Micromachines 14 01612

micromachines
Review
Copper Wire Bonding: A Review
Hongliang Zhou 1, * , Andong Chang 1 , Junling Fan 2 , Jun Cao 1, * , Bin An 1 , Jie Xia 1 , Jingguang Yao 1 ,
Xiaobin Cui 1 and Yingchong Zhang 3
1 School of Mechanical and Power Engineering, Henan Polytechnic University, Jiaozuo 454000, China;
cadzmy@163.com (A.C.); a1951198730@163.com (B.A.); x6868mrtx@163.com (J.X.);
yaojingguang1205@163.com (J.Y.); xiaobincui@hpu.edu.cn (X.C.)
2 School of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Jiaozuo University, Jiaozuo 454000, China;
jzufanjunling@163.com
3 Nanjing High Speed Gear Manufacturing Co., Ltd., Nanjing 211100, China; 212005010007@home.hpu.edu.cn
* Correspondence: zhlhpu@hpu.edu.cn (H.Z.); cavan@hpu.edu.cn (J.C.)
Abstract: This paper provides a comprehensive review on copper (Cu) wire bonding. Firstly, it
introduces the common types of Cu wire available in the market, including bare Cu wire, coated Cu
wire, insulated Cu wire, and alloyed Cu wire. For each type, their characteristics and application
areas are discussed. Additionally, we provide detailed insights into the impact of Free Air Ball (FAB)
morphology on bonding reliability, including its effect on bond strength and formation mechanisms.
Next, the reliability of Cu wire bonding is analyzed, with a focus on the impact of intermetallic
compounds and corrosion on bonding reliability. Specifically, the formation, growth, and stability of
intermetallic compounds at bonding interfaces are discussed, and their effects on bonding strength
and reliability are evaluated. The detrimental mechanisms of corrosion on Cu wire bonding and
corrosion inhibition methods are also analyzed. Subsequently, the applications of simulation in Cu
wire bonding are presented, including finite element analysis and molecular dynamics simulations,
which provide important tools for a deeper understanding of the bonding process and failure
mechanisms. Finally, the current development status of Cu wire bonding is summarized, and future
research directions are discussed.
Keywords: Cu wire bonding; FAB morphology; bonding reliability; intermetallic compounds;

applications of simulations
Citation: Zhou, H.; Chang, A.; Fan, J.;
Cao, J.; An, B.; Xia, J.; Yao, J.; Cui, X.;
Zhang, Y. Copper Wire Bonding: A
Review. Micromachines 2023, 14, 1612.
1. Introduction
https://doi.org/10.3390/mi14081612
Wire bonding is widely recognized as a prominent interconnection technique within
Academic Editors: Wenchao Tian and
the realm of microelectronic packaging due to its inherent flexibility and ease of implemen-
Yongkun Wang
tation. In this domain, Au wire has traditionally been favored as the primary choice for
Received: 12 July 2023 bonding wire material, owing to its exceptional ductility, corrosion resistance, and oxida-
Revised: 8 August 2023 tion properties. Nonetheless, the substantial surge in gold prices witnessed in recent years
Accepted: 14 August 2023 has spurred the gradual emergence of Cu, Al, and Ag wire as more economically viable
Published: 16 August 2023 alternatives [1]. Moreover, bonding wire composed predominantly of Cu or Ag, boasting
heightened thermal conductivity and adequate electrical conductivity, effectively caters to
the semiconductor industry’s mounting demand for diminutive form factors and ultra-fine
pitch packaging, thereby fulfilling the heightened input/output (I/O) requirements. In
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors. contrast to gold wire, the increased rigidity exhibited by Cu wire renders it better suited
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
for fine-pitch bonding applications. Furthermore, the kinetics of intermetallic compound
This article is an open access article
(IMC) formation in Cu-Al bonding proceeds at a more leisurely pace than those in Au-Al
distributed under the terms and
bonding, thereby mitigating the formation of deleterious IMCs [2]. Consequently, there
conditions of the Creative Commons
is a burgeoning interest in transitioning from Au wire to Cu, Al, and Ag wire within the
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
purview of wire bonding technology. Table 1 shows the key performance of several com-
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
mon bonding wires. Nevertheless, it is worth noting that pure Ag is afflicted with concerns
Micromachines 2023, 14, 1612. https://doi.org/10.3390/mi14081612 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/micromachines

Micromachines 2023, 14, 1612 2 of 17
pertaining to Ag ion migration and corrosion, despite its cost effectiveness in relation to
Au wire but still being significantly higher than Cu wire. Conversely, Al wire confronts
hurdles associated with subpar mechanical performance, susceptibility to oxidation, and
erratic behavior, thereby hampering its widespread adoption within the microelectronic
packaging landscape. Consequently, the field of Cu wire bonding technology has emerged
as a focal point of heightened scrutiny and comprehensive investigation [3,4].
Table 1. Key performance of common bonding wire.
Electrical Thermal Tensile

Corrosion
Material Conductivity Conductivity Strength Price
Resistance
(Ω·m) (W/(m·K)) (MPa)
Cu wire 0.0017–0.0018 401–429 200–250 Moderate Moderate
Al wire 0.028–0.036 205–230 70–400 Moderate Low
Au wire 0.024–0.028 310–318 100–400 Good High
Ag wire 0.015–0.020 419–429 100–400 Excellent High
Cu wire offers several advantages in wire bonding [5,6]:

(1) High electrical and thermal conductivity.
(2) It maintains high strength even at elevated levels of elongation.
(3) Good arc stability.
(4) Reduced formation of intermetallic compounds during the bonding process.
(5) Formation of a favorable ball shape during bonding when protected by inert gas.
However, Cu wire also has its drawbacks. It is highly susceptible to oxidation in
ambient air, and its higher hardness compared to other wire materials makes it prone to
damaging the bonding pad during the bonding process [7]. The increased bond strength
of Cu wire makes it unsuitable for bonding with low-hardness bonding pad materials [8].
To address the surface oxidation of Cu wire during Cu wire bonding, ultrasonic bonding
has been introduced to prevent surface oxidation of the first bond (FAB) by introducing
an oxide film of higher hardness than Cu. Researchers have also started investigating
Ni-based high-hardness metal bonding pads to address the issue of damage to Al pads [9].
Ni has a hardness approximately 50% higher than Cu and four times higher than aluminum,
making it capable of withstanding higher stresses generated by Cu ball bonding and pre-
venting damage during impact, thereby potentially replacing Al-bonding pads in specific
applications. One of the reasons why Cu wire has not completely replaced gold wire is
because Cu has a narrower process window compared to gold. Having a large process
window is crucial for stable Cu processing, as it ensures optimal quality production, process
portability, and stability [10]. Studies have shown that the hardness of Cu wire decreases
with increasing purity levels [11]. Hence, using high-purity Cu wire in the bonding process
can alleviate damage to the bonding pad caused by Cu wire. However, high-purity Cu wire
incurs higher manufacturing costs, making it unsuitable for large-scale production. The
study conducted by Gurbinder Singh et al. [12] successfully achieved reliable wire bonding
using lower-purity Cu wire. B. Czerny et al. [13] investigated the fatigue behavior, bonding
parameters, and aging conditions of different materials used for wire bonding, including
Al, AlMg, Cu, and Al-coated Cu (CucorAl). The results showed that Cu wire bonding
exhibited significantly better fatigue performance and static shear strength compared to the
other materials. The next best performance was observed for AlMg and Al wire bonding.
This research highlights the potential of low-purity Cu wire materials in wire bonding and
their ability to contribute to cost reduction in Cu wire bonding processes.
2. Types of Cu-Bonding Wire

In recent years, Cu-bonding wire has been widely utilized in microelectronics packag-
ing. Currently, there are various types of Cu wire available in the market, including bare
Cu wire, coated Cu wire, insulated Cu wire, and Cu alloy wire.
2.1. Bare Cu Wire

