Journal of Manufacturing Processes 35 (2018) 580–594

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Journal of Manufacturing Processes

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Ultrasonic spot welding of aluminum alloys: A review T

a,b,⁎ b
Z.L. Ni , F.X. Ye
a
School of Materials Science and Engineering, North China University of Water Resources and Electric Power, Zhengzhou 450045, China
b
School of Materials Science & Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: As a solid joining technique, ultrasonic spot welding is a promising spot welding process to fabricate the alu-
Ultrasonic spot welding minum alloy joints. This paper summarizes the current state of joining aluminum alloy by ultrasonic spot
Aluminum alloy welding with numerous critical issues, such as general process parameters, materials flow, interfacial tem-
Mechanical properties perature, interfacial shear force, stress distribution, relative motion, strengthening mechanism, macrostructure,
Macrostructure and microstructure
microstructure and mechanical properties. Meanwhile future trends in the field are pointed out.
Weld interface

1. Introduction
Aluminum (Al) alloys have been widely used in the domains of
power devices modules packing, electronic technologies, automobile
body structure and wind and solar power controlling, due to their ad-
vantages of high specific strength, superior processability, predominant
anti-erosion, high conductivity, environmental friendly character and
recoverability [1–4]. Unfortunately, fusion welding processes employed
in aluminum alloys are conductive to the generation of hot cracking,
high levels of welding distortion and the poor weldability [5–8]. Re-
sistance spot welding is difficult to join aluminum alloys due to their
high conductivity, low strength at elevated temperature and tendency
to degrade the electrodes [9]. Friction stir spot welding has dis-
advantage of long weld cycle (e. g. 2–5 s) [10,11]. However, ultrasonic
spot welding (USW) has advantages of pollution-free, high efficiency,
short weld time (typically < 0.5 s), insensitivity to material con-
ductivity and heterogeneity [12,13], which is a promising spot welding
process to fabricate the aluminum alloy joints.
There are numerous studies about aluminum alloy fabricated by
USW. However, to the best of the authors’ knowledge, no review papers
about USWed aluminum alloy joints exist. This paper reviews the USW
process, macrostructure, microstructure, parameter optimization and
mechanical properties of aluminum alloy joints, and then future trends
and conclusions are given. The aim of this paper is offer a good basis for
follow-on study.
2. USW process
Since the 1950s USW, a solid phase joining technique, was first
introduced for thin foils joining, wire bonding and tube sealing [14].
Due to the advancements in the welding system technology [15], it is
feasibly used to join thicker metal sheets, but generally the thickness of
sheet is less than 3.0 mm. Because when the thickness of metal sheet is
over 3 mm, the heat generation and relative motion at the weld inter-
face is poor. Thus increasing the power of USW machine is urgent in the
future. USW utilizes high shear frequency mechanical vibration to
generate a friction-like shear relative motion between two faces of the
sheets, resulting in plastic deformation and shearing of surface micro-
asperities that transmit contaminants and oxides, to promote the gen-
eration of effective metal-to-metal contact areas and joining at the
faying surfaces. Therefore, a solid state joint is achieved. In general,
only the lapped joint can be successfully achieved by USW. Schematic
of illustration of USW is shown in Fig. 1.
2.1. General process parameters
Macrostructure, microstructure evolution and mechanical proper-
ties of the USWed joint are mainly determined by the employed process
parameters. The process parameters during USW involve ultrasonic
frequency, vibration amplitude, clamping force, power (P) and energy
(U) or time (t). Ultrasonic frequency, generated by transducer that is
designed to operate at a specific frequency, is 20, 30 or 40 kHz in the
metal welding machine. In fact, welding frequency is determined by a
basic metallurgical physics characteristic as welding power require-
ments, which is determined by the component dimensions and mate-
rials of base metal, and the overall design of transducers and coupling
components. Vibration amplitude of the sonotrode tip is a critical
parameter affecting the joint quality, which can transmit mechanical

