐injury and reckless driving). Thus, based on the Client Need Assessment

(CNA) survey distributed for students in SMK Selayang Bharu, there are few of them that

was currently dealing with childhood trauma issues. Furthermore, the purpose of this study is

to identify the factors that lead to the childhood trauma issues faced by secondary school

students and how the REBT techniques which are ABC’s framework, dispute irrational belief

to rational belief would be able to help them deal with their childhood trauma issues. This is

supported by the previous research by Caserta et.al cited in Duru & Balkis (2021), that

rational beliefs protected against the development of depression symptoms and were useful in

coping with the negative effects of unfavourable life experiences. Finally, David cited in

Duru & Balkis (2021) also mentioned that the current findings contribute to the empirical

data supporting REBT's thesis that modifying irrational beliefs and strengthening rational

beliefs offers adaptive coping mechanisms in stressful situations. This is the reason why those

who were facing with childhood trauma issues need to be helped using the REBT’s

techniques.

1.2 Research Objectives

1. To determine the factors of childhood trauma among adolescent

2. To examine the how childhood trauma effects the adolescent’s development

3. To apply the REBT’s techniques among adolescents who experience with childhood

trauma.
3
NURRULAINI BINTI AHMAD
INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA
1.3 Research Questions
1. What are the factors of childhood trauma among adolescents?

2. How the childhood trauma effects the adolescent’s development?

3. How the REBT’s techniques would be applicable to those has experience with

childhood trauma?

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Definition of childhood trauma

Childhood experience are different for everyone as some of us might experiences happy and

childhood memory with their family and friends where they may be had a family or friends

who always understand them, care for them and give support to them. Yet, this is different

with those who their childhood time were painful and horror for them where they had

experienced things that they should not as a kid such as physical abuse, neglect and

judgement. However, the definition of childhood trauma was different to everyone which

how they see, understand and interpret it. had stated the definition childhood trauma can be

defined as a bad, horrified and threatening event experiences by the children that effects their

emotion and behaviour which it takes time for them to cope (Bartlett & Steber, 2019).

According to Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders IV and V, cited in

Micheal et.al (2014), CT can be defined as real or threatening death, serious harm, or sexual

violence towards children including observing or learning about tragedy that occurred to a

close friend or relative, traffic accidents and abuse (physical, sexual & emotional).

2.2 Factors lead to childhood trauma

Childhood trauma can occur due to many reasons such as exposure to horrible, painful and

bad experiences as a kid. As example, exposure to violence in more than two situations such

as seeing violence at home, sexual abuse, parental stress may lead to increased behavioural

4
NURRULAINI BINTI AHMAD
INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA
and emotional issues in children. Another reason that may lead to CT was the ethnic, racial

and religion issues as those who may have different ethnic, races and religion always being

judged by majority especially and this can lead to traumatic syndrome. This is supported by

Vin cited in Carter et.al (2019) where some studies have shown that people of colour tend to

experience more severe psychological, emotional, and physical symptoms associated with

trauma. Lastly, family socioeconomic also played an important that may lead to someone

having trauma. This is because, people with low-income family usually being the victim of

bullies (e.g., physical, verbal & emotional) either they were man or girl. According to

Zeilinski cited in Shervin (2020) stated that low socioeconomic status among parents was

also found as a risk factor for maltreatment perpetration, indicating a potential mechanism in

the intergenerational transfer of violence.

2.3 Effect of childhood trauma

Exposure to children may give many different affects to the victim in term of their

behaviour, psychology and thinking. As example, when a youngster is exposed to childhood

trauma, he or she is considerably more likely to show resilience and hard to open up

regarding their issues with others as they are having a serious trust issue with adults

especially. According to De Bellis, M. D., & Zisk, cited in Bartlett & Steber (2019), it

mentioned that childhood trauma has a detrimental influence on brain development, cognitive

development, learning, social-emotional development, the ability to form stable bonds to

others, and physical health; it is also linked to a shorter lifespan. In addition, based on Pechtel