As one of the alternatives to Au, bare Cu wire has been extensively studied as a
Cu-bonding wire. However, bare Cu wire faces challenges such as high hardness, oxidation
susceptibility, and bonding failure. Due to the lack of an insulation layer, bare Cu wire
may not be suitable for certain packaging applications and requires additional insulation
measures. Consequently, the development of bare Cu wire has been significantly limited.
When comparing the reliability of bare Cu wire and Palladium-coated Cu (PCC) wire,
Tomohiro Uno et al. [14] found that the failure time of bare Cu wire was shorter than that
of PCC wire, indicating that bare Cu wire was not as reliable in bonding as PCC wire, and
there was also serious corrosion at the bonding interface of bare Cu wire.
2.2. Coated Cu Wire

Coating the surface of Cu wire with a layer of highly antioxidative or corrosion-
resistant metal can enhance its resistance to oxidation, ensure a visually appealing metallic
luster, improve bonding performance, and significantly extend the shelf life of bonded
Cu wire products after unpacking. Currently, the most extensively studied types of metal
coatings are noble metal coatings (such as Au, Ag, Pt, and Pd) and corrosion-resistant metal
coatings (such as Ni, Co, Cr, and Ti). Generally, introducing elements like Au, Ag, Pd,
and Ni into Cu wire can enhance the reliability of Cu wire bonding in microelectronics
packaging. However, except for Pd, most elements tend to cause shape deformations of
the FAB, such as spearhead or non-spherical shapes [15]. Nonetheless, some scholars have
discovered that when the thickness of the Pd coating on Cu wire is relatively thin, it can
also result in FAB eccentric ball [16]. Mitsubishi Electric Corporation [17] has invented a
Ni-coated Cu wire that exhibits a certain level of reliability in experiments. A comparison
was made between Pt, Pd, and Ni coatings on Cu wire, and the results revealed that PCC
wire exhibited the best performance, with stronger oxidation resistance than Ni, better
processability than Pt, higher mechanical strength than pure Cu-bonding wire, moderate
hardness, and excellent bonding ball formation [18,19]. In terms of electrical characteristics,
PCC wire and bare Cu wire have similar electrical resistances, and their melting currents
are almost the same [20,21]. Table 2 shows the basic performance comparison between PCC
wire and bare Cu wire. Moreover, the research indicated that Pd does not participate in the
formation of Cu-Al IMCs [22]. In the study conducted by Adeline B.Y. Lim et al. [23] on
the Pd-Cu wire bonding with Pd at the bonding interface, they observed the presence of
voids in the Pd-Cu wire bonding IMC layer. However, these voids did not affect the tensile
strength of the ball bond. In contrast, in the Pd-Cu wire bonding without Pd at the bonding
interface, no nanovoids were found. This indicates a close correlation between the presence
of Pd and the formation of nanovoids. As shown in Figure 1. Hence, PCC wire holds broad
prospects for applications in Cu wire materials [24]. Consequently, extensive research
has been conducted on PCC wire. Typically, PCC wire is produced by electroplating
palladium onto the drawn Cu wire. However, this method poses significant environmental
harm. Although various methods have been developed to reduce the hazards associated
with electroplating plating, they still have negative environmental implications [25–28].
Therefore, scholars have explored more environmentally friendly approaches to produce
Pd-coated Cu wire. For example, Cao Jun et al. [29] utilized a halogen-free direct palladium
coating process to produce uniformly PCC wire, significantly reducing the environmental
impact of palladium electroplating. Furthermore, the bonding process of PCC wire only
requires the use of nitrogen gas [30,31], whereas a combination of nitrogen and hydrogen
gas is preferred for bare Cu wire bonding. Currently, research is ongoing to address the
aforementioned issues, and it is evident that the study of coated Cu wire holds immense
significance in the realm of Cu-bonding wire.
research is ongoing to address the aforementioned issues, and it is evident that the study
of coated Cu wire holds immense significance in the realm of Cu-bonding wire.
Table 2. Comparison of basic performance between PCC wire and bare cu wire [21].
Cu
TableWire Pd-Coated
2. Comparison of basic performance between PCCCu Bare
wire and bare cu Cu (No Coating)
wire [21].
Breaking load (mN) Cu Wire 112 Cu

Pd-Coated 107
Bare Cu (No Coating)
Elongation (%) load (mN)
Breaking 11.8
112 107 12.1
Elongation (%) 11.8 12.1
Vickers hardness of wire
Vickers hardness of wire
5555 54
54
−
Electrical resistivity (10 Ω(10
−8
Electrical resistivity m) Ω m)
8
1.9
1.9 1.9 1.9
Figure 1. HAADF STEM

Figure images
1. HAADF STEMof (a) the
images Pd–Cu
of (a) bond
the Pd–Cu bondcontaining
containing Pd Pd showing
showing nano-voids
nano-voids in the Cu in the
Cu (dark spots) and (b) the Pd–Cu bond with no Pd [23].
(dark spots) and (b) the Pd–Cu bond with no Pd [23].
2.3. Insulated Cu Wire