⁎
Corresponding author at: School of Materials Science and Engineering, North China University of Water Resources and Electric Power, Zhengzhou 450045, China.
E-mail address: zlni@tju.edu.cn (Z.L. Ni).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2018.09.009
Received 4 July 2018; Received in revised form 24 August 2018; Accepted 7 September 2018
Available online 15 September 2018
1526-6125/ © 2018 The Society of Manufacturing Engineers. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Z.L. Ni, F.X. Ye
Fig. 1. Schematic of illustration of USW.
Fig. 2. Relationship among peak power, weld energy and weld time [16].
energy to the weld interface. It is noted that vibration amplitude is
generally in the range of 10–100 μm. In some welding machine, vi-
bration amplitude is a dependent variable that has a relationship with
the welding time or energy applied to the machine. In other machines,
vibration amplitude is an independent variable; impedance is being set
up and regulated by the supply of power due to the added character-
istics of the feedback control system. The selection of welding vibration
amplitude hinges on the welding conditions as determined by materials.
Clamping force is a crucial parameter during USW, which is exerted on
the metal sheets by the anvil and sonotrode tip, thus the metal sheets
being welded can be pressed firmly together. The selection of clamping
force depends on the materials being welded. The optimum clamping
force can be achieved by adjusting welding parameters, below which
joints will be weak to nonexistent, and above which the phenomena of
welding zone thinning and sonotrode sticking may take place. It is
noted that USW machine can be set up to operate in time or energy
control mode, thus energy and time are approximately interchangeable;
i.e. as U = P×t. For instance, 1 kJ at 4 kW is equal to 0.25 s. Fig. 2
shows the relationship among peak power, weld energy and weld time.
The area under the power curve is weld energy. It can be seen that
power, energy and time are not independent. Once the power is set, as
the weld process progresses, the given level of power can be reached,
meanwhile weld energy and time will reach a specific value. Or, time
can be set, and the weld will progress until such energy as the given
level is obtained. In fact, the power-time curve can present various
forms that are dependent on material categories, dimensions, surface
conditions, welding parameters (amplitude and clamping force),
tooling, and specific characteristic of a fixed welding machine.
2.2. Materials flow
Once the welding parameters are optimized, underlying material
flow under the combined action of the sonotrode tip and anvil
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Journal of Manufacturing Processes 35 (2018) 580–594
Fig. 3. SEM of weld cross-sections for the USWed joint [12].
throughout the weld interface occurs, leading to a wave-like displace-
ment at the weld interface combined with complex plastic deformation
that has been demonstrated as the formation of wave characteristics
near the weld interface. The wave characteristics contain vortices,
ripples, and spiral like patterns, as shown in Fig. 3. In addition, Jahn
et al. [17], Allameh et al. [18] and Haddadi et al. [19] also gave the
detailed descriptions about wave characteristics for understanding the
material flow. It is noted that when the base metal sheets are similar or
have few differences, the wave characteristics can occur. If the base
metal sheets have big differences in melt point, yield strength and
hardness, the wave characteristics can not be presented, thus the ma-
terial flow will be not obvious, as reported in the previous studies
[8,20–27]. Material flow is extremely complex. Not only welding
parameters play a key part, material types and dimensions bring about
another challenge in governing the migration of the materials at the
weld interface.
2.3. Interfacial temperature
Temperature of weld interface is a key factor to the weld formation.
Because appropriate weld interface temperature is conductive to im-
prove the weldability via lowering the material yield strength and
controlling the intermetallic compounds [4,28]. During USW, the heat
generation, leading to the increase of weld interface temperature, are
achieved from plastic deformation heating, frictional heating at the
weld interface and possible acoustic heating from the ultrasonic wave
[29,30]. The frictional heat generation is due to the large vibration
amplitude between the faying interfaces. The vibration frequency is set
at 20 kHz by the spot welder, increasing amplitude leads to the increase
of velocity, which can have a positive effect on the decrease of yield
strength of Al alloy sheet, the local Al alloy sheets become softer, and
then severe plastic deformations take place under the action of shear
force and clamping pressure. In addition, as the welding process pro-
gresses, the yield strength of the Al alloy is continuously lowered due to
Z.L. Ni, F.X. Ye Journal of Manufacturing Processes 35 (2018) 580–594

the heat generation by the plastic deformation. The alloys bear the
cyclic deformation with a frequency of 20 kHz. It takes place with a
predicted strain rate of ～103 within a welding time of less than 1 s, the
material is subjected to 20,000 deformation cycles with a high strain of
1000. Thus numerous dislocations and excess vacancy concentration
are presented in the weld interface region that is ascribed to the severe
plastic deformation and high strain rate dynamic deformation [31,32].
In addition, the ultrasonic wave can be validly transmitted in the reg-
ular metal lattice, but it has a tendency to be absorbed in the micro-
structure defects, such as dislocation and vacancy [32]. Preferential
absorption of acoustic energy in the material defects promotes the Al
alloy soften, and reduces the obvious shear stress of Al alloy. Specially,
dislocations are activated by the absorbed acoustic energy and glide
with the improved mobility of the atoms, the material flow becomes Fig. 5. Relationship with the weld interface temperature and weld energy [12].
easier, leading to the generation of severe plastic deformation. Mean-
while severe plastic deformation can further in turn conduce to the
interface temperature increases. For the optimum weld energy (1000 J),
increase of temperature ascribed to the dissipation of deformation
the weld interface temperature reaches 391 ℃, which can lead to a
heating.
significant loss of yield strength of the base metal (6061aluminum
Considering the heat generation from deformation and friction,
alloy). For instance, the yield strength of 6063 aluminum alloy deceases
Elangovan et al. [33] simulated the temperature distribution in weld
to 14 MPa when the temperature is about 370 ℃, which can enhance
interface for the aluminum joint using ANSYS software. The result is
the weldability [35]. In addition, the temperature of weld interface
shown in Fig. 4. It is demonstrated that the peak temperature of weld
quickly increases to the maximum value in less than 1 s with a high
interface is 336.18 ℃, which is in the center of the weld interface, and
heating rate of 1000 K/s. Then the temperature decreases rapidly, due
the heat effected zone is most in the deformation area that is below the
to the low input energy and good heat conductivity of 6061 aluminum
sonotrode tip. In addition, it is shown that temperature difference be-
alloy. Similar results were reported by Chen et al. [30], Zhang et al.
tween weld interface and top surface of aluminum sheet is about 58 ℃
[36] and Haddadi et al. [19]. In general, the peak temperature mea-
along the vertical direction. Weld interface temperature has a propor-
sured at the weld interface center is 50–130 °C higher than that at the
tional relationship with the weld time and friction coefficient of alu-
weld edge for different weld time, and it is agreement with the simu-
minum sheet surface, an inverse relationship with the clamping force
lated results reported by Elangovan et al. [33,37]. For the 1 mm-thick
and the thickness of aluminum sheet. Ngo et al. [34] have proposed an
A5052-H32 alloy sheet joint, with increasing vibration amplitude, the
inverse algorithm based on the Broyden–Fletcher–Goldfarb–Shanno
temperature of weld interface increases, and the maximum temperature
(BFGS) method, which can quickly and accurately figure out the un-
of weld interface is 455 ℃ at a 70% vibration amplitude and weld time
known time-dependent heat generation at the weld interface and
of 0.8 s, as stated by Shin et al. [38]. The peak temperature of the
transfer coefficient of convection heat during USW when the tempera-
thermal field at the top aluminum 6111-T4 sheet measured by em-
ture data of some locations can be obtained by making measurements.
ploying a high frequency infrared camera is shown in Fig. 6, as de-
Therefore it can be used to the optimization of weld process parameters.
monstrated by Haddadi et al. [19]. It can be observed that the hottest
Few studies about the measured weld interface temperature during
area is close to the sonontrode tip. To precisely measure the tempera-
USW are reported, due to the rapid weld time and small size of the joint.
ture inside the weld interface, the interior weld interface is required to
For example, Bakavos et al. [12] measured the weld interface tem-
directly expose to the infrared camera, as proposed by De Vries [39].
perature employing 0.5 mm diameter K-type thermocouples placed as
Schematic of weld interface temperature measured by infrared methods
close as possible to the weld interface center. The results are shown in
for the asymmetric situation is shown in Fig. 7, thus the temperature
Fig. 5. It can be observed that with increasing weld energy, the weld
that takes place at the weld interface can be measured directly. How-
ever, edge plastic deformation during USW cannot be thoroughly
eliminated, thus the measured temperature is lower than that in a
symmetric weld situation.
It was indicated by Watanabe et al. [40] that the temperature of the
weld interface was enhanced by the addition of ethanol to the weld
interface. The reasons can be summarized as follows. Ethanol with
polarized terminals can physically absorb to the surface of base metal
sheet, leading to a sound lubricating action at the interface, and the
relative motion on the two sheets is improved, thus the temperature of
the weld interface was enhanced. In another study, it was reported by
Ni et al. [4] that the addition of Al2219 particle between the two sheets
can improve the coefficient of the weld interface, thus the weld inter-
face temperature can be enhanced from 335 ℃ to 402 ℃. Effect of tool
edge geometry on the temperature near the edge/sheet interface was
investigated by Komiyama et al. [42]. For the joint with sonotrode tip
with serrated edge, the temperature near the edge/sheet interface is
significantly higher than that of the joint with sonotrode tip with tra-
pezoidal edge at the clamping fore of 588 N, because the vibration
amplitude is enhanced by sonotrode tip with serrated edge.