& Pizzagalli cited in Jessica, Marlee & et.al (2019), they stated that trauma at this period

might cause neurobiological changes that can have a detrimental influence on an individual's

development and raise their chance of developing psychopathologies later in life. Thus, the

worse thing that can happen to CT’s victim was they may be involves with crime, as they

learned from it and make it as their coping mechanism in order to make other feel and

5
NURRULAINI BINTI AHMAD
INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA
experiences what they had before. This is supported by an article entitled Linking Childhood

Trauma Exposure to Adolescent Justice Involvement: The Concept of Posttraumatic

Risk‐Seeking by Patricia (2019) where in this article, Layne, mentioned that CT’s have a high

chance to engage in hazardous behaviours connected with suicide, self-harming, and

commercial sexual activity, yet they do no harm to others, such as criminal conduct.

2.4 Theory used for CT’s victim

They are few psychological and counseling approached that can be used in order to

help those who has issues regarding trauma. One of the best approached was Rational-

Emotive Behaviour Theory (REBT). Based on an article entitled Childhood Trauma,

Depressive Symptoms and Rational /Irrational Beliefs: A Moderated Mediation Model by

Duru & Balkis (2021) ABC’s framework in REBT, emotional disturbances are often founded

in perceptions on experiences rather than actual events. As example, they might experience

both positive and negative event (A: activating event) which these events might affect or

disturb their belief (B: belief) where it gave consequences towards their emotion, thinking

and behaviour (C: consequences). To help them change this irrational belief we have to

change it to rational belief by using (D: Dispute) which it gave positive effect (E: Effect) and

create new feeling (F: Feeling).

3.0 REFLECTION PRE-ACTION

Based on the CNA’s result (figure 1) that has been distributed to the 100 students of

SMK Selayang Bharu from form 1 until form 5, family has the least percentage of the student

needs in SMK Selayang Bharu with only 15% compared to others. However, this issues still

need to be taken care by calling the students for counseling sessions to explore their real

problem. After conducting counseling session with them, it can be seen that most of the

students came from broken family where their parents divorce and married again with

6
NURRULAINI BINTI AHMAD
INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA
another person. Most of them also admit that they had witnessed every single time their

parents fight to each other which it gave psychologically affect to them such as depression

and trauma. A study found that witnessing trauma may have varied impacts on memory and

feelings of helplessness, which may be relevant in PTSD aetiology (Atwoli et., al 2015). In

addition, few of my client in counseling session had experience being physically, mentally

and verbally abuse by their family and friends which make them feel anxious towards

themselves, and have prolong trust issues with others as they scared that that same event will

occur again when they put high expectation towards them. Thus, based on my observation in

classroom during group guidance and relief, most of the students admit that they always

being scolded by their parents without any prior reason and they kept being compared with

other students when they are at home. Finally, this is the reason why this topic was chosen as

the researcher want to know how their childhood phase give impact to their growth. The

researcher plan to use qualitative research as the methodology to explore these issues in depth

and collecting the data based on the interview session that has been conducted.

STUDENT NEEDS IN SMK SELAYANG BHARU

KERJAYA

SOSIAL

KELUARGA

KESEJAHTERAAN MINDA

AKADEMIK

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

(Figure 1)

7
NURRULAINI BINTI AHMAD
INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA
4.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

4.1 Research Design

To ensure that the objective of this study was achieved, the qualitative research will

be used in this study as the purpose of data collection. As for the method of this study, I will

use interview as my method where I will interview one respondent through counseling

session, because I want to know in-depth and hear from herself, her experiences of being

CT’s victim, the factors that lead her became CT’s victim and how much her childhood

experiences affect her development as an adolescent. The interview method was chosen as it

is adaptable because they are not only useful for questioning a wide range of people, but they

may also be employed in a number of circumstances. Interview material also help researchers

goes beyond the simple explanations available in industry magazines and can be utilised to

flesh out, extend, or add subtlety to what has been acquired from other sources (Russel &

Alan, n.d)

As for time span in this study, it would be about 2 months starting from looking the

suitable respondent, get the information about my respondent before I get to started the

counseling session with her, analyse the result and finding opinion before finalized the report

for this session. Lastly, data triangulation was the triangulation used for this qualitative

research. According to Patton et.al cited in Johnson et.al (2020), data triangulation is a

technique for identifying convergence of data gathered from several data sources and

methodologies (for example, observation field notes and interview transcripts) in order to

eliminate or minimise mistake or bias and optimise accuracy in data gathering and analysis

procedures.

