03design Smps

SMPS stands for "Switched-Mode Power Supply," which is a type of
power supply that efficiently converts electrical power from one voltage or
current level to another by rapidly switching the input power on and off at high
frequencies. SMPS technology has largely replaced older linear power supplies
due to its higher efficiency, smaller size, and lighter weight. It is commonly used
in a wide range of electronic devices and applications.
Here's a detailed explanation of how an SMPS works:
**1. Rectification:** The SMPS begins by rectifying the incoming AC voltage

from the mains or other power sources into a DC voltage. This rectification
process typically involves the use of diodes.
**2. Filtering:** The rectified DC voltage is then passed through a filter circuit
to smooth out any residual AC ripple and noise. Capacitors are commonly used
for this purpose.
**3. Switching:** The heart of an SMPS is a semiconductor switching device

(often a transistor or MOSFET) that rapidly turns on and off. This switching
action generates a high-frequency square wave.
**4. Transformation:** The high-frequency square wave is fed into a

transformer or inductor. This component plays a crucial role in converting the
voltage level. Depending on the configuration and winding ratios, the
transformer can step up (boost), step down (buck), or provide electrical
isolation.
**5. Rectification and Filtering (Again):** The high-frequency AC output from

the transformer is rectified and filtered to produce a DC output. This DC voltage
is the desired output of the SMPS.
**6. Voltage Regulation:** The SMPS may include feedback control

mechanisms, such as pulse-width modulation (PWM), which continuously
adjust the duty cycle of the switching transistor to regulate the output voltage.
This ensures that the output voltage remains stable even when the input
voltage or load conditions change.
**7. Output Filtering:** Additional output filtering components, such as

capacitors and inductors, are often used to further reduce output voltage ripple
and noise.
The advantages of SMPS are as follows:
- **Efficiency:** SMPS designs are highly efficient, meaning they waste less
energy as heat compared to linear power supplies. This makes them suitable for
energy-conscious applications.
- **Size and Weight:** SMPS units are generally smaller and lighter than
equivalent linear power supplies, making them ideal for portable and space-
constrained devices.
- **Variable Output:** SMPS designs can easily provide variable output voltages,
making them versatile for a wide range of applications.
- **Isolation:** Some SMPS designs can provide electrical isolation between the
input and output, which is essential in certain safety-critical applications.
- **Regulation:** SMPS can offer precise voltage regulation, ensuring a stable

output even under varying load conditions.
However, SMPS also has some drawbacks:
- **Complexity:** Designing and troubleshooting SMPS circuits can be more

complex than linear power supplies.
- **Electromagnetic Interference (EMI):** The high-frequency switching in SMPS

circuits can generate electromagnetic interference (EMI) that needs to be
carefully managed to comply with regulatory standards.
- **Cost:** SMPS components can be more expensive than those used in linear
power supplies.
In summary, an SMPS is a power supply technology that efficiently converts

electrical power using high-frequency switching and transformers or inductors
to step up or step down voltage levels, making it a fundamental component in
various electronic devices and applications.
Designing a Switched-Mode Power Supply (SMPS) involves several steps and

considerations to ensure that it provides efficient and stable power delivery to
the load. SMPS is a type of power supply that uses high-frequency switching to
convert electrical energy from one voltage level to another. Below, I'll provide a
detailed overview of the key steps in designing an SMPS:
I. Determine Design Specifications:
1. Input Voltage Range: Define the range of input voltages the SMPS should
handle. This range is crucial for applications where the input voltage can
vary widely.
2. Output Voltage and Current: Specify the required output voltage and
current for your application. Ensure it meets the load's requirements.
3. Efficiency: Determine the desired level of efficiency for your SMPS. Higher
efficiency results in less wasted power and less heat generation.
4. Load Regulation: Specify the allowable variation in the output voltage

under different load conditions.
5. Line Regulation: Define the allowable variation in the output voltage with
changes in input voltage.
6. Ripple and Noise: Set limits for the allowable output ripple and noise.
7. Protection Features: Decide on protection features like over-current, over-

voltage, and thermal protection.
II. Select Topology:

Choose the appropriate SMPS topology based on your design specifications.
Common topologies include:
1. Buck Converter: For step-down voltage conversion.
2. Boost Converter: For step-up voltage conversion.
3. Buck-Boost Converter: For both step-up and step-down conversion.
4. Flyback Converter: Provides galvanic isolation and is commonly used in

low-power applications.
5. Forward Converter: Offers higher power handling with isolation.
6. Push-Pull Converter: Provides isolation and is suitable for medium to high-

power applications.
7. Full-Bridge Converter: Offers high power handling and isolation.
III. Component Selection:
1. Switching Components: Choose appropriate switches (transistors or

MOSFETs) and diodes for your chosen topology. Consider voltage and
current ratings, switching speed, and ON-state resistance.
2. Inductors: Select inductors based on the required inductance, current

handling capacity, and core material.
3. Output Capacitors: Choose capacitors for output filtering, considering

capacitance, voltage rating, and equivalent series resistance (ESR).
4. Control IC: Select a suitable control IC or microcontroller to regulate the

output voltage, manage switching frequency, and implement protection
features.
5. Feedback Components: Determine the feedback components like resistors

and voltage divider networks for regulation and feedback control.
6. Filtering Components: Add input and output filters to reduce noise and
ripple.
IV. Control and Regulation:
1. Implement a control loop using pulse-width modulation (PWM) to regulate

the output voltage. The control IC or microcontroller generates the PWM
signal.
2. Use feedback from the output (usually through a voltage divider) to adjust
the duty cycle of the PWM signal and maintain the desired output voltage.
V. Magnetic Component Design:
1. Calculate the required inductance and turns ratio for the transformer (in
the case of isolated converters like flyback or forward).
2. Design the transformer's core size and windings to meet the required
voltage and current specifications.
VI. Simulation and Analysis:
1. Use simulation software like SPICE or specialized SMPS simulation tools

to simulate and analyze the performance of your SMPS circuit.
2. Evaluate key parameters such as efficiency, output voltage ripple, and

transient response.
VII. PCB Layout and Thermal Management:
1. Design the PCB layout carefully to minimize noise, reduce parasitic

capacitance and inductance, and ensure proper grounding.
2. Implement thermal management techniques, such as adding heat sinks

