Materials and Structures (2022) 55:173

https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-022-02006-7 (0123456789().,-volV)
( 01234567
89().,-volV)

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

A study on damage of steel fiber reinforced concrete (SFRC)

under uniaxial compression based on the electrical
resistivity method
Tao Luo . Xiaofeng Pan . Qiang Sun . Fang Liu . Cheng Hua .
Yu Yi

Received: 4 December 2021 / Accepted: 10 July 2022 / Published online: 5 August 2022
Ó RILEM 2022

Abstract This research aims at studying the rela-
tionship between the electrical resistivity and the
damage of the SFRC during uniaxial compression.
The electrical resistivity of concrete with four differ-
ent volume fraction of steel fibers (0.0%, 1.0%, 1.5%
and 2.0%) during uniaxial compression was tested.
The effect of the number of steel fibers on the
electrical resistivity of concrete was analyzed. Results
showed that the addition of steel fibers reduces the
initial electrical resistivity of concrete. When the
volume fraction of steel fibers reached 1.5%, the
conductive capacity of the concrete tended to reach its
maximum, then the electrical resistivity decreased
slowly and stabilized. During uniaxial compression,
the electrical resistivity changing curves can be
simplified as two modes, hook-shaped for plain
concrete and ‘‘U’’-shaped for SFRC. The relationship
of the load and the electrical resistivity during uniaxial
T. Luo (&)  X. Pan  F. Liu  C. Hua  Y. Yi
Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Safety and Durability of
Concrete Structures, Xijing University, Xi’an 710123,
China
e-mail: luotao19870426@126.com
Q. Sun (&)
College of Geology and Environment, Xi’an University of
Science and Technology, Xi’an 710054, China
e-mail: sunqiang04@cumt.edu.cn
Q. Sun
Shaanxi Provincial Key Laboratory of Geological Support
for Coal Green Exploitation, Xi’an 710054, China
compression indicated that the electrical resistivity is
determined by the combined effects of the micro-crack
structure and the steel fibers. The change of the
electrical resistivity of SFRC can reflect the evolution
of concrete internal structure during loading.
Keywords Steel fiber reinforced concrete (SFRC) 
Uniaxial compression  Electrical resistivity  Failure
process
1 Introduction
With high strength and excellent environmental
adaptability, concrete has been widely used in con-
struction engineering [1]. However, the disadvantages
of low tensile strength and poor resistance to crack
growth of plain concrete, which cannot meet the needs
of some special and complex engineering environ-
ments [1, 2]. A number of studies have showed that the
addition of steel fibers increases the tensile strength,
residual tensile strength after cracking, toughness and
fracture energy of concrete [3]. Therefore, adding steel
fibers into concrete to enhance the ductility of concrete
has become more and more popular [4–9]. The
advantages of structural members made of SFRC are
their durability [10–14], service life limit state [15, 16]
and ultimate load levels [17–20]. Steel fibers enhance
the toughness and the tensile and flexural strength of
concrete as well as prevent crack propagation after the
173 Page 2 of 12
stress peak [21, 22]. The shear failure modes of steel
fiber reinforced concrete beams turn from brittle to
plastic with the increasing of steel fibers [23], and the
tensile stress intensity increases with the increasing of
the steel fiber volume fraction [24]. Analyzing the
damage degree of concrete in different loading stages
and finding the precursor information from stability to
failure is very important for structural health moni-
toring in engineering [25].
The electrical resistivity method has the advantages
of on-site measurement, simple equipment and strong
anti-interference ability [26]. In recent years, resistiv-
ity testing method has become one of the most
commonly used methods in the field of concrete
properties. Some scholars believe that there is a certain
correlation between the electrical resistivity of con-
crete and the probability of corrosion [27, 28]. Len-
cioni et al. [29] studied the relationship between six
parameters (the thickness of the concrete cover, the
contact with the concrete mold, the concrete aging, the
chloride presence, the type of cure and exposure and
the position of the equipment regarding the reinforce-
ment direction) of concrete and its electrical resistiv-
ity, and pointed out that the variation in the thickness
of the reinforcement covers from 1.5 to 3.0 cm affects
the electrical resistivity measurements, independently
of the w/c ratio. Robles et al. [30] observed that the
effect of lamination defects on the values of electrical
resistivity decreases as the saturation level of concrete
increases. Zhou et al. [31] found that open porosity is
well correlated to altered sorptivity and electrical
resistance, and the electrical resistivity of concrete
reduced as the crack density increasing. Zeng et al.[25]
studied the relationship between electrical resistivity
changing and the damage evolution of concrete with
different saturation and showed that the electrical
resistivity method is feasible for evaluating concrete
damage and destruction. Scholars have also used the
electrical resistivity test method to study the hydration
process of concrete in the early age [32–34]. Sang et al.
[32] found that the freezing process of early age
concrete can be divided into three stages: cooling and
ice nucleation stage, rapid ice crystallization stage and
crystallization finish stage by using electrical resistiv-
ity test method. Li et al. studied the autogenous
deformation and coefficient of thermal expansion of
early-age concrete by using electrical resistivity
method [33]. The distribution characteristics of the
temperature field and hydration degree of early-age
Materials and Structures (2022) 55:173
concrete were simulated and analyzed along with
electrical resistivity method by Zheng et al. [34].
Steel fiber is a conductive material, the addition of
steel fibers reduces the electrical resistivity of con-
crete. Solgaard et al. [35] studied the influence of the
volume fraction of steel fibers and the moisture
content of the SFRC on its electrical resistivity, they
found that the relative impact on the electrical
resistivity due to conductive steel fibers increased
when the moisture content of the concrete was
reduced. Wang et al. [36] found that the electrical
resistivity and the pressure of the concrete exists a
good correlation, the concrete resistivity decreases
with increasing pressure. However, the relationship of
the electrical resistivity and the pressure of SFRC
could be more complicated due to the addition of steel
fibers. In this paper, steel fibers were added into
concrete with 0%, 1%, 1.5% and 2% volume fractions.
The initial electrical resistivity of SFRC and the
electrical resistivity in the process of loading were
measured by LCR (L, C and R refer to the inductance,
capacitance and resistance respectively) digital bridge
tester. Finally, the failure mechanism of SFRC from
the perspective of electrical resistivity and the rela-
tionship between the changing curve of electrical
resistivity and the volume fractions of steel fibers were
analyzed.
2 Materials and methods
2.1 Materials and mix proportions of concrete
The details of Portland cement, coarse aggregates, fine
aggregates, steel fibers, water reducer and air-entrain-
ing agents used for preparing the concrete specimens
are described below.
The cement was Conch brand P.O42.5 ordinary
Portland cement produced by Liquan Conch Cement
Co. Ltd. Its physical properties and chemical compo-
sitions are shown in Tables 1 and 2 respectively.
Natural river sand with a fineness modulus of 2.53 was
used as the fine aggregate, with an apparent density of
2630 kg/m3 and a bulk density of 1480 kg/m3. Natural
crushed stones with continuous grading between 5 and
20 mm were used as coarse aggregates. The fly ash
was produced by Shaanxi Weihe Power Plant.
According to Chinese standard GB 1596–91[37], fly
ash is Grade I, with an average particle size of
Materials and Structures (2022) 55:173 Page 3 of 12 173