8
NURRULAINI BINTI AHMAD
INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA
4.2 Sample & Population

The sample that will be use in this study involving 1 respondent who are the CT’s

victim who had been experiences violent and abuse since her kindergarten phase.

4.3 Instrument

The instrument that will be used in this study consists was self-harm tracking, self-

harm, crisis self-planning, and breathing techniques (in the appendixes)

4.4 Data Collection Procedure

For the data collection procedure, it will take time approximately two months starting

from April 2023 until June 2023 for me to find the suitable respond, conduct the interview

and analyse the data got from the interview before I am able finalize my findings and

completed my research. The interview session took time about 1 hour per session for her to

share the experiences and ideas regarding childhood trauma and also for me to collect her

personal data such as educational background and experiences.

5.0 RESULT & DISCUSSION

1. Planning stage

In this stage, I had distributed the CNA’s survey and analyse the client’s need before

find the suitable topic for this research. Based on the survey result, I had developed my own

research plan before I called few of the client based on the CNA’s result to the counseling

session for the sample sorting process. Yet, I also had done my own observation of the

students in SMK Selayang Bharu through class relief. This is where I find my respondent

where she voluntarily wanted to came to the counseling room for a counseling session after I

relief her classes.

9
NURRULAINI BINTI AHMAD
INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA
2. Acting stage

The next stages in this research were, acting stage where in this stage, I had conducted

5 counseling session with my respondent from building rapport until termination. During the

counseling session, I had used few interventions to help my respondent cope with her self-

harm action due to her CT’s experiences. The first intervention that I use was Self-Harm

Tracking where the purpose of this intervention was to find out how frequent she done the

self-harm. The self-harm tracking was conducted for about two months where if she had done

any self-harm on that day, she will tick on the tracker. The second intervention that I used

was ABC’c framework under REBT theory to dispute her irrational belief to rational belief.

Next, I had conducted self-crisis planning with my respondent to help her channel her

irrational belief and action. This intervention also can be used as her safety plan when her

anxiety and panick attack was being triggered. Last intervention that I used for this research

was breathing where I teach them the relaxation techniques when she started to feel anxiety.

3. Developing stages

In the first session, I was building rapport with my respondent as she was first time

came for counseling session. The purpose of this session was to build her trust towards me

before I am able to slowly explore her main issues so that it will be easier for her to open with

me regarding her issues. In this session, she was quite nervous and shy yet she gave a good

commitment and cooperation even though she not talked too much. She admitted that she is

not really trust with me and need some time to trust me due to her trauma as she wants to

change herself to be happier person and no longer want to live in fear. So, she will try to give

her best through-out the session

10
NURRULAINI BINTI AHMAD
INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA
In the second session, which are the exploration phase, I started to explore her issues

by using open-ended question regarding what make her feel trauma, and how does it affect

her physically and mentally.

1. Can you share with me when you started to get this trauma?

2. How does it effect to you?

In the session, she able to answer more than I expected as she started to trust me. Thus, she

also admitted that she had done self-harm as a way for her to release and express her feeling

and she admitted it was satisfying when she was able to feel the pain. Due to this, I use the

self-harm tracking intervention for her to track her self-harm frequency so that I can see if

there is any improvement from her behaviour and belief after doing the counseling session

with me.

