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DR. KALIRAMESH SILIVERU (Orcid ID : 0000-0002-4038-2790)

Article type : Invited Review

Title: Teff (Eragrostis tef) processing, utilization, and future opportunities: a

review
Authors: Roselle Barretto1, Rania Marie Buenavista1, Jared Lou Rivera1, Shuyu Wang1, P. V. Vara
Prasad2, Kaliramesh Siliveru1
(Running title: Teff (Eragrostis tef): a review)
1 Kansas State University, Department of Grain Science and Industry, Manhattan, KS, U.S.A
2 Kansas State University, Department of Agronomy, Manhattan, KS, U.S.A

*Correspondent: Kaliramesh Siliveru, Assistant Professor, Department of Grain Science and

Industry, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas 66506, U.S.A.; Ph: +1-630-210-2462; Email:
kaliramesh@ksu.edu

The peer review history for this article is available at https://publons.com/publon/10.1111/ijfs.14872

This article has been accepted for publication and undergone full peer review but has not been
through the copyediting, typesetting, pagination and proofreading process, which may lead to
differences between this version and the Version of Record. Please cite this article as doi:
10.1111/IJFS.14872
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 Summary
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The demand for food production has been constantly increasing due to rising population. In developed
countries, for example, the emergence of regional production of old grains that are rarely utilized,
along with the production of commonly consumed grains, has gained importance in recent years.
These grains, known collectively as ancient or heirloom grains, have offered both farmers and
consumers novel ways of cultivation and products with interesting taste, characteristics and nutritional
value. Among the 30,000 plant species known, only five cereals currently provide more than 50% of
the world's energy intake – bread wheat (Triticum aestivum), rice (Oryza sativa), sorghum (Sorghum
bicolor), millets (Panicum sp.), and maize (Zea mays). The excessive utilization of these selected
species has a great potential to cause genetic losses and difficulty in bridging future agricultural
demands. Teff (Eragrostis tef), an ancient grain extensively cultivated in countries like Eritrea and
Ethiopia, provides promising alternatives for new food uses since its nutritional value is significantly
higher than most others cereal grains. The absence of gluten allows flexibility in food utilization since
it can be directly substituted to gluten-containing products. The grain also offers an excellent balance
of essential amino acids and minerals, which can fulfil the recommended daily intake and eliminates
the need for fortification and enrichment. This review provides a general overview of the physical
properties and nutritional composition of teff grains related to processing and applications in the food
and feed industries. The current status of teff utilization, as well as the challenges in production and
commercialization, and future opportunities are presented and discussed.

Keywords: Teff, processing, nutritional properties, physical properties, uses, future trends

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 Introduction
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Teff (Eragrostis tef) is the only species among its genus being cultivated for human consumption
(grains) and livestock feed (straw) (Zeid et al., 2012). The crop is known to have its origins in
Ethiopia, and its cultivation dates to 3000 B.P., thus it is considered as an ancient crop. The crop is
known to be drought resilient with plantation in warmer seasons (Miller, 2014). Majority (~90%) of
the world's teff production occurs in Ethiopia. It is considered as the most important crop in the
country in terms of acreage (~3 million ha) and production (1.664 tons/ha), accounting for 20% of
Ethiopia's cereal grain production. Interest in teff grains has been increasing in recent years due to its
perceived nutritional benefits leading to cultivation in other places such as North America, China,
India, Australia, U.K., and other countries in Africa (e.g. Cameroon and Uganda) (Abraham, 2015).
Teff is also economically superior in Ethiopia commanding a higher price relative to other cereal
crops while in other countries the demand for healthier food prompts consumers to pay premium
prices for teff-based products (Lee, 2018).

Despite the economic benefits of teff, knowledge on efficient farming, harvesting and
processing practices still lags behind to other cereal crops [wheat (Triticum aestivum), rice (Oryza
sativa), sorghum (Sorghum bicolor), millets (Panicum sp.), barley (Hordeum vulgare) rye (Secale
cereale) and maize (Zea mays). Research on teff grains has focused more on breeding, creating better
yielding teff seed lines (Lee, 2018). This improved seeds, however, can still be inaccessible to most
producers of teff, as many of them are small-scale farmers. Furthermore, teff farming is also limited
by its labour intensiveness which is worsened by various factors such as its small seed size, lack of
mechanization, and the use of rudimentary farming practices. Teff grains are also harvested manually
leading to substantial losses occurring at the farm level wherein as much as 20% of the grains are lost
due to inefficient tools, harvesting/threshing, and transport practices (FAO, 2018). Grain loss also
occurs because of contamination with soil and other inert materials as a result of animal usage during
threshing (Fikadu et al., 2019). While storage is not seen as a major point for losses (Cheng et al.,
2017), inappropriate storage can cause losses. In addition to these, current export policies for teff are
not beneficial to small scale farmers further limiting its production. As a food option, teff is mostly
milled to produce whole grain flours with superior nutritional benefits. However, the presence of

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 germ and bran layers lead to off-flavours and earthy attributes which could reduce its acceptability in
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the market.

Supportive policies, modernization of farming practice, and diversifying teff processing are
crucial for improving the utilization of teff grains (Lee, 2018). The main objective of this review is to
explore the suitability of teff grains as a major commodity by assessing its physicochemical
properties, processing methods, and applications in food and feed industries. The review also
highlights the problems associated with teff production, processing and commercialization, and future
opportunities.

