J Agro Crop Sci (2015) ISSN 0931-2250

REVIEW ARTICLE

The Potential for Utilizing the Seed Crop Amaranth

(Amaranthus spp.) in East Africa as an Alternative Crop to
Support Food Security and Climate Change Mitigation
F. Reta Alemayehu1,2, M. A. Bendevis1 & S.-E. Jacobsen1
1 Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Copenhagen, Taastrup, Denmark
2 Hawassa University, College of Agriculture, Hawassa, Ethiopia

Keywords Abstract
crop adaptation; sustainability; underutilized
crop The projected growth in global food demand has resulted in increased attention
towards underutilized crops with the potential to improve global food security
Correspondence and ability to mitigate adverse effects of climate changes. Changing consumer
S.-E. Jacobsen demands in favour of more nutritiously balanced and organically grown crops
Department of Plant and Environmental
have added to the interest in species such as amaranth. Promoting the consump-
Sciences
tion and cultivation of amaranth could be valuable due to its unique nutrient
Faculty of Science
University of Copenhagen composition and inherent tolerance of drought and other stress factors. Due to
Højbakkeg
ard All
e 13 current and predicted effects of climate changes, these attributes are becoming
2630 Taastrup, increasingly important. Amaranth is a source of high quality protein, as well as
Denmark dietary fibre and lipids rich in unsaturated fatty acids. The seeds contain desirable
Tel.: +45-35333388 levels of minerals, vitamins for human diets, in addition to other bioactive com-
Fax: +45-35333479
ponents such as phytosterols, squalene, fagopyritols, saponins and polyphenols.
Email: seja@plen.ku.dk
Amaranth is currently in demand by specific consumer groups, such as high-per-
Accepted October 6, 2014 formance athletes, malnourished children, and people suffering from diabetes
and coeliac disease. Even so, there are few detailed analyses available concerning
doi:10.1111/jac.12108 the potential for using amaranth to improve and support agricultural productiv-
ity in developing countries. The present review has assessed the promotion and
improvement of amaranth production in East Africa to hold subtstantial poten-
tial for benefitting small-holder farmers in Africa, by providing a stable source of
income and food for subsistence farmers, while also mitigating the impact of cli-
mate change through the prospect of supporting the establishment of food and
nutritional security.

recommended for climate change mitigation and adapta-

Introduction
The potential effects of climate change on global agricul-
tural production, such as poor crop yields, desertification,
deforestation, erosion, degradation of water quality and
depletion of water resources, have widely been projected to
hamper future crop productivity levels, thus further com-
plicating the challenge of maintaining food security in agri-
culturally vulnerable areas (Araus et al. 2008, Delgado
et al. 2011, Taub et al. 2000). The combination of global
population growth and the above factors, together with
increasing energy prices and subsequent increases in
costs of agricultural inputs, will add to the challenge of
maintaining global food security. Some of the strategies
tion include the establishment of more diverse cropping
systems with the inclusion of crops that are drought and
heat stress tolerant, in order to better adapt to climate vari-
ability and new pest and disease pressure (Morton 2007,
Delgado et al. 2011). Amaranth is a suitable candidate for
accommodating appropriate climate effect mitigation strat-
egies targeting East Africa. Thus, amaranth should be inves-
tigated further as a potential crop to extend the use of
marginal agricultural lands of the region, and allowing for
improvement of the agricultural systems of arid and semi-
arid areas in eastern parts of Africa, while utilizing both
seed and leaf production for purposes of food security
(Fomsgaard et al. 2011).

© 2014 Blackwell Verlag GmbH, 201 (2015) 321–329 321

Reta Alemayehu et al.
The globalization of agriculture has resulted in the cur-
rent situation where the main cultivation and research
efforts are focused on a few major crops worldwide,
whereas minor crops, that encompass unique advantages
for issues concerning global food security and climate
change mitigation, have largely been ignored and underuti-
lized in a global context (FAO 2009, Jacobsen et al. 2013).