2.3. Insulated Cu Wire
Insulated Cu wire is composed of a Cu wire core and an insulation coating. This
insulation coating serves the purpose of preventing short circuits and oxidation issues
Insulated Cu wire is composed of a Cu wire core and an insulation coating. This in-
in Cu wire, making insulated Cu wire technology a potential solution for fine and ultra-
sulation coating serveswire-bonding
fine-pitch the purpose of preventing
applications [32]. Due short
to only circuits and of
adding a layer oxidation issues in Cu
insulation coating
wire, making on insulated
the Cu wire,Cuthe wire technology
conductivity a potential
of insulated Cu wire solution for of
is close to that fine
bareand ultra-fine-
Cu wire.
The use of insulated wire for wire bonding was developed
pitch wire-bonding applications [32]. Due to only adding a layer of insulation coating over two decades ago. As on
microelectronic packaging becomes increasingly complex, there will continue to be a certain
the Cu wire, the conductivity
market demand for wire of insulated
bonding using Cu insulated
wire is close
wire into thethat of bare
future. Cuwire
Insulated wire. alsoThe use
of insulated wire for the
possesses wire bondingofwas
characteristic developed
preventing Cu wire over
oxidationtwo decades
in the ago. AsHyun-
air. For example, microelec-
Maria Lykova et al. [33–35] designed a temporary protective coating
tronic packaging becomes increasingly complex, there will continue to be a certain market using a Cu-Cu organic
self-assembled monolayer (SAM) to inhibit Cu oxidation. Research results showed that
demand for wire bonding
the SAM coatingusing insulated
could prevent wire
Cu from in the for
oxidizing future.
at leastInsulated wire
12 h in the air. also possesses
Additionally,
the characteristic of bonding
Cu wire preventing Cuprotective
with this wire oxidation in the
layer exhibited better air. For When
quality. example,
comparingHyun-Maria
the
bonding of insulated Cu wire and bare Cu wire, HungYang
Lykova et al. [33–35] designed a temporary protective coating using a Cu-Cu organic self- Leong et al. [36] found that
samples with insulated Cu wire consistently produced larger first bond sizes, indicating
assembled monolayer (SAM)
that less energy to inhibit
was required Cuformation
for FAB oxidation. Research
in insulated Cu wire, results
as shown showed
in Figure that
2. the
SAM coating could prevent
Furthermore, Cu from
no organic oxidizing
insulation residuesforwereatobserved
least 12onhthe inFAB
thesurface,
air. Additionally,
suggesting Cu
wire bondingthat the organic
with insulation layer
this protective layerwasexhibited
completely burned
betterduring FAB formation.
quality. Insulated
When comparing the
Cu wire demonstrated better performance in terms of ball shear strength, wire tensile
bonding of insulated CuIMC
strength, and wire and bare
coverage Cu to
compared wire, HungYang
bare Cu wire. However, Leong et al.
the stitch [36]
bond found that
strength
samples with ofinsulated
insulated Cu Cuwirewirewasconsistently
24% lower thanproduced
that of bare Cu larger first bond
wire. Therefore, sizes,
further indicating
process
optimization is needed to enhance the bonding strength of
that less energy was required for FAB formation in insulated Cu wire, as shown in Figureinsulated Cu wire. Moreover,
the high processing cost of insulated Cu wire, the risk of insulation layer delamination, and
2. Furthermore,the no
lack organic
of sufficientinsulation
market demand residues were
contribute to itsobserved
low market on share.the FAB surface, sug-
gesting that the organic insulation layer was completely burned during FAB formation.
Insulated Cu wire demonstrated better performance in terms of ball shear strength, wire
tensile strength, and IMC coverage compared to bare Cu wire. However, the stitch bond
strength of insulated Cu wire was 24% lower than that of bare Cu wire. Therefore, further
process optimization is needed to enhance the bonding strength of insulated Cu wire.
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Figure2.2.Comparison
Figure Comparisonof
ofbare
bareCu
Cuand
andinsulated
insulatedCu
Cuwire
wirebonded
bondedsamples.
samples.(a)
(a)Ball
Ballbond,
bond,(b)
(b)stitch
stitch
bond, and (c) IMC coverage and pattern [36].
bond, and (c) IMC coverage and pattern [36].
2.4.Cu
2.4. CuAlloy
AlloyWire
Wire
AlloyCu
Alloy Cu wire is is aamaterial
materialcomposed
composed ofof
CuCu and other
and alloying
other alloyingelements, widely
elements, used
widely
in electronic
used packaging
in electronic packaging and microelectronics
and microelectronics for bonding applications.
for bonding Compared
applications. Comparedto tra-
to traditional
ditional bare bare Cu wire,
Cu wire, alloy alloy
Cu wire Cu exhibits
wire exhibits
superiorsuperior performance
performance and reliability.
and reliability. By ad-
By adjusting
justing the composition
the composition of theofalloy,
the alloy, the mechanical
the mechanical properties,
properties, corrosion
corrosion resistance,
resistance, and
and conductivity
conductivity of the
of the Cu wire
Cu wire can can be optimized.
be optimized. Currently,
Currently, research
research on Cu on Cu alloy
alloy wirewire is
is still
still relatively
relatively limited.
limited. However,
However, therethere is significant
is significant potential
potential in adding
in adding certaincertain
preciousprecious
metals
metals
or rareor rareelements
earth earth elements
to Cu. The to Cu. The addition
addition of elements of elements
such as Mg, suchRu, asNb,
Mg,Rh,Ru,Y,Nb,
Cd, Rh,
and
Y,Zn
Cd, and Zn to Cu wire can improve their oxidation resistance,
to Cu wire can improve their oxidation resistance, whereas the inclusion of Zr, Ti, and whereas the inclusion
of
FeZr,canTi,refine
and Fe can structure
grain refine grain and structure
reduce the andhardness
reduce the of hardness
Cu wire, of Cu wire,most
However, However,
of the
most
added ofelements
the added willelements
reduce the willconductivity
reduce the conductivity
of Cu wires, such of Cu aswires,
Be, Mg, such as Be,
Al, etc. Mg,
[37–39].
Al,
Theetc. [37–39].ofThe
addition addition
precious metalof precious
elementsmetal elements
is beneficial forisimproving
beneficial ballfor improving
bonding shape, ball
bonding
enhancing shape,
bondenhancing
strength, and bond strength, and
suppressing suppressing
surface oxidation. surface
Jun-Ren oxidation.
Zhao et al.Jun-Ren
[40,41]
Zhao et al. [40,41] studied the performance of Cu wires by adding
studied the performance of Cu wires by adding trace amounts of Au, Pd, and Pt individ- trace amounts of Au,
Pd, and Pt individually. The results showed that the addition of
ually. The results showed that the addition of Au or Pd had a grain refining effect, whereas Au or Pd had a grain
refining effect,ofwhereas
the addition the addition
Pt significantly of Pt the
increased significantly
resistanceincreased
of Cu wire. theHowever,
resistanceCu ofwire
Cu wire.
with
However, Cu wire with added Pt exhibited the best electrical fatigue
added Pt exhibited the best electrical fatigue life. Among them, Cu wire with the addition life. Among them,
Cu wire withwt%
of 0.30–0.39 the addition
Pt, 0.20–0.29 of 0.30–0.39
wt% Au,wt% Pt, 0.20–0.29
and 0.10–0.19 wt%wt% Au, and 0.10–0.19
Pd demonstrated wt%over-
optimal Pd
demonstrated optimal overall performance. Moreover, micro-alloyed
all performance. Moreover, micro-alloyed wires exhibit higher electrical fatigue strength wires exhibit higher
electrical
compared fatigue
to PCC strength
wires.compared
Shen-TengtoHsu PCCetwires.
al. [42]Shen-Teng
compared Hsu theetreliability
al. [42] compared
of PCC wire the
reliability of PCC wire with a Cu alloy wire that was additionally
with a Cu alloy wire that was additionally alloyed with Pt, Au, and Pd. The results re- alloyed with Pt, Au, and
Pd. The results revealed that the Cu alloy wire with added noble metals exhibited better
vealed that the Cu alloy wire with added noble metals exhibited better reliability com-
reliability compared to PCC wire. However, an excessively high Pt content in the alloyed
pared to PCC wire. However, an excessively high Pt content in the alloyed Cu wire can
Cu wire can lead to a rapid increase in electrical resistance. Motoki Eto et al. [43] conducted
lead to a rapid increase in electrical resistance. Motoki Eto et al. [43] conducted experi-
experiments to understand the effects of added elements, Pd and Pt, in PCC wire cores and
ments to understand the effects of added elements, Pd and Pt, in PCC wire cores and their
their corresponding impacts on corrosion resistance under high-temperature life storage
corresponding impacts on corrosion resistance under high-temperature life storage
(HTSL). The results revealed that the addition of Pd and Pt in PCC wire led to a decrease in
(HTSL). The results revealed that the addition of Pd and Pt in PCC wire led to a decrease
bond reliability under HTSL, especially in the pin-jointing area. PCC wire without added
in bond reliability under HTSL, especially in the pin-jointing area. PCC wire without
