 METHODS OF KNOWING

1. Intuition: This is when you rely on personal insights or gut feelings to gain knowledge. For
example, when you have a strong feeling that a certain decision is the right one, even without concrete
evidence.
2. Authority: This method involves relying on trusted sources or experts for knowledge. For instance,
when you refer to a book written by a renowned author or consult a professor's expertise in a
particular subject.
3. Rationalism: Rationalism emphasizes the use of logical reasoning and deduction to acquire
knowledge. For example, when you use logical thinking to solve a complex problem or analyze a
philosophical argument.
4. Empiricism: Empiricism emphasizes the importance of sensory experience and observation to gain
knowledge. For instance, when you conduct experiments or make observations to gather data and
draw conclusions.
5. Scientific Method: The scientific method is a systematic approach to acquiring knowledge through
observation, experimentation, and analysis. For example, when scientists formulate hypotheses,
conduct experiments, collect data, and draw conclusions based on their findings.
These methods of knowing provide different ways to understand and interpret the world around us.
They can be used individually or in combination to gain a deeper understanding of various subjects.

 STEPS OF SCIENTIFIC METHODS/RESEAECH

The scientific method typically involves the following steps:

1. Observation: Start by making observations and identifying a problem or question that you want to
investigate.

2. Research: Conduct background research to gather existing knowledge and understand the topic
better.

3. Hypothesis: Formulate a hypothesis, which is a proposed explanation or prediction for the

problem or question based on available information.

4. Experiment: Design and conduct experiments to test your hypothesis. This involves carefully
controlling variables and collecting data.

5. Analysis: Analyze the data collected during the experiment and draw conclusions based on the
results.

6. Conclusion: Based on the analysis, evaluate whether the data supports or rejects your hypothesis.
Discuss the implications and significance of your findings.

7. Communicate: Share your results and findings with others through scientific papers,
presentations, or other forms of communication.

Remember, the scientific method is a flexible framework that can be adapted to different research
scenarios. It helps ensure a systematic and logical approach to acquiring knowledge and
understanding the world around us.
  HOW A SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH SHOULD BE?
Research is a systematic effort to secure answers to questions.

1. Systematic: A systematic approach ensures that research is conducted in a structured and

organized manner. This helps in minimizing bias, maintaining consistency, and ensuring that all
relevant aspects are considered during the research process.

2. Data-driven: A data-driven approach means that research is based on empirical evidence and
objective observations. By collecting and analyzing data, researchers can draw reliable conclusions
and make informed decisions. This helps in avoiding personal opinions or biases that may influence
the research outcomes.

3. Sound argument with causes and effects: A sound argument in research establishes a logical
connection between the research question, the collected data, and the conclusions drawn. By
identifying causes and effects, researchers can understand the relationships between variables and
provide evidence-based explanations for observed phenomena.

4. Capable of replication: Replication is the process of repeating a study to validate its findings and
ensure their reliability. A research study should be designed in a way that allows other researchers to
replicate the study and obtain similar results. Replication enhances the credibility and robustness of
scientific research.

5. Impartial: Impartiality in research means that researchers should approach their work without
bias or preconceived notions. They should strive to maintain objectivity and avoid favoring any
particular outcome. This helps in ensuring that the research findings are unbiased and can be trusted
by the scientific community.

By adhering to these principles, scientific research becomes more rigorous, reliable, and contributes
to the advancement of knowledge in a particular field.

 DIFFERENCE B/W SEARCH & RESEARCH

Search refers to the act of looking for information or answers, usually through online platforms or
databases. It involves seeking specific details or facts to fulfill an immediate need or curiosity. search
focuses on finding existing information, research involves a more comprehensive and rigorous
process of inquiry, often leading to new insights and discoveries.

On the other hand, research is a systematic and in-depth investigation conducted to generate new
knowledge, explore a topic, or test a hypothesis. It involves gathering and analyzing data, formulating
theories, and drawing conclusions based on evidence and critical analysis.

 Etymology is the study of the origin and history of words, including their meanings and how
they have evolved over time. It explores the roots, influences, and changes in language.
 Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that examines the nature of knowledge and how
we come to know things. It explores questions such as what knowledge is, how it is acquired,
and what criteria we use to determine if something is true or justified.