Table 1 Physical properties of the Portland cement

Cement type Stability Setting time /min Compressive strength /MPa Flexural strength /MPa
Initial Final 3d 28 d 3d 28 d

P.O42.5 Qualified 229 282 28.9 45.0 5.1 7.7

Table 2 Chemical compositions of the Portland cement and fly ash

Material SiO2 Al2O3 CaO Fe2O3 MgO SO3 Ignition loss

Cement 22.81 5.62 61.43 3.36 1.35 2.17 2.60

Fly ash 49.02% 31.56% 4.88% 6.97% 0.83% 1.2% 4.70%

12.71 lm; the chemical composions of the fly ash are

shown in Table 2. The water reducer was produced by
Shaanxi Qinfen Building Materials Co., Ltd. (Weinan,
China), and its physical properties are shown in
Table 3. The air-entraining was produced by Jiangsu
Subote New Material Co., Ltd.
The steel fibers, with widths of 2.0 * 2.6 mm,
thicknesses of 0.4 * 0.8 mm, and lengths of
38 ± 0.5 mm (Fig. 1), were produced by Hengshui
Junye Road and Bridge Maintenance Engineering Co.,
Ltd. The tensile strength of the steel fiber is 700 MPa.
The mix proportions are listed in Table 4. Four
volume fractions of steel fibers (0%, 1%, 1.5% and 2%
by volume) were considered.

2.2 Preparation of specimens

Fig. 1 The steel fibers

The SFRC specimens were prepared in the following

(2) The dry powder materials (cement, fly ash, and
steps:
water reducer) were added into mixer and mixed
(1) Firstly, the HJS-60 double horizontal shaft at low speed (140 rpm rotation/62 rpm plane-
concrete mixer was painted by mortar which tary motion) for 30 s. Then coarse aggregate,
was premixed with a water-to-binder ratio of 0.4 fine aggregate, and steel fibers were blended for
for the purpose of eliminating the water 60 s at high speed (285 rpm rotation/125 rpm
absorption. planetary motion), ensuring adequate steel
fibers dispersion. Finally, added the water

Table 3 The physical properties of the water reducer

Water reduction ratio(%) Air-inducing ratio(%) Air volume fraction(%) Compressive strength ratio(%)
1d 3d 7d 28d

14 29 5.0–7.0 220 183 180 165

173 Page 4 of 12 Materials and Structures (2022) 55:173

Table 4 Mix proportions

Mix groups Composition/kg/m3
Cement Fly ash Fine aggregate Coarse aggregate Water Water reducer Air-entraining agent Steel fibers

a 282 18 544 1240 150 2.1 0.03 0

b 282 18 544 1240 150 2.1 0.03 78
c 282 18 544 1240 150 2.1 0.03 117
d 282 18 544 1240 150 2.1 0.03 156