Next, in the third phase I had use the ABC’s framework under REBT techniques to

dispute her irrational belief. Based on the ABC’s framework, it can be seen that her activating

event (A) was being physically abuse and backstab by her friend which it led her to had an

irrational belief (B) where she thinks that nobody loves her and care about her condition as

they already hurt her physically and mentally. The consequences (C) of her irrational belief

where she harms herself using knife and other sharp things as well as she started to isolate

herself and had a suicidal thought. To help her cope and deal with her issue, I had dispute (D)

her irrational belief to rational belief where during this phase, the first things that I do was

help her to detected her own irrational belief by asking her when she had a negative thinking

what she will do before. Next, I will discriminate with her by asked her either her belief was

rational belief or irrational belief and her action was a good or bad action. The last step in

dispute phase was debated her irrational belief where, I had confronted with her by asked her

to provide an example that no one love her and care about her aside from her father and

friends. After the disputing process, there is a new effective belief where in this process (E)

where she was able to change her irrational belief to rational belief where she stated that there
11
NURRULAINI BINTI AHMAD
INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA
are many more people who love and care about her as well as she started to loves herself

more. This is because she tried to channel her self-harm feeling to other things which are she

busy herself by doing part-time. After that, we move to the last process of ABC’s framework

which were the new feeling (F) where in this process, she shared with her that she feels better

now and she still do the self-harm but not as often as before where it was quite an impressive

improvement for her.

During the fourth session, in order to help her counter her trauma and anxiety, I had

asked her to planned her own self-crisis planning. The self-crisis planning was able to her

identify the things that trigger her to do self-harm. The figure showed that, when she was

alone or when she saw any sharp thing such as knife or scissors, she will be automatically

trigger to harm herself. In the figure, we can also see that she was able to listing all the things

that she can do to channel her irrational belief and behaviour to rational belief and behaviour

such as drawing and use the sharp for good purpose like cutting fruits. As we can see also,

there are few things that can distract her when she was in her own world tried to harm herself

such as bell-ringing sounds or when people scream her name. As a safety plan for her, this

self-crisis planning also included the person that can be trusted for her to called in any

emergency situation. As an addition, in this session also, I had taught her breathing

techniques that she can use to calm herself when she started to feel panic or anxiety.

(Figure 2) (Figure 3)

12
NURRULAINI BINTI AHMAD
INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA
Last session was the termination session where in this session, I get the update from

my respondent regarding her self-harm tracking and see if there are any changes from the

tracker after coming for counseling session (Figure 5). The result showed that before coming

to counseling session, it can be seen that she harmed herself almost every day for about a

about a month. However, the result showed that, she still doing self-harm but not as frequent

as before where for a month there are only two or three time, she do it per month. This

showed that she was improving in term of her behaviour as well as her emotion where before

the session was terminated, she stated that she was happier and a bit calm in handling her

issues compared to when she first came to the counseling session.

(Figure 5)

4. Reflection stage

In order to make this research more reliable and valid, I can add more sample from

two different gender so that I can make comparison within those two results. This is because

female and male students may give different reaction in facing the childhood trauma. A

recent study in psychosis also found that significantly more female than male patients had

experienced childhood trauma or adversity (Pruessner et.al., 2019). This showed that how

gender also played an important role for one’s affect towards an event. Aside from that, I also

can variety my sample where maybe I can choose one sample that experience the CT and

another one did not experienced CT. By doing this, we can how these two environments gave

13
NURRULAINI BINTI AHMAD
INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA
different affect to their development. This is because, according to Racine et.al (2020), these

events have varying effects on youngsters according the level of tolerance towards the

traumatic event. Another thing that can be improved in this research was maybe I can variety

my intervention for my respondent so that it is can be more effective to help her deal with her

trauma. One of the interventions that can be use was using expressive art to help respondent

express all their emotion, feeling and belief by drawing anything that can related to it. A

recent study also has demonstrated why expressive arts and an integrated, embodied approach

are useful for dealing with trauma (Dooley, 2022). Next was using role-play to help

respondent convey all their feeling that they had kept up all this while as when they are using

this intervention, they are imagine that they are confronting their abuser by playing role as the

abuser and then switch to themselves to express all their feeling that have been kept all this

while. This will also improve to their confidence to face with the abuser after this. Recent

research showed that role-playing improves students' therapeutic and communication abilities

(Rønning & Bjørkly, 2019). Lastly it is proven that ABC’s framework in REBT is applicable

to help counselor deal the trauma issue’s client.