‘REALITY IS FULL OF DOUBT’

-August comte
  COMMUNICATION RESEARCH
Communication research is the study of how people exchange information, ideas, and
emotions. It aims to understand the process of communication, identify effective strategies,
and explore the impacts of communication on individuals and society.
 Verbal communication involves the use of words, spoken or written, to convey messages. It
includes the choice of language, tone, and clarity of expression. Verbal communication relies
on words and language to convey meaning and can be influenced by cultural and social
factors.
 Nonverbal communication refers to the use of body language, facial expressions, gestures,
and other nonverbal cues to convey messages. It plays a significant role in communication, as
it can complement, reinforce, or contradict verbal messages. Nonverbal cues such as eye
contact, posture, and hand movements can convey emotions, attitudes, and intentions.

Both verbal and nonverbal communication are important in understanding and interpreting
messages accurately. They work together to create a complete picture of communication,
and being aware of both aspects can enhance effective communication and avoid
misunderstandings.

 CHALLENGES OF COMMUNICATION
RESEARCH
o BROAD AREAS OF MASS COM

In advertising research, challenges include keeping up with evolving consumer behaviors and
preferences, measuring the effectiveness of different advertising strategies, and navigating ethical
considerations in advertising practices.

In communication technology research, challenges include staying updated with rapidly advancing
technologies, understanding their impact on communication patterns and social dynamics, and
addressing issues of privacy and digital divide.

In communication policy research, challenges include analyzing and adapting to changing regulatory
frameworks, balancing freedom of expression with societal interests, and ensuring fair and inclusive
access to communication resources.

In PR research, challenges include measuring the impact of PR campaigns on public perception,

understanding the role of social media in shaping public opinion, and navigating ethical dilemmas in
PR practices.

In radio and TV research, challenges include studying audience engagement and media consumption
patterns, analyzing the influence of media content on attitudes and behaviors, and adapting to the
changing landscape of media platforms.

In pragmatic communication research, challenges include understanding the nuances of language

use in different contexts, exploring the role of nonverbal cues in communication, and studying the
impact of cultural and social factors on communication effectiveness.
In argumentation and debates research, challenges include analyzing persuasive techniques and
logical reasoning, understanding the role of emotions in argumentation, and studying the impact of
communication styles on the outcomes of debates.

In public address and rhetoric research, challenges include studying the influence of public speaking
on audiences, analyzing the use of persuasive techniques in speeches, and exploring the role of
rhetoric in shaping public opinion.

In communication theory research, challenges include developing comprehensive theoretical

frameworks, testing and validating theories through empirical research, and applying theories to
real-world communication contexts.

o SPECIFIC AREAS OF MASS COM

In code systems research, challenges include deciphering complex communication patterns,

analyzing the impact of coded messages in media, and understanding the role of codes in shaping
meaning.

In intercultural communication research, challenges include navigating cultural differences in

communication styles, understanding the impact of cultural norms on interpersonal interactions, and
promoting effective communication between individuals from different cultural backgrounds.

In conflict management research, challenges include studying effective strategies for resolving
conflicts, understanding the role of communication in escalating or de-escalating conflicts, and
analyzing the impact of power dynamics on conflict resolution.

In family communication research, challenges include understanding the dynamics of

communication within family systems, exploring the role of communication in family relationships
and decision-making, and studying the impact of communication patterns on family cohesion.

In organizational communication research, challenges include analyzing communication structures

within organizations, studying the impact of communication on employee satisfaction and
productivity, and exploring effective strategies for internal and external organizational
communication.

In health communication research, challenges include studying the impact of communication on

health behaviors and health outcomes, analyzing effective strategies for health promotion and
disease prevention, and understanding the role of communication in patient-provider interactions.

In oral interpretation research, challenges include studying effective techniques for delivering
impactful interpretations, analyzing the role of nonverbal cues in oral interpretation, and exploring
the impact of cultural and contextual factors on interpretation effectiveness.