containing air-entraining into the mixer and stage loading process was used, the load was applied
continued to mix for 120 s. by 10 N/s, once the load reached every 10 kN, the load
(3) The fresh concrete was poured into molds with a was hold for 60 s to measure the electrical resistance
size of 100 mm 9 100 mm 9 100 mm, and value.
put the molds on concrete vibrating table (vibra-
tion frequency is 20–80 HZ) vibrated for about
30 s. After casting, all the specimens were left in 3 Results
the moulds to harden for a period of 24 h before
demoulding. Finally, specimens were 3.1 Uniaxial compressive strength
demoulded and cured in a temperature-con-
trolled room (20 ± 2 C) for 28 days. Figure 3 shows the compressive strength of all volume
fractions (0.0%, 1.0%, 1.5%, and 2.0%) of steel fibers
at the age of 28 days. From Fig. 3, clear trends could
2.3 Experimental methods
be found regarding the effect of steel fibers on concrete
compressive strength. When a higher amount of steel
2.3.1 The uniaxial compression test
fibers were blended into the mixture, the compressive
strength of SFRC increased from 0.0% to 1.5% and
Specimens with a size of 100 9 100 9 100 mm were
then decreased. Compared to the concrete without
used for the compressive strength test. The 1000 kN
steel fibers, the compressive strengths increased 7.5%,
electro-hydraulic servo-controlled universal testing
21% and 16% respectively for SFRC with 1.0%, 1.5%
machine was used.
and 2.0% volume fractions of steel fibers. The SFRC
has the largest compressive strength (39.06 MPa), at
2.3.2 The measurement of electrical resistivity
1.5% volume fraction of steel fibers. Shi et al. [38]
of concrete under uniaxial compression
investigated two types of the SFRC (straight and
hooked fibers) with various fiber volume contents
The electrical resistivity was measured by a Tonghui
influence on compressive strength of concrete, it can
TH2811d digital bridge LCR tester during uniaxial
be seen that the regulation of compressive strength
loading. The two-electrode alternating current method
with steel fiber content of hooked SFRC is similar to
was used. The test voltage and frequency were a 1 V
the results of this study.
and 100 Hz alternating current. The electrodes were
made of copper sheet with 110 mm side length and
3.2 The electrical resistivity of SFRC
2 mm thickness. To measure the electrical resistivity,
one side of the cropper electrode is covered with
The relative electrical resistivity can be calculated as
insulating tape and two copper sheets are placed on
each side of the concrete. The electrical resistivity test qr ¼ q=q0 ð1Þ
system is shown in Fig. 2. Before the test, open and
where q0 represents the initial electrical resistivity (X.
circuit corrections were applied before conducting
m.).
experiments and calibrated the LCR tester. A multi-
The electrical resistivity can be calculated as
Materials and Structures (2022) 55:173
Fig. 2 Schematic diagram of the resistance measurement during loading
Fig. 3 Compressive strength of SFRC at age of 28 days and
compare to literature data
q ¼ RS=L ð2Þ
where L represents the length of the material, S is the
area, and R is the electrical resistance.
Figure 4. shows the relationship of electrical resis-
tivity and the volume fraction of steel fibers. Figure 4a
indicates that the electrical resistivity of concrete has
an inevitable relationship with the number of steel
fibers. With the increase of the volume fraction of steel
fibers, the electrical resistivity of SFRC decreases. The
electrical resistivity of SFRC continues to decrease as
the testing frequency increases. When the volume
fraction of steel fibers is less than 1.5%, the electrical
resistivity of concrete decreases quickly, when the
volume fraction of steel fibers is more than 1.5%, the
electrical resistivity turns to decrease slowly. Fig-
ure 4b is the comparison between this study and
Page 5 of 12 173
literature data [35, 39]. The changing regulation of
relative electrical resistivity with steel fiber content in
the literature is similar. But the literature showed that
when the steel fiber content was larger than 0.5%, the
resistivity decreased slowly. While this study showed
that when the steel fiber content reached 1.5%, the
resistivity became stable.
Figure 5 shows the electrical resistivity changing
curves of SFRC during uniaxial compression. Accord-