2.4. Stress distribution

Fig. 4. Temperature distribution for the aluminum joint with clamping force of
1600 N and weld time of 0.5 s [33]. During USW, the base metal sheets bear clamping force, high

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Fig. 6. Thermal imaging of the top sheet temperature field for the 0.92 mm-thick aluminum 6111-T4 sheet joints with different weld time [19].

vibration frequency and non-uniform temperature field, thus stress is

generated in the USWed joint. The Von-Mises stress distribution in the
anvil, sonotrode tip and aluminum sheets is shown in Fig. 8, as simu-
lated by Elangovan et al. [33]. It is demonstrated that the aluminum
sheets is moving away from the anvil, due to the inappropriate
clamping method for holding the aluminum sheets on the anvil, the
maximum Von Mises stress is 0.5 × 107 N/m2. In addition, it is stated
that, with increasing clamping force, the stress at the weld interface
increases, and the maximum stress is in the center of the sonotrode tip.
It is confirmed by De Vries [39] that with increasing thickness of base
metal sheet, the peak contact stress at the weld interface remarkably
decreases. For the metal sheet with thickness up to 1.2 mm, the com-
pressive stress distribution is almost uniform over the deformation zone
area; for the thicknesses 2 mm and above, the peak compressive stress
remarkably decreases from the center of the weld to the sonotrode tip
edge. In another study, the von Mises stress distribution along the
longitudinal symmetry plane for a single and double spot joint is de-
monstrated in Fig. 9 as simulated by Carboni et al. [32] using the
ABAQUS software. For the single spot joint(Fig. 9a), the stress dis- Fig. 8. Stress distribution for the aluminum sheet joint with clamping force of
tribution (all typical characteristics of a crack tip bear mixed mode 1600 N and weld time of 0.5 s [33].
I + II) has no difference between the two spot tips, leading to be anti-
symmetric with reference to the sheets interface plane. The behavior is
observed that the stress distributions are unsymmetrical, the stress near
agreement with the expected result because the joint itself is inherently
the right edge is much higher than that in the left for the both edge
antisymmetric. For the double spot joint (Fig. 9b), the stress distribu-
angles, and the stress concentration in Fig. 10a is higher than that in
tion between the two spot tips is markedly different. Specially, the tip
Fig. 10b. Thus severer plastic deformation in the top sheet in Fig. 10a
towards the other spot (the left one in the figure) bears a significantly
takes place in comparison with that in Fig. 10b, leading to the gen-
lower stress, demonstrating an affect between the two spots and the
eration of larger gap between the top sheet and the bottom sheet in
need to investigate and optimize a multiple joint configuration. Stress
Fig. 10a, as demonstrated by the arrows in Fig. 10a. The result is also
distributions for the joint with sonotrode tip edge angles of 135° and
reported by Elangovan et al. [33], as shown in Fig. 8. Therefore, the
170° are shown in Fig. 10 when the sonotrode tip edge moves toward
sonotrode tip edge angle is a key factor to the USWed joint quality, and
the right (t = 20 ms), as demonstrated by Sasaki et al. [43]. It can be

Fig. 7. Schematic of weld interface temperature measured by infrared methods for the asymmetric situation [39].

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Fig. 9. Von Mises stress distribution at spot borders along longitudinal symmetry plane (a) single spot joint; (b) double spot joint [32].

Fig. 10. Stress distribution at a vibration time of 20 ms for different sonotrode tip edge angles [43].

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Fig. 11. Schematic of equipment for interfacial shear force measurement [39].