or thermal vias, to prevent components from overheating.
VIII. Prototyping and Testing:
1. Build a prototype of the SMPS circuit and test it under various load and
input voltage conditions.
2. Verify that the SMPS meets the design specifications, including efficiency,
output voltage regulation, and protection features.
IX. EMC Compliance and EMI Mitigation:
1. Ensure that your SMPS design complies with electromagnetic

compatibility (EMC) standards by minimizing electromagnetic interference
(EMI).
2. Add EMI filters and shield sensitive components to reduce radiated and
conducted noise.
X. Documentation:
1. Document the SMPS design, including schematics, PCB layout,

component values, and control parameters.
2. Create a bill of materials (BOM) for production purposes.
XI. Mass Production and Testing:
1. Once the design is finalized and tested, move into mass production,
ensuring consistency and quality control.
2. Perform rigorous testing on production units to verify their performance

and safety.
Designing an SMPS is a complex task that requires careful consideration of

electrical, thermal, and electromagnetic factors. Detailed calculations,
simulations, and thorough testing are essential to ensure a reliable and efficient
power supply for your specific application. Additionally, keeping up to date with
industry standards and best practices is crucial for successful SMPS design.
How to Design an SMPS Circuit: Basic Instructions

Switch Mode Power Supplies (SMPS) are widely used in electronic devices to
provide efficient and regulated DC power. They are preferred over linear power
supplies because of their high efficiency, low heat dissipation, and small size.
Designing an SMPS requires knowledge of power electronics and some formulas.
In this article, we will guide you through the design process of an SMPS circuit.
Step 1: Determine the Input and Output Voltage

The first step in designing an SMPS circuit is to determine the input and output
voltage requirements. The input voltage is the voltage that the SMPS will be
connected to, and the output voltage is the voltage required by the load. For
example, if you want to power a 12V DC motor from a 24V DC source, the input
voltage will be 24V and the output voltage will be 12V.
Step 2: Determine the Output Current

Once you have determined the input and output voltage, you need to determine
the output current. The output current is the amount of current required by the
load. For example, if the 12V DC motor requires 1A of current, then the output
current is 1A.
Step 3: Calculate the Power

The next step is to calculate the power. The power is the product of the output
voltage and the output current. For example, if the output voltage is 12V and
the output current is 1A, then the power is 12W.
Step 4: Determine the Switching Frequency
The switching frequency is the frequency at which the SMPS circuit will switch
the input voltage on and off. It is determined based on the input voltage, output
voltage, and output current. A common switching frequency is 50kHz to 1MHz.
The higher the frequency, the smaller the size of the SMPS transformer, but the
higher the switching losses.
Step 5: Calculate the Duty Cycle

The duty cycle is the ratio of the time that the SMPS circuit is on to the total
time of one switching period. It is determined based on the input voltage, output
voltage, output current, and switching frequency. The duty cycle can be
calculated using the following formula:
Duty Cycle = Output Voltage / Input Voltage
Step 6: Calculate the Inductance

The inductance of the SMPS transformer is determined based on the switching
frequency, input voltage, output voltage, and output current. The inductance
can be calculated using the following formula:
L = (Input Voltage - Output Voltage) x Duty Cycle / (Switching Frequency x

Output Current)
Step 7: Determine the Capacitance

The output capacitance is used to filter the output voltage and reduce the ripple
voltage. The capacitance is determined based on the output voltage, output
current, and the maximum allowable ripple voltage. The capacitance can be
calculated using the following formula:
C = Output Current / (2 x π x Switching Frequency x Ripple Voltage)
Step 8: Determine the Switching Transistor

The switching transistor is used to switch the input voltage on and off. It should
be able to handle the maximum input voltage and output current. The
transistor should also have a low on-resistance and fast switching speed.
Step 9: Determine the Diode

The diode is used to rectify the output voltage. It should be able to handle the
maximum output voltage and output current. The diode should also have a low
forward voltage drop and fast recovery time.
Step 10: Determine the Capacitors

The input and output capacitors are used to filter the input and output voltage
and reduce the noise. The capacitors should be able to handle the maximum
input and output voltage, and the maximum output current. The capacitance
and voltage rating of the capacitors can be calculated using the following
formulas:
Cin = (Output Current / (8 x Switching Frequency x Voltage Ripple)) + (Input

Current / (2 x Switching Frequency x Input Voltage Ripple))
Cout = (Output Current x Voltage Ripple) / (8 x Switching Frequency x Output

Voltage Ripple)
Where Cin is the input capacitor, Cout is the output capacitor, Voltage Ripple is
the maximum allowable voltage ripple, and Input Voltage Ripple and Input
Current are the ripple and current on the input side of the SMPS.
Step 11: Determine the Transformer

The transformer is the heart of the SMPS circuit. It is used to transfer energy
from the input to the output. The transformer turns ratio is determined based
on the input and output voltage. The turns ratio can be calculated using the
following formula:
Turns Ratio = (Output Voltage / Input Voltage)
The number of turns for the primary and secondary winding can be calculated
using the following formulas:
Nprimary = ((Vin x D) / (L x Iprimary))
Nsecondary = ((Vout x (1-D)) / (L x Isecondary))
Where Vin and Vout are the input and output voltages, D is the duty cycle, L is
the inductance, Iprimary and Isecondary are the primary and secondary
currents.
Step 12: Choose the Components

After determining the required values for the components, choose the
components that meet the requirements. The components should be able to
handle the maximum voltage, current, and power. The components should also
have a low ESR, low ripple, and high reliability.
Step 13: Test the SMPS

After assembling the SMPS circuit, test the circuit for the output voltage and
current, ripple voltage, efficiency, and stability. Adjust the values of the
components if necessary.
Conclusion
Designing an SMPS circuit requires knowledge of power electronics and some
formulas. By following the above steps, you can design an efficient and reliable
SMPS circuit. It is important to choose high-quality components and to test the
circuit before using it in an application.
Design of Switch Mode Power Supplies
The following programs calculate the relevant currents and voltages for
various switch mode power supplies and display these graphically.
Furthermore the programs give suggestions for appropriate choking coils
and high frequency transformers.
Type of
Description power Help circuit
supply
Help with
The input voltage
the
is converted into Buck
Buck/Step-
a lower output Converter
down
voltage.
Converter
The input voltage
Help for the
is converted into Boost
Boost
a higher output converter
converter
voltage.
The input voltage