ing to the change characteristics of the load–displace-
ment curve, the deformation and destruction process
of SFRC can be divided into four stages: the
compaction stage (I), the elastic stage (II), the
elastoplastic stage (III) and failure stage (IV) respec-
tively. Every stage is accompanied by the evolution of
the internal pore and crack structures of concrete. The
electrical changing curves of plain concrete can be
simplified as ‘‘hook-shaped’’, with characteristics of
‘‘rapidly decline—slowly decline—suddenly increase
at peak load’’. The electrical resistivity changing
curves of SFRC can be simplified as ‘‘U’’ shaped,
showing the characteristic of ‘‘suddenly drop-gener-
ally stable-suddenly increase before peak load’’.
4 Discussion
Steel fibers in concrete can form a network system,
and the steel fibers have higher strength and elastic
modulus. As the load on the concrete increases, cracks
appear in the concrete. Steel fibers can slow down the
expansion of the cracks [40], thereby improving the
compressive strength of the concrete. With an increase
of steel fibers volume fraction, the compressive
strength of SFRC firstly increased and then decreased.
173 Page 6 of 12
Fig.4 The relationship of electrical resistivity and the volume fraction of steel fibers
The reason for this trend can be explained as the fiber
crack resistance effect became more pronounced with
the increased steel fiber content [41]. When the
volume fraction of steel fibers is over 1.5%, serious
mixing and consolidation problems can be found [38],
which caused a amount of entrapped air and damaged
the mechanical performance. Figure 6 shows the
failure modes of concrete with four different volume
fractions of steer fibers. The numbers of the macro-
cracks for 0.0%, 1.0%, 1.5% and 2.0% SFRC are 2, 1,
0 and 2 respectively, the reference concrete has the
least number of microcracks. Normally, the addition
of steel fiber can introduce loosening effect, wall
effect, wedging effect and the overlapping effect and
damage accumulation of SFRC structure, resulting in a
loss of compactness [42, 43]. On the other hand, steel
fibers also have a certain filling effect, can fill the gap
between aggregate and improve the compactness of
SFRC [44, 45]. When the steel fiber content is over
1.5%, the lap effect of steel fiber 3D network increases
significantly, resulting in more significant damage to
the grain accumulation structure of SFRC, which also
induced the decrease of compressive strength.
Figure 7 shows the conductive model of concrete
based on the electric double-layer. The conductive
properties of plain concrete include ionic and elec-
tronic conductivity, which are derived from Ca?, OH-
, Na?, SO42-, C-S-H gel and unreacted cement
particles in cement-based composites [48]. Inside the
Materials and Structures (2022) 55:173
cement-based material, at the interface between the
pore wall and the pore solution exists the electric
double-layer [49], which is divided into a stern layer
and a diffusion layer [50]. The negative ions in the
solution adsorbed on the surface of particles under the
action of electrostatic force to form stern layer Fig. 7b.
The remaining ions diffused in the solution to form a
diffusion layer. The increasing of test frequency will
lead to the orientation and ionization polarization of
molecules in the diffusion layer, resulting in the
decrease of resistivity [51, 52]. Steel fiber reinforced
concrete contains a conductive phase of steel fibers,
and the migration of free electrons of steel fibers
causes a decrease in resistivity [53]. With the increase
of steel fibers, the number of free electrons increases,
the number of the conductive path in the concrete
matrix increases as well Fig. 7a. The volume fraction
of steel fibers dominates the formation and distribution
of conductive network inside the SFRC [54]. When the
volume fraction of steel fiber exceeds 1.5%, the pores
inside the concrete are filled and the migration space
of conductive ions reduces, so the electrical resistivity
decrease slowly.
Figure 8 reflects the evolution of conductive paths
in plain concrete. In accordance with Fig. 5, the
evolution model includes four stages. Stage I: the
original open micro-cracks and pores gradually close
in the force direction, and the volume of the specimen
gradually decreases (Fig. 8a). Stage II: due to the
Materials and Structures (2022) 55:173 Page 7 of 12 173

