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MATHEMATICS
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTION
A (s – b) (s – c)
13. a. sin 2 =
bc
B (s – c) (s – a)
b. sin 2 = ca
C (s – a) (s – b)
c. sin 2 = ab
A s(s – a) B s(s – b)
14. cos 2 = bc , cos 2 = ca
C s(s – c)
cos 2 = ab
A (s – b) (s – c)
15. a. tan 2 = s(s – a)
B (s – c) (s – a)
b. tan 2 = s(s – b)
C (s – a) (s – b)
c. tan 2 = s(s – c)
1 1 1 abc
16. = 2 ab sinC = 2 bc sin A = 2 ac sin B = 4R = rs
1
17. = 4 2b2c2 + 2c2a2 + 2a2b2 – a4 – b4 – c4
18. = s(s – a) (s – b) (s – c)
A B C
= (s – a) tan 2 = (s – b) tan 2 = (s – c) tan 2
sec–1x + cosec–1x = 2 ; x (–, –1] [1,)
tan
2x
1 – x 2x if – 1 < x < 1
–1
2
x
3. sin–1x = cos–1 1 – x2 = tan–1 2
1–x
1 – x2 –1 x –11
= cot–1 = sec = cosec
1–x
x 2 x
4. sin–1x sin–1y = sin–1 {x 1 – y2 y 1 – x2}
5. cos–1x cos–1y = cos–1 {xy + – 1 – x2 1 – y2}
x y
6. tan–1x tan–1y = tan–1 where xy < 1
1 y
7. cos–1x = sin–1 1 – x2
2. If p + iq (p and q being real) is a root of the quadratic equation, where (R) = –1, then p – iq
is also a root of the quadratic equation.
3. In a quadratic equation with rational coefficient, imaginary roots occur in pairs i.e.if P + q
and conversely.
4. Every equation of nth degree (n 1) has exactly n roots and if the equation has more than n
roots, it is an identity.
5. The roots of the general quadratic equation
2
– b + b – 4ac
ax2 + bx + c = 0 are, = (say),
2a
– b – b2 – 4ac
2a
–b
a. Sum of roots = + = a
c
b. Product of roots = × = a
6. The quadratic equations a1x2 + b1x+ c1 = 0 and a2x2 + b2x + c2 = 0 may have
a. one root common if (b1c2 – b2c1)
(a1b2 – a2b1) = (a2c1 – a1c2)2
a1 b1 c1
b. both root common if a = b = c
2 2 2
b1 c1 a1
c. reciprocal roots if b = a = c
2 2 2
7. For any non-zero complex number z = a + ib
(a 0), b 0), there exists the complex number
a –b 1 –1
a2 + b2 + i a2 + b2 , denoted by z or z called the multiplicative inverse of z such that
a –b
(a + ib) a2 + b2 + i a2 + b2 = 1 + i0 = 1
8. For any integer k, i = 1, i4k + 1 = i, i4k + 2 = –1, i4k + 3 = – i
4k
BINOMIAL THEOREM
1. The expansion of a binomial for any positive integral n is given by Binomial theorem, which
is
(a + x)n = nC0xn + nC1an–1x + nC2an–2x2 + …
+ nCn–1 a.xn–1 + nCnxn
Final Revision Note available in Help For AG App.
a. The coefficients of the expansions are arranged in any array. This array is called Pascal's
triangle.
b. When the index is other than a positive integer such as negative integer or fraction, the
number of terms in the expansion of
n n
(1 + x) is infinite and the symbol Cr cannot be used to denote the coefficient of the
general term.
2. a. The general term of an expansion (a + x)n is tr+1 = nCran–r . xr = (r + 1)th term.
b. The total number of terms in the expansion of (a + x)n is n + 1.
n th
3. In the expansion (a + x)n, if n is even, then the middle term is the 2 + 1 term. If n is odd,
n + 1 th n + 1 th
then the middle terms are 2 and 2 + 1 terms
n n n n n n
4. Since Cr = Cr–1 so C0 = Cn, C1 = Cn–1and so on Thus, coefficients of the terms
equidistance from the beginning and the end in a binomial expansion are equal.
5. In the expansion of (1 + x)n, the sum of the coefficients of all the terms is 2n.
i.e. C0 + C1 + C2 + C3 + … + Cn = 2n
–x x x2 x3
b. e = 1 – .! + 2! –3! + ………..
ex + e-x x2 x4
3. = 1 + 2! + 4! +…..