In discussion and conference research, challenges include understanding the dynamics of group
discussions and decision-making processes, analyzing effective communication strategies for
productive discussions, and exploring the impact of communication patterns on the outcomes of
conferences and meetings.

 NORMS OF SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY

 universalism refers to the idea that scientific knowledge should be accessible and applicable
to everyone, regardless of their background or location.
  Organized skepticism means that scientists critically evaluate and question existing
knowledge and theories, encouraging open-mindedness and the continuous pursuit of new
evidence.
 Disinterestedness refers to scientists' commitment to conducting research without personal
bias or conflicts of interest, ensuring that their findings are objective and unbiased.
 Communalism emphasizes collaboration and sharing within the scientific community, with
scientists freely exchanging ideas, data, and findings to advance knowledge collectively.
 Honesty is a fundamental norm in science, requiring researchers to report their findings
truthfully, accurately, and transparently, even if the results are unexpected or contrary to
their initial hypotheses.

These norms collectively contribute to the credibility, reliability, and progress of scientific research.

 ELEMENTS OF RESEARCH:
1. Concept: It's the abstract idea or topic being studied in research, like land pollution or poor
sewage systems.

2. Construct: It's a specific concept that researchers define and measure, like measuring the level of
pollution or the effectiveness of a sewage system.

3. Designing a research methodology: This involves planning the overall approach and methods for
collecting and analyzing data, including selecting the appropriate research design, sampling
techniques, and data collection instruments.

4. Data collection: This involves gathering relevant information or observations through methods like
surveys, interviews, or experiments.

5. Conducting a literature review: This entails reviewing existing research and scholarly articles
related to the research question to gain a comprehensive understanding of the topic and identify any
gaps or areas for further investigation.

6. Data analysis: Researchers analyze the collected data using statistical or qualitative techniques to
identify patterns, relationships, and draw conclusions

7. Interpretation of findings: Researchers interpret the analyzed data to understand the implications
and meaning of the results in relation to the research question.

8. Formulating a research question: This involves identifying a specific topic or problem to

investigate and formulating a clear and focused question that guides the research.

9. Dissemination of results: Researchers share their findings through publications, presentations, or

reports to contribute to the existing knowledge and inform others in the field

 TYPES OF VARIABLES:
A variable in research is a characteristic or factor that can vary and be measured or observed. Here
are three types of variables:

1. Normative variable: This type of variable represents a value or characteristic that is based on
societal norms, standards, or expectations. For example, the level of education attained by
individuals in a population.
2. Quantity variable: This type of variable represents a measurable quantity or amount. For example,
the number of cars in a parking lot or the amount of rainfall in millimeters.

3. Observed value: This refers to the actual measurement or observation of a variable in a specific
instance. For example, if we are measuring the height of individuals, the observed value would be
the specific height of a particular person, such as 170 centimeters.

 An independent variable is a variable that is manipulated or controlled by the researcher in

an experiment to observe its effect on the dependent variable.

For example, in a study on the effects of caffeine on memory, the independent variable would be the
amount of caffeine consumed by participants.

 PROBLEM STATEMENT
 A problem statement in research is a concise description of the issue or challenge that the
study aims to address. Here are the steps to formulating a problem statement:

1. Identify the research area: Determine the broad topic or field of study that you are interested in,
such as environmental pollution.

2. Conduct a literature review: Review existing research and literature related to your research area
to identify gaps, unanswered questions, or issues that need further exploration.

3. Narrow down the focus: Based on the literature review, narrow down the research focus to a
specific aspect or problem within the broader research area. For example, you could focus on the
impact of poor sewage systems on land pollution in Pakistan.

4. Define the problem: Clearly state the problem you want to address in your research. This should
be specific, concise, and measurable. For example, "The problem is the inadequate sewage
infrastructure in Pakistan, leading to the contamination of land and water sources."

5. Justify the significance: Explain why the problem is important and why it should be addressed.
Highlight the potential impact and benefits of finding a solution.

Remember, the problem statement sets the foundation for your research and helps guide the rest of
your study

 HYPOTHESIS FORMULATON
Hypothesis formulation is an important step in the research process.