(a) (c)

(b) (d)

Fig. 5 The electrical resistivity changing curves of SFRC during uniaxial compression

Fig. 6 The failure modes of concrete with four different volume fractions of steel fibers. a 0.0%. b 1.0%. c 1.5%. d 2.0%

closing effect of the pore cracks, migration of pore
solution occurred in closed pore, the connectivity of
the pore solution increases, and the electrical resistiv-
ity is decreasing. Stage III: with the increase of the
stress and the porosity of the concrete decreases,
microcracks in the concrete interface transition zone
begin to expand, and new cracks are constantly
generated (Fig. 8b). Pore water migrates to the new
cracks, forming a smoother conductive path inside the
concrete, and the resistivity decreases. As cracks in the
173 Page 8 of 12
Fig.7 Conductive model of concrete based on the electric double-layer. a Conductive paths of concrete. b Schematic diagram of
electric double layer model. [46, 47]
concrete increase and merge, the resistivity of the
concrete decreases to a minimum. (Fig. 8c). Stage IV:
when the concrete specimens exceed the maximum
load, its internal structure is destroyed, the cracks
develop rapidly and cross and merge into a macro-
scopic fracture surface. In this stage, the electrical
resistivity increases abruptly (Fig. 8d).
Figure 9 is the schematic diagram of the multi-scale
evolution model of the SFRC conduction path under
uniaxial compression. The evolution of conduction
path of SFRC is also divided into four stages. Stage I:
the compaction caused steel fibers to approach each
other, thus improves the conductive network inside the
steel fiber reinforced concrete (Fig. 9a). Stage II: as
the load increases, the cement matrix at the junction of
adjacent fibers is damaged, the generation of fresh
Materials and Structures (2022) 55:173
cracks leads to destruction and reconstruction of the
conductive network. At the same time, some steel
fibers over crosses each other, which reduces the
resistivity [55] (Fig. 9b). Stage III: the disintegration
and destruction of the cement paste occurs in the
concrete, and the longitudinally distributed steel fibers
started to restrain on the cracks. The macro crack
appears, some conductive paths are damaged and the
electrical resistivity turned to increase (Fig. 9c). Stage
IV: once the specimen is broken, the steel fiber is
pulled-out and pulled-apart, the conductive paths are
cut and the electrical resistivity increases abruptly [56]
(Fig. 9d).
Materials and Structures (2022) 55:173 Page 9 of 12 173