2
ex–e-x x3 x5
3! + 5! +…….
4. = x +
2
5. The expansion of loge (1 + x) is known as logarithmic series. The series loge (1 + x) is valid
for all real values of x and – 1 < x 1.
x2 x3 x4 x5
a. loge (1 + x) =x – 2 + 3 – 4 + 5 – ……
x2 x3 x4 x5
b. loge (1 – x) = – x – 2 – 3 – 4 – 5 –…
STRAIGHT LINES
1. An acute angle (say ) between lines L1 and L2 with slopes m1 and m2 is given by tan =
m1 – m2
1 + m m , 1 + m1 m2 0
1 2
y2 – y1
2. Equation of the line passing through the points (x1. y1) and (x2, y2) is given by y – y1 = x – x
2 1
(x – x1)
x y
3. Equation of a line making intercepts a and b on the x- and y-axis, respectively, is a + b = 1.
4. The perpendicular distance (d) of a line
Ax + By + C = 0 from a point (x1.y1) is given by
|Ax1 + By1 + C|
d=
A2 + B2
Final Revision Note available in Help For AG App.
5. Distance between the parallel lines Ax + By + C 1 = 0 and Ax + By + C2 = 0, is given by d
|C1 – C2|
A2 + B2
CONIC SECTIONS
1. The equation of a circle with centre (h, k) and the radius is (x – h)2 + (y – k)2 = r2.
2. Equation of tangent:
xx1 + yy1 + g(x + x1) + f(y + y1) + c = 0
3. The equation of the parabola with focus at (a, 0) a > 0 and directrix x = –a is y2 = 4ax.
4. Latus rectum of a parabola is a line segment perpendicular to the axis of the parabola,
through the focus and whose end points lie on the parabola.
5. Length of the latus rectumof the parabola
y2 = 4ax is 4a.
6. The parametric equation of the parabola is x = at2, y = 2at.
7. An ellipse is the set of all points in a plane, the sum of whose distances from two fixed points
in the plane is a constant.
8. The equations of an ellipse with foci on the
2 2
x y
x-axis is a2 + b2 = 1; its parametric equation is
x = a cos; y = b sin
x2 y2 2b2
9. Latus rectum of the ellipse a2 + b2 = 1 is a
10. The eccentricity of an ellipse is the ratio between the distances from the centre of the ellipse
to one of the foci and to one of the vertices of the ellipse.
11. A hyperbola is the set of all points in the plane is a constant.
12. The equation of a hyperbola with foci on the x-axis is
x2 y2 x2 y2
2 – 2 = 1 ; two asymptotes: 2 – 2 = 0
a b a b
x2 y2 2b2
13. Latus rectum of the hyperbola: a2 – b2 = 1 is a
1. The coordinates of the point R which divides the line segment joining two points P(x 1,y1, z1)
and Q(x2, y2, z2) internally and externally in the ration m : n are given by
mx2 + nx1 my2 + ny1 mz2 + nz1
m + n m + n m + n and
mx2 – nx1 my2 – ny1 mz2 – nz1
m – n m – 1 m – 1 , respectively
2. The coordinates of the centroid of the triangle, whose vertices are:
(x1, y1, z1), (x2, y2, z2) and (x3, y3, z3) are
x1 + x2 + x3 y1 + y2 + y3 z1 + z2 + z3
3 3 3
3. If l, m, n are the direction cosines and a, b, c are the direction ratios of a line then
Final Revision Note available in Help For AG App.
a b c
l= , m= 2 2 2, n= 2 2 2
a 2 + b2 + c 2 a +b +c a +b +c
4. l1, m1, n1 and l2, m2, n2 are the direction cosines of two lines; and is the acute angle between
the two lines; then cos = |l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n2|.
5. Equation of a line through a point (x1, y1, z1) and having direction cosines l, m, n is
x – x1 y – y1 z – z1
l = m = n
6. Shortest distance between
r = a1 + b1 and r = a2 + b2 is
(b1 × b2 . (a2 – a1))
|b1 × b2|
7. The equation of a plane through a point whose position vector is a and perpendicular to the
vector
N is ( r – a ) . N = 0
8. Vector equation of a plane that passes through the line of intersection of planes r (n1 + n2)
= d1 + d2, where is any nonzero constant.
9. The distance of a point whose position vector is a from the plane r . n = d is |d – a . n|
10. Skew line: Two straight lines are said to be skew lines if they are neither parallel nor
intersecting.