metals exhibited degradation of the Cu core material, possibly due to the presence of voids
added metals exhibited degradation of the Cu core material, possibly due to the presence
near the pins. This indicates that it is important to control the content properly when
of voids near the pins. This indicates that it is important to control the content properly
adding other elements. The appropriate proportion can enhance the performance of Cu
when adding other elements. The appropriate proportion can enhance the performance
wire, whereas an imbalance may result in a decrease in bond reliability.
of Cu wire, whereas an imbalance may result in a decrease in bond reliability.
Micromachines 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 18
In conclusion, controlling the content of various alloying elements within certain pro-
In conclusion,
portions can preventcontrolling
oxidation,the content
refine grainof various or
structure, alloying elements
slow down IMCwithin
growth.certain
How-
proportions can prevent oxidation, refine grain structure, or slow down IMC growth.
ever, further in-depth research is still necessary in order to produce alloy wire that meets
However,
the requiredfurther in-depthcriteria
performance research
in is
allstill necessary in order to produce alloy wire that
aspects.
meets the required performance criteria in all aspects.
3. FAB Morphology
3. FAB Morphology
FABrefers
FAB referstotothe
theformation
formationofofa afree
free spherical
spherical structure
structure of of
airair during
during thethe
metalmetal bond-
bonding
ing process.
process. FABa significant
FAB has has a significant
impact impact on the reliability
on the reliability of the bond, of the
withbond, with
the most the most
prominent
prominent influence being on bond strength. A uniform and stable
influence being on bond strength. A uniform and stable FAB facilitates the formation FAB facilitates theof for-
a
mation of a robust solder joint, leading to enhanced bond reliability.
robust solder joint, leading to enhanced bond reliability. Researchers such as Hong Meng Researchers such as
Hong
Ho Meng
et al. [44] Ho
have etstudied
al. [44] have studied
the ball the ball
formation formation
properties of properties
Cu wire and of found
Cu wire and
that found
a larger
that a larger Electronic Flame Off (EFO) current or shorter ball formation
Electronic Flame Off (EFO) current or shorter ball formation time results in better control time results in
better
of FABcontrol
diameter of standard
FAB diameter standard
deviation. Thedeviation.
study alsoThe study also
revealed revealed between
a correlation a correlationthe
between the hardness of Cu solder balls and EFO parameters, indicating
hardness of Cu solder balls and EFO parameters, indicating that higher EFO currents lead that higher EFO
currents
to a softerlead
FAB.toFor
a softer FAB.bonding,
Cu wire For Cu wire bonding,
to obtain to obtain
a softer FAB and a softer
minimizeFAB andstressminimize
during
stress during the initial bonding impact, it is advisable to form
the initial bonding impact, it is advisable to form a FAB within a shorter current-on a FAB within a shorter
time.
current-on
A.B.Y. Lim ettime. A.B.Y.
al. [45] Lim et al.
compared [45]compared
the formation ofthe formation
a FAB of a FAB and
and differences differences
in wire bonding in
wire bonding
between PCC and between
bare CuPCC andasbare
wire, Cu wire,
shown as shown
in Figure in Figure
3. It was observed 3. Itthat
wasunder
observed
varyingthat
under
gas typesvarying
and EFO gascurrents,
types and EFO
PCC currents,
wire exhibitedPCC wire
the exhibited
formation the formation
of irregular solderofballs.
irregular
The
solder balls.of
distribution ThePddistribution
on the FAB of wasPdalso
on the FAB wasbyalso
influenced theinfluenced by the type
type of protective gas of
and protec-
EFO
tive gas and EFO current, with the EFO current being the primary
current, with the EFO current being the primary factor. Adjusting the EFO current resulted factor. Adjusting the
EFO current resulted in different Pd distributions. The study further
in different Pd distributions. The study further observed gaps in the bond interface after observed gaps in the
bondwire
PCC interface afterand
bonding, PCC wiregaps
these bonding, and these
were closely gapsto
related were closely related
the presence of Pd,toasthe presence
depicted in
of Pd,
the as depicted
figure. in the figure.
After annealing After annealing
PCC bonds for 24 andPCC 168 h bonds ◦ C,
at 175for 24two
andlayers
168 h of
at IMCs
175 °C,weretwo
layers of IMCs
observed. were observed.
The experimental The experimental
findings had significant findings had significant
implications implicationsthe
for understanding for
understanding
mechanism of gaptheformation
mechanism of gap
at the bondformation
interface atdue thetobond interface due
Pd distribution andtothePdimpact
distribu- of
ation
FABandon the
wireimpact
bonding of areliability.
FAB on wire bonding reliability.
Figure3.3.FAB
Figure FABCross
Crosssection
sectionfor
forPCC
PCCand
andbare
bareCu
Cuwire
wire[45].
[45].
Du Yahong
Du Yahong etet al.
al. [46,47]
[46,47]conducted
conductedwire
wirebonding
bondingexperiments
experimentsusing
usingPCC
PCCwire
wireononAl
Al
pads,
pads,establishing
establishinga amodel
model forfor
thethe
distribution of Pd
distribution of on
Pdtheon FAB during
the FAB wire bonding.
during They
wire bonding.
also
Theyinvestigated the effects
also investigated the of Pd onofthe
effects PdCu-Al
on theinterface reaction during
Cu-Al interface reactionultrasonic welding.
during ultrasonic
The results showed that a higher EFO current resulted in a smaller region of Pd
welding. The results showed that a higher EFO current resulted in a smaller region of Pddistribution
on the FAB surface
distribution on the for
FABthe same for
surface FABthediameter-to-wire diameter ratio.
same FAB diameter-to-wire With an
diameter increase
ratio. With
in current-on time, the coated Pd elements could dissolve into the Cu matrix, forming a
PCC alloy on the entire surface of the FAB, which acted as a barrier to prevent oxidation
of the Cu wire. The study further found that the Pd coating could increase the ball shear
strength of bare Cu wire bonding by over 50%. However, FAB with the highest Pd coverage
exhibited the lowest ball shear strength during bonding. This may be attributed to excessive
Pd elements leading to the formation of gaps and cracks at the bond interface. These gaps
and cracks have a significant impact on bond reliability during shear testing, indicating
that controlling the distribution of Pd on the FAB is crucial for achieving high-quality bond
interfaces.
4. Bonding Reliability
Bonding reliability encompasses the physical and chemical characteristics of solder
joints or bonding interfaces formed during the bonding process, as well as their perfor-
mance and stability under actual operating conditions. The performance and lifespan of
electronic devices are significantly influenced by bonding reliability. In certain environ-
ments, wire bonding may lead to the formation of detrimental IMCs, cracks, or corrosion at
the bond interface, consequently resulting in bond failure. The strength of solder joints or
bonding interfaces is a critical factor determining bonding reliability, as insufficient strength
can lead to solder joint fracture or bond interface failure. In microelectronic devices, shear
testing of wire bonds is crucial for evaluating the strength of bond solder joints. However,
the actual mechanisms involved in shearing Cu bonded to an Al-bonding pad are not yet
fully understood. To uncover the detailed mechanisms of shear testing, Subramani Manoha-
ran et al. [48] conducted shear tests on Cu-Al wire bonds. The research findings revealed
that complex stress behaviors occur within the wire bond interface during the application
of shear stress, contributing to overall compression and tensile states, consequently result-
ing in simple or complex failure modes. The results indicate that the shear force initially
increases based on the remaining thickness of Al underneath the bond, reaches a peak,
and eventually decreases due to the growth of IMC and variations in the shearing mode.
Compared to noble metals, Cu possesses higher hardness, necessitating greater bonding
force and ultrasonic energy for bonding to the bonding pad. The higher bonding force leads
to the occurrence of Al splashing on the bonding pad, which may cause pad delamination
and bond failure. Gu Liqun et al. [49] compared Cu-Al and Au-Al wire bonding and
observed the presence of cracks at the Cu-Al bond interface, resulting in leakage issues
during electrical experiments. However, in comparison to Au wire bonding processes, the
Cu wire bonding process exhibits slower thermal diffusion rates and lower electromigration
(EM) flux. The reduction in EM flux in Cu wire bonding significantly minimizes crack
formation, thereby greatly extending the lifespan of Cu wire bonding processes [50].
4.1. Influence of IMCs on the Reliability of Cu Wire Bonding