Global crop production is presently dependent on only
nine crops to supply more than 75 % of the global plant
originating energy, where the three staple cereals, wheat,
rice and maize, contribute more than half of the total pro-
duction (FAO 2009, Schmidt et al. 2010). This reliance on
such few species is a serious concern for future agricultural
sustainability and vulnerability (Frison 2006, Raschke and
Cheema 2008). As an example, in 2007, the failure of food
supplies to meet rising demands resulted in an agricultural
product price instability and brought chaos to global food
markets, thereby pushing people further into the prevailing
environment of food insecurity (Clapp and Helleiner
2012). In Africa, substantial high profile international ini-
tiatives are underway to expand the agricultural production
of food, animal feed and biofuels (Devereux 2009, Vermeu-
len and Cotula 2010, Clapp and Helleiner 2012, Fanzo
2012). Current production levels of the major staple food
crops are not sufficient to fulfil the projected global food
requirements, and research efforts focused on maximizing
yield potentials for the main staples have reached a plateau,
where yield increases are below what is needed (Gressel
2008). In order to ease the pressure on major crops under a
changing climate, there is an urgent need to explore alter-
native crops with the potential to play a crucial role in
reaching the goal of meeting future food demands of a
growing world population. Some of the underutilized spe-
cies with such a potential are amaranth (Amaranthus spp.)
and quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) (Jacobsen et al.
2003a,b). Amaranth is well adapted to marginal land and
holds a significant potential for further adaptation and
development due to its high genetic diversity and range of
phenotypic plasticity (Ecker et al. 2010, Emire and Arega
2012, Rastogi and Shukla 2013). Combining these charac-
teristics with its inherent tolerance to high temperatures,
drought, poor soil conditions and lack of major disease
problems makes amaranth highly interesting as a crop for
adverse growing conditions (Jacobsen et al. 2003a,b). Ama-
ranth is a crop with properties applicable to supporting cli-
mate change mitigation and food security, with a potential
to fulfil immediate food and nutritional demands of rural
populations in agriculturally vulnerable areas. Due to the
relatively high trading prices and rising popularity of ama-
ranth in the Western world, a stable income for subsistence
farmers may be generated through external markets (Emire
and Arega 2012). Amaranth consumption is not new to
East Africa, and therefore, it may easily be introduced as an
322
alternative, supplemental crop to the current farming sys-
tems in the region (Ecker et al. 2010, Emire and Arega
2012). All of the characteristics highlighted above contrib-
ute to making amaranth an ideal crop to promote as a
means to support small-holder farmers in East Africa. The
present study highlights the origin, beneficial properties,
and current and potential uses of amaranth in East Africa,
as well as future prospects for its cultivation and role in cli-
mate change mitigation and agricultural development
efforts in the region.
Origin and Classification
Amaranth species have different centres of domestication
and origin. However, the total number of amaranth species
is still uncertain, and it is possible that only a fraction of
available accessions are actually accounted for (Jacobsen
and Mujica 2003). The most important species of seed
amaranths originated from America, of which cultivated
species are as follows:
1 A. caudatus L., whose synonyms are A. edulis Spegazzini
and A. mantegacianus Passerini
2 A. hypochondriacus L., whose synonyms are A. leucocar-
pus S.Wats and A. flavus L.
3 A. cruentus L., whose synonym is A. paniculatus L.
The ornamental type (A. tricolor) most likely originated
in India and was then introduced to South America. Sev-
eral domestic varieties of ornamental and vegetable types
have been developed from this type (Rastogi and Shukla
2013). A. tricolor has also been cultivated extensively in
southern China. The main vegetable type appears to have
originated in South Asia and then spread throughout the
tropics and temperate areas (Martin and Telek 1979, Grub-
ben and Van Stolen 1981). Specific species found in Africa
are A. graezianus and A. thunbergii.