Fig. 12. In-situ PDV velocity measurement equipment with a zoomed-in view demonstrating the focus of laser spots (0.09 mm in diameter) on sonotrode tip, top and
bottom foils [3].

Fig. 13. Indentations on the surface of top sheet for the joint with different weld time [46].

it is need to make an intensive study to achieve an optimized sonotrode involves three stages: the initial stage, the middle stage and the final
tip edge angle. stage. In the initial stage, the interfacial shear force rises quickly. In the
middle stage, the interfacial shear force has a slow increase rate. In the
final stage, the interfacial shear force has remained stable.
2.5. Interfacial shear force

Interfacial shear force that can be over 10 times higher than the
weld strength is achieved by numerical simulation, as stated by
Takahashi et al. [44]. However, few experimental results are reported.
For example, the interfacial shear force can be measured in the com-
bined action of shear force sensor and charge amplifier, as demon-
strated by De Vries [39]. The schematic of equipment for interfacial
shear force measurement is shown in Fig. 11. Similar principle of in-
terfacial shear force measurement is reported by Ando et al. [45]. From
the experiment results, it can be concluded that, increasing the ultra-
sonic power don’t always result in a sound bonding process; interface
friction coefficient can be dramatically high due to the formation of
welded region at the weld interface; with the increase of welded region,
the interfacial shear force increases. In addition, the welding process
2.6. Relative motion
Relative motion in USW of pure aluminium sheets was investigated
using a high speed camera, as demonstrated by Sasaki et al. [46]. The
ultrasonic welding process can be divided into three stages. In the first
welding stage, the top aluminum sheet first vibrates under the action of
sonotrode tip, together with the slippage. At this stage, the bottom
aluminum sheet remains static, thus a large relative motion takes place
between the top sheet and the bottom sheet. In the second welding
stage, the relative motion is constrained by the formation of some
welded areas at the weld interface, while relative motion takes place
between the sonotrode tip and the top sheet. In the third welding stage,
with the increase of weld interface temperature, plastic deformation

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Fig. 14. The size of indentations on the surface of top sheet for the joint with
different weld time [46].

Fig. 16. Optical images of 6111 aluminum joint cross-sections with different
weld energy (or weld time) [12].

pull-out. If the welding energy is too high, stage 4 occurs, the velocity of
the top sheet and the bottom sheet decreases quickly. Meanwhile the
phenomena of sonotrode tip sticking (sticking between the sonotrode
tip and the top sheet) and weld zone thinning take place, and the
welded areas in stage 3 are destroyed, both of which have poor effects
on the joint strength.

3. Macrostructure and microstructure

Fig. 15. Phenomena of sonotrode tip weld and weld zone thinning [31]. 3.1. Macrostructure

During USW, with increasing weld time, the deformed aluminum

takes place in the top aluminum sheet and the bottom aluminum sheet.
gradually flows into the valley areas of the sonotrode knurl pattern,
The formation of welded areas occurs in the first welding stage, grows
thus the depth that sonotrode tip penetrates into the top aluminum
in the second welding stage, and the joint strength reaches a maximum
sheet becomes deeper, as shown in Fig. 13. Meanwhile, the size of in-
value in the third welding stage. The relative motion between the so-
dentation on the surface of the top sheets increases, as indicated in
notrode tip and the top aluminum sheet significantly promotes the in-
Fig.14. The indentation on the surface of the bottom sheet is similar
crease of temperature at the weld interface and accelerate the growth of
with the indentation mentioned above, as stated by Lu et al. [3]. When
welded areas. Unfortunately, the longest measurement time is only
the weld time, clamp force or vibrate amplitude is too high, the phe-
600 ms, due to focal limitations of the high speed camera. Therefore it
nomena of sonotrode tip sticking and weld zone thinning take place,
can not detect the entire USW process. In another study, relative motion
and the aluminum on the surface of top sheet is squeezed out, as de-
during USW of aluminum alloy is investigated employing in-situ Pho-
monstrated in Fig.15. Similar results were also reported by Peng et al.
tonic Doppler Velocimetry (PVD) velocity measurement method, which
[47], Shin et al. [38], Watanable et al. [48], Jahn et al. [17] and Zhang
does not have the disadvantage of measurement time limitation of the
et al. [36]. From the weld cross section in Fig.16, it is demonstrated that
high speed camera, as reported by Lu et al. [3]. Fig. 12 shows the in-situ
with increasing weld time, the increased depth of indentations takes
PDV velocity measurement equipment with a zoomed-in view demon-
place in both side of the joint, the weld linear density increases, the
strating the focus of laser spots (0.09 mm in diameter) on sonotrode tip,
effective thickness of sheet decreases, and the plastic deformation at the
top and bottom foils. From the velocity features of sonotrode tip, the
weld interface becomes severer. In addition, the formation of welded
top sheet and the bottom sheet, the welding stages can be divided into
area initially occurs heterogeneously at specific regions under the so-
four stages: stage 1 (slip stage), stage 2 (slip–stick transition stage),
notrode tip, and then the welded area spreads outwards to the edge of
stage 3 (stick stage), and stage 4 (over-welding stage). A large relative
the joint, as well as inwards, until it expands across the entire weld
motion between the top sheet and the bottom sheet takes place at the
interface.
stages of 1and 2, leading to disperse the contaminants and oxides on the
surface of aluminum sheet and promote the formation of effective
3.2. Microstructure
nascent metal contact area. Stage 3 is a critical stage for the growth and
spread of the welded area, which is beneficial to enhance the joint
The cross section of USWed joints involves three zones: weld zone,
strength and change the joint failure mode from interface to button
weld affected zone and compression zone, as stated by Allameh et al.