The reliability of the wire bond interface in electronic packaging primarily depends on
the microstructure and thickness of IMCs formed between the chip pad and the bonding
interface [51]. Extensive research has been conducted by scholars on the influence of IMCs
on the reliability of Cu wire bonding. Yahong Du et al. [52] systematically studied and
compared the reliability and failure analysis of Cu wire and Au wire bonding processes
on Al substrates after successful bonding. The results revealed that the Au wire bond
interface exhibited thicker IMCs, as well as more voids and cracks, compared to the Cu
wire bond interface, indicating a close correlation between the growth of IMCs and the
presence of cracks.
Pd and other metals play a crucial role as controlling components in the reliability of
Cu-Al wire bonding. It has been observed by researchers that Pd does not participate in
the formation of Cu-Al IMCs. Tomohiro Uno et al. [14] found that PCC exhibited strong
reliability in high-humidity environments while studying the bonding reliability of PCC.
The presence of Pd in PCC improves bonding reliability by controlling diffusion at the
bonding interface and IMC formation. Studies by Wentao Qin et al. [53] investigated the
mechanism of Pd coating in wire bonding, and it was found that the dominant IMC formed
Micromachines 2023, 14, 1612

The presence of Pd in PCC improves bonding reliability by controlling diffusion at the
8 of 17
bonding interface and IMC formation. Studies by Wentao Qin et al. [53] investigated the
mechanism of Pd coating in wire bonding, and it was found that the dominant IMC
formed when using bare Cu wire for wire bonding was Cu3Al2 after unbiased high-accel-
when using bare Cu wire for wire bonding was Cu3 Al2 after unbiased high-acceleration
eration stress testing (uHAST), whereas (CuPdx)Al was predominantly formed under
stress testing (uHAST), whereas (CuPdx )Al was predominantly formed under PCC wire
PCC wire bonding. The HAADF image of the PCC wire bonding interface is shown in
bonding. The HAADF image of the PCC wire bonding interface is shown in Figure 4. This
Figure 4. This indicates that Pd coating inhibits the formation of (CuPdx)3Al2. This inhibi-
indicates that Pd coating inhibits the formation of (CuPdx )3 Al2 . This inhibition is attributed
tion is attributed to the improved thermodynamic stability of (CuPdx)Al, which reduces
to the improved thermodynamic stability of (CuPdx )Al, which reduces the kinetic driving
the kinetic driving force for the phase transition to (CuPdx)3Al2. The cathode/anode area
force for the phase transition to (CuPdx)3 Al2 . The cathode/anode area ratio of (CuPdx )Al
ratio of (CuPdx)Al is lower than that of Cu3Al2, resulting in a lower corrosion rate of
is lower than that of Cu3 Al2 , resulting in a lower corrosion rate of (CuPdx )Al and improved
(CuPdx)Al and improved reliability of wire bonding. A comparison has also been made
reliability of wire bonding. A comparison has also been made between the reliability of PCC
between the reliability of PCC wire bonding and Au wire bonding, revealing longer failure
wire bonding and Au wire bonding, revealing longer failure times for PCC wire bonding
times for PCC wire bonding and slower growth of IMCs. Kuan-Jen Chen et al. [54] con-
and slower growth of IMCs. Kuan-Jen Chen et al. [54] conducted extreme sulfurization tests
ducted extreme sulfurization tests to compare the corrosion resistance of PAC (Palladium-
to compare the corrosion resistance of PAC (Palladium-coated Cu wire with a flash-gold
coatedwhich
layer, Cu wire with athe
combines flash-gold layer, of
characteristics which
PCC combines the characteristics
and gold-plated Cu wire) andofPCC.PCCBoth
and
gold-plated Cu wire) and PCC. Both types of Cu wire were wire bonded to
types of Cu wire were wire bonded to Al pads, and it was found that the gold-plated layerAl pads, and
it was found that the gold-plated layer of the PAC wire effectively enhanced its
of the PAC wire effectively enhanced its resistance to sulfurization corrosion. The presence resistance
to the
of sulfurization
gold-plated corrosion. The presence
layer resulted of thelevels
in different gold-plated layer resulted
of corrosion in different
on the wedge bondslevels
for
the two wire types. The gold-plated layer of the PAC wire strengthened the bond PAC
of corrosion on the wedge bonds for the two wire types. The gold-plated layer of the and
wire strengthened
maintained the bondcharacteristics
low resistivity and maintained lowsulfurization
after resistivity characteristics after sulfuriza-
testing, suggesting that the
tion testing, suggesting that the presence of precious metal elements
presence of precious metal elements may contribute to the bonding performance of may contribute to Cu
the
bonding performance of Cu wire. It has been discovered that different molding
wire. It has been discovered that different molding compounds also have an impact on the com-
poundsrate
growth alsoofhave
IMCsan[55].
impact on the growth rate of IMCs [55].
Figure 4.
Figure 4. HAADF
HAADF image
image of
of the
the bonding
bonding interface
interface under
underthe
thePCC
PCCwire
wire[53].
[53].
Variousphases
Various phasesof ofCu-Al
Cu-AlIMCs IMCshave havebeenbeenidentified
identifiedasasCuAl
CuAl 2 ,2,CuAl,
CuAl,Cu Cu4Al
4Al 33,, Cu
Cu33AlAl22,
Cu99Al
Cu Al44, and
andCu Cu33Al
Al[56–59].
[56–59].Through
Through experiments,
experiments, KIM KIMH GHetGal.et[60]
al. found
[60] found that Cu-Al
that Cu-Al IMCs
form
IMCsinform
the order
in theoforder
CuAlof2 , CuAl,
CuAl2and, CuAl,Cu9and
Al4 in CuCu-Al
9Al4 in wire
Cu-Albonding, whereas Cu-Au
wire bonding, whereas IMCsCu-
form in theform
Au IMCs order inof
the(Au, Cu),ofCu
order 3 Au,
(Au, andCu
Cu), (Cu,
3Au,Au).
andThe
(Cu,atomic
Au). Thediffusion
atomic between
diffusion Cubetween
and Au
and the volume
Cu and Au and difference
the volume of difference
IMCs resultofinIMCs the formation
result in ofthevoids near alumina
formation of voidsfragments.
near alu-
Cu-Al IMCs’ TEM Cu-Al
mina fragments. image isIMCs’shown in Figure
TEM image 5. is
Through
shown the analysis5.ofThrough
in Figure the complete IMC at the
the analysis of
bonding interface, Chien-Pan Liu et al. [61] discovered that the ball
the complete IMC at the bonding interface, Chien-Pan Liu et al. [61] discovered that thebond interface between the
Cu
ballwire
bond and Al-bonding
interface pad consists
between the Cu of wirelayered structures composed
and Al-bonding of Cu,ofCu
pad consists 9 Al4 , CuAl
layered 2 , and
structures
Al. They also
composed offound
Cu, Cu that
9Albonding
4, CuAl2,failures
and Al.frequently
They alsooccurred
found that between
bonding the failures
Cu9Al4 and CuAl2
frequently
layers duebetween
occurred to high current
the Cu9corrosion
Al4 and CuAl rates2 layers
and the duepresence
to highofcurrent
high-concentration
corrosion rates interfacial
and the
voids, which
presence aligned with the previous
of high-concentration findings
interfacial on IMCs.
voids, which They
alignedfurther
withdeveloped
the previous a predictive
findings
model for IMC growth in Cu wire processing technology,
on IMCs. They further developed a predictive model for IMC growth in Cu wire which could help reduce Cu-Alpro-
interface failures in practical applications. T. Joseph Sahaya Anand et
cessing technology, which could help reduce Cu-Al interface failures in practical applica-al. [62] bonded Cu wire to
interfaces of Al, AlSiCu, and NiPdAu pads, and it was observed that
tions. T. Joseph Sahaya Anand et al. [62] bonded Cu wire to interfaces of Al, AlSiCu, and the growth rate of IMCs
followed
NiPdAu the pads,sequence Al >observed
and it was AlSiCu > that
NiPdAu. They also
the growth ratefound
of IMCsthatfollowed
a faster IMC growth rate
the sequence Al
led to accelerated crack formation. Hyun-Woong Park et al. [63] studied the effects of Pd and
Pd-Au coatings on Cu wire bonding. The results showed that noble metal coatings formed a
fully solid solution at the Cu-Al bonding interface, potentially impeding the diffusion of Cu-Al
IMCs, especially at the Cu9Al4 IMC, which may delay the IMC growth rate [64]. The formation
formation. Hyun-Woong Park et al. [63] studied the effects of Pd and Pd-Au coa
Cu wire bonding. The results showed that noble metal coatings formed a fully so
tion at the Cu-Al bonding interface, potentially impeding the diffusion of Cu-A
Micromachines 2023, 14, 1612 especially at the Cu9Al4 IMC, which may delay the IMC growth rate 9[64]. of 17 The fo
of a fully solid solution is believed to enhance the bonding reliability by protec
IMCs from crack propagation. Adeline B. Y. Lim et al. [65] found that CuAl exh
highest
of hardness
a fully solid solutionand stiffness
is believed among
to enhance theCu-Al
bondingIMCs. Cu9by
reliability Alprotecting
4 is the most susceptibl
the IMCs
from crack propagation. Adeline B. Y. Lim et al. [65] found that
rosion among IMCs in Cu wire bonding, whereas CuAl2Cu shows better corroCuAl exhibits the highest
hardness and stiffness among Cu-Al IMCs. Cu9Al4 is the most susceptible to corrosion among
sistance [66]. One of the failure factors in wire bonding components is the corrosio
IMCs in Cu wire bonding, whereas CuAl2Cu shows better corrosion resistance [66]. One of the
intermetallic
failure layer
factors in wire [67,68].
bonding components is the corrosion of the intermetallic layer [67,68].
Figure
Figure 5. (a)
5. (a) BF TEM
BF TEM imageimage of the
of the fully fully consumed
consumed Al interface
Al interface between betweenwire
the Cu-bonding theand
Cu-bonding
the
Al pad ◦
the Alafter
padaging
afterataging
175 C atfor175
2000°Ch. HRTEM
for 2000images of (b) CuAl
h. HRTEM 2 and of
images (c) (b)
CuAl grains,
CuAl and (c)
2 and FFTCuAl gr
images of the area
FFT images marked
of the areaa white
marked square in (b,c)square
a white [60]. in (b,c) [60].
4.2. Influence of Corrosion on the Reliability of Cu Wire Bonding