Physical Properties of Teff

Teff grains are subsequently converted to human foods with the hay parts being used for forage. Grain
quality is often evaluated based on its nutrient composition and physical attributes of colour (Abewa
et al., 2019; Morris, 2016). The Ethiopian Standard Agency (ESA, 2012) classifies teff grains based
on their colour as: very white (magna), white (nech), mixed (sergegna), and brown (key). The very
white and white colour classes usually fetch the highest prices and are more preferred for food
production. However, these classes require a more conducive planting environment compared to the
darker classes, which are often sold to low-income markets.

Teff grains are one of the smallest cereals being oval-shaped and having a diameter between
0.7 – 1.0 mm and length of 0.9 – 1.7 mm (Akansha et al., 2018; Serna-Saldivar et al., 2019). The
volumetric and kernel weight of the grains range between 850 – 870 kg/m3 and 0.2 – 0.4 g,
respectively (Belay et al., 2009; Bultosa, 2007). Teff grain is like other cereals as it is comprised of
germ, pericarp (cuticle, mesocarp, and endocarp), and endosperm layers. The kernels also contain a
monolayer aleurone that is rich in proteins and fatty acids (Serna-Saldivar, 2019). Teff's endosperm
layer comprises a significant portion of the kernel having a starchy floury zone surrounded by a
corneous endosperm region. The floury endosperm contains fewer protein bodies and more starch
granules that are typically smaller than the starch granules of other cereals (Serna-Saldivar, 2019).
Contrary to the other cereals, the germ layer of teff grains comprise a larger portion of the grains and

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 is rich in lipids and protein compounds (Bultosa, 2007). The pigmentations in coloured teff classes are
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rich in polyphenols and tannins, which can have antioxidant benefits.

Nutritional Composition, and Health Benefits of Teff Grains

Compared with commonly consumed cereals like corn, rice, sorghum, and wheat, the nutritional
composition and health benefits of teff are less studied. However, teff consumption has heightened in
the recent years due to the increased interest of its application in gluten-free food research. Greater
attention is now drawn to the nutritional composition and health benefits of teff and their importance
in the development of new products. Listed in Table 1 are some of the main nutritional components of
teff grains.

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates (CHO’s) are the major source of energy for humans and play a critical role in
maintaining metabolism and homeostasis. It comprises around 80% of the teff grain with its starch
content at about 73%. Starch is the major carbohydrate in teff among which the amylose content is
approximately 20-26% (Bultosa, 2007).

Rapid digestion and absorbance can lead to greater metabolic perturbation, which can be
related to metabolic diseases like cardiovascular disease (Lafiandra et al., 2014; Ludwig, 2002). Thus,
slow-digesting carbohydrates are important for human health. In general, the glycemic index (G.I.)
represents the rate of carbohydrate digestion. It usually depends on starch digestibility, protein, lipid,
and structure of starch. The results from the scanning electron microscope (SEM) showed that the size
of the teff starch granule was between 2 and 6 µm, which is smaller than other cereals like wheat and
maize (Delcour et al., 2010). The smaller granule may lead to an increased enzymatic attack.
However, teff has a lower G.I. than other cereals due to its high amylose content, lower starch damage
and the formation of amylose-lipid complexes (Singh et al., 2010; Wolter, 2013)

Protein

Protein is one of the macronutrients essential to the human body. Compared with wheat and maize,
teff has a similar average crude protein content of 8-11%. Most of the protein fractions of teff are

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 classified as prolamins although different extraction methods may show different results (Bekele et
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al., 1995; Tatham et al., 1996; Adebowale et al., 2011). Essential amino acids are those that cannot be
synthesized by the human body and are only obtained by including foods rich in essential amino acids
in the diet. The overall amino acid composition of teff has a good balance and is higher than most
cereals. The percentage of lysine (3.7%), an important amino acid for muscle growth and turnover, is
higher in teff as well. Table 2 shows the crude protein and amino acid content of teff in comparison
with wheat, rice, and sorghum. Another advantage of teff is that no gluten formation occurs in teff
flours during hydration. In recent years, it has been widely explored to be used in gluten-free bread
for sensory enrichment and gluten-free rice muffins for nutritional enrichment (Viell et al., 2020;
Minarovičová, 2019).

Dietary Fiber

Dietary fibre is the fraction of the food that cannot be entirely broken down by digestive enzymes. It
is classified into soluble and insoluble fibres based on its solubility (USDA, 2005). The total dietary
fibre, crude fibre, and soluble fibre of teff are 4.5%, 3%, and 0.9%, respectively. They are much
higher than those of maize, wheat, and sorghum (Baye and Kaleab, 2014). Research has shown that
dietary fibre can benefit human health in various ways. It helps regulate blood sugar levels by
reducing glucose and managing insulin levels, thus lowering the risk of diabetes. It also helps to
increase food volume without increasing the calorie intake, which prevents obesity. Dietary fibre also
helps balance intestinal pH levels benefiting the gut microbiome by helping intestinal fermentation of
short-chain fatty acids. It also lowers the risk of cardiovascular diseases and aids in regular bowel
movement.