A hypothesis is a tentative statement or prediction that suggests a relationship between variables

and serves as a basis for further investigation.

Here's the process of hypothesis formulation:

1. Identify the research question: Determine the specific research question you want to answer
through your study. For example, "Does regular exercise improve cognitive function?"

2. Review existing knowledge: Conduct a literature review to gather information about the topic and
understand the current understanding or theories related to it.
3. Determine the variables: Identify the independent and dependent variables in your study. The
independent variable is the one you manipulate, and the dependent variable is the one you measure
or observe.

4. Formulate the hypothesis: Based on the research question and existing knowledge, propose a
hypothesis that predicts the relationship between the variables. A hypothesis can be in one of three
forms:

- Null hypothesis (H0): States that there is no significant relationship or difference between the
variables. For example, "There is no significant difference in cognitive function between individuals
who exercise regularly and those who do not."

- Positive hypothesis (H1 or Ha): Predicts a positive relationship or difference between the variables.
For example, "Regular exercise improves cognitive function in individuals."

- Negative hypothesis (H1 or Ha): Predicts a negative relationship or difference between the
variables. For example, "Regular exercise decreases cognitive function in individuals."

5. Criteria for hypothesis formulation: A good hypothesis should be

1. testable, specific, and based on existing knowledge or theories.

2. It should also be falsifiable, meaning it can be proven false through empirical evidence.
3. It should not have contradictory statement.
4. It should describe on issue only
5. It should be clear, specific and precise.

Remember, a hypothesis guides your research and helps you design experiments or studies to gather
evidence and support or refute the hypothesis.

 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Qualitative research is a method used to gain an in-depth understanding of people's experiences,
perceptions, and behaviors.

It focuses on collecting non-numerical data through interviews, observations, and analysis of texts.
Here are the characteristics and types of qualitative research:

 Characteristics of qualitative research:

1. Subjective: Qualitative research explores subjective experiences and interpretations of individuals.

2. Non-numerical data: It involves collecting data in the form of words, images, or observations
rather than numerical measurements.

3. Small sample size: Qualitative research often uses a small sample size to gather rich and detailed
information.

4. Inductive approach: It uses an inductive approach, where theories and concepts emerge from the
data rather than being predetermined.

5. Contextual understanding: Qualitative research focuses on understanding the social and cultural
context in which people's experiences occur.
  Types of qualitative research:

1. Interviews: In-depth interviews are conducted to gather detailed information and insights from
participants.

2. Observations: Researchers observe and record behaviors, interactions, and settings to understand
the context and dynamics.

3. Focus groups: Group discussions are conducted to explore shared experiences, opinions, and
perceptions among participants.

4. Case studies: In-depth analysis of a specific individual, group, or organization to gain a

comprehensive understanding.

5. Content analysis: Analyzing textual or visual data, such as documents, interviews, or media, to
identify themes and patterns.

 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Quantitative research is a systematic approach used to gather and analyze numerical data to
understand phenomena.

It focuses on objective measurements and statistical analysis. Here are the characteristics and types
of quantitative research:

Characteristics of quantitative research:

1. Objective: Quantitative research aims to be unbiased and focuses on measurable data.

2. Numeric data: It involves collecting numerical data through surveys, experiments, or observations.

3. Large sample size: Quantitative research often requires a large sample size to ensure statistical
significance.

4. Statistical analysis: Data is analyzed using statistical techniques to identify patterns, relationships,
and trends.

5. Generalizability: Findings from quantitative research can be generalized to a larger population.

 Types of quantitative research:

1. Descriptive research: Describes characteristics or behaviors of a population or phenomenon. It

focuses on summarizing and presenting data.

2. Correlational research: Examines the relationship between variables without establishing

causation. It measures the strength and direction of the relationship.

3. Experimental research: Involves manipulating variables to establish cause-and-effect relationships.

It includes an experimental group and a control group.

4. Survey research: Collects data through questionnaires or interviews to gather information about
attitudes, opinions, or behaviors of a specific population.

5. Longitudinal research: Studies a group of participants over an extended period to observe

changes and trends over time.