4.2.After
Influence of Corrosion
wire bonding, on the Reliability
the bonding of Cu Wire Bonding
interface is encapsulated with epoxy molding com-
pound.After
However, epoxy molding
wire bonding, compound
the bonding can absorb
interface moisture from the
is encapsulated withair.epoxy
The moldi
absorbed moisture can dissolve ionic substances in the molding compound and form a
pound. However, epoxy molding compound can absorb moisture from the air.
thin electrolyte layer around the metal materials. Due to the different electrochemical
sorbed of
activities moisture can Cu,
Cu-Al IMCs, dissolve
and Al,ionic substances
galvanic corrosion inmay the molding
occur compound
at the Cu-Al bondingand for
electrolyte
interface [69]. layer around
As cracks the
caused bymetal materials.
corrosion propagateDue to the
towards thedifferent electrochemical
center of the bonding a
of Cu-Al
interface,
Micromachines 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW IMCs,
crevice Cu, and
corrosion mayAl,
alsogalvanic corrosion
occur within the narrow may occur
region atcrack,
of the the Cu-Al10 of bonding
further ac-
18
celerating crack propagation. Ultimately, the reliability of Cu wire bonding
[69]. As cracks caused by corrosion propagate towards the center of the bonding i is compromised.
Figure 6 shows the situation at the beginning of corrosion.
crevice corrosion may also occur within the narrow region of the crack, further a
ing crack propagation. Ultimately, the reliability of Cu wire bonding is compromi
ure 6 shows the situation at the beginning of corrosion.
Figure 6.
Figure Cross-sectionalanalysis
6. Cross-sectional analysisofofCu
Cuball
ballonon
AlAl
padpad revealing
revealing corrosion
corrosion initiation
initiation beneath
beneath the the
Cu
Cu ball
ball [70].[70].
Corrosion can have several impacts on bond reliability [67,70–72]:

(1) Formation and stability of bond interface: corrosion may lead to the formation of
IMCs at the bond interface, affecting the stability of the bond. Some IMCs formed
during corrosion may enhance bond strength and reliability, whereas others can
Corrosion can have several impacts on bond reliability [67,70–72]:

(1) Formation and stability of bond interface: corrosion may lead to the formation of
IMCs at the bond interface, affecting the stability of the bond. Some IMCs formed
during corrosion may enhance bond strength and reliability, whereas others can cause
interface embrittlement and delamination, thereby reducing bond reliability;
(2) Material loss and weakening: corrosion can cause material loss and weakening, re-
sulting in thinning of the bond area or the formation of voids, which can impact bond
strength and reliability;
(3) Electrical and thermal properties of the interface: corrosion can alter the electrical
and thermal properties of the bond interface, affecting the electrical and thermal
performance of the device and, in turn, its reliability;
(4) Accumulation of corrosion products: the accumulation of corrosion products can lead
to local stress concentration in the bond area, increasing the risk of bond failure.
Structural stability of the interface: corrosion may destabilize the structure of the bond
interface, affecting the long-term reliability of the bond.
Therefore, for applications involving Cu wire bonding and other electronic devices,
it is crucial to conduct in-depth research on corrosion and implement effective corrosion
inhibition measures to ensure bond reliability and stability.
4.2.1. Effect of Halogen Ion on Corrosion of Cu Wire