Buck-
is converted into Help for the
Boost
a negative Buck-Boost
converter
voltage.
Several isolated
Help for the
output voltages, Flyback
Flyback
up to approx. 250 converter
converter
are possible.
Help for the

One electrically Single
Single
isolated voltage, Transistor
Transistor
up to approx. 100 Forward
Forward
Watts. converter
converter
Help for the

One electrically Two-
Two-
isolated voltage, Transistor
Transistor
up to approx. 1 Forward
Forward
KW. converter
Converter
Half- Help for the

One electrically
Bridge Half-Bridge
isolated voltage,
Push-Pull Push-Pull
up to few KW.
Converter Converter
Full- Help for the
One electrically
Bridge Full-Bridge
isolated voltage,
Push-Pull Push-Pull
up to many KW.
converter converter
Power Help for the

Switch mode
Factor Power
power suppply for
Pre- Factor
sinusoidal mains
regulator Pre-
current.
(PFC) regulator
Help with
Calculation of a Inductor
the
inductor L for a calculatio
Inductor
max. current I. n
calculation
BUCK CONVERTER
How to use the program
Reference: The shapes of current and voltage curves are calculated using
Faraday's Law. They do not represent an incremental simulation like it is done
normally by programs like P-Spice. In the calculations the forward voltages of
the diodes are considered with VF = 0.7V, and the transistors are interpreted as
ideal switches.
 The values of all input fields can be changed.

 If an input field is left empty, a default value is chosen. This value is
displayed after leaving the input field in question.
 The switch mode power supply operates within a certain input range i.e.
between Vin_min and Vin_max.
 The program needs the output values Vout and Iout.
 The switching frequency f is the operating frequency of the transistor.
 If the field "proposal" is activated, the proposed choking coil L and the
current ripple ΔIL are chosen such that ΔIL = 0.4Iout, for Vin_max as the input
voltage.
 If you should not be content with the proposed values, you can
change L or ΔIL. If this is the case, the field "proposal" is deactivated
automatically.
 The value Vin is the value for the calculation of the current and voltage
diagrams on the right side of the display. Vin must lie
Application:
The Buck Converter converts an input voltage to a lower output voltage. The
buck converter often replaces the traditional analogue voltage regulator.
Function principals
Illustration 1: Buck Converter
The transistor works as a switch which is driven by a high frequency pulse-

width-modulated control voltage. The switch is turned on and off by the pulse-
width-modulated control voltage. The ratio between on-time and the
period t1/T is called the Duty Cycle.
For the following analysis it will be assumed that the transistor is simplified as
an ideal switch and the diode has no forward voltage drop. In the program itself,
the diode will take into account a forward voltage drop VF = 0.7V.
During the on-time of the transistor, the voltage V1 is equal to Vin. Since Vin is
higher than Vout the current through the diode increases linearly in
correspondence to Faraday's Law.
When the transistor is turned off (blocking phase) the diode takes the inductor
current. At this time the voltage across the inductor inverts. The
voltage V1 becomes zero (exact: -0.7V) and the voltage across the inductor is
now -Vout. The inductor current IL decreases linearly. If the current IL does not
decrease to zero during the blocking phase, this is called continuous mode (see
illustration 2).
In this mode V1 is a voltage which changes between Vin and zero, corresponding
to the duty cycle t1/T. The Low Pass Filter, formed by L and Cout, produces an
output voltage equivalent to the average value of V1, i.e. Vout = V1.
 For the continuous mode the output voltage is a function of the duty cycle
and input voltage, it is independent of the load.
The inductor current IL has a triangular shape, its average value is determined
by the load. The peak to peak current ripple ΔI L is dependent on L and can be
calculated with the help of Faraday's Law. For Vout = (t1/T) · Vin and a switching
frequency f it follows that for continuous mode:
 The current ripple ΔIL is independent of the load. The output current Iout is
equal to the average value of the inductor current IL.
At low load current, namely if Iout < ΔIL/2, the inductor current IL falls to zero
during every switching cycle. This mode is called discontinuous mode (see
illustration 2). For this mode the calculations above are not valid.
At the moment when the inductor current becomes zero, i.e. t2, the
voltage V1 jumps to the value of Vout because in this case VL = 0. The drain-
source capacitance in parallel with the diode-junction capacitance forms a
resonant circuit with the inductance L. This is stimulated by the voltage jump
across the diode. The voltage V1 then oscillates and fades away.
Continuous Mode Discontinuous Mode
Illustration 2: Operating modes of the Buck Converter
Tips
 The larger the chosen value of the inductor L, the smaller the current
ripple ΔIL. However this results in a physically larger and heavier
inductor.
 Choose ΔIL so that it is not too big. The suggestions proposed by us have
adequately small current ripple along with physically small inductor size.
With a larger current ripple, the voltage ripple of the output
voltage Vout becomes clearly bigger while the physical size of the inductor
decreases marginally.
 The higher the chosen value of the switching frequency f , the smaller the
size of the inductor. However the switching losses of the transistor also
become larger as f increases.
 The smallest possible physical size for the inductor is achieved when ΔI L =
2Iout at Vin_max. However, the switching losses at the transistors are at their
highest in this state.
Mathematics used in the program
The following parameters must be entered into the input fields:
Vin_min, Vin_max, Vout, Iout and f
Using these parameters, the program produces a proposal for L:
with VF = 0.7V (Diode Forward-voltage) and ΔIL = 0.4Iout

For the calculation of the curve-shapes, and also for the calculation of
"ΔIL for Vin_max", two cases have to be distinguished, i.e. continuous
mode and discontinuous mode:
From this it follows that:
a. For ΔIL< 2Iout the converter is in continuous mode and it follows that:
b. For ΔIL> 2Iout the converter is in discontinuous mode and it follows that:
,
BOOST CONVERTER
ideal switches.