(x2 – x1) (m1n2 – m2n1)
Shortest distant:
(m1n2 – m2n1)2
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
LIMIT
1. A function f(x) has the limit L as x approaches a if the limit from the left exists and the limit
from the right exists and both limit are
lim lim lim
L that is, + f(x) = – f(x) = f(x)
xa xa xa
lim lim
Let f(x) = l and g(x) = m. If l and m are finite then:
xa xa
lim
i. (f(x) g(x)) = l m.
xa
lim
ii. f(x) . g(x) = l.m.
xa
Final Revision Note available in Help For AG App.
lim f(x) l
iii. = , provided m 0.
xag(x) m
lim lim
iv. k f(x) = k f(x) = kl; where k is a constant.
xa xa
lim lim
v. [f(x) + k] = f(x) + k, where k is a constant.
xa xa
lim lim
vi. If f(x) g(x), then f(x) g(x).
xa xa
lim
2. |x| = a
xa
0
3. When the functional value is of the form: 0 , , – , ° … it is said to be indeterminate
form
4. Limit in a case of Composite Function:
lim lim
f[g(x)] = f g(x); provided is continuous at x.
xa xa
lim sin x lim x lim sin–1x lim x
5. = = =
x0 x x0sinx x0 x x0sin–1x
= 1 (Where x is measured in radian)
lim 1x lim
6. 1 + x = (1 + x)1/x = e,
x x0
lim ax lim lim
1 + x = (1 + x)a/x = = ea
x x0 x
CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS
When n is even, the inputs of in f(x) are restricted to inputs x for which f (x) 0.
n
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
xn+1
1. i. x dx = n + 1 + ; n + 1 0
n
ii. 1.dx = x + k
iii.
1
x dx = log x + k
iv.
f '(x) dx
f(x) = log f(x) + k
v. ex dx = ex + k
1
vi. eax dx = a eax + k
x. cosec2x dx = – cotx + k
xi. sec x tanx dx = sec x + k
xii. cosec x. cot x dx = – cosec x + k
dx = – cos–1 x + k
xiii. 1 – x2
dx = sin–1 x + k
xiv. 1 – x2
xv.
dx –1
1 + x2 dx = tan x + K
Final Revision Note available in Help For AG App.
1
xvi. ax dx = log a ax + k ; a > 0 at a 1
xxii.
1 –1
x2 – 1 dx = cosh x + k
Integration of some standard functions
i. log x dx = x log x – x + k
ii. tan x dx = log (sec x) + k
x
iii. sec x dx = log tan 4 + 2 + k
= log (secx + tanx) + k
x
iv. cosec x dx = log tan 2 + k
= log (cosec x – cotx) + k
v. cot x dx = log sin x + k = – log (cosec x) + k
a + x
vi.
dx 1
a2 – x2 = 2a log x + a + k where x < a
2 2
x – a
vii.
dx 1
x2 – a2 = 2a log x + a + k where x > a
2 2
dx = sin–1x + k
viii. a2 – x2 a
ix.
dx 2 2
x2 – a2 = log (x + x – a + k
x
= cosh–1 a + k
1 –1x
x.
dx
x2 + a2 = a tan a + k
xi.
dx 2 2
x2 + a2 = log (x + x + a + k
x
= sinh–1 a
(acos bx + b sin bx)
xii. eax cos bx dx = eax a2 + b2 +k
a sin bx – b cos bx
xiii. eax sin bx dx = eax +k
a2 + b2
Final Revision Note available in Help For AG App.
dx 1 –1x
xiv. x x2 – a2 = a sec a + k, x > a > 0
x a2 – x2 a2 –1x
xv. a – x dx =
2 2
+ 2 sin a + k
2
x x2 – a2 a2
xvi. x2 – a2 dx = 2 – 2 log |x + x2 – a2 + k
2
x x2 + a2 a
xvii. x2 + a2 dx = 2
– 2 2
2 log (x + x + a ) + k
xviii. tanh x dx = log cosh x + k
xix. coth x dx = log sinh x + k
xx. sin–1 x dx = x sin–1x + 1 – x2 + k
1
xxi. tan–1 x dx = x tan–1 x – 2 log (1 + x2) + k
2. Fundamental theorem of calculus:
Part I : If f(x) is continuous on [a, b] then
x
g(x) = f(t) dt is also continuous on [a, b] and
a
dx
g'(x) = dx f(t) dt = f(x).
a
b
Part II: f(x) is continuous on [a, b], F(x) is an anti-derivative of f(x) i.e. F(x) = f(x) dx then
a
f(x) dx
= F(b) – F(a)
3. Integration by Substitution: The substitution
b g(b)
u = g(x) will convert f(g(x)) g'(x) dx = f(u) du
a g(a)
using du = g'(x) dx.