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Fig. 17. (a, c, d, e) Inverse pole figure maps and (b, f, g, h) corresponding band contrast and grain boundary maps from high-resolution EBSD, (a, b) original material,
and the sheets with different deformation reduction (c, f) 30%, (d, g) 40% and (e, h) 50% [49].

Fig. 18. Orientation distribution functions for (a) original material and the sheets with different deformed reduction (b) 30%, (c) 40% and (d) 50% [49].

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Fig. 19. Relationship of hardness of USWed aluminum joint with ultrasonic amplitude (a) and deformation reduction (b) [49].

Fig. 20. Hardness distributions from cross-sections through weld centre, at half the top sheet thickness, for two different weld energy: (a) immediately after welding
(measured within 1 h) and after post-weld room temperature natural ageing for (b) 2 weeks and (c) 8 months [30].

[18]. For the compression zone, elongated grains exist in the matrix far
away from the weld zone. For the weld affected zone, grains are de-
formed and crushed by compressive and shear forces operating on the
weld interface during USW. The weld zone shows no resolvable grains,
rather a matrix with uniform contrast decorated with trajectories of
material flow that appears as strings of small particles. The size of
grains with crystalline structure is 500–1000 nm. It is noted that the
grain is not elongated. The reasons may be summarized as below. The
larger elongated grains in the base metal are crushed into relatively
equiaxed smaller grains, or new grains generates from old crushed
grains, depending on the weld interface temperature. With the
advances in science and technology of equipment, the doubt about the
relatively equiaxed smaller grain mentioned by Allameh et al. [18] can
be completely resolved. Ji et al. [49], Haddadi et al. [19], Xie et al.
[50], Peng et al. [47], Lu et al. [3] and Mirza et al. [51] investigated the
microstructure evolution of the USWed aluminum joint by using elec-
tron backscattered diffraction. From the analysis of the inverse pole
figure maps corresponding band contrast and grain boundary maps
(Fig. 17), orientation distribution functions (Fig. 18) and grain size
distribution, it can be concluded that the relatively equiaxed smaller
grains mentioned by Allameh et al. [18] take place due to the con-
tinuous dynamic recrystallization, and the nucleation and the growth of

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Fig. 21. Schematic of tensile shear (a) [4], U-peel (b) and T-peel tests (c) [55].

Table 1
Tensile strength of various Al/Al joints fabricated by USW.
Base metal Thickness of sheet Weld energy Weld time Clamping force Vibration amplitude Tensile strength Failure mode Ref.
(mm) (J) (s)

AA6061-T6 0.4 250 1754 N 50 μm, constant 1.35 kN, TS Nugget pull-out [3]
Al6111-T4 0.92 750 40 MPa 3.5 MPa, TS Nugget pull-out [12]
AA6111-T4 0.9 800 100 psi 3.1 kN, TS Nugget pull-out [17]
AA6111-T4 0.9 0.1 68.5 MPa, TS Interface failure [18]
Al6111-T4 0.92 0.3 1.4 kN 2.9 kN, TS Interface failure [19]
AA6022-T4 1.2 1.4 910 N 35 μm, constant 1871 N, TS Nugget pull-out [31]
Al5754-O 2 5500 1.64 kN 6 μm, constant 4.7 kN, TS Partial button pull-out [36]
Al 0.3 2.5 2.0 bar 45 μm, constant 3.29 MPa, TS [37]
A5052-H32 1 0.6 3.1 kN 60%, constant 2.8 kN, TS Mixed fracture pattern of shear [38]
and pull-out
A6061-T6 1 1 1176 N 53 μm,constant 943 N, UP Fracture occurs in the base [40]
metal
AA1050 3 2 882 N 53 μm, constant 560 N, UP Nugget pull-out [42]
AA1050-H24 0.5/3 0.3 588 N 31 μm, constant 120 N, TP Nugget pull-out [43]
Al6022-T43 1.3 1400 0.4 MPa 94 MPa, TS Nugget pull-out [47]
A6061-T6 1 1.5 1147 N 53 μm, constant 1300 N, UP Nugget pull-out [48]
Al5754-O 1.5 2000 0.414 MPa 85 MPa, TS Interface failure [51]
A1050/A5052 1.5 400 0.2 MPa 80 μm, constant 3 kN, TS Fracture occurs in the base [56]
metal
Al 0.4 2 2.5 bar 57 μm, constant 21.4 Mpa, TS [57]
AA5754-H111 3 3500 3360 N 60 to 43 μm, amplitude 8 kN, TS [59]
profiling
AA5754-H111 3 4500 3400 N 60 to 43 μm, amplitude 8 kN, TS [61]
profiling
Al6022-T4 1.2 1.2 1170 N 40 μm, constant 4125 N, TS Interface failure [62]

grain never occur. In another study, it was stated by Lu et al. [3] that
continuous dynamic recrystallization is ascribed to the severe plastic
deformation and high weld interface temperature, and the increase of
recrystallizion regions can lead to the increase of joint strength and a
change of failure mode from interfacial failure to button pull-out. In
addition, fragmentation and dissolution of the Al-Cu-Mg alloys pre-
cipitates during USW process was investigated by Xie et al. [50]. It is
concluded that due to shear plastic deformation and high temperature
at the weld interface, rod-like T phase (Al20Cu2Mn3) in the substrate
2024-T3 Al is crushed into nano-size dispersoid (< 70 nm) at the edge
of the weld interface, and then the broken dispersoid is dissolved and
disappeared at the weld interface. In addition, the amount of point-like
type θ phase (Al2Cu) precipitates decreases.