Studying the effect of halogen ions on Cu wire corrosion has potential help in improving
bonding reliability. Studies conducted by Omid Mokhtari et al. [73] investigated the corrosion
behavior of Cu-Al IMC layers in NaCl solution. The comparison before and after corrosion
is shown in Figure 7. The results showed that only CuAl IMC was corroded among Cu9Al4,
CuAl, and CuAl2 IMCs. The largest potential difference was observed between Cu9Al4 and
CuAl, indicating the formation of a galvanic cell reaction at the interface between Cu9Al4
and CuAl. This implies that CuAl acts as the anode, which may be the cause of corrosion in
the intermetallic layer. Chien-Pan Liu et al. [74] conducted similar studies on Au, Cu, PCC,
and Ag alloy wire. The influence of chloride ion concentration on bonding reliability showed
similarities to the aforementioned experiments. The broken Cu wire with chloride distribution
is shown in Figure 8. The measured corrosion current density (icorr) decreased in the order of
Cu wire > PCC wire > Ag alloy wire > Au wire, and the open circuit potential (Eoc ) decreased
in the order of Au wire > Ag alloy wire > PCC wire > Cu wire. With an increase in chloride
ion concentration or a decrease in pH value, Eoc shifted towards smaller values, and icorr
sharply increased in each metal wire sample. Cheng-Fu Yu et al. [75] discovered during
their investigation of the failure mechanism of Cu wire bonding that initial cracks were
formed through the ultrasonic extrusion effect during the thermosonic bonding process.
With increased aging time, cracks propagated towards the center of the ball bond, and
chloride ions diffused through the cracks to the center of the ball bond. This diffusion
led to corrosion reactions between chloride ions and Cu-Al intermetallics, resulting in
bond failure of the Cu wire. Adeline B.Y. Lim et al. [76] found in their study on Cu,
Al, and Cu-Al IMCs that the corrosion current of IMCs in a 25 ppm chloride solution at
pH 6 increased with an increase in Al content. Nick Ross et al. [77] made new findings
regarding this corrosion behavior: (1) the cathodic half-cycle of corrosion was initially
supported by the reduction in dissolved oxygen and later taken over by hydrogen evolution
during the late stages of acute Al pad corrosion. (2) Hydrogen evolution was identified as
part of the cathodic reaction causing Cu wire separation during the corrosion of Al pads
under acidic chloride conditions. (3) Peripheral Cu/Al bimetallic contact drove hydrogen
evolution and significantly accelerated the corrosion process of the Al pads, leading to
bond separation failure.
[77] made new findings regarding this corrosion behavior: (1) the cathodic half-cycle of
corrosion was initially supported by the reduction in dissolved oxygen and later taken
corrosion was initially supported by the reduction in dissolved oxygen and later taken
over by hydrogen evolution during the late stages of acute Al pad corrosion. (2) Hydrogen
over by hydrogen evolution during the late stages of acute Al pad corrosion. (2) Hydrogen
evolution was identified as part of the cathodic reaction causing Cu wire separation dur-
evolution was identified as part of the cathodic reaction causing Cu wire separation dur-
ing the corrosion of Al pads under acidic chloride conditions. (3) Peripheral Cu/Al bime-
ing the corrosion of Al pads under acidic chloride conditions. (3) Peripheral Cu/Al bime-
Micromachines 2023, 14, 1612 tallic
talliccontact
contact drove hydrogenevolution
drove hydrogen evolutionandandsignificantly
significantly accelerated
accelerated thethe corrosion
corrosion process
11 of 17
process
of
ofthe
the Al
Al pads, leading to
pads, leading tobond
bondseparation
separationfailure.
failure.
Figure7.7.
Figure
Figure 7.Cross-section
Cross-sectionofof
Cross-section of Cu/Al
Cu/Al
Cu/Al IMCs
IMCs (a)(a)
IMCs (a)before
before immersion
immersion
before in in
NaCl
in NaCl
immersion solution
solution
NaCl andand (b) (b)
(b)and
solution after
after immer-
immersion
after immer-
sion
in NaClin NaCl solution
solution [73].
[73]. [73].
sion in NaCl solution
Figure 8. SEM/EDX mapping image of broken stitch Cu wire with chloride distribution. (a) Side
view and
Figure
Figure (b) front view
8.8.SEM/EDX
SEM/EDX [74]. image
mapping
mapping imageofofbroken
broken stitch
stitch CuCu wire
wire with
with chloride
chloride distribution.
distribution. (a) Side
(a) Side
view and (b) front view [74].
view and (b) front view [74].
4.2.2. Measures to Reduce and Prevent Interface Corrosion
4.2.2. To
Measures to corrosion
mitigate Reduce and Prevent
issues, twoInterface
common Corrosion are often employed: the use
4.2.2. Measures to Reduce and Prevent Interfaceapproaches
Corrosion
To mitigate
of metal corrosion
coatings issues,
on Cu wire andtwo common
the use approaches
of molding are often
compounds employed:
with the use
low chloride con-
of To mitigate
metal coatings corrosion
on Cu issues,
wire and two
the common
use of approaches
molding are often
compounds withemployed:
low the use
chloride
centrations. However, the exact mechanisms behind the effectiveness of these methods
of metal coatings
concentrations. on Cu the
However, wire andmechanisms
exact the use of molding compounds
behind the with
effectiveness low chloride
of these methods con-
are not fully understood. Researchers have focused on several aspects, such as themethods
centrations. However, the exact mechanisms behind the effectiveness of these role
of halide ions, as the primary cause of Cu-Al corrosion. Yuelin Wu et al. [78] studied the
role of Pd and chloride concentration. The findings indicated that the addition of Pd and
reducing chloride concentration decreased the galvanic corrosion rate between Cu and
Cu9 Al4 . Furthermore, in electrolytes with low chloride concentration, the galvanic effect
was completely eliminated with a significant amount of Pd addition (9 wt%). By reducing
chloride concentration, the galvanic corrosion rate between Cu9 Al4 and CuAl2 was reduced
due to the lower anodic dissolution rate of CuAl2 . However, due to the higher cathodic
activity of Cu9 Al4 , the addition of Pd increased the galvanic corrosion rate between Cu9 Al4
and CuAl2 . Nonetheless, it is known that Pd reduces the growth rate of IMCs and related
stress accumulation. As a result, the formation of gaps at the Cu9 Al4 -CuAl2 interface is
reduced, leading to an improved bonding success rate. M. Eto et al. [79] also investigated
the influence of Pd on corrosion and failure mechanisms in wire bonding. The results
showed that the corrosion of Cu-Al IMCs containing Pd was inhibited. The mechanism
behind this inhibition was likely due to the formation of a protective passivation film rich
in Pd on the IMC surface, which resisted the addition of halide ions and slowed down the
corrosion reaction.
Therefore, it is crucial to use molding compounds with low chloride contents and
employ metals, as well as improved production processes, to reduce the corrosion rates
of IMCs for enhanced bond reliability. In addition, scholars have made many attempts to
reduce and prevent corrosion: Motoki Eto et al. [80] employed a novel technique known as
post-bonding heat treatment and found that introducing this process effectively inhibited
the corrosion progression of Cu-Al IMCs. He also discovered that the corrosion process of
Cu-Al pads was influenced not only by the chemical reactions between Cu/Al IMC and
impurities from molding compounds but also by mechanical factors such as tensile stress
induced by corrosion shapes, products of each Cu-Al IMC, and lattice mismatches.
To eliminate the potential difference between the bi-metals and avoid galvanic reac-
tions, researchers have started exploring the use of Cu-Cu wire bonding instead of Cu-Al
bonding. Cu-Cu bonding has shown improved electrical fatigue life compared to Cu-Al
bonding and helps mitigate issues related to the vulnerability of Cu bonding to damage
the bond pad [40]. Shen-Teng Hsu et al. [42] experimentally confirmed the excellent re-
liability of Cu-Cu wire bonding. Furthermore, Cu-Cu bonding avoids the impact of the
direct growth of Cu-Al IMCs on bonding reliability. K. Abdul Hamid et al. [81] conducted
research on the mechanism of electrolyte reactions and chemical substances, comparing the
corrosion behavior of Cu-Cu and Cu-Ag systems under different conditions. The results
revealed significant morphological changes in the Cu wire bonded on a Ag-plated lead
frame (CuAg) in various electrolyte solutions, following the galvanic corrosion model in-
duced by the bi-metallic elements (Cu and Ag) in metallurgical interconnects. Both Cu wire
systems experienced severe corrosion when immersed in NaCl. However, Cu-Cu bonding
also presents new challenges, such as the higher melting point of Cu (1083 ◦ C) and lower
self-diffusion rate. Therefore, further research is needed to gain a deeper understanding of
Cu-Cu wire bonding.
5. Application of Simulation in Cu Wire Bonding