5.0 IMPLICATION
In this research, researcher was able to identify that they are many factors that may

lead the respondent to the childhood trauma and how parents played a very important role to

ensure that their children were in safe condition and environment as well as they should be

enjoying their childhood phase by having a happy memory. It is also showed that parenting

knowledge is an essential thing that everyone needs to prepared before entering a marriage

life so that we know how to handle our children when we became a parent. This is because in

rasing a child, their whole aspect of development must be taken care either physical,

psychologically and thinking and behaviour. Lastly, this research also found that REBT

techniques was suitable to used as an approach for those who has trauma especially for the

14
NURRULAINI BINTI AHMAD
INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA
adolescent as they are easier to understood what we are trying to convey and to help them.

Thus, this result suggests that REBT techniques were able to help the CT’s victim deal with

their trauma.

6.0 CONCLUSION

As conclusion, there are many factors that may lead to the childhood trauma

especially when they experience the bad and horrible thing such as witnessing violence

action, being judge due to the skin colour, races and even family socio-economic where the

poor are being bullied and discriminate by the rich. In addition, the CT also gave a very

impact and effect towards the victim physically and mentally where they had a serious trust

issue with other which it makes them hard to open up and also, they became hard to had a

stable bond or relationship with other as well as they might involved in crime or doing the

negative things such as self-harm. Next, the ABC’s framework in REBT was proven to be

able to help those who had trauma issues counter back their issues so that could have a

rational belief, being in good emotion and became a person with good behaviour. Lastly, it is

hope that everyone either community, school or authorities, would be able to come together

and help those CT’s victim get out from their horrible environment to a better environment

and get a happy life.

15
NURRULAINI BINTI AHMAD
INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA
7.0 REFERENCES

American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: Fourth
Edition Text Revision. American Psychiatric Press; Washington D.C: 2000. 2.
American Psychiatric Association. Trauma- and Stressor-Related Disorders, in Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Fifth Edition. American Psychiatric Publishing; Arlington,
VA: 2013.
Assari, S. (2020). Family Socioeconomic Status and Exposure to Childhood Trauma: Racial
Differences. Children, 7(6), 57. https://doi.org/10.3390/children7060057
Astroawani.com.(2023) https://www.astroawani.com/berita-malaysia/jkm-kendali-5572-kes-dera-dan-
pengabaian-kanakkanak-sehingga-november-2022-nancy-402500
Atwoli, L., Platt, J., Williams, D. R., Stein, D. J., & Koenen, K. C. (2015). Association between
witnessing traumatic events and psychopathology in the South African Stress and Health
Study. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 50(8), 1235–1242.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-015-1046-x
Bartlett, J. D., & Steber, K. (2019). How to Implement Traumainformed Care to Build Resilience to
Childhood Trauma [Review of How to Implement Traumainformed Care to Build Resilience to
Childhood Trauma].
https://fatherhood.gov/sites/default/files/resource_files/how_to_implement_trauma-
informed_care_to_build_resilience_to_childhood_trauma_-_child_trends.pdf
Beilharz, J. E., Paterson, M., Fatt, S., Wilson, C., Burton, A., Cvejic, E., Lloyd, A., & Vollmer-Conna,
U. (2019). The impact of childhood trauma on psychosocial functioning and physical health in a non-
clinical community sample of young adults. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 54(2),
185–194. https://doi.org/10.1177/0004867419881206
Carter, robert t., kirkinis, katherine, & johnson, veronica e. (2019). Relationships Between Trauma
Symptoms and RaceBased Traumatic Stress [Review of Relationships Between Trauma Symptoms
and RaceBased Traumatic Stress]. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Veronica-Johnson-
8/publication/335707217_Relationships_between_trauma_symptoms_and_race-
based_traumatic_stress/links/5e3c3c31458515072d8602cf/Relationships-between-trauma-symptoms-
and-race-based-traumatic-stress.pdf
Caserta, D. A., Dowd, E. T., David, D., & Ellis, A. (2010). Rational and irrational beliefs in primary
prevention and mental health. In D. David, S. J. Lynn, & A. Ellis (Eds.), Rational and irrational
beliefs: Research, theory and clinical practice (pp. 173–194). New York: Oxford University Press.
David, D., Lynn, S. J., & Ellis, A. (2010). The role of rational and irrational beliefs in human
functioning and disturbances: Implications for research, theory, and clinical practice. Oxford: Oxford
University Press
De Bellis, M. D. & Zisk, A. (2014). The biological effects of childhood trauma. Child and Adolescent
Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 23(2), 185-222.
Duru, E., & Balkıs, M. (2021). Childhood trauma, depressive symptoms and rational /irrational
beliefs: A moderated mediation model. Current Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-020-
01282-2