 If the field "proposal" is activated, the proposed choking coil L and the
current ripple ΔIL are chosen such that ΔIL = 0.4Iin, for Vin_min as the input
voltage. (Iin = Iout·Vout/Vin)
change L or ΔIL. If this is the case, the field "proposal" is deactivated
automatically.
Application:
The Boost Converter converts an input voltage to a higher output voltage. It is

also named the step-up converter. Boost converters are used in battery powered
devices, where the electronic circuit requires a higher operating voltage than the
battery can supply, e.g. notebooks, mobile phones and camera flashes.
Function principals:
Illustration 1: Boost Converter
The transistor works as a switch which is turned on and off by a pulse-width-

modulated control voltage. The ratio between on-time and the period t1/T is
called the Duty Cycle.
During the on-time of the transistor, the voltage across L is equal to Vin and the
current IL increases linearly. When the transistor is turned off, the
current IL flows through the diode and charges the output capacitor.
The function of the boost converter can also be described in terms of energy
balance:
During the on-phase of the transistor, energy is loaded into the inductor.
This energy is then transferred to the output capacitor during the blocking
phase of the transistor.
The output voltage is always larger than the input voltage. Even if the transistor
is not switched on and off the output capacitor charges via the diode
until Vout = Vin. When the transistor is switched the output voltage will increase
to higher levels than the input voltage.
 The Boost Converter is not short circuit proof, because there is inherently
no switch-off device in the short-circuit path.
A distinction is drawn between discontinuous and continuous mode

depending on whether the inductor current IL reduces to zero during the off-
time or not.
With the help of Faraday's Law the continuous mode and steady state
conditions can be established.

 For continuous mode the output voltage is dependent on the duty cycle
and the input voltage, it is independent of the load.
In discontinuous mode, the inductor current IL will go to zero during every

period. At the moment when the inductor current becomes zero, i.e. t2, the
voltage V1 jumps to the value of Vout because in this case VL = 0. The drain-
source capacitance in parallel with the diode-junction capacitance forms a
resonant circuit with the inductance L. This is stimulated by the voltage jump
across the diode. The voltage V1 then oscillates and fades away.
Illustration 2: Operating modes of the Boost Converter
Tips
inductor.
2Iin at Vin_min. However, the switching losses at the transistors are at their

where VF = 0.7V (Diode Forward-voltage) and
"ΔIL with Vin_min", two cases have to be distinguished, i.e. continuous
a. For ΔIL< 2Iin the converter is in continuous mode and it follows that:
b. For ΔIL> 2Iin the converter is in discontinuous mode and it follows that:
BUCK BOOST CONVERTER
ideal switches.

between Vin_min and Vin_max .
 If the field "proposal" is activated, the proposed choking coil L is chosen
such that ΔIL is 40% of the average value of the inductor current IL,
for Vin_min as the input voltage.
 If you should not be content with the proposed value, you can
change L or Δ IL. If this is the case, the field "proposal" is deactivated
automatically.
Application:
The Buck-Boost Converter converts a positive input voltage to a negative

output voltage. With a Buck-Boost converter one could create a -12V potential
from a 5V source.
Illustration 1: Buck Boost Converter
Function principals:
The transistor works as a switch, which is turned on and off by the pulse-width-
modulated control voltage. For the analysis of the following circuit it may be
assumed that the transistor and the diode have no voltage drop during the
respective on-phases. In the program the diode forward voltage of VF = 0.7V is
taken into account.
During the on-time of the transistor, there is an input voltage Vin applied across
the inductor L. The inductor current IL increases linearly. Energy is loaded into
the inductor.
During the blocking phase of the transistor, the current IL continues to flow
through the inductor and loads the output capacitor Cout. The inductor transfers
its energy to Cout.
One can make a distinction between continuous and discontinuous mode

depending on whether the inductor current IL goes to zero or not.
For continuous mode using Faraday's Law gives:
 In continuous mode the output voltage depends only on the duty

cycle t1/T and the input voltage Vin, it is independent of the load.
In discontinuous mode the inductor current falls to zero during every period. At
that moment when the current becomes zero, the voltage VL also goes to zero.
The drain-source capacitance in parallel with the diode-junction capacitance
together with the inductor L, creates a resonant circuit which is activated by the
voltage jump of V1. The voltage VL then oscillates and fades away.
Illustration 2: Operating modes of the Buck Boost Converter
Tips
inductor.
where VF = 0.7 (Diode Forward-voltage) and

a. For ΔIL< 2IL the converter is in continuous mode and it follows that:
b. For ΔIL> 2IL the converter is in discontinuous mode and it follows that:
FLYBACK CONVERTER

ideal switches.

Note:
o For the european mains of 230V +/-10% and behind the rectifier
and the smoothing (with a voltage ripple of 10%) the input voltage
range is between Vin_min = 250V and Vin_max = 360V.
o For wide range Switch Mode Power Supplies the input voltage range
of the mains is from 100Vac -10% (Japan) to 240Vac +6% (Great
Britain). In this case, the DC input range of the power supply is
from Vin_min = 110V to Vin_max = 360V.
o For use of a power factor pre-regulator the input voltage range is
normally from Vin_min =360V to Vin_max =400V.
o

 If the field "proposal" is activated for the primary inductance L1 the value
for L1 is proposed. This is such as the border between continuous and
discontinuous mode is achieved for the average input voltage which
is Vin_avg = (Vin_max+Vin_min)/2.
 If the field "proposal" for the input field "N1/N2" is activated, the turns
ratio N1/N2 is proposed. It is proposed such that N1/N2 = Vin_avg/Vout,
where Vin is the average value of input voltage range. This means that for
the average input voltage, the maximum voltage across the transistor
is Vds = 2Vin_avg.
 If you do not agree with our proposals, you can change N1/N2 or L1. The
field "proposal" is then deactivated automatically.
Note 2: The calculations are made for an efficiency of 1. This is actually not
realistic for a flyback converter. The efficiency is determined mainly by the
coupling of the primary and secondary winding. If the number of
turns N1 and N2 are very different (normally the case with low output voltage),
then the coupling between primary and secondary will be bad and this leads to
a low efficiency of about 65-70%. If the number of turns N1 and N2 are
approximately equal, then you will reach a good coupling and the efficiency can
be > 90%. To reach a realistic result for the primary current I1 and the primary
inductor L1, you should increase the output current by a realistic factor 1/η for
the efficiency.
Note 3: The flyback converter may have several separately isolated output
voltages which are all regulated, e.g +5V, +15V, -15V. In this case only one of
the output voltages has to be regulated (e.g. +5V) and the other output voltages
are coupled by their number of turns in respect to the regulated output voltage.
To calculate such a case with our program you should add all output powers
and make the calculation for one output voltage by relating it to the sum of all
output powers (e.g.Vout_1). If an appropriate core with an appropriate number of
secondary turns is calculated, you have to add the uncalculated turns of the
other output voltages by calculating the number of turns using the ratio of the
voltages (in our example Nout_2 and Nout_3 ).
Application
The Flyback Converter belongs to the primary switched converter family,