In Cu wire bonding, simulation offers the following advantages:
(1) Cost-effectiveness: by using simulation techniques, virtual testing and optimization
can be performed during the design phase, avoiding the costs associated with actual
manufacturing and testing. This helps reduce material waste, production cycles, and
overall costs;
(2) Performance prediction: the performance of wire bonding can be predicted and
evaluated in a simulated environment. By simulating the wire bonding process and
stress distribution, potential failure points can be identified, and the reliability and
durability of the wire can be predicted;
(3) Design optimization: simulation tools allow for the optimization of wire bonding
designs. By altering parameters such as wire dimensions, geometric shapes, and
welding parameters, the impact of different design options on wire performance
can be assessed, enabling the selection of the best design to enhance wire bonding
performance;
(4) Reduction in experiments: simulation techniques can reduce reliance on physical
experiments. By simulating different scenarios and operating conditions, various
hypotheses and solutions can be quickly tested in a virtual environment, reducing the
number of experiments required and saving time.
To further understand the failure modes of Cu wire bonding, researchers have em-
ployed finite element analysis to simulate the compression state of the Al-bonding pad
during the bonding process. For example, H. C. Hsu et al. [82] studied the parameters for
reducing Al pad compression through finite element analysis. The study found that an
increase in the contact velocity (C/V) resulted in reduced compression of the Al-bonding
pad during the bonding process, and a decrease in the ultrasonic vibration time also re-
duced the plastic deformation of the Al-bonding pad. The FAB extrusion state during wire
bonding is shown in Figure 9. Fa Xing Che et al. [83] investigated the failure modes and
mechanisms of Cu-low-k chip wire bonding and bonding pad reliability through wire pull
tests and finite element analysis. They conducted wire pull tests by changing the pulling
position of the bonded Cu wire, and the results showed that the pulling position influenced
the failure force and failure modes. Their finite element analysis model further enhanced
the understanding of the failure mechanisms. In order to better predict the wire bonding
lifespan, M.D. Hook et al. [84] developed a method to predict the wire bonding lifespan.
They analyzed and predicted the bonding of Cu wire and palladium-coated Cu wire on
an Al-bonding pad. The results showed that the Cu wire bonding on the Al-bonding pad
could be highly reliable at 163 ◦ C without encapsulation or at 155 ◦ C with encapsulation.
A. Mazloum-Nejadari et al. [85] established a real-life lifespan prediction model for Cu
wire based on the physics of failure approach. Such lifespan prediction methods can be
used in the future to predict the quality of various wire bonding packages with different
geometries and material combinations within a reasonable timeframe, thus reducing the
workload of experiments.
Figure
Figure9.9.Overall
Overallstress
stressdistributions
distributionsononthe
theentire
entiremodel
model(MPa)
(MPa)for
forEFO
EFOCu
Cuwire.
wire.[82].
[82].
Although wire bonding technology has been widely and extensively used, there is
still insufficient targeted research on the mechanisms of micro-bonding seam changes,
including formation, deformation, and fracture, mainly due to the challenges of conduct-
ing experimental studies. Therefore, researchers have conducted numerous studies on
simulating the mechanisms of micro-bonding seam changes.
For example, Beikang Gu et al. [86] investigated the formation and fracture mecha-
nisms of micro-bonding seams during Cu-Cu wire bonding using molecular dynamics
simulations. The Cu-Cu wire bonding model is shown in Figure 10. They established
a contact model for the nanoscale indentation process between the metal wire and the
substrate to simulate the contact process between the Cu wire and Cu substrate. The results
showed that micro-bonding seams can form and fracture within an extremely short period
of time. At the initial stage of contact between the wire and the bonding pad, attractive
forces were generated, leading to bonding. Yangyang Long et al. [87], based on a molecular
dynamics model, obtained similar conclusions and found that the formation and fracture
of micro-bonding seams occurred continuously during the adhesive process. The pres-
ence of pre-existing cracks may assist in the formation of new cracks, and materials with
higher stiffness are more prone to micro-crack formation. Due to the increasing depth of
research on wire bonding, experimental studies are becoming more time-consuming and
challenging.
Figure Therefore,
10. Geometries of thethe application
Cu–Cu of simulations
wire bonding in various aspects of wire bonding is
models [86].
expected to become more prevalent.
6. Summary and Prospect
Cu wire bonding, as an essential interconnection technology, holds promising pro-
spects in electronic packaging and microelectronics. Through further research and explo-
ration, continuous improvement in the performance and reliability of Cu wire can be
achieved, thereby promoting its application in high-performance electronic devices and
Figure 9. Overall stress distributions on the entire model (MPa) for EFO Cu wire. [82].
Figure10.
Figure 10. Geometries
Geometries of
of the
the Cu–Cu
Cu–Cu wire
wire bonding
bondingmodels
models[86].
[86].
6.6.Summary
Summary and
and Prospect
Cuwire
Cu wirebonding,
bonding,asasananessential
essential interconnection
interconnection technology,
technology, holds
holds promising
promising pro-
prospects
spects
in in electronic
electronic packagingpackaging and microelectronics.
and microelectronics. ThroughThrough further
further research
research and and explo-
exploration,
ration, continuous
continuous improvement
improvement in the performance
in the performance and reliability
and reliability of Cu wireof Cu canwire can be
be achieved,
achieved,
thereby thereby promoting
promoting its application
its application in high-performance
in high-performance electronic
electronic devices anddevices and
contributing
contributing
to to the development
the development of the microelectronics
of the microelectronics industry.
industry. Future Future
research inresearch
this fieldincan
thisbe
field cantowards
directed be directed
the towards
following thedirections.
following directions. Firstly,
Firstly, further furtherand
research research and opti-of
optimization
mization
the materialof the materialofproperties
properties Cu-bonding of Cu-bonding wire are
wire are needed, needed,compositional
including including composi-control,
tional control, manipulation,
microstructure microstructureand manipulation, and surface
surface modification of modification
coated Cu and of alloyed
coated Cu
Cu and
wires.
By improving the mechanical properties and corrosion resistance of the materials,the
alloyed Cu wires. By improving the mechanical properties and corrosion resistance of the
materials,
bonding the bonding
strength strength and
and reliability reliability
of Cu of Cu
wires can be wires can beAdditionally,
enhanced. enhanced. Additionally,
studying the
studying the of
morphology morphology
the FAB is of anthe FAB is an
important important
area area of investigation.
of investigation. Exploring the Exploring
influencetheof
influence
FAB of FABreliability
on bonding on bonding andreliability
developing andmethods
developing methods
to control FABto morphology
control FAB morphol-
can further
ogy can further
improve improve
the quality and the quality of
reliability andCureliability of Cu wire
wire bonding. bonding.
Secondly, Secondly,
there there
is a need is
to con-
a need
tinue to continue investigating
investigating the mechanisms the of
mechanisms
corrosion on of corrosion on Cu wire
Cu wire bonding andbonding andmore
to explore to
explore more
effective effective
corrosion corrosion
inhibition inhibition
methods. Lastmethods. Last there
but not least, but not least, be
should there
an should be anex-
accelerated
pansion of the application of simulations in the bonding process. Through ongoing research
and innovation, Cu-bonding wires are expected to play a more significant role in electronic
packaging and microelectronics, contributing to the development of related fields.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, H.Z. and J.C.; methodology, H.Z.; validation, J.C., J.F.,
J.Y. and X.C.; investigation, A.C.; resources, A.C., J.F., B.A. and J.X. data curation, J.Y. and B.A.
writing—original draft preparation, A.C., B.A., J.X. and Y.Z.; writing—review and editing, H.Z., J.C.
and X.C.; supervision, H.Z.; project administration, H.Z.; funding acquisition, H.Z. and J.C. All
authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by Joint Funds of the National Natural Science Foundation of
China, grant number U21A2051; Key Science and Technology Program of Henan Province, grant
numbers 232102221017 and 222102230019; the Training Plan for Young Backbone Teachers in Higher
Education Institutions of Henan Province, grant number 2GSO64-A52-05; The Fundamental Research
Funds for the Universities of Henan Province, grant number NSFRF210102; Innovative Research Team
of Henan Polytechnic University, grant number T2023-7; and Doctoral Fund of Henan Polytechnic
University, grant number B2015-40.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Keywords: Cu wire bonding; FAB morphology; bonding reliability; intermetallic compounds;

Micromachines 2023, 14, 1612. https://doi.org/10.3390/mi14081612 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/micromachines

Table 1. Key performance of common bonding wire.

Electrical Thermal Tensile

Cu wire offers several advantages in wire bonding [5,6]:

2. Types of Cu-Bonding Wire

2.1. Bare Cu Wire

2.2. Coated Cu Wire

Breaking load (mN) Cu Wire 112 Cu

Figure 1. HAADF STEM

2.3. Insulated Cu Wire

4.1. Influence of IMCs on the Reliability of Cu Wire Bonding

Micromachines 2023, 14, 1612

4.2. Influence of Corrosion on the Reliability of Cu Wire Bonding

Corrosion can have several impacts on bond reliability [67,70–72]:

Corrosion can have several impacts on bond reliability [67,70–72]:

4.2.1. Effect of Halogen Ion on Corrosion of Cu Wire

5. Application of Simulation in Cu Wire Bonding

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