Fat

Although the fat content in cereal is quite low, cereals are usually consumed as a staple food in the
human diet. Incorporation of cereals in diets can help provide substantial amounts of essential fatty
acids needed by the body. Fatty acids may benefit human health by reducing the risk of
cardiovascular disease, inflammations, cancer, and other diseases (Simopoulos, 2001). In terms of the
health benefits of fatty acids, the fat content of cereal can be critical for its nutritional value. Teff has

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 a crude fat content of 2.5%, which is of medium level when compared with other cereals like wheat
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and rice. However, these cereals are often refined, hence reducing their crude fat content. Teff, on the
other hand, is produced as a whole-kernel flour, which maintains the fat content originally present in
the grain. Moreover, teff has a higher unsaturated fatty acid content (e.g. oleic and linoleic acid) than
other cereals, which are of higher nutritional value compared to saturated fats (El-Alfy et al., 2012).

Micronutrients

Other micronutrients, including minerals and phytochemicals, are also vital for teff nutritional
evaluation. The mineral content of teff varies according to several factors, such as climatic conditions
and species. However, all teff species are known to have significantly higher mineral content than
wheat, maize, and rice. Minerals can be used in metabolic function and absorbed in the small intestine
by the human body (Fairweather-Tait, 2002). As for phytochemicals like phytates and tannin,
pigmented teff varieties have higher phytochemical contents than other cereals, which are critical to
health due to its anti-diabetic and anti-cancer properties (Schlemmer et al., 2009).

Teff Grain Processing

Teff is harvested once its vegetative parts turn yellow indicating maturity. This can occur as early as
45 days after planting, depending on the environmental conditions. The timing of harvest is crucial for
quality control as late harvesting can cause fading of grain colour and grain shattering (Bultosa,
2004). Harvesting is usually done manually using sickles in smaller-scale operations, while some
larger-scale producers use harvesting machines. The plants then undergo threshing to separate the
seeds from their stalks followed by separation of the chaffs from the seeds. After harvesting, teff
grains are usually stored to allow ripening and break dormancy. Grain loss is usually high (25-30%)
in traditional hand harvesting procedures as the individual grain kernels are light (average thousand
kernel weight of 0.264 g) and can be easily blown away by the wind.

In Ethiopia, teff grains are more commonly used for food consumption as it is used as an
ingredient in various extruded and baked products (Seyfu, 1997; Satheesh and Fanta, 2018). Due to
the perceived nutritional benefits of teff, its use as a food ingredient has increased in recent years.
Like other cereals, teff grains are usually ground into flour before being used as an ingredient. Due to

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 the small size of teff kernels, efficient separation of the endosperm from the other grain components is
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difficult; thus, whole-grain flours are often produced (Nascimento et al., 2018). Prior to milling, teff
grains are aged after harvest to elevate its falling number (F.N.) value as it has a very low value after
harvest (Hidetoshi, 2001; Lukow et al., 1995). Teff grains with F.N. higher than 250 seconds
generally are suited for use for baking purposes (Gebremariam et al., 2012). The milling process for
teff follows similar steps as conventional grains as it undergoes a series of cleaning, tempering,
milling, and sifting procedures to produce whole grain flour. Teff grains are also used as an ingredient
in making alcoholic beverages as it is also predominantly starchy making it a suitable substrate for
alcoholic fermentation (Zarnkow et al., 2008). Teff is advantageous as a food ingredient as it contains
higher amounts of protein and micronutrients, which can be beneficial to the nutrition and the
development of organoleptic properties of teff products (Fairbairn et al., 2017).

Food and Feed Utilization of Teff

Teff grains are milled into fine flour particles, prior to use for the production of various food products
such as bread, unleavened bread, cookies, cakes, muffins, pasta, weaning food, puddings, and
extruded products. The grains, itself, are cooked in most local households as porridge, stir-fry dishes
(Arendt and Zannini, 2013). The widely produced teff-based product in Ethiopia is injera – a flatbread
with pancake-like texture and softness (Bultosa, 2007). Injera is generally made with teff flour mixed
with water and bacteria to ferment and turn into a mildly sourdough. Both white and red/brown teff
grains are milled into flour and used in making injera; however, the white teff grains are commonly
consumed due to its more desirable palatability, while the red/brown teff grains are opted as a
healthier alternative (Gebremariam et al., 2012). Due to high resistance in staling, teff pastry products
pass the palatability requirements for human consumption (Yetneberk et al., 2004; Zegeye, 1997).

Teff grains undergo the process of fermentation to produce traditional Ethiopian alcoholic
beverages – arake, shamit, and tella (Gebremariam et al., 2012). Arake, also known as katikalla, is
made by combining the teff-derived unleavened bread (kita) and germinated wheat or barley (bekel)
into the 3-to-4-day-old mixture of water and ground Gesho leaves. The resulting mixture is further
fermented for 5 to 6 days before distillation. However, shamit is an Ethiopian beer rooted in the
Gurage ethnic members. The milled fractions of kita and bekel are dissolved in water and allowed to

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 undergo fermentation for 3 to 4 days before filtration. To elevate its flavour and aroma, it is added
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with milled, toasted dehusked barley (mitad). It is usually served with a dash of cardamom, cumin,
and bishop's weed. On the other hand, tella is sought for its smoky flavour (Selinus, 1971).

The ascent of teff-based products results from being a gluten-free ingredient and nutrient-
compact whole grain. As compared to other cereal grains, teff is richer in calcium, zinc, and iron
(Stojceska et al., 2010). The lactic acid fermentation in the processing of most teff food derivatives
results in nutrient synthesis and availability, antinutritional factor reduction, and further enhancement
of shelf life and overall palatability. Fermented products have higher nutrient availability and benefits
due to the presence of useful bacteria or probiotics. Among its numerous health benefits, teff can
decrease the likelihood of developing anemia as it increases the haemoglobin levels in the blood.