589
Z.L. Ni, F.X. Ye
Fig. 22. Relationship of lap shear strength with welding energy [47].
Fig. 23. (a) Relationship among weld strength, pressure and weld time; (b)
Relationship among weld strength, amplitude and weld time; (a) Relationship
among weld strength, pressure and amplitude [57].
4. Mechanical properties
4.1. Hardness
Because of the significant changes of aluminum microstructure
during USW, the hardness of aluminum sheet changes. Few studies
about hardness of aluminum sheet during USW were reported. For
example, it was demonstrated by Ji et al. [49] that with increasing
ultrasonic amplitude, the hardness of 1100 aluminum sheet decreases,
as shown in Fig. 19a, due to the occurrence of dynamic recrystallization
in the welded sheets. Recrystallization and cold working by deforma-
tion that have a completed relationship are key factors to the level of
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Journal of Manufacturing Processes 35 (2018) 580–594
hardness. The more absolutely the recrystallization process occurs, the
softer the sheets are. In addition, the hardness in the middle sheet is the
lowest, as shown in Fig. 19a, due to the weak effect of cold working by
the deformation. As the deformation reduction increases, the hardness
in the sheet increases, as seen in Fig. 19b, due to the strengthening of
grain refinement attributed to the recrystallization.
In another study, the hardness of USWed aluminium 6111-T4 sheet
was reported by Chen et al. [30], as shown in Fig. 20. Compared with
the hardness of base metal, a lower hardness area occurs in the centre of
the weld zone for both weld energies. Moreover, for the joint with lower
weld energy, the hardness distribution has a U-shaped profile and
softening extends only slightly outside of the sonotrode tip area; for the
joint with higher weld energy, the softened area extends farther away
from the sonotrode tip area, resulting in the generation of a W-shaped
profile with a fairly uniform central plateau across the sonotrode in-
dentation. The similar W-shaped hardness profile can be observed in
the friction stir welded joints [41,52]. When the joints are subjected to
natural ageing with 2 weeks, the hardness for the both joints reaches a
higher level than that of the base metal. It is noted that when the joints
are subjected to natural ageing with 8 months, the level of hardness for
the both joints increases continuously. The reasons can be summarized
as follows. The loss of hardness observed under the sonotrode tip is
ascribed to cluster/GPZ dissolution. During USW, deformation-induced
excess vacancy concentration that is generated due to the high strain
rate dynamic deformation is about 100 times higher than that in a
conventionally solution-treated and quenched material, which is con-
ductive to enhance the post-weld ageing, leading to the existence of
more fine precipitates in the weld regions. Therefore the hardness in-
creases after post-weld room temperature natural ageing for 2 weeks
and 8 months.
4.2. Tensile strength and failure mode
Tensile strength is used as a criterion to assess the quality of the
USWed joint, which can be measured under quasi static loading con-
ditions involving tensile shear (TS), U-peel (UP) and T-peel (TP) tests
[53,60]. The schematic of tensile shear, U-peel and T-peel tests is shown
in Fig. 21. For the spot joints, failure mode is employed as a criterion to
assess the mechanical properties and an indicator of load bearing and
energy absorption capacities. In general, the failure modes involve
three types, such as interfacial failure mode, partial interfacial failure
mode, and button pullout failure mode [53]. In the case of interfacial
failure mode, the fracture spreads through the weld interface, leading to
separation of the base metal sheets. For the button pullout failure mode,
the fracture first spreads along the weld interface and then redirects
perpendicular to the centerline towards the thickness direction. For the
pullout failure mode, the fracture may initiate in the base metal or heat
effected zone [54]. Tensile strength of various Al/Al joints fabricated by
USW is shown in Table 1.
4.2.1. Effect of welding parameters
Lap shear tensile strength of USWed 6022-T43 aluminum alloy
joints was investigated by Peng et al. [47]. Fig. 22 shows the re-
lationship of lap shear tensile strength with welding energy. It is ob-
served that with increasing welding energy, lap shear tensile strength
first increases, and then decreases. With increasing welding energy, the
temperature of weld interface increases, leading to metallurgical ad-
hesion and mechanical interlocking across the weld interface. There-
fore, when the welding energy is 1400 J, the lap shear tensile strength
reaches the maximum value. Higher weld interface temperature leads
to the material soften, and severe stress concentration takes place at the
edge of the sonotrode tip indentation, which is a weak region, thus the
failure mode of the joint at the welding energy of 1200 J or 1400 J is
nugget pull-out, as indicated in the insert figure in Fig.22. When the
welding energy is higher than 1400 J, the depth of sonotrode tip pe-
netrating into the top 6022-T43 aluminum sheets is deeper, severer
Z.L. Ni, F.X. Ye
Fig. 24. Schematic of fracture modes of USWed 1.0 mm thickness A5052-H32 alloy joint [38].
Fig. 25. Combined actions of weld time and vibration amplitude on the lap
shear failure load and failure energy [38].
stress concentration and plastic deformation occur at the edge of the
sonotrode tip indentation, thus the lap shear tensile strength decreases,
and the failure mode of the joint is transverse through-thickness (TTT)
crack growth. Similar results was also reported by Zhang et al. [36],
Annoni et al. [31], Mirza et al. [51], Haddadi et al. [19], Abdel-aleem
et al. [56] and Bakavos et al. [12]. In another study, Elangovan et al.
[57] optimized the weld parameters of USWed 0.3 mm thickness alu-
minum sheet. Relationship of weld parameter with weld strength is
shown in Fig. 23. It can be observed from Fig. 23a, with increasing
clamping pressure, the weld strength decreases, because higher
clamping pressure reduces the relative motion between the two sheets.
Moreover the values of weld strength are more sensitive the clamping