Fig. 8 Schematic
illustration of a multi-scale
evolution model of the
conductive path in concrete
under uniaxial compression.
a is the compaction stage
(stage I), b is the elastic
stage (stage II), c is the
elastoplastic stage (stage
III), d is the failure stage
(stage IV)

5 Conclusions the concrete tended to reach its maximum, then

In order to explore the relationship between the
electrical resistivity and the damage of the SFRC
during uniaxial compression. The electrical resistivity
of concrete under uniaxial compression with four
different volume fractions of steel fibers (0.0%, 1.0%,
1.5% and 2.0%) were measured. The effects of volume
fractions of steel fibers and micro-cracks on the
electrical resistivity were investigated. The results
showed that the electrical resistivity signal can reflect
the occurrence, development, and penetration of
micro-cracks in concrete, which is closely related to
the volume fractions of steel fibers. The main conclu-
sions are summarized as follows:
(1) The volume fraction of steel fibers affects the
initial electrical resistivity of concrete. With the
increase of the volume fraction of steel fibers,
the electrical resistivity of concrete decreases
significantly. When the volume fraction of steel
fibers reached 1.5%, the conductive capacity of
the electrical resistivity decreased slowly and
stabilized.
(2) The addition of steel fibers has a reinforcing
effect on concrete. When the volume fraction is
1.5%, the compressive strength be the most
effective, and the compressive strength is
increased by 21% compared with the concrete
without steel fibers. When the steel fiber content
is over 1.5%, the lap effect of steel fiber 3D
network increases significantly, resulting in
more significant damage to the grain accumu-
lation structure of SFRC, which also induced the
decrease of compressive strength.
(3) The electrical changing curves of plain concrete
can be simplified as ‘‘hook-shaped’’ with char-
acteristics of ‘‘rapidly decline—slowly
decline—suddenly increase at peak load’’. The
electrical resistivity changing curves of SFRC
can be simplified as ‘‘U’’ shaped, showing the
characteristic of ‘‘suddenly drop-generally
stable-suddenly increase before peak load’’.
173 Page 10 of 12
Fig. 9 Schematic diagram of the multi-scale evolution model of the SFRC conduction path under uniaxial compression
The electrical changing regulation during load-
ing indicates that electrical measurement has
strong potential to be used for structure health
monitoring.
(4) The deformation and destruction process of
SFRC can be divided into four stages: the
compaction stage (I), the elastic stage (II), the
elastoplastic stage (III) and failure stage (IV)
respectively. Each stage is accompanied by the
evolution of the internal pore and crack struc-
tures of concrete. The effect of steel fibers on the
microstructure of concrete also reveals the
differences of electrical resistivity between the
plain concrete and SFRC.
Acknowledgements This research is supported by The Youth
Innovation Team of Shaanxi Universities. The Support Program
for Outstanding Young Talents of Shaanxi Universities (Dr. Tao
Luo), the Special Fund for the Launch of Scientific Research in
Xijing University (XJ18T02) and the Special research project of
the Education Department of Shaanxi Provincial Government
(19JK0913) are also acknowledged.
Materials and Structures (2022) 55:173
Declarations
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no
known competing financial interests or personal relationships
that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this
paper.
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