Teff by-products have a great contribution to the milk and meat industry as animal feed
(Amentae et al., 2016). In Ethiopia, livestock feed is sourced from hay, crop straw, grazing, chopped
straw, and by-products. Among these sources, chopped straw represents the second most abundantly
used (27.71%) animal feed after grazing (61.48%). Teff supplements the supply for chopped straw in
Ethiopia by about 6.93% (Tesfaye, 2017). A study on the utilization of teff chopped straw reported
that only 6.68 million tons of straw were utilized in livestock feed applications for the whole country,
thus leading to a total straw waste of 860,000 tons (Zinash and Seyoum, 1991), which is still
experienced in the recent years. Great losses were observed during long-distance transport from the
farm to homesteads and insufficiency of transport vehicles and transportation cost. In this case, losses
in both quantity and quality pose a major problem to the livestock industry, which is exacerbated
during the dry season (Tesfaye, 2017). In Utah, teff serves as an emergency forage crop during times
of winter kill, poor crop stand, and delayed planting schedule (Young et al., 2014).

Table 3 lists the dry matter and organic matter digestibility (DMD and OMD) of teff. It can be
seen that the digestibility of teff increases as much as 20% when it is cooked. Its starch and protein
digestibility are known to increase as a result of boiling and pressure cooking. In effect, the available
starch increases, while denaturation of the protein structure is prevented as the cooking process results
to the inactivity of proteinase inhibitors (Kotásková et al., 2016). In the study of Sumczynski et al.
(2015) on wheat flakes subjected in a heat treatment, its OMD ranges approximately from 74.4 to

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 80.7%, which are comparable to teff. On the other hand, sorghum has an OMD value ranging from
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53.96-70.03% (Sriagtula et al., 2017), which is lower than teff.

Planting Requirements, Handling, and Economics

Climatic and Soil Requirements

In Tigray, Ethiopia, teff is planted during the peak of the rainy season, in between the 3rd week of July
until the 1st week of August, through wet sowing of seedlings. This sowing method allows farmers to
achieve good seedling establishment and prevent shoot fly infestation. Its growing period reaches
around 80 to 85 days, of which the first 40 to 50 days are abundant in rain. The critical teff growth
stages, such as the flowering and yield formation stages, usually occur at the same time as the late-
season dry spells. During this period, proper irrigation is provided to teff to achieve optimum growth
(Araya et al., 2010). In the United States, teff is considered an annual grass sown during the warm
season since it cannot withstand freezing temperatures at all growth stages (Norberg et al., 2008). The
optimum temperatures for growth and development of teff are between 15 and 21 ℃. Yumbya et al.
(2014) reported that teff could grow at annual temperature ranges of 13.2 ℃ and 25.2 ℃, respectively.
Their model predicted that these figures would change to 14.9 ℃ and 26.7 ℃ by 2050. Temperatures
<10 ℃ are not suitable for seed germination and seedling establishment of teff. Teff is a short-day
plant with C4 photosynthetic pathway. In terms of precipitation, the minimum and maximum for
growth limits are 550 mm and 1770 mm, respectively. Their model foresees these precipitation limits
in a climatically suitable area could be within 600 mm to 1900 mm by 2050. Also, about 1300 m to
2800 m is the optimum altitude for teff growth, but it can survive from mean sea level up to 3400 m
(NRC, 1996). Although teff is a drought-tolerant crop, water is a one of the major limiting factors as
its productivity under good rainfall conditions is relatively higher. Tefera et al. (2006) stated that the
most suitable soil for teff is neutral or slightly acidic soil. It is primarily planted on sandy loams, but
can also survive in black, heavy clay soils with proper drainage and sufficient nitrogen fertility
(Tefera et al., 2006).

Handling and Storage

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 The harvested panicles of teff are conically piled up on a pavement or sack sheets for a short period,
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which then proceeds to the threshing process through oxen feet trampling or manual stick pounding.
In some areas, mechanized threshing using a thresher or combine harvester is done. Teff is applicable
to be stored for a long period of time, reaching up to 5 years when kept in gotera or gota under a
conventional storage environment. In the absence of these structures, harvested grains are filled in
synthetic polymer sacks (International Food Policy Research Institute, 2018). Its seed viability is
preserved until three years of storage. Unlike other commonly infested cereal grains, grain weevils
and fungi do not feed on teff grains; thus, the cost in postharvest maintenance such as the use of
protective chemicals for insect control is reduced (Kassier, 2002; Mekonen et al., 2019). Even without
pesticide application, the presence of chemical residues such as pyrethroids and organochlorines in
teff grains were reported by previous studies but this was only caused by field and storage
environment contamination (Mekonen et al., 2014). In the United States, teff is stored using a
standard method wherein towers or silos house the grains. It is recommended to store it in an enclosed
structure without the presence of vermin (U.S. Patent No. 565,375, 2006).

