Introduction to Analog And Digital

Communications

Telecomunicações

Based on the slides produced by: Simon Haykin, Michael Moher

 Chapter 6 Baseband Data Transmission

6.1 Baseband Transmission of Digital Data

6.2 The Intersymbol Interference Problem
6.3 The Nyquist Channel
6.4 Raised-Cosine Pulse Spectrum
6.5 Baseband Transmission of M-ary Data
6.6 The Eye Pattern
6.7 Computer Experiment: Eye Diagrams for Binary and Quaternary Systems
6.9 Summary and Discussion
3

• The transmission of digital data over a physical communication channel is limited by two
unavoidable factors
1. Intersymbol interference
2. Channel noise

• Lesson 1 : Understanding of the intersymbol interference problem and how to cure it is of

fundamental importance to the design of digital communication systems
• Lesson 2 : The raised cosine spectrum provides a powerful mathematical tool for baseband
pulse-shaping designed to mitigate the intersymbol interference problem
• Lesson 3 : The eye pattern is a visual indicator of performance, displaying the physical
limitations of a digital data transmission system in an insightful manner
4

6.1 Baseband Transmission of Digital Data

• In this chapter, we emphasize the use of discrete pulse-amplitude modulation

1. Discrete pulse-amplitude modulation is simple to analyze
2. It is the most efficient form of discrete pulse modulation in terms of both power and
bandwidth use
3. The analytic techniques developed for handling discrete pulse-amplitude modulation may
be extended to other discrete-pulse modulation techniques using phase or frequency

• In discrete PAM (Pulse-Amplitude Modulation)

• The amplitude of transmitted pulses is varied in a discrete manner in accordance with an
input stream of digital data
5

Fig.6.1
6

• The level-encoded signal and the discrete PAM signal are

ì+ 1 if the input bk is symbol 1
ak = í (6.1)
î- 1 if the input bk is symbol 0
¥

s (t ) = å ak g (t - kTb ) (6.2)
k = -¥

• The channel output is

x(t ) = s (t ) * h(t ) (6.3)
y (t ) = x(t ) * q (t ) (6.4)
6.2 The Intersymbol Interference Problem

• We may express the receive-filter output as the modified PAM signal

¥
y (t ) = åa
k =-¥
k p (t - kTb ) (6.5)

p (t ) = g (t ) * h(t ) * q (t ) (6.6)
P ( f ) = G ( f ) H ( f )Q( f ) (6.7)
¥

y (iTb ) = å ak p[(i - kTb )], i = 0,±1,±2,...

k = -¥

yi = y (iTb )
pi = p (iTb )

yi = å ak pi - k , i = 0,±1,±2,... (6.8)
k = -¥

Alternativa: P(f) = Px(f) G(f) H(f) Q(f), onde Px(f) = TF(x(t)),

x(t) = \sum_(k = -infty)^(+infty) a_k p_x(t-kD); p_x – forma de impulso arbitraria, D- duração de símbolo;
x(t) – sinal à entrada do filtro de transmissão G(f); formato do sinal é polar (pressuposto razoável); ver Carlson pp. 510
8

p 0 = p ( 0) = E (6.9)
¥

yi = E ai + åa p
k = -¥
k i -k
, i = 0,±1,±2,... (6.10)
k ¹i

Residual phenomenon, intersymbol interference (ISI)

yi = E ai , for all i
Without ISI

• Pulse-shaping problem
• Given the channel transfer function, determine the transmit-pulse spectrum and receive-
filter transfer function so as to satisfy two basic requirements
1. Intersymbol interference is reduced to zero
2. Transmission bandwidth is conserved
9

6.3 The Nyquist Channel

• Nyquist Channel
• The optimum solution for zero intersymbol interference at the minimum transmission bandwidth
possible in a noise-free environment
• the condition for zero ISI, it is necessary for the overall pulse shape p(t), the inverse Fourier
transform of the pulse spectrum P(f), to satisfy the condition

ì E , for i = 0
pi = p (iTb ) = í (6.11)
î0, for all i ¹ 0
¥
æ i ö
p (t ) = å
i = -¥
pçç ÷÷ sin c(2 B0t - i ) (6.12)
è 2 B0 ø
1
B0 = (6.13)
2Tb
Popt (t ) = E sin c(2 B0t )
E sin( 2pB0t )
= (6.14)
2pB0t
10