Physiology and Cultivation
Amaranth is classified as a C4 plant (Kauffman and Weber
1990), which enables improved water-use efficiency and
photosynthesis under high temperature and drought prone
environments compared to C3 crops, thereby adding to the
benefits gained by widening the adaptation and cultivation
of amaranth to Eastern Africa (Kauffman and Weber 1990,
Stallknecht and Schulz-Schaeffer 1993, Barba de la Rosa
et al. 2009). The water requirement for growing seed
amaranth is 53–58 % less than that required for wheat;
40–50 % less than maize; and 21 % less than cotton (Ka-
uffman and Weber 1990). Amaranth tolerates full sun,
water-limited conditions and high temperatures and has
been cultivated in highly diverse areas such as tropical low-
lands and up to 3500 m altitude in the Himalayas (Emire
© 2014 Blackwell Verlag GmbH, 201 (2015) 321–329
 Amaranth in East Africa

and Arega 2012, Rastogi and Shukla 2013). Amaranth can Table 1 Literature reported seed yields of amaranth.
be cultivated as a monocrop and may also be used for inter-
Min–max
cropping in small-scale cultivation (Stallknecht and Schulz- Country yield (kg ha 1) Source
Schaeffer 1993). Currently, no specific standards have been
established for the optimum amaranth plant density, nor USA 700–5000 Myers (1996), Stallknecht and
Schulz-Schaeffer (1993)
have data been compared from different geographic regions
Germany 2100–3300 Aufhammer and Ku €bler (1998),
(Gimplinger et al. 2008), thus presenting further research Kaul et al. (1996)
opportunities that may result in rapid yield gains. In order Slovak 2100–2700 Jamriska (2002)
to facilitate mechanical harvest and the reduction of seed Republic
losses, the focus should be on cultivation of short plants Croatia 1300–2600 Pospisil et al. (2006)
with thin stems and reduced branch number (Gimplinger Italy 1200–6700 Alba et al. (1997)
et al. 2008). Weed control in amaranth is managed with Nigeria 400–1500 Olaniyi (2007)
Peru and 4600–7200 Brenner et al. (2000)
mechanical cultivation in early stages of establishment,
Mexico
hand weeding, delayed planting and manipulation of plant Kenya 50–1500 Brenner et al. (2000)
populations using narrow row spacing. Late sowing to Denmark 1000 Jacobsen et al. (2002)
avoid spring frosts can also aid in weed control, as early Uganda 800–2500 Gupta and Thimba (1992), Brenner
emerging weeds can be mechanically controlled (Stallkn- et al. (2000)
echt and Schulz-Schaeffer 1993). Timing the harvest of Turkey 2105–4490 Yazar et al. (2014)
amaranth is critical because the seeds are naturally shed
when they are mature. Amaranth has low nitrogen require-
ments, so that the inclusion of a legume in preceding crop climate, plant density, sowing date and level of fertilizer
rotations or as a cover crop, or livestock manure, may pro- input (Brenner et al. 2000, Gimplinger et al. 2008). Seed
vide sufficient levels of available nitrogen (Ejieji and Adeni- yields of 450–700 kg ha 1 on dry land and 900–2000 kg
ran 2010). Although amaranth is adapted to drought and ha 1 under irrigated or high rainfall would be considered
low soil fertility, it also performs well under less adverse reasonable and obtainable for regions such as East Africa,
conditions and can therefore be intercropped with maize, by including careful variety selection and the use of good
bean, pepper and squash (Kelly and Martin 1983). agronomic practices (Stallknecht and Schulz-Schaeffer
1993, Williams and Brenner 1995). The large variability
reported for amaranth seed yield in different parts of the
Pests and Diseases
world and the genetic diversity and phenotypic plasticity,
Vegetable amaranth is generally considered more suscepti- offer opportunities for further research and more targeted
ble to pests and diseases than seed amaranth (Kelly and selection of regionally targeted cultivars.