Yield and Economic Value

The production of teff involves a drudgery system with numerous unsolved issues in the pre- and
postharvest stages. As observed in Table 4, for Meher Season 2018/19 in Ethiopia, teff's yield per
hectare (17.56 Qt/ha) is lower than other known cereal grains, even though the area covered by teff is
larger. The productivity of this crop in Ethiopia is low, primarily due to poor agronomic practices,
poor seedling establishment, nutrient and water limitation, and lodging. Use of appropriate spacing
and maintaining optimal plant population and application of nutrients is critical for obtaining better
yields. This may be attributed to unoptimized harvesting and threshing processes of tiny grains,
contributing to a great percentage of loss (Assefa et al., 2013). Solomon (2014) stated that the
variation in output led by technical efficiency in teff production was about 67.26%, which means that
many aspects of the system should be enhanced to reflect more productivity. This problem calls for
the need for further research on harvesting schemes and mechanization to increase yield through the
reduction in losses. Also, the production of teff contributes to an annual income of approximately 464
million USD for Ethiopian farmers and stakeholders, which makes it the second most important cash

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 crop next to coffee (CSA, 2015). As the demand for teff increases internationally, this value is
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expected to increase through the coming years.

Problems and Challenges in Teff Production and Commercialization

Early researchers described the advantages of teff over other crops as good food and feed substitute in
terms of its palatability, versatility of harvest, absence of anti-quality compounds, ease of growth,
quality and yield, and wide range of adaptability. However, despite several years of cultivation, teff
production is far from optimum. The increase in the global popularity of the crop has skyrocketed
overall exports and market prices, which triggered the Ethiopian government to limit its exportation.

Planting and Environmental Conditions

Although native in Ethiopia, teff can be grown in a wide variety of soil and environmental conditions.
The crop can thrive from drought stress to water-logged soil conditions in different soil types and is
usually planted during early spring to mid-summer. It can be cultivated in altitudes of up to 9,186 feet
above sea level. In the United States, most of the teff is used as forage for animals due to its fast
germination and high tonnage. The main limitation of teff crop production is soil temperature. Teff is
generally a warm-season plant, hence cool soil with temperatures below 10 ℃ would inhibit its
growth and reduce its competitiveness. Bed preparation is also an essential factor in teff production.
When used as forage for animals, teff requires a firm seedbed with a shallow sowing depth of between
1/8 and ¼ inch. Sowing seeds below ½ inches can cause germination failure. When drilling is desired
for planting, extra firm seedbeds are required for teff establishment (Miller, 2014).

In Ethiopia, most of teff is planted in vertisols, a type of dark montmorillonite-rich clay soil
rich in magnesium and calcium. These soils have high clay content, which gives them their
characteristic swelling and shrinking properties. Haileselassie et al. (2011) reported that zinc
bioavailability is a yield-limiting factor for teff planted in vertisols. Meanwhile, phosphorus and
nitrogen are the key limiting nutrients for teff grown under dryland production systems (Girma,
2012). Variations in the combination of Zn, N, and P in the soil can cause significant changes in the
mineral contents of teff and forage quality. Nitrogen fertilization is the most critical since the stem of
teff is highly susceptible to lodging, which, when neglected, can lead to huge economic losses.

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 Application of 60 kg/ha of nitrogen is recommended for better yields. In terms of phosphorus
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fertilization, the main problem is the lack of sufficient information regarding the response of P
fertilization to teff production. Some producers determine the amount of P based on the requirements
for other crops, while others do not apply phosphorus at all since the availability of P is highly
dependent on the nature of clay, amount of soil moisture, and ambient phosphorus (Girma, 2012).

Production and Processing Stability

Lee (2018) reported that more than half of the 12 million smallholder farmers in Ethiopia cultivated
the crop between 2004 and 2012. Despite the large volume of cultivation, teff production is still at a
rudimentary stage. The estimated average relative total factor productivity (RTFP) of teff is only
0.361, which indicates that it could still be improved by more than 170% of the current value
(Bachewe et al., 2015). The main problem in teff production in Ethiopia lies in the absence of
mechanized farm equipment, fragmented farm plots, lack of investment in teff research, and adoption
of improved teff seed varieties. Several research institutions have initiated teff improvement studies
since the late 1950s, but small farmers failed to adopt and cultivate the improved varieties due to the
unaffordable price of seeds.

Amentae et al. (2016) reported that teff loss is highest at the farm level, followed by the
consumer, retailer, and wholesale level. In the farm level, threshing and transport account for most of
the farm loss due to poorly constructed threshing equipment in small farms, and inadequate
knowledge in postharvest handling. Since many parts of Ethiopia are still underdeveloped, grain
transportation is highly inefficient due to poor road conditions and lack of transport vehicles. The
difficulties in teff handling generate more losses when higher levels of output are produced.

Despite producing more than 90% of the world's teff, Ethiopia fails to effectively capitalize its
crop in the international market (FAO, 2015). Minten et al. (2016) described the country's value chain
as untraceable and unsophisticated. The efforts of upgrading the retailing practices and modernizing
the teff trading industry are still scarce. There are also no standardized methods of teff grading,
causing incorrect pricing and substantial economic losses. Since 2008, the price of teff has been
increasing rapidly, thus prompting the government to restrict exportation in the hope of lowering the

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 domestic cost. However, the price of teff remains high since the urbanization, and increasing
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population have increased the overall demand (Minten et al., 2016). Increasing teff prices is also one
of the reasons why several countries like the United States, Australia, and China have begun
developing their own production and marketing strategies to infiltrate the rising market.