• The overall pulse spectrum is defined by the optimum brick-wall function

ì E
ï , for - B0 < f < B0
popt ( f ) = í 2 B0 (6.15)
ï0, otherwise
î

1. The brick-wall spectrum defines B0 as the minimum transmission bandwidth for zero
intersymbol interference
2. The optimum pulse shape is the impulse response of an ideal low-pass channel with
an amplitude response in the passband and a bandwidth B0
11

Fig.6.2
12

• Two difficulties that make its use for a PAM system impractical
1. The system requires that the spectrum P(f) be flat from –B0 to B0, and zero else-where
2. The time function p(t) decreases as 1/|t| for large |t|, resulting in a slow rate of decay
• To pursue the timing error problem under point 2, consider Eq. (6.5) and sample the y(t) at t=∆t

¥ ¥
y (Dt ) = E å ak p (Dt - kTb ), for iTb = 0 y (Dt ) = å ak sin c[2 B0 (Dt - kTb )]
k = -¥ k = -¥
¥

y (Dt ) = E å ak sin c(2 B0 Dt - k )

k = -¥
¥
sin( 2pB0 Dt - pk )
= E a0 sin c(2 B0 Dt ) + E å ak
k = -¥ 2pB0 Dt - pk
k ¹0

sin( 2pB0 Dt - pk ) = sin( 2pB0 Dt ) cos(pk ) - cos(2pB0 Dt ) sin(pk )

æ sin( 2pB0 Dt ) ö (-1) k ak

¥

y (Dt ) = E a0 sin c(2 B0 Dt ) + E ç ÷å (6.16)

è p ø k = -¥ 2 B0 Dt - k
k ¹0
13

6.4 Raised-Cosine Pulse Spectrum

• To ensure physical realizability of the overall pulse spectrum P(f), the modified P(f) decreases
toward zero gradually rather than abruptly
1. Flat portion, which occupies the frequency band 0≤|f| ≤f1 for some parameter f1 to be defined
2. Roll-off portion, which occupies the frequency band f1 ≤|f| ≤2B0-f1

• One full cycle of the cosine function defined in the frequency domain, which is raised up by an
amount equal to its amplitude
• The raised-cosine pulse spectrum
ì E
ï2B , 0 £ f £ f1
ï 0
ïï E ì é p ( f - f1 ) ù ü
p( f ) = í í1 + cos ê ú ý, f1 £ f < 2 B0 - f1 (6.17)
4
ï 0î B ë 2 ( B0 - f )
1 ûþ

ï0, 2 B0 - f1 £ f
ï
ïî
14

• The roll-off factor

f1
a = 1- (6.18)
B0
æ cos(2paB0t ) ö
p (t ) = E sin c(2 B0t )çç ÷ (6.19)
2 2 ÷
è 1 - 16a 2
B0 t ø

• The amount of intersymbol interference resulting from a timing error ∆t decreases as the
roll-off factor is increased form zero to unity.
• For special case of α=1
æ sin c(4 B0t ) ö
p (t ) = E çç 2 2 ÷
÷ (6.20)
è 1 - 16 B0 t ø
15

Fig.6.3
16

• Transmission-Bandwidth Requirement
• The transmission bandwidth required by using the raised-cosine pulse spectrum is

BT = 2 B0 - f1
BT = B0 (1 + a ) (6.21)
• Excess channel
• The transmission bandwidth requirement of the raised-cosine spectrum exceeds that of the
optimum Nyquist channel

f v = aB0 (6.22)

1. When the roll-off factor is zero, the excess bandwidth is reduced to zero
2. When the roll-off factor is unity, the excess bandwidth is increased to B0.
17
18

• Root Raised-Cosine Pulse Spectrum

• A more sophisticated form of pulse shaping for baseband digital data transmission is to use the
root raised-cosine pulse spectrum

G ( f ) H ( f ) = P1 / 2 ( f ) (6.31)

Q( f ) = P1 / 2 ( f ) (6.32)

G ( f ) H ( f )Q( f ) = P ( f )

• The pulse shaping is partitioned equally between two entities

• The combination of transmit-filter and channel constitutes one entity. With H(f) known and
P(f) defined by Eq. (6.17) for a prescribed roll-off factor, we may use Eq. (6.31) to determine
the frequency response of the transmit filter.
• The receive filter constitutes the other entity. Hence, for the same roll-off factor we may use
Eqs. (6.17) and (6.32) to determine the frequency response of the receive-filter.
19

6.5 Baseband Transmission of M-ary Data

• The output of the line encoder takes on one of M possible amplitude levels with M>2.
• Signaling rate (symbol rate)
• 1/T
• Symbols per second, bauds