4. Integration by parts:
b b b
u dv = uv – vdu and udv = uv |a – vdu.
a a
Choose u and dv from integral and compute du by differentiating u and compute v using v =
dv
b
1. Net area: f(x) dx represents the area between the curve y = f(x), x-axis and two ordinates at
a
x = a and x = b(b > a) with area above x-axis positive and area below x-axis negative.
2. Area between curves:
y = f(x) A =
b
[upper function] – [lower function] dx and x = f(y)
a
d
A = [right function] – [left function] dy
c
b
3. If f(x) 0 for a x b and f is continuous on [a, b] then f(x) dx 0
a
MATRICES
1. Order of a matrix: A matrix which has m rows and n columns is called a matrix of order m ×
n.
i = 1 2 ... m
A = [aij]m×n where
j = 1 2 ... n
Here aij denotes the element of ith row and jth column.
2. Properties of Scalar Multiplication: If A, B are Matrices of the same order and p, q are any
two scalars then –
i. p(A + B) = pA + pB
ii. (p + q)A = pA + qA
iii. p(qA) = (pqA) = q(pA)
iv. (–pA) = –(pA) = p(–A)
v. tr (kA) = k tr (A)
3. Multiplication of matrices: If A and B be any two matrices, then their product AB will be
defined only when number of column in A is equal to the number of rows in B. If A = [aij]m×n
and B = [bij]n×p then their product AB = C = [cij], will be matrix of order m × p, where (AB)ij
n
= cij = air brj
x =1
4. Positive Integral Powers of a Matrix:
For any positive integers m, n
i. Am An = Am + n
ii. (Am)n = Amn = (An)m
iii. In = I.Im = I
iv. A° = In where A is a square matrices of order n.
5. Transpose of a matrix: The matrix obtained from a given matrix A by changing its rows into
columns or columns into rows is called transpose of matrix A and is denoted by AT or A'.
From the definition it is obvious that if order of A is m × n, then order of AT is n × m.
Properties of Transpose
Final Revision Note available in Help For AG App.
i. (AT)T = A
ii. (A B)T = AT BT
iii. (AB)T = BT AT
iv. (kA)T = k(A)T K is scalar
v. IT = 1
vi. tr (A) = tr (A)T
vii. (A1, A2, A3 … An–1 An)T = An An–1T … A3T A2T A1T
6. Inverse of matrix: If A and B are two matrices such that AB = I = BA then B is called the
inverse of A and it is denoted by A–1, thus
–1
A = B AB = I = BA
adj.A
To find inverse matrix of given matrix A we use following formula A–1 = |A|
Thus A–1 exists |A| 0
7. A square matrix A is said to be
i. sysmmetric if aij = – aji
ii. skew-symmetric if aij = – aji
8. The product of two non-zero matrices can be a zero matrices.
9. The product of any matrix with its transpose is symmetric
DETERMINANTS
1. To find value of third order determinant
a11 a12 a13
Let =a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33
Be a third order determinant. To find its value we expand it by any row or column as the sum
of three determinants of order 2. If we expand it by first row then
a22 a23 a21 a23
= a11a a33 – a12
a31 a33 + a13
32
a21 a22
a31 a32
2. Minor: The determinant that is left by cancelling the row and column intersecting at a
particular element is called minor of that element.
3. Cofactor: The cofactor of an element aij where M is monor of element aij.
4. Multiplication of two determinants:
Multiplication of two third order determinants is defined as follows:
a1 b1 c1 l1 m1 n1
a b2 c2 × l2 m2 n2
2
a3 b3 c3 l3 m3 n3
a1l1+b1l2+c2l3 a1m1+b1m2+c1m3 a1n1+b1n2+c1n3
= a2l1+b2l2+c2l3 a2m1+b2m2+c2m3 a2n1+b2n2+c2n3
a3l1+b3l2+c3l3 a3m1+b3m2+c3m3 a3n1+b3n2+c3n3
5. System of linear equation in three unknowns: Using Crammer's rule of determinant we get
x y z 1 1 2 3
= = = i.e. x = y = z =
1 2 3
Case – I : If 0
Final Revision Note available in Help For AG App.