Consumption Patterns and Consumer Acceptability

Hassen et al. (2018) reported a distinct pattern of teff consumption by the poverty level. They found
out that in the poorest quintiles, teff consumption is only around 7% of the total food expenditures
compared to 18.8% in the wealthiest quantile. This data indicates that the majority of teff consumers
are high-wage earners. The low-cost red teff is the most purchased variety in the poorest quintile,
while the white teff is the most preferred in the wealthiest quantile. About 66% of the Ethiopian
population consume teff regularly. This percentage rises to as high as 89% in urbanized areas. Despite
the massive inflation in teff prices from 2004 to 2009, the consumption patterns in urban areas had
changed very little (Alem and Soderbom, 2018). In some parts of Europe and North America, teff was
initially imported to cater to the demands of the Ethiopians living in these areas. However, since the
crop gained popularity due to wide-scale marketing, it has caught the interest of consumers belonging
to different nationalities.

Potential Uses

Teff's popularity is still increasing at the time of writing. In Europe, for example, the increasing
demand for niche crops and special cereals has boosted the potential of teff utilization same as those
of the grains amaranth (Amaranthus sp.) and quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa). The banning of
exportation has slowed the growth of the teff market from 2017 to 2018 in several countries (CBI
Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2019). The exponential growth of teff consumption as human food has
yet to come, but with the increasing market for authentic and healthy foods, the growth may come
sooner. Shown in Fig. 1 is a general overview of teff uses in food, beverages, feeds, and industrial
applications.
Potential as Food, Feed and Other Products

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 The crop's gluten-free nature provides an excellent alternative for people who experience celiac
Accepted Article
disease and gluten intolerance (Gebremariam et al., 2012) without compensating the nutritional
quality. Since the protein content of teff is comparable to that of barley, millet, maize, and wheat, and
higher than that of sorghum, rice, and rye, teff has found its way in fermentation, malting, and
brewing applications. The crop's high malt quality and germinate energy, lack of gluten, and high
carbohydrate content make it a feasible raw material for brewing gluten-free beverages (Gebremariam
et al., 2012), and gluten-free lactic acid-fermented beverages (Gebremariam et al., 2015). However,
different teff varieties yield different malt quality attributes (Gebremariam et al., 2013). Yizgaw et al.
(2004) cited that fermentation improves mineral bioavailability and increases protein content; hence,
when teff is fermented, its protein content further increases. Teff can also be used as fat replacers in
the manufacture of low-calorie foods due to its high viscosity and reduced gelling ability
(Teklehaimanot et al., 2013). When added with stearic acid, food-grade starch may be recovered,
which can further provide promising food applications due to the non-gelling behaviour, and early
high paste viscosity (D'Silva et al., 2011).

Potential as Feed for Animals

In the United States, continuous research on the improvement and production of teff grass has been
going strong in the last ten years, especially in the states of Oregon, South Dakota, and Oklahoma.
The primary reason behind the trend is the crop's robust characteristics and excellent nutritional
composition. It is a premium hay alternative for a wide range of livestock, including horses, dairy,
sheep, and beef. No further processing is required for teff straw to be used as forage for animals.
However, key factors such as proper planting, crop care, and harvesting should be done appropriately
to produce high-quality forage.

Staniar et al. (2010) reported that teff hay with relatively low non-structural carbohydrates and
daily digestible energy requirement makes it a potentially beneficial forage choice for horses with
laminitis, obesity, and equine metabolic syndrome. In another study, Young et al. (2014) observed
that the inclusion of teff grass in the diets of dairy heifers increased their body weight gain. Hence, the
grass can be a palatable and low-cost alternative to dairy heifers and beef steers in the absence of

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 alfalfa. While there are many studies on the effect of teff grass inclusion on the feeds of ruminants,
Accepted Article
research on the effect of teff inclusion on the diets of monogastric animals has yet to be studied.

Potential Applications in the Industry

Apart from food and feed uses, various studies have delved into the crop's potential significance in the
health industry. Shumoy and Raes (2016) reported that teff could be a potential source of bioactive
compounds like polyphenols. They found out that brown teff has the highest phenolic and antioxidant
activities compared to white teff. Similar studies include that of Kotoskova et al. (2015) and Youeng
et al. (2017), who both examined the antioxidant activities of different teff flour varieties.
Gebremariam et al. (2014) have observed the in-vitro oxidative activities in teff that can improve the
haemoglobin level and can potentially prevent diabetes and anemia. The compositional analysis of
teff grain is essential in the manufacture of new and improved products with added health benefits.
Apart from the grains, teff straw can also be utilized in biomethane and biogas production (Chufo et
al., 2015). Teff husk can also be used in waste-water treatment (Tadesse et al., 2015) via the
production of activated carbon adsorbent.

Teff Processing and Future Applications

In rural areas, teff grains are traditionally grounded after harvesting to make them ready for human
consumption. While this processing method may be enough for household and domestic use, the
characteristic of teff (e.g., low falling number) during this time is not well-suited for commercial
processing. Teff undergoes an after-ripening process after harvest, where its falling number begins to
increase. When this number has reached a value of at least 250, the grain is already suitable for
milling (Roosjen, 2006).