16
NURRULAINI BINTI AHMAD
INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA
Dooley, Allison, "Exploring the Benefits of Expressive Arts Therapy with Survivors of Sexual
Violence, A Literature Review" (2022). Expressive Therapies Capstone Theses. 604.
https://digitalcommons.lesley.edu/expressive_theses/604
Johnson, J. L., Adkins, D., & Chauvin, S. (2020). QUALITATIVE RESEARCH IN PHARMACY
EDUCATION A Review of the Quality Indicators of Rigor in Qualitative Research [Review
of QUALITATIVE RESEARCH IN PHARMACY EDUCATION A Review of the Quality Indicators
of Rigor in Qualitative Research]. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education 2020; 84 (1) Article
7120. https://www.ajpe.org/content/ajpe/84/1/7120.full.pdf
Kerig, P. K. (2019). Linking childhood trauma exposure to adolescent justice involvement: The
concept of posttraumatic risk‐seeking. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 26(3).
https://doi.org/10.1037/h0101756
Layne, C. M., Greeson, J. K. P., Ostrowski, S. A., Kim, S., Reading, S., Vivrette, R. L., … Pynoos, R.
S. (2014). Cumulative trauma exposure and high risk behavior in adolescence: Findings from the
National Child Traumatic Stress Network core data set. Psychological Trauma, 6(Suppl. 1), S40–S49.
https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037799
Patton MQ. Enhancing the quality and credibility of qualitative analysis. Health Serv Res. 1999; 34(5
Pt 2):1189-1208.
Pechtel P and Pizzagalli DA (2011) Effects of early life stress on cognitive
and affective function: An integrated review of human literature.
Psychopharmacology 214: 55–70.
Pruessner, M., King, S., Vracotas, N., Abadi, S., Iyer, S., Malla, A. K., Shah, J., & Joober, R. (2019).
Gender differences in childhood trauma in first episode psychosis: Association with symptom severity
over two years. Schizophrenia Research, 205, 30–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2018.06.043
Rønning, S. B., & Bjørkly, S. (2019). The use of clinical role-play and reflection in learning
therapeutic communication skills in mental health education: An integrative review. Advances in
Medical Education and Practice, 10(10), 415–425. https://doi.org/10.2147/amep.s202115
Said, M. (2021). Moral Resistance in Treatment of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. Addiction
Research, 5(1). https://doi.org/10.33425/2639-8451.1026
Vin-Raviv, N., Hillyer, G. C., Hershman, D. L., Galea, S., Leoce, N., Bovbjerg, D. H.,... Neugut, A. I.
(2013). Racial disparities in posttraumatic stress after diagnosis of localized breast cancer: The
BQUAL study. Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 105, 563–572. http://dx
.doi.org/10.1093/jnci/djt024
Zielinski, D. S. (2009). Child maltreatment and adult socioeconomic well-being. Child Abuse
Negl. 33, 666–678.

17