Martin 1983). Persistent insect pests have not yet been The maximum obtained yield from Mexico and Peru is
established for amaranth, but lodging after the seed-filling 7000 kg ha 1, whereas it is about 3000 kg ha 1 in Africa.
period in an irrigated amaranth crop in Brazil was deter- The high yield reported in Latin America is most likely due
mined to be caused by Lepidoptera larvae (Oliveira et al. to amaranth production having been more common in that
2012). This indicates the need for development of more region and local varieties that already have undergone a
targeted pest management strategies in amaranth (Torres selection process for improved seed yield, which has not
et al. 2011). Amaranth is generally considered tolerant to been carried out to the same degree in Africa.
nematodes and is even recommended in rotations to
reduce nematode populations for subsequent crops (O’Bri-
Nutritional Characteristics and Food Uses
en and Price 1983). The main fungal diseases associated
with amaranth are damping-off of seedlings caused by
Nutrition
Pythium, Rhizoctonia and Aphanomyces spp. and cankers
caused by Phoma or Rhizoctonia (Kelly and Martin 1983). Amaranth leaves are consumed as a leafy vegetable in many
African countries. For example, in Nigeria, amaranth is one
of the leafy vegetables people rely on as an affordable
Yield
source of protein and vitamins, which serves to combat
Both seed and vegetative yields are of interest when pro- and avoid malnutrition (Emokaro et al. 2007). The nutri-
moting the cultivation of amaranth (Table 1). Seed yield is tional characteristics of amaranth seeds and leaves have
highly variable and depend upon cultivar and environmen- previously been analyzed, and it has been established that
tal conditions in the growing season, in terms of soil mois- both have a unique protein composition (Becker et al.
ture, soil fertility, soil chemical and physical properties, 1981, Teutonico and Knorr 1985, Pedersen et al. 1987,

© 2014 Blackwell Verlag GmbH, 201 (2015) 321–329 323

Reta Alemayehu et al.
Lehman 1989, Bressani 1990). The amino acid composition
of amaranth seeds is close to the levels recommended by
the FAO/WHO to maintain a healthy human diet (Gambus
et al. 2002, Schoenlechner et al. 2008). The protein score,
defined by WHO as a measure of protein quality, of ama-
ranth is 74, by comparison, wheat is scored 47, soya bean
68–89, rice 69 and maize 35 (Kelly and Martin 1983). Ama-
ranth protein is high in the amino acid lysine, which is the
key component found in insufficient amounts in maize,
wheat, rice and other cereals, and the sulphur-containing
amino acids, which are normally limited in legumes
(Schoenlechner et al. 2009), thus making amaranth ideal
for supporting human dietary needs. The high content of
lysine, arginine and histidine makes amaranth seeds useful
as a dietary supplement for treating malnutrition of chil-
dren (Downton 1973, Gorinstein et al. 2002, Gimplinger
et al. 2008, Garcıa et al. 2011). The high levels of calcium,
iron, sodium and vitamins support the intake of recom-
mended daily levels of these micronutrients (Becker et al.
1981). Total protein and fat content per amount of dry
matter is significantly higher in amaranth than in wheat,
maize and sorghum (Table 2). The overall nutritional value
of amaranth is regarded significantly higher than milk, soya
bean, wheat and maize (Cheeke and Bronson 1979, Yue
1987, Pond and Lehman 1989, Brenner et al. 2000, Hamer
2005).
Amaranth also contains bioactive components with
strong anti-oxidative properties, and its oil fraction is sim-
ilar to cereals with 77 %; unsaturated fatty acids, with li-
noleic acid as the predominant fatty acid. The high
squalene content (5–8 %) of the total oil fraction and the
presence of tocotrienols, a form of vitamin E known to
lower cholesterol content, adds to the beneficial qualities
of amaranth seeds (Lyon and Becker 1987, Becker 1989,
Lehman 1989, Barba de la Rosa et al. 2009, Repo-Carras-
co-Valencia et al. 2009). Amaranth is also gluten-free,
which in itself is a trait contributing to its globally increas-
ing popularity. When the nutritional aspects are consid-
ered, the potential to market amaranth to consumers such
as children, high-performance athletes, diabetics, coeliacs
and people who are gluten or lactose intolerant becomes
highly valuable (Valcarcel-Yamani and Lannes 2012).