The teff milling process is still underdeveloped. This lies from the fact that the seeds are very
small and hard to handle. Studies on the effect of different milling processes on the resulting flour
quality and characteristics are also scarce. Assefa et al. (2018) experimented on the resulting qualities
of injera bread made from teff flour that was milled using a hammer mill, stone-disk mill, and blade
mill. They reported that the injera made from the flour from disk mill has the highest overall
acceptability. This explains why the disk mill is often used for milling teff in Ethiopia. Moreover, the

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 use of disk mill resulted in the smallest flour particle size and high starch damage, while the blade
Accepted Article
mill resulted in the largest particle size (Assefa et al., 2018). Studies on the adoption of different
milling techniques like roller milling and attrition milling may be conducted in the future since the
quality of the final product is significantly affected by the method of milling (Kihlberg et al., 2004).
Furthermore, standard procedures of grading, storage, milling, and fermentation should be developed
to avoid huge economic losses.

Allergens

In terms of allergenicity, teff does not contain gluten, a common allergen found in wheat. This means
that the crop can be a good alternative for people who have gluten intolerance and coeliac disease.
Teff also contains all nine essential amino acids and packed with long list of nutritional benefits
(Cheng et al., 2017), making it superior over other cereals in terms of nutritional composition. As of
writing, there is only one reported case of allergic reaction from teff flakes ingestion with symptoms
including itching and burning of mouth, swelling of tongue, difficulty in swallowing, rapid increase in
pulse, and a feeling of anxiety. The allergy was suspected of having developed in the gastrointestinal
route during teff flour and flakes sampling in the plant (Wojas et al., 2020).

The existence of a single case of allergic reaction does not establish teff as a new allergen.
However, since teff consumption is only beginning to become prevalent in the Americas and Europe,
there might be more cases of new allergies that are yet to be reported. Until that time, teff is still a
safe, nutritious, gluten-free crop

Sustainability

With all the recent publications labelling teff as the new superfood similar to quinoa, concerns
regarding safety and sustainability began to arise. It is known that teff has tremendous potentials for
utilization in the food and feed industry, but the primary factors that hinder the crop from reaching its
full potential are the inefficient methods of farming and the lack of available technology for planting
and harvesting. Despite years of cultivation, Ethiopia’s inadequate investment in research and
technology has left teff production in the rudimentary stage. However, with the future development of

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 novel methods of cultivation and improved grain management, teff may become a huge competitor in
Accepted Article
the grains market.

One reason why teff is a sustainable crop is its ability to thrive in different climatic conditions
where other crops fail. Unlike wheat, corn, and sorghum, teff is resistant to drought and flooding and
grows well in both dry and waterlogged soils. In addition, teff can survive without the application of
fertilizers and pesticides. This makes it a good backup plant when abrupt changes in weather and
environmental conditions occur. However, since teff is commonly cultivated in areas equatorial
(where the duration of day and night is fairly similar)), yields may vary if the crop is cultivated
outside the tropical region

Teff is also a very efficient crop. A pound of grain is enough to cover an entire acre in as short
as 45 days with or without fertilization (Miller, 2014). Once harvested, the grain can last for years in
traditional warehouses without insect infestation. This makes it a valuable emergency crop in times of
famine and extreme drought. In some parts of Ethiopia, it is a common practice to plant the main
crops first and sow teff as an alternative source of sustenance whenever the main crops exhibit signs
of failing. Teff can survive without proper crop care and attention since it has no known pest and
disease infestation. The small grain size, however, makes it an attractive source of food for small
insects and birds.

Tesfaye et al. (2015) investigated the economic sustainability of teff sowing methods (hand
broadcasting, Agricultural Transform Agency [ATA] machine broadcasting, row planting, and
transplanting) in terms of mean grain yield and marginal rate of return (MRR). Transplanting
produces the highest mean grain yield (21.3 Qtl/ha), followed by the row planting method (20.1
Qtl/ha), ATA machine broadcasting (15.7 Qtl/ha), and hand broadcasting (14.8 Qtl/ha), respectively.
Although row planting grain yield comes second highest, it is only practiced by farmers when it is
expected to generate enough yield to outweigh the planting expenses (Vandercasteelen, 2014).
Contrary to these yield data, transplanting is stated as an economically inferior sowing method after
considering the labor opportunity cost as it requires intensive planting procedures such as nursery bed
preparation for seedling establishment, hole digging with proper spacing of 20 cm apart, and fertilizer
application. Another concern for transplanting, its planting period coincides with the high rainfall

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 season in Ethiopia’s Western region. Only two MRR data in this study were reported: 740% for
Accepted Article
machine broadcasting and 94% for row planting, with a value lower than 100% is considered as low
and unacceptable. It was concluded that ATA broadcasting method is more economically sustainable
for sowing teff in Ethiopia. Given these data, it is necessary to improve the planting technology based
on the farmer’s current skills and labor capacity in order to significantly increase teff profitability..
Overall, its wide range of adaptability makes it a sustainable food source in the future where extreme
variations in climate are expected to occur due to climate change.

Conclusions

The use of lesser-known grains such as teff as food can help maintain food and nutritional security as
the human population continues to increase. Previous research established the added nutritional
benefits of teff grains that resulted in heightened awareness and production of the grain due to its high
nutritional value and gluten-free composition. However, the knowledge regarding teff utilization is
still limited compared to mainstream cereal grains. Research on more efficient agronomic practices
and increased genetics to improve yields and efficient harvesting practices to reduce grain loss during
harvest can improve the viability of teff as a stable cropping option for farmers. In terms of processing
grain, the milling process for teff can also be improved since flours are often produced as whole grain.
Improving the separation of the grain components through appropriate processing methods can help
increase the acceptability of teff to more consumers. The similarity of teff with other grains in terms
of functionality was established by previous studies. Its gluten-free property increases its viability as a
substitute cereal for different food applications as it reduces the risk for people who have celiac
disease and gluten intolerance. Future research should also focus on incorporating teff as a raw
ingredient in foods using more common cereal grains as this could add value to the food products.
There are opportunities to develop new products using extrusion technologies that are currently being
used in other food products. The nutritional benefits of teff will inevitably lead to an increased
demand of the grain over time and having the proper tools and knowledge about its production,
processing and value addition will be crucial to create new opportunity to take advantage of unique
features of this ancient crop.