which means there is isolation between input and output. Flyback converters
may have several separately isolated output voltages which are regulated by
controlling only one output voltage. Today flyback converters are used in many
mains supplied electronic devices of small power consumption (up to 250W) e.g.
Television sets.
Function principals
Illustration 1: Flyback Converter
Flyback converters have a remarkably low number of components compared to

other SMPS's. They also have the advantage that several isolated output
voltages can be regulated by one control circuit.
The transistor works as a switch which is turned on and off by a pulse-width-

modulated control voltage. During the on time of the transistor, the primary
voltage V1 = Vin and I1 increases linearly. During that phase energy is loaded
into the transformer. The secondary winding does not have any current because
the diode is blocking during the on-time of the transistor. If the transistor is in
blocking mode then I1 will be cut-off and the voltages at the transformer will
change because of Faraday's Law. The diode will then be conducting and the
secondary winding will then give energy to the output capacitor.
During the on-phase of the transistor the drain-source-voltage Vds will be zero.
During the off-phase the output voltage is back transformed to the primary side
such that the drain-source voltage achieves the value Vds = Vin + Vout·N1/N2. This
implies that for a flyback converter which is designed for a 230V/50Hz mains,
the voltage Vds usually reaches approximately 700V. In practice the voltage is
even higher because an induction voltage is added as a result of transformer
leakage induction. The transistor in the flyback converter for the 230V mains
must have a breakdown voltage of at least 800V.
The transformer is not a "normal" transformer. Its function is to save energy

during the on-phase of the transistor and to transfer that energy to the
secondary side during the off-phase. This means that the transformer is a
storage-inductor with primary and secondary windings and the transformer-
core has an air-gap. Transformers for flyback converters are therefore called
storage transformers. In order for the stored energy of the primary current to be
transferred to the secondary winding during the off-phase of the transistor, both
coils must be very well magneticly coupled.
Illustration 2: Operating modes of the Flyback Converter
Tips
 The larger the number of turns N2 the smaller the drain-source voltage of
the transistor Vds.
 At the border between continuous and discontinuous mode
at Vin = Vin_min the size of the transformer will be at its smallest. However,
in this case the flyback converter works in discontinuous mode with all
other input voltages. As a result of this the switching-losses through the
semiconductors become quite big.
 The drain-source voltage of the transistor Vds is at its highest
when Vin = Vin_max.
Using these parameters, the program produces a proposal for L and N1/N2:
a. For ΔIL1< 2I'1 the converter is in continuous mode and it follows that:
b. For ΔIL1> 2I'L1 the converter is in discontinuous mode and it follows that:
,
SINGLE TRANSISTOR FORWARD CONVERTER
ideal switches.

Note:
from Vin_min =110V to Vin_max =360V.
 If the field "proposal" is activated for the inductor L, a value for L and the
corresponding current ripple ΔIL is proposed. These values are laid out
such that ΔIL = 0.4Iout with Vin_max as the input voltage.
ratio N1/N2 is proposed. This suggestion is chosen such that the required
output voltage can be achieved using Vin_min as an input voltage.
 If you do not agree with our proposals, you can change N1/N2 or L as well
as ΔIL. The field "proposal" is then deactivated automatically.
Application
The Single Transistor Forward Converter belongs to the primary switched

converter family since there is isolation between input and output. It is suitable
for output powers up to several hundred Watts.
Function principals
Illustration 1: Single Transistor Forward Converter
The forward converter transfers the energy during the on-time of the transistor.
During this time the voltage V1 is equal to the input voltage Vin. The
winding N2 is in the same direction as N1. When the transistor is on the
voltage V2 at N2 is given by V2 = Vin·N2/N1. The voltage V2 charges the output
capacitor Cout through the inductor L.
During the off-time of the transistor, N1 and N2 are without current. The
inductor L draws its current through the diode D3. At this time the value of the
voltage V3 is equal to zero.
During the off-time of the transistor, the magnetic flux of the transformer has to
be reduced to zero. The transformer core is demagnetized with N1'
via D1 to Vin. N1' is therefore wound in the opposite direction to N1 and has an
equal number of turns. Therefore the demagnetisation needs the same time
interval as the on-time of the transistor. For this the minimum off-time has to
be as long as the on-time. This means that the maximum duty cycle t1/T for
this converter may never be higher than 50%.
During the off-time, the voltage at N1' is equal to the input voltage Vin. This
voltage will be transformed back to the primary winding N1 such that V1 = -Vin.
Due to this the transistor drain-source voltage steps up to Vds > 2Vin when the
transistor is turned off.
The voltage V3 is therefore a pulse-width-modulated voltage which jumps

between zero and Vin· N2/N1. The Low-Pass filter, formed by the inductor and the
output capacitor, produces the average value of V3. For continuous mode
(IL never becomes zero) this leads to:
Due to the fact that the duty cycle t1/T may not be greater than 50%, it follows
for the turns ratio that:
In the program, this value is multiplied by a factor of 0.95, so that the proposed
value for N1/N2 includes a small margin which guarantees the demagnetisation
of the core, when the input voltage is minimal, (remember: at minimum input
voltage the duty cycle reaches its maximum).
For the calculation of the inductor L, the same rules as for the Buck Converter
can be used. One also distinguishes between discontinuous and continuous
mode, depending on whether or not the inductor current falls to zero during the
off-time of the transistor.
During continuous operation:
The output voltage depends only on the duty cycle and the input voltage, it is
load independent. The inductor current IL has a triangular shape and its
average value is determined by the load. The change in inductor current ΔI L is
dependent on L and can be calculated with the help of Faraday's Law.
During continuous mode, with Vout = Vin · (N2/N1) ·t1/T and a chosen switching
frequency f it can be shown that:
The change in inductor current is load independent. The output current Iout is
taken to be the average value of the inductor current IL.
during every switching cycle. This mode is called discontinuous mode (see
In that moment, when the inductor current becomes zero, the voltage V3 jumps
to the value of Vout. The diode-junction capacitance forms a resonant circuit
with the inductance, which is activated by the voltage jump across the diode D3.
The voltage V3 then oscillates and fades away.
Illustration 2: Operating modes of the Single Transistor Forward Converter
Tips
inductor.
 It is best not to alter the turns ratio N1/N2 proposed by us.
Using these parameters, the program produces a proposal for N1/N2 and L:
(the factor of 0.95 is taken into account to allow for the fact that the duty
cycle t1/T = 0.5 cannot be completely reached).
VF = 0.7 (Diode Forward-voltage)
ΔIL = 0.4Iout
,
TWO TRANSISTOR FORWARD CONVERTER
ideal switches.