Table 2 Comparison of amaranth seeds with cereals (% dry basis)
(Mod. from Pedersen et al. 1987)
Maize Wheat Sorghum Amaranth
Ash 1.2 1.7 1.7 2.5
Protein 10 13.2 12.7 14.5
Fat 5.2 2.7 4 10.2
Starch 72.8 65.7 70.1 62.7
Dietary fiber 9.3 12.1 8.5 8.8
324
Food uses
Amaranth has already been established as a part of tradi-
tional diets in different parts of the world, which paves the
way for future efforts to increase its share. In Peru, Bolivia
and Mexico, popped seeds are used to make candies and
molasses. In Peru, the seeds are popped and used as flour
or mixed with syrup, and in Mexico, popped amaranth is
mixed with honey to make a type of snack bar called Ale-
gria. In India, seeds are mostly used to make laddoos and
mixed in rice dishes (Vietmeyer 1978, Oke 1983). In the
Himalayan region, amaranth flour is used to make chapat-
tis, while in Nepal, it is used for satto (Rastogi and Shukla
2013). In the United States, the seeds are used to make
crackers, cookies, cereal and porridge (Rastogi and Shukla
2013). In Sub-Saharan Africa, important nutrients are lack-
ing in staple diets of the majority of the population because
the diet mainly consists of maize, sorghum, rice and man-
ioc. These crops do not take up zinc while growing and
therefore cannot provide it in the diet (Derman et al. 1977,
Gillooly et al. 1984, Wolters 1992, Schippers 2000, Laker
2005, Umeta et al. 2005). The fact that both the leaf and
seeds of amaranth are already used for both human and
animal consumption, adds to its relevance for small-holder
farmer in East Africa and its potential for further incorpo-
ration. In a number of African countries, amaranth is also
becoming an important dietary supplement for those
infected with HIV/AIDS. If the patients receive a nutrient-
poor diet, the anti-retroviral drug effectiveness can be
severely reduced (Kelly and Martin 1983). The traditional
combination of starchy staples with green vegetables indi-
cates that indigenous vegetables play a crucial role in bal-
ancing dietary quality in the African countries, but
vegetable amaranth has received little research attention,
even if amaranth leaves are equally attractive as seeds, in
terms of nutritional value and potential impact on dietary
quality (Kauffman and Weber 1990, Gorinstein et al. 2002,
Okokoh and Bisong 2011).
Animal feed uses
Amaranth can also be used as livestock feed, in fact, digest-
ibility has been shown to increase when amaranth is
included in the feed ration (Olorunnisomo and Ayodele
2009). Additionally, intercropping maize with amaranth
increased forage yield and land use efficiency by bridging
the gap in forage supply to ruminants during the dry sea-
son in Nigeria, where shortage of forage is one of the main
limiting factors to livestock production (Olorunnisomo
and Ayodele 2009). In China, amaranth has been used as
forage for several types of livestock and is also utilized as
vegetative cover in mountainous regions with low soil fer-
tility (Brenner et al. 2000). However, due to the possibility
© 2014 Blackwell Verlag GmbH, 201 (2015) 321–329

of toxic levels of nitrates and unpalatability caused by sapo-
nins (Torres et al. 1997, Aslani and Vojdani 2007), forage
amaranth may require additional processing, such as heat
treatment, before it will be acceptable for more standard-
ized schemes of animal consumption (Cheeke and Bronson
1979, Pond et al. 1991, Brenner et al. 2000). Raw amaranth
seed may cause problems to poultry if they contain sapo-
nins (Kelly and Martin 1983). Therefore, cooked or auto-
claved amaranth seed may be more appropriate for use as
chicken feed. The inclusion of cooked amaranth in fodder
for broilers resulted in productivity levels comparable to
that where maize and soya bean feedstuff had been used as
the primary dietary source (Kelly and Martin 1983).