Acknowledgements

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 This paper is Contribution No. 21-033-J from the Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station.
Accepted Article
Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this article.

Statement on Ethics

Ethics approval was not required for this research.

Data Availability Statement

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created in this study.

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Accepted Article Table 1. Nutritional composition of teff
Main Components
Moisture (g) 11 Calcium (mg) 159
Food energy (Kc) 336 Chloride (mg) 13
Protein (g) 9.6 Chromium (μg) 250
Carbohydrate (g) 73 Copper (mg) 0.7
Fat (g) 2.0 Iron (mg) 5.8
Fiber (g) 3.0 Magnesium (mg) 170
Ash (g) 2.9 Manganese (mg) 6.4
Vitamin A (RE) 8.0 Phosphorus (mg) 378
Thiamin (mg) 0.3 Potassium (mg) 401
Riboflavin (mg) 0.18 Sodium (mg) 47
Niacin (mg) 2.5 Zinc (mg) 2
Vitamin C (mg) 88

Teff grains are reported to contain 9-11 percent protein, an

amount slightly higher than in normal sorghum, maize, or oats.
However, samples tested in the United States have consistently shown
even higher protein levels: 14-15 percent.
The protein's digestibility is probably high because the main
protein fractions—albumin, glutelin, and globulin—are the most
digestible types. The albumin fraction is particularly rich in lysine.
Judging by the response from Americans allergic to wheat, teff is
essentially free of gluten, the protein that causes bread to rise.
Nonetheless, teff used in injera does ''rise".

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 Table 2. Crude protein and amino acid composition of teff grain
Accepted Article compared to wheat, rice, and sorghum

Composition Teff Wheat Rice Sorghum

Crude protein (%) 11.0 11.7 7.30 8.30
Amino acid (g/16 g N)
Lysine 3.70 2.10 3.70 0.30
Isoleucine 4.10 3.70 4.50 0.70
Leucine 8.50 7.00 8.20 2.10
Valine 5.50 4.10 6.00 0.80
Phenylalanine 5.70 4.90 5.50 0.90
Tyrosine 3.80 2.30 5.20 0.70
Tryptophan 1.30 1.10 1.20 0.20
Threonine 4.30 2.70 3.70 0.50
Histidine 3.20 2.10 2.30 0.40
Arginine 5.20 3.50 8.50 0.60
Methionine 4.10 1.50 2.70 0.30
Cystine 2.50 2.40 1.80 0.30
Asparagine 6.40 5.10 9.00 -
Serine 4.10 5.00 5.00 0.80
Glutamine + Glutamic 21.8 29.5 17.0 -
Acid
Proline 8.20 10.2 5.00 1.30
Glycine 3.10 4.00 4.50 0.50
Alanine 10.1 3.60 5.50 1.60

Note: Crude protein and amino acid composition of teff grain

compared to wheat, rice, and sorghum. Adapted from Teff: nutrient
composition and health benefits (p. 4), by K. Baye, 2014.

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Accepted Article
Table 3. Dry matter and organic matter digestibility (DMD and OMD) assessment of teff
DMD
OMD Uncooked DMD Cooked teff OMD Cooked
Samples Uncooked
teff (%) (%) teff (%)
Teff (%)
Teff flour (Bolivia) 86.5 ± 1.1a 87.6 ± 1.2a 93.1 ± 1.4a 94.7 ± 1.5a
Brown teff (Bolivia) 62.5 ± 1.2b 63.9 ± 1.3b 82.6 ± 1.3b 84.7 ± 1.5b
White teff (Bolivia) 56.8 ± 1.1c 60.1 ± 1.2c 79.8 ± 1.5c 82.4 ± 1.6c
Brown teff (USA) 63.4 ± 1.2b 64.8 ± 1.2b 83.1 ± 1.4b 85.1 ± 1.5b
White teff (USA) 59.7 ± 1.3c 61.2 ± 1.3c 78.4 ±1.7c 80.5 ± 1.5c
Reference: Kotásková et al. (2016)

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Accepted Article
Table 4. Area, production, and yield of cereal crops for private peasant holdings for Meher
season 2018/19

Area % Production %
Grain Yield (Qt/Ha)
(Hectares) Distribution (Quintals) Distribution
Teff 3,076,595.02 24.32 54,034,790.51 17.22 17.56
Barley 811,782.08 6.42 17,675,184.47 5.63 21.77
Wheat 1,747,939.31 13.78 48,380,740.91 15.39 27.64
Maize 2,367,797.39 18.50 94,927,708.34 30.03 39.92
Sorghum 1,829,662.39 14.13 50,243,680.72 15.70 27.36
Finger millet 446,909.00 3.53 10,356,295.66 3.30 23.17
Oats/‘Aja’ 14,843.08 0.12 301,439.40 0.10 20.31
Rice 63,361.86 0.50 1,718,540.95 0.55 27.12
Reference: Central Statistical Agency (2019)

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Accepted Article

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