Note:
Application
The Two Transistor Forward Converter belongs to the primary switched

for output powers up to several hundred Watts.
Function principals
Illustration 1: Two Transistor Forward Converter

The two transistors are simultaneously turned on and off by a pulse-width-

modulated control voltage. The forward converter transfers the energy during
the on-time of the transistor. During this time the voltage V1 is equal to the
input voltage Vin. The winding N2 is in the same direction as N1. When the
transistor is on the voltage V2 at N2 is given by V2 = Vin ·N1/N2. The
voltage V2 charges the output capacitor Cout through the inductor L.
During the off-time of the transistor the secondary winding N2 is without

current. The inductor L draws its current through the diode D3. The value of the
voltage V3 is equal to zero at this time (exactly 0.7V).
During the off-time of the transistor, the magnetic flux of the transformer has to
reduce to zero. The transformer core is demagnetized via N1 and the primary
diodes, to the input voltage Vin. Therefore the demagnetisation needs the same
time interval as the on-time of the transistor. For this the minimum off-time has
to be as long as the on-time. This means that the maximum duty cycle t1/T for
this converter may never be higher than 50%.
The voltage V3 is therefore a pulse-width-modulated voltage which jumps

between 0 and Vin·N2/N1. The Low-Pass filter, formed by the inductor and the
output capacitor, produces an average value from V3. For continuous mode
(IL never becomes zero) this leads to:
Due to the fact that the duty cycle t1/T cannot be greater that 50%, a condition
for the turns ratio emerges:
For the calculation of the inductor L, the same rules as for the Buck Converter
can be used. One also distinguishes between discontinuous and continuous
mode, depending on whether or not the inductor current falls to zero during the
off-time of the transistor.
The output voltage depends only on the duty cycle and the input voltage, it is
load independent. The inductor current IL has a triangular shape and its
average value is determined by the load. The change in inductor current ΔI L is
dependent on L and can be calculated with the help of Faraday's Law.
The change in inductor current is load independent. The output current Iout is
taken to be the average value of the inductor current IL.
during every switching cycle. This mode is called continuous mode (see
to the value of Vout. The diode-junction capacitance forms a resonant circuit
with the inductance, which is activated by the voltage jump across the diode D3.
The voltage V3 then oscillates and fades away.
Illustration 2: Operating modes of the Two Transistor Forward Converter
Tips
inductor.
cycle t1/T = 0.5 cannot be completely reached).
VF = 0.7 (Diode Forward-voltage) ΔIL = 0.4Iout
,
HALF-BRIDGE PUSH-PULL CONVERTER
ideal switches.

Note:
Application
The Half-Bridge Push-Pull Converter belongs to the primary switched
for output powers up to 1kW.
Function principals
Illustration 1: Half-Bridge Push-Pull Converter
The Push-Pull converter drives the high-frequency transformer with an AC

voltage, where the negative as well as the positive half swing transfers energy.
The capacitor-bridge generates, in its centre point, a voltage of ½ Vin.
The primary transformer voltage V1 can be +½ Vin, -½ Vin or zero depending on
whether the upper transistor, the lower transistor or neither is on.
On the secondary side, the AC voltage is rectified, so that V3 is a pulse-width-
modulated voltage which switches between ½·Vin·(N2/N1) and zero. Due to the
rectification, the pulse-frequency of V3 is equal to 2· f .
The Low-Pass filter, formed by the inductor L and the output capacitor Cout,
produces the average value of V3. For continuous mode (IL never becomes zero)
this leads to:
The Duty cycle of this converter may theoretically increase to 100%. In practice
this is not possible because the serial connected transistors, T1 and T2, have to
be switched with a time difference to avoid a short circuit of the input supply.
Due to the fact that the duty cycle t1/T can theoretically increase to 100%, it
follows for the turns ratio that:
For the allocation of the inductor L, the same rules as for the Buck
Converter can be used. One also distinguishes
between discontinuous and continuous mode, depending on whether or not
the inductor current falls to zero during the on-time of the transistor.
 In continuous mode the output voltage depends only on the duty cycle
and the input voltage, it is load independent.
The inductor current IL has a triangular shape and its average value is
determined by the load. The change in inductor current ΔIL is dependent
on L and can be calculated with the help of Faraday's Law.
 The change in inductor current is load independent. The output

current Iout is taken to be the average value of the inductor current IL.
For a small load current, namely if Iout < ΔIL/2, the current will fall to zero
during every period. This is what is known as discontinuous mode. In this
case the calculations stated above are no longer valid.
to the value of Vout. The diode junction capacitance of the secondary rectifier
forms a resonant circuit with the inductance, which is activated by the voltage
jump at the rectifier. The voltage V3 then oscillates and fades away.
Illustration 2: Operating modes of the Half-Bridge Push-Pull Converter
Tips
inductor.
cycle t1/T = 1 cannot be completely reached).
ΔIL = 0.4Iout
FULL-BRIDGE PUSH-PULL CONVERTER
ideal switches.