Natural dye and medicinal uses
Over the last 20 years, there has been an increasing trend
and a growing market supporting the replacement of syn-
thetic dyes with natural pigments. The whole amaranth
plant can be used for preparing yellow, green and red dyes
(Grae 1974, Rastogi and Shukla 2013). The red pigment
present in the plant is primarily used as a natural colourant
in food, beverages and medicines (Cai and Corke 1999, Cai
et al. 2005). Amaranth has been utilized for multiple pur-
poses as part of indigenous, medicinal practices all over the
world. It is still in use, particularly in Africa, Latin America
and India where traditional medicine practices remain pre-
valent. To mention a few applications, different parts of the
amaranth plant has been used as a diuretic, as a cough and
cold remedy, treatment of urinary and throat infections,
alleviation of gastric problems, dermatologically related
issues, high blood pressure and tapeworms (Getahun 1976,
Agong 2006, Caselato-Sousa and Amaya-Farfan 2012).
Most of the medicinal properties of amaranth can be
explained by the presence of substances with anti-hyperlipi-
demic, antidiabetic and antihelmintic properties in the
plant, in addition to those with antidiarrhoeic, antifungal
and antimalarial properties found in the seeds (Huerta-
Ocampo and Barba De la Rosa 2011). Specific flavonoid
(rutin) and phenolic acids with antioxidant effects (gallic
acid, phydroxybenzoic acid and vanillic acid), are present
in both seeds and other plant parts (Pasko et al. 2008,
Caselato-Sousa and Amaya-Farfan 2012). Based on the
available information on current medicinal uses of ama-
ranth, pharmaceutical industries may benefit from further
research on amaranth compounds with medicinal proper-
ties (Evgeny 2001). The composition of amaranth oil makes
it suitable for being used as a nutrient raw material in the
pharmaceutical and cosmetic industry (Lyon and Becker
1987, Fomsgaard et al. 2011). Insights are also needed for
the proper establishment of oil refining processes for ama-
ranth seed oil, which contains non-polar lipids with a high
degree of unsaturation (Fomsgaard et al. 2011). Further
© 2014 Blackwell Verlag GmbH, 201 (2015) 321–329
Amaranth in East Africa
exploration into potential medicinal uses of amaranth has
yet to be carried out by the modern medicinal industry.
Current Amaranth Production and Indigenous use
in Africa
Amaranth has long been part of indigenous African agri-
culture and is semi-domesticated in Ethiopia and other
East African countries, mainly as a vegetable (Emire and
Arega 2012) (Fig. 1).
In addition to medicinal uses the seeds are used for prep-
aration of a local beverage known as ‘Chaqa’ in Ethiopia.
Cooked seeds are added into porridge, and ground seeds
are mixed with teff to prepare fermented bread injera
(Getahun 1976). Amaranth is also used to make an alco-
holic drink borde, unleavened bread ‘kita’ and a thin por-
ridge ‘atmit’ for babies and mothers who recently gave
birth (Emire and Arega 2012). In Ethiopia, easy-to-grow
nutrient-rich food such as amaranth have been suggested
for improving food security and reduce malnutrition in
communities that depend on subsistence farming (Emire
and Arega 2012). In 1996, the value of the indigenous vege-
table production in Cameroon was estimated to be US$ 22
million. This value is expected to grow because most urban
dwellers are of rural origin and prefer to consume tradi-
tional food (Gockowski et al. 2003). In Tanzania, amaranth
is placed among the five most important vegetables (Mwa-
sha 1996), but is usually grown on a small scale (Schippers
2000). In southern Nigeria, amaranth is mainly grown in
the rainy season, and the amaranth producers of the region
are mainly smallholders. The biggest constraints on
expanding the dry season production of amaranth faced by
these farmers are difficulties in acquiring more land, rela-
tively high cost of field labour and lack of irrigation and
marketing (Emokaro et al. 2007).