1 2 3
Then x = y= z=
The system is consistent and has unique solutions.
Case – II If = 0 and
i. If at least one of 1 , 2 , 3 is not zero then the system of equations is inconsistent i.e. has
no solution.
ii. If d1 = d2 = d3 = 0 or 1, 2, 3 are all zero then the system is consistent and has infinitely
many solutions.
A
6. If for square matrix A and n, 2 and A. adj A is non-singular then (adj A)–1 = |A|
7. If A is non-singular, adj (adj A) = |A|n–2 A
8. If A is any square matrix of order n 2 then |adj A| = |A|n–1
VECTORS
1. Triangle law of vector addition of two vector Magnitude of R : R = A2 + B2 + 2AB cos
2. Components of vector: Consider a vector A : = A1 + A2 as shown.
y y
j → →
A2 A
O x → x
i O A1
k
z
y
→ →
A2 A
→ x
O A1 i
A1 = Ax i, A2 = Ay jA = Ax i + Ay j
The quantities Ax and Ay are called x- and y- components of the vector A. Ax is itself not a
vector but Ax i is a vector and so is Ay j. Ax = A cos and Ay = A sin
3. Scalar Product: A.B = AB cos (here is the angle between the vectors)
4. Vector Product: C = A × B = AB sinn
5. Given vectors
x1 a + y1 b + z1 c, x2 a + y2 b + z2 c, x3 a + y3 b + z3 c
x1 y1 z1
where a, b, c are non-coplanar vectors, will be coplanar if and only if x2 y2 z2 = 0
x3 y3 z3
6. Scalar triple product:
a. If a = a1 i + a2 j + a3k, b = b1 i + b2 j + b3k, and c = c1 i + c2 j + c3k then
Final Revision Note available in Help For AG App.
a1 a2 a3
( a × b . c ) = [ a b c ] = b1 b2 b3
c1 c2 c3
b. [a b c] = volume of the parallelepiped whose coterminous edges are formed by a , b, c .
c. a , b, c are coplanar if and only if [ a , b, c ] = 0
d. Four points A, B, C, D with position vectors a, b, c, d respectively are coplanar if and only
if [AB, AC, AD] = 0 i.e. if and only if
[ b – a c – a d – a] = 0
1
e. Volume of a tetrahedron with three coterminous edges a , b, c = 6 [ a b c ] | |
1 [
f. Volume of prism on a triangular base with three coterminous edges a , b, c =
2
|
a b c] |
7. Lagrange's identity:
a . c a . d
( a × b) ( c × d) = =
b . c b d
= ( a . b) ( b × d) – ( a × d) ( b × c )
PARABOLA
Eqn of Vertex Focus Length Eqn of
parabola of Latus directrix
rectum
y2=4ax (0, 0) (a, 0) 4|a| x + a =
0
x2 = 4ay (0, 0) (0, a) 4|a| y + a =
0
(y–k)2 = (h, k) (h + a,k) 4|a| x–h+a =
4a(x – 0
h)
(x–h)2 = (h, k) (h, k + 4|a| y–
4a(y – a) k+a=0
k)
Parametric of y2 = 4ax is x = at2, y = 2at
(at2, 2at) is any point on parabola y2 = 4ax
With respect to parabola y2 = 4ax, a point (x1, y1) lies
Outside the parabola if y12> 4ax1
On the parabola y12 = 4ax1
Inside the parabola if y12< 4ax1
A line y = mx + c is a tangent to a parabola
a
y2 = 4ax if c = m
a
A parabola y = mx + m is tangent to parabola
y2 = 4ax
Equation of a tangent to a parabola y2 = 4ax at a point (x1, y1) yy1 = 2a(x + x1)
a 2a
The coordinates of point of contact of a tangent y = mx + c and parabola y2 = 4ax is m2 m
Equation of a normal to parabola y = 4ax at a point (x1, y1) is
2
y = mx – 2am – am3
Where m is slope of normal
ELLIPSE
Standard equation of the ellipse is
x2 y2
a2 + b2 = 1 (a > b)
Length of major axis = 2a
Length of minor axis = 2b
Centre = (0, 0)
Final Revision Note available in Help For AG App.
b2
Eccentricity (e) = 1 – a2< 1
Foci = ( ae, 0)
2b2
Length of latus rectum = a
a
Equation of directrices: x = e
Vertices: ( a, 0)
Distance between foci = 2ae
2a
Distance between directrices = e
Parametric form:
x = a cos, y = b sin