Note:
from Vin_min = 110V to Vin_max = 360V.
normally from Vin_min = 360V to Vin_max = 400V.
Application
The Full-Bridge Push-Pull Converter belongs to the primary switched

for very high output powers.
Function principles
Illustration 1: Full-Bridge Push-Pull Converter
The Push-Pull converter drives the high-frequency transformer with an AC

voltage, where the negative as well as the positive half swing transfers energy.
The primary transformer voltage V1 can be +Vin, -Vin or zero depending on which
pair of transistors (T1,T4 or T2,T3) are turned on or off.
On the secondary side, the AC voltage is rectified, so that V3 is a pulse-width-
modulated control voltage which switches between Vin.(N2/N1) and zero. Due to
the rectification, the pulse-frequency of V3 is equal to 2· f .
The Low-Pass filter, formed by the inductor L and the output capacitor Cout,
produces the average value of V3. For continuous mode (IL never becomes zero)
this leads to:
The Duty cycle of this converter may theoretically increase to 100%. In practice
this is not possible because the serial connected transistors T1 and T2, have to
be switched with a time difference to avoid a short circuit of the input supply.
Due to the fact that the duty cycle t1/T can theoretically increase to 100%, a
condition for the turns ratio emerges:
For the allocation of the inductor L, the same rules as for the Buck
Converter can be used. One also distinguishes
between discontinuous and continuous mode, depending on whether or not
the inductor current falls to zero during the on-time of the transistor.
 In continuous mode the output voltage depends only on the duty cycle
and the input voltage, it is load independent.
The inductor current IL has a triangular shape and its average value is
determined by the load. The change in inductor current ΔIL is dependent
on L and can be calculated with the help of Faraday's Law.
During continuous mode, with Vout = Vin · (N2/N1) · t1/T and a chosen switching
 The change in inductor current is load independent. The output

current Iout is taken to be the average value of the inductor current IL.
For a small load current, namely if Iout < ΔIL/2, the current will fall to zero
during every period. This is what is known as discontinuous mode. In this
case the calculations stated above are no longer valid.
to the value of Vout. The diode junction capacitance of the secondary rectifier
forms a resonant circuit with the inductance, which is activated by the voltage
jump at the rectifier. The voltage V3 then oscillates and fades away.
Illustration 2: Operating modes of the Full-Bridge Push-Pull Converter
Tips
inductor.
cycle t1/T = 1 cannot be completely reached).
ΔIL = 0.4Iout
Power Factor Pre-regulator

 The switch mode power supply operates within a certain AC voltage-input
range i.e. between Vin_min and Vin_max.
 The program needs the output values for the DC voltage Vout and Iout.
 The switching frequency f is the operating frequency of the transistor
(not the mains frequency!).
 If the field "proposal" is activated, the choking coil L is proposed as well
as a value for the output capacitor C. These are chosen such that IL =
0.4Îin_max for Vin_min, and such that ΔVout = 5% of Vout.
(Iin = Iout.Vout/Vin)
change L as well as C. If this is the case, the field "proposal" is
deactivated automatically.
Application:
The European standards EN61000-3-2 define limits for the harmonics of the
line current. This concerns appliances, which may be sold to the general public
and have an input power of > 75W (special regulations see EN61000-3-2).
Some limit values from this standard are given in the following table.
Input Power 75 to 600W Input power > 600W
Harmonic-
Allowable maximum value of maximum value of
order
harmonic current harmonic current
n
per Watt (mA/W) / maximum (A) (A)
3 3.4 / 2.30 2.30
5 1.9 / 1.14 1.14
7 1.0 / 0.77 0.77
9 0.5 / 0.4 0.40
11 0.35 / 0.33 0.33
In practice this standard means that for many applications a mains rectifier
with smoothing is not allowed because of the amount of harmonics (see
Illustration 1).
Illustration 1: Direct half-wave rectification: The mains has high upper

harmonic content
The Power Factor Pre-regulator is a switch mode power supply which is

connected in front of the voltage stabilizing SMPS in order to keep the line
current approximately sinusoidal. The Power Factor Pre-regulator is also
commonly known as a PFC, which stands for Power Factor Correction.
Function principals
In order to keep the line current approximately sinusoidal, a boost converter

can be used (see Illustration 2). In this case the boost converter is called
a Power Factor Pre-regulator (PFC).In comparison to the boost converter the
PFC is controlled in a different way: The output voltage is higher than the
maximum input voltage as for the boost converter (this is 360V in the European
mains), but the transistor is turned on and off in a way, such that a sinusoidal
input current is achieved instead of an exact constant output voltage. This is
achieved by means of a certain switching method. By means of a suitable
regulator, the inductor current is driven such that it is proportional to the
shape of the input voltage |Vin|. The inductor current IL follows, in a 'saw-tooth'
fashion, the shape of the sinusoidal input voltage. The saw-tooth current ripple
can be reduced by enlarging the inductance or by increasing the switching
frequency. However, the inductor value may not be increased such that the
current-slope diL/dt could not follow the sinusoid. The output voltage of the
power factor pre-regulator is usually regulated to an average value of Vout =
380VDC with Vin = 230VAC.
Illustration 2: Boost Converter as Power Factor Pre-regulator
Illustration 3: The inductor current IL
Currents, Voltages and Powers
For the following analysis it will be assumed that the inductor current is a
pulsating sinusoid (the superimposed saw tooth current ripple is neglected),
and is in phase with the input voltage Vin. The output voltage is a constant DC
voltage because of the very high value output capacitor C. The output power is
constant for the considered time interval. Illustration 4 shows the voltage,
current and power curves of the PFC in the time domain.
For the output power Pout this leads to:
and for the input power Pout(t):
The input power consists of a DC component

and an AC component
The DC component is equal to the output power Pout:
The PFC is taken to be loss free but actually an efficiency of 95% is realistic.
With this efficiency, the input power emerges to:
The r.m.s. value of the input current has its maximum when the input voltage
is at its minimal value, i.e. minimal mains voltage:
This value will be required for the calculation of the inductor current later.
Illustration 4:
Time frame course of the currents, voltages and powers
in the Power Factor Pre-regulator
Calculation of the inductor L:
The PFC operates in continuous mode. The magnitude of the current ripple due
to the switching is called ΔIL.
The current ripple amounts to (see Boost Converter):
For L it follows that:
Usually, one chooses:
The maximum inductor current then amounts to:
Calculation of the output capacitor C:
The output voltage ripple will be calculated with the help of a power balance. It
is assumed that the PFC is loss free. The output capacitor is charged by the
pulsating input power and discharged by a constant output power, (see
illustration 4). The output power is equal to the average of the input power. The
AC component of the input power causes the voltage ripple ΔV out. This leads to:
Through integration, for ΔW, it follows that (see illustration 4):