Fig. 1 Amaranth field in Uganda for home consumption (photo SEJ).
325
Reta Alemayehu et al.
Amaranth is already cultivated in Kenya, but with lim-
ited use in daily cooking, and has also been deemed under-
utilized in Tanzania (Adeniji and Aloyce 2013). Thus,
adding to the untapped potential of seed amaranth towards
increased use in human food (Gupta and Thimba 1992,
Macharia-Mutie et al. 2011).
Sensory acceptability and factors predicting consump-
tion of seed amaranth have been sparsely investigated.
Amaranth has the potential to be added to programs aimed
at increasing dietary iron intake among children, whereas
awareness about micronutrient deficiencies and relevant
nutritional benefits of amaranth appear to be the major
limiting factor to the inclusion of amaranth as part of daily
dietary regimens in Kenya (Macharia-Mutie et al. 2011).
Possibilities for expansion of the East African amaranth
market
The nutritional composition of amaranth may form the
foundation to help meet nutritional requirements of poor
communities in Africa, particularly in areas where main-
taining sufficient animal protein sources is neither practi-
cal, affordable nor sustainable (Fanzo 2012). Due to its
drought tolerance and ability to grow on marginal quality
land, amaranth cultivation constitutes an attractive option
for further development in drought prone regions of East
Africa (Lenne and Ward 2010). However, further research
is needed to fully understand local potential and consumer
demand behaviour, as well as the possibility of supplement-
ing the nutritional content of traditional African diets by
the inclusion of amaranth. This could potentially contrib-
ute to saving a significant share of the current cost of allevi-
ating reduced health in malnourished children globally
(Sommer and West 1996, Mason et al. 2003). Substantial
economic benefits can be reaped from efforts focusing on
developing the range of value added amaranth products,
but it is subsequently also necessary to widen production
levels concurrently with marketing efforts (Evgeny 2001).
Further development towards the establishment of best
agronomic practices in amaranth cultivation will be the
determining factor to successfully expand production lev-
els. Unfortunately, progress in this area has been at a stand-
still in recent years (Evgeny 2001).
Amaranth may also be utilized as a fuel source. Specifi-
cally, Amaranthus retroflexus has been found to possess 75–
90 % of the calorific power of wood (Demko 1997). This
could be highly beneficial in many African regions where
tree growth is limited or under pressure from local popula-
tions scavenging for firewood.
The vast genetic diversity available among amaranth
accessions provides ample opportunity for breeders to
improve and develop varieties for specific environments
and geographic regions (Brenner et al. 2000, Schahbazian
326
et al. 2006). Currently, there is a need for amaranth culti-
vars with lower oxalate and nitrate content, which will
reduce the processing of amaranth leaves required prior to
human and animal consumption. Improved weed control
in pure amaranth stands may be accomplished by incorpo-
rating wild-type amaranth, due to its highly adaptable nat-
ure and vigorous growth pattern (Trucco and Tranel
2011). Amaranth can be cultivated successfully in arid and
semi-arid regions, but further exploration of better-suited
genotypes and best agronomic practices may be utilized to
improve yield. Amaranth should be studied as a viable
option to widen agricultural production on marginal
land and thereby offering support to agricultural systems
in demanding environments (Schahbazian et al. 2006). In
Conclusion, there are obvious opportunities to expand
the global cultivation and use of amaranth in order to
produce the necessary levels of food of high nutritional
quality, particularly in regions such as East Africa, where
there is a dire need for staple food supplements and
alternatives (Lenne and Ward 2010). The most efficient
way to disseminate this information and make an impact
in rural areas of the African continent, will be to initiate
field work and collaboration with local organizations,
agro-business, restaurants, gastronomy schools etc., and
consistently highlight the agronomic potential and bene-
fits of including amaranth in the present farming systems
in East Africa.
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