pressure changes than the weld time changes. From Fig. 23b, with in-
creasing amplitude, the weld strength increases, because higher am-
plitude is beneficial to the relative motion between the sheets, and the
values of weld strength are more sensitive the amplitude changes than
the weld time changes. In Fig. 22c, the values of weld strength are more
sensitive the clamping pressure changes than the amplitude changes.
Effects of weld parameter on the mechanical properties of USWed
1.0 mm thickness A5052-H32 alloy were investigated by Shin et al.
[38]. It is found that the fracture modes involve three types: interface
fracture, pull out fracture and mixed fracture, as shown in Fig. 24.
Under the combined actions of weld time and amplitude, when the
depth of sonotrode tip penetrating into the top sheet is smaller than
0.32 mm, interface fracture is predominant; if the depth of sonotrode
tip penetrating into the top sheet is at the range of 0.32 mm to 0.36 mm,
mixed fracture is dominant, indicating a sound joint. When the depth of
sonotrode tip penetrating into the top sheet is larger than 0.36 mm, pull
out fracture is predominant. It is noted that when the mixed fracture is
dominant, the weld strength can reach the maximum value. In addition,
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Journal of Manufacturing Processes 35 (2018) 580–594
appropriate weld time depends on the vibration amplitude, as indicated
in Fig. 25. For example, shorter weld time is desired for higher vibration
amplitude to promote the generation of enough weld interface tem-
perature and formation of more effective welded areas, and to control
the effective thickness of the joint. For the same reason, longer weld
time is desired for lower vibration amplitude. Similar results was also
reported by Imai et al. [58]. Effect of weld energy on the lap shear
failure load of USWed AA6111-T4 joint was investigated by Jahn et al.
[17]. When the weld energy is above 500 J, weld strength that arrives
to a plateau of 2.6–3.1 kN is insensitive to the weld energy. In the case
of weld energy below 400 J, the fracture location is in the weld inter-
face, whereas pull out failure mode is predominant. In another study,
comparison of control algorithms for USWed aluminum alloy was re-
ported by Baboi et al. [59]. It is found that the weld strength variance of
USWed joints fabricated in the time mode is smaller than that of joints
fabricated in the modes of height and energy.
4.2.2. Effect of welding tip geometry
Effects of horn and anvil surface tip patterns (in Fig. 26) on the lap
shear tensile strength of USWed 1 mm thick A5052-H32 alloy joints
were investigated by Shin et al [38]. When the weld time and vibration
amplitude is 0.6 s and 50%, under the combined actions of horn A and
anvil A, the highest lap shear tensile strength (99 MPa) was obtained. In
another study, it was stated by Janh et al. [17] that effect of anvil
geometry on the weld strength of USWed AA6111-T4 is only slight. For
instance, the average lap shear failure load for the joints with cap CT-4
anvil is about 10% higher than that for the joints with Cap-139 anvil.
Because the combination of sonotrode tip and cap CT-4 anvil can pre-
vent the weld zone thinning and enhance the temperature, plastic de-
formation and wavy morphology formation at the weld interface. It is
reported by Komiyama et al. [42] that when the weld time and
clamping force are 2000 ms and 588 N, respectively, the weld strength
(U-peel test) for the joint with sonotrode tip surface geometry of ser-
rated edge (560 N) is 95.8% than that for the joint with sonotrode tip
surface geometry of trapezoidal edge (286 N). Meanwhile the fracture
types of the joint with sonotrode tip surface geometry of serrated edge
(Fig. 27b) and trapezoidal edge (Fig. 27a) are interface fracture mode
and pull out fracture mode, respectively. Compared with the trape-
zoidal edge, the serrated edge can enhance the relative amplitude and
reduce the depth of sonotrode tip penetrating into the top sheet, leading
to the temperature increase and severe plastic deformation at the weld
interface. Effect of weld tip geometry on the mechanical properties of
USWed A6061 aluminium alloy joints was reported by Watanabe et al.
[48]. No knurl appears on the C-tip surface, and the knurl pattern of the
K-tip is pyramidal. It can be concluded that the maximum tensile load
(1300 N, T-peel test) of the joints welded by employing the C-tip was
87.9% higher than that of the joints welded by utilizing the K-tip and
the fracture type of the joint with the C-tip was pull out mode. Due to
the pyramidal knurl pattern of the K-tip, the surface of the joint is easily
damaged, but there is only very slight damage for the joint with C-tip.
Z.L. Ni, F.X. Ye
Fig. 26. Horn and anvil surface tip patterns (a) Horn A (triangular prism, no space), Horn B (triangular prism, with space), and Horn C (pyramidal tips); (b) All the
tips of anvil surfaces with different sizes are pyramidal [38].
Fig. 27. Sonotrode tip surface geometries [42].
Meanwhile the bonded areas at the weld interface for the joint with C-
tip can produce easily in comparison with the joint with K-tip. There-
fore the weld strength for the joint with C-tip is higher.
4.2.3. Effect of other factors
Effect of ethanol droplet on the tensile load (U-peel test) USWed
1 mm thick rolled A6061-T6 aluminum alloy joint was investigated by
Watanabe et al. [40]. Due to the addition of ethanol droplet on the weld
interface, the increase of relative motion of base metal sheet promotes
the enhancement of weld interface temperature, more welded areas
occur at the weld interface. In comparison with the fracture surface
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Journal of Manufacturing Processes 35 (2018) 580–594
without ethanol droplet, the dimples at the fracture surface increases,
and new shrivelled-looking region appears. The weld strength is sig-
nificantly enhanced due to the addition of ethanol droplet, and the
fracture occurs in the base metal. In another study, due to the addition
of Al2219 particle on the weld interface of Al/Al joint, the temperature
and effective bonded areas at the weld interface are improved, thus the