• The symbol duration T of the M-ary PAM system is related to the bit duration Tb of a
binary PAM system
T = Tb log 2 M (6.33)
20

6.6 The Eye Pattern

• Eye Pattern
• Be produced by the synchronized superposition of successive symbol intervals of the
distorted waveform appearing at the output of the receive-filter prior to thresholding
• From an experimental perspective, the eye pattern offers two compelling virtues
• The simplicity of generation
• The provision of a great deal of insightful information about the characteristics of the
data transmission system, hence its wide use as a visual indicator of how well or poorly
a data transmission system performs the task of transporting a data sequence across a
physical channel.
21

• Timing Features
• Three timing features pertaining to binary data transmission system,
• Optimum sampling time : The width of the eye opening defines the time interval over the
distorted binary waveform appearing at the output of the receive-filter
• Zero-crossing jitter : in the receive-filter output, there will always be irregularities in the zero-
crossings, which, give rise to jitter and therefore non-optimum sampling times
• Timing sensitivity : This sensitivity is determined by the rate at which the eye pattern is closed
as the sampling time is varied.
22

Fig.6.5
23

• The Peak Distortion for Intersymbol Interference

• In the absence of channel noise, the eye opening assumes two extreme values
• An eye opening of unity, which corresponds to zero intersymbol interference
• An eye opening of zero, which corresponds to a completely closed eye pattern; this
second extreme case occurs when the effect of intersymbol interference is severe
enough for some upper traces in the eye pattern to cross with its lower traces.
24

Fig.6.6
25
• Noise margin
• In a noisy environment,
• The extent of eye opening at the optimum sampling time provides a measure of the operating margin
over additive channel noise

• Eye opening (Eye opening) = 1 - Dpeak (6.34)

• Plays an important role in assessing system performance
• Specifies the smallest possible noise margin

• Zero peak distortion , which occurs when the eye opening is unity
• Unity peak distortion, which occurs when the eye pattern is completely closed.
• The idealized signal component of the receive-filter output is defined by the first term in Eq. (6.10)
• The intersymbol interference is defined by the second term
¥

yi = E ai + åa p
k = -¥
k i -k
, i = 0,±1,±2,... (6.10)
k ¹i
26

Fig.6.7
27

(Maximum ISI) = åp
m = -¥
i -k

k ¹i
¥

Dpeak = å pi - k
k = -¥
¥

= å p (i - k )Tb (6.35)
k = -¥
k ¹i

• Eye pattern for M-ary Transmission

• M-ary data transmission system uses M encoded symbols
• The eye pattern for an M-ary data transmission system contains (M-1) eye openings stacked vertically
one on top of the other.
• It is often possible to find asymmetries in the eye pattern of an M-ary data-transmission system, which
are caused by nonlinearities in the communication channel or other parts of the system.
28

6.7 Computer Experiment : Eye Diagrams for Binary and Quanternary Systems

• Fig. 6.8(a) and 6.8(b) show the eye diagrams for a baseband PAM transmission system
using M=2 and M=4. A raised cosine pulse is used in both cases.

T = Tb for M = 2 and T = 2Tb for M = 4; Tb= 1s

• Fig. 6.9(a) and 6.9(b) show the eye diagrams for these two baseband-pulse transmission
systems using the same system parameters as before, but this time under a bandwidth-
limited condition. !" - 3dB cutoff frequency of the filter
1.N = 3, and f 0 = 0.6 Hz for binary PAM 2 1
H( f ) =
2.N = 3, and f 0 = 0.3Hz for 4 - PAM 1 + ( f / f0 )2 N

BT = 0.5(1 + 0.5) = 0.75 Hz , M = 2

BT = 0.25(1 + 0.5) = 0.375Hz , M = 4

29

Fig.6.8
30

Fig.6.9
31

6.9 Summary and Discussion

• Baseband data transmission, for which the channel is of a low-pass type

• Band-pass data transmission, for which the channel is of a band-pass type

• The intersymbol interference problem, which arises due to imperfections in the frequency response of the
channel
• ISI refers to the effect on that pulse due to cross-talk or spillover from all other signal pulses in the data
stream applied to the channel input
• A corrective measure widely used in practice is to shape the overall pulse spectrum of the baseband
system, starting from the source of the message signal all the way to the receiver.
• The eye pattern portrays the degrading effects of timing jitter, ISI, channel noise
• ISI is a signal-dependent phenomenon, it therefore disappears when the information-bearing signal is
switched off.
• Noise is always there, regardless of whether there is data transmission or not.
• Another corrective measure for dealing with the ISI; channel equalization