peak tensile shear load of the joint with Al2219 particle interlayer is
35.7% higher than that for the joint without Al2219 particle interlayer,
as reported by Ni et al. [4]. In addition, Baboi et al. [61] found that the
Zn butter sheet can enhance the weld strength of USWed AA5754-H111
aluminum alloy joints, due to the reduction of sonotrode tip sticking
and part marking. It was reported by Annoni et al. [62] that aluminum
6022-T4 sheets have been joined by the combined means of ultrasonic
welding and structural adhesives. The weld strength can be sig-
nificantly improved, and the hybrid joining technique is insensitive to
the temperature in comparison with the adhesive joining one. Imai
et al. [58] investigated the weldability of A1050-H24/A1050-O, A1050-
H24/A3003-O and A1050-H24/A5052 joints, respectively. It was found
that material with low hardness is beneficial to the transmission of
vibration energy, and it is easier to achieve sound A1050-H24/A1050-O
joint using the soft A1050-O material. Moreover, Imai et al. [58] stated
that the shape of specimen affects the weld strength, and lower weld
strength is obtained for the large size or thickness of specimen.
4.3. Fatigue behavior
Although numerous applications of USWed aluminum joints were
designed to bear dynamic loading conditions, few studies about the
fatigue properties of USWed joints were reported. For example, Peng
et al. [47] investigated the weld energy on the fatigue strength of
USWed 6022-T43 aluminum alloy joints. The fatigue life of the USWed
6022-T43 aluminum alloy joints with the weld energy of 1400 J and
Z.L. Ni, F.X. Ye
Fig. 28. (a) S-N curves of USWed Al5754 alloy joints; (b) the maximum tensile shear stress versus the number of reversals to failure (2Nf) in the double-log scale for
welded joints at a welding energy of 2000 J [51].
Fig. 29. Pmax-N fatigue curves at R = 0.1 [32].
2000 J is equivalent within the experimental scatter at the lower cyclic
loads, but the joints with weld energy of 1400 J possess a longer fatigue
life at the higher cyclic loading levels. With decreasing the cyclic load,
the fatigue fracture mode changes from nugget pull-out to transverse
through-thickness (TTT) crack growth for the USWed joints with weld
energy of 1400 J, but the fatigue fracture mode is TTT crack growth at
all the cyclic load for the USWed joints with weld energy of 2000 J.
Fatigue crack initially occurs at the edge of nugget attributed to the
severe stress concentration, and propagates along fan-shaped divergent
direction with some “river-flow” patterns, showing the features of fa-
tigue striation perpendicular to the fatigue crack growth direction.
Mirza et al. [51] investigated the weld energy on the fatigue strength of
USWed Al5754 alloy joints. When the maximum cyclic load is 2 kN,
2.5 kN and 3 kN, the joints with the weld energy of 2000 J possess a
higher fatigue life; when the maximum cyclic load is 0.5 kN and 1 kN,
the joints with the weld energy of 2000 J show lower fatigue strength,
as demonstrated in Fig. 28a. For the joints with the weld energy of
2000 J, the failure mode changes from the transverse through-thickness
crack growth to the interfacial failure when the value of log σmax is
above 1.49, as shown in Fig. 28b. For the joints with the weld energy of
1000 J, the failure mode changes from the transverse through-thickness
crack growth to the interfacial failure when the value of log σmax is
above 1.32. In another study, fatigue strength of USWed AA 6022-T4
alloy joints was investigated by Carboni et al. [32]. When the joints
bear the same cyclic load, the fatigue life of double spot joints is longer
than that of the single spot. Meanwhile, for the single spot joints, two
runout specimens occur when Pmax is 280 N (10% of the ultimate load);
in the case of Pmax = 440 N (again 10% of the ultimate load), no runout
specimen can be found in the double spot joints, as shown in Fig.29. For
the joints subjected to high cyclic load, the failure mode is interface
failure; for the joints subjected to low cyclic load, the failure mode is
pull-out failure due to the severe stress concentration at the edge of
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Journal of Manufacturing Processes 35 (2018) 580–594
sonotrode tip indentation that is regarded as a sound crack propagation
site. It is demonstrated that fatigue failure mode is significantly as-
cribed to the lap joint geometry and the load configuration not the
material type.
5. Conclusions and future trends
This review aims to summarize the current state of joining alu-
minum alloy by USW with numerous critical issues involving general
process parameters, materials flow, interfacial temperature, stress dis-
tribution, interfacial shear force, relative motion, macrostructure and
microstructure, and mechanical properties of USWed joints.
Macrostructure, microstructure evolution, interfacial temperature and
mechanical properties of the USWed joint are mainly determined by the
employed process parameters. Once the welding parameters are opti-
mized, underlying material flow in the combined action of the sono-
trode tip and anvil throughout the weld interface occurs, leading to a
wave-like displacement at the weld interface combined with complex
plastic deformation. In addition, temperature of weld interface is a key
factor to the weld formation. Because appropriate weld interface tem-
perature is conductive to improve the weldability via lowering the
material yield strength and controlling the intermetallic compounds.
During USW, the base metal sheets bear clamping force, high vibration
frequency and non-uniform temperature field, thus stress is generated
in the USWed joint, which affects the mechanical strength. With in-
creasing weld time, the deformed aluminum gradually flows into the
valley areas of the sonotrode knurl pattern, thus the depth that sono-
trode tip penetrates into the top aluminum sheet becomes deeper. The
cross section of USWed joints involves three zones: weld zone, weld
affected zone and compression zone.
Mechanical properties of USWed joints have been overviewed in
terms of hardness, tensile strength and fatigue behavior. The more
Z.L. Ni, F.X. Ye Journal of Manufacturing Processes 35 (2018) 580–594

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