This implies:
The magnitude of the voltage ripple ΔVout caused by ΔW, depends on the output
voltage.
For the voltage ripple ΔVout it follows that:
as well as for the output capacitor C:
Usually, one chooses ΔVout = 5% of Vout = 380V. This results in a voltage ripple of
+/- 10V. For 50/60Hz - mains it follows that the output capacitor should
be: C = 0.5µF/W
CHOKING COIL
Use of the choking-coil/flyback transformer core tables
Choking coils and the transformer of the flyback converter must store energy.
The stored energy is stored as magnetic field-energy in the ferrite-core, more
exactly: stored in the air-gap.
The energy which has to be stored amounts to:
The values L and Imax have been determined on the simulation side.
In order to choose a suitable core, the following requirements for the core must
be considered,
 that the magnetic energy storage capacity is at least as big as the above
calculated energy ½ ·L I2max and
 that the core is as small as possible, so that it is inexpensive.
The core table for the selection of suitable cores includes 11 columns, and 12
for the flyback transformer. These are:
 NO.: current number to the list of different cores
The next three columns serve the identification of the core. They are not
required for calculations within the program.
 Core: Core type

 Identification: Further identification-charictoristics, e.g. air-gap,
material or order code
 Manufacturer: Manufacturer of the core, so more information about the
core can be requested if required
The next four columns contain data from the data sheet, which are required by
the program for the calculations.
 AL/NH: The magnetic conductance. With this one can calculate the
number of turns needed for L.
 Ae/mm2: The effective magnetic cross section of the core.
 le/mm: The effective magnetic length of the core.
 Amin/mm2: Minimal core cross-section to calculate the maximum
magnetic flux-density.
The next four columns are calculated by the program
 Wmax/mWs: The magnetic energy storage capacity of the core, for a

maximum magnetic flux density of 0.3T
 Bmax/mT: The maximum magnetic flux density in the core. This
magnetic flux density is calculated for the worst case scenario within the
input voltage range Vin and nominal load. It is calculated for the minimal
cross-section area of the core Amin. The maximum flux density is given as
an additional important piece of information in order to help the user to
select a suitable core. In order to influence Bmax you can change L or
ΔIL on the simulation-side.
 N1: The number of turns for the required inductance L, as well as
for L1 of the flyback converter.
 N2: The secondary number of turns required for the flyback converter.
This column only appears if a flyback converter is calculated. To change
the secondary number of turns you can change the ratio N1/N2 on the
simulation side. If the ratio is changed it will influence the maximum
drain-source voltage of the transistor. The lower the ratio N1/N2 the
smaller the drain-source voltage of the transistor Vds_max will be.
The program suggests suitable cores:
 Green writing: Very well-suited cores, whose magnetic energy storage

capacity Wmax exceeds the required value by a marginal quantity and also
has the smallest possible core-volume. The maximum flux-density in
these cores approximately reach the saturation point of 0.3T.
 Brown writing: Well suited cores, whose magnetic energy storage
capacity clearly lies over the required value. Its core-volume is up to twice
as large as the smallest very-well suited core. The maximum flux density
for these cores usually lie between 0.2...0.25T.
 Black writing: Suitable cores, whose magnetic energy storage capacity lie
very far over the required value. These cores are uneconomically large.
 Gray writing: Inappropriate cores. Under the condition that Bmax < 0.3T
at every point in the core, the magnetic energy storage capacity lies under
the necessary value. The column "Bmax/mT" gives information about the
actual maximum flux density. If the core material chosen by you has a
higher flux density capibility, you can use this core at your own
discretion.
Cores can also be added: Under the core table are seven input-fields. The fields
'core', 'ID' and 'manufacturer', all serve for the identification of the core and are
irrelevant for calculations in the program. The fields 'Al', 'Ae', 'le', and 'Amin'
must be filled corresponding to the data sheet. To complete your input click
"ADD". The inputed core will be added to the table and treated in the same way
as the rest of the pre-determined cores in the table.
Note:
The Wire-diameters proposed by us as well as the Wire-cross-section is always
for a declared current density of 3A/mm2.
Calculation of choking-coils and flyback transformers
On the simulation side an inductor and the related inductor current proposed
by us or chosen by you, was calculated. The inductor and the maximum
current determine the election of a suitable core.
Choking-coils shall store energy. The stored energy amounts to: W =

½ L I 2max. This energy is stored in the form of magnetic field energy. In fact, as
well as being stored in the ferrite it is also stored in the air-gap of the core (see
right of illustration).
 The required physical size of a choking-coil is approximately proportional

to the amount of energy to be stored.
The field energy in the storage inductor amounts to:

(1)
The magnetic flux-density B is continuous and is approximately the same in the
ferrite and the air gap, i.e. B ≈ BFe ≈ Bg. The magnetic field-strength H is not
continuous, it is higher in the air-gap rather than the ferrite by a factor of μ r.
This is introduced in equation (1), which results in B = μ0μr ·H,
IFe = lFe ·A and Vg = g ·A:
(2)
μr in the ferrite amounts to approximately 1000...4000. The effective magnetic
core-length only goes into the energy calculation with l Fe/μr. Therefore one can
say that with usual core-dimensions energy is stored mainly within the air-gap.
 This leads to the following: Choking coils need an air-gap. The energy is
stored within this gap.
Since the energy is stored in the air-gap, one requires a certain air-gap volume
in order to store the demanded energy. The maximum capable flux-density
within customary ferrite amounts to approximately Bmax = 0.3T
 Therefore it follows that: The bigger the air-gap the larger the magnetic
energy storage capacity.
The manufacturers of ferrite cores give substitutional values for the term
(lFe/μr+g)·A) in equation (2), namely
 effective magnetic core-cross-section Ae,

 the effective magnetic core-length le and
 the effective permeability μe.
This implies:
The value μe can be calculated by means of magnetic conductance AL:
The magnetic energy storage capacity then amounts to:

Therefore from the table-values Ae, le, AL and Amin, our program first calculates
the magnetic energy storage capacity, and from the result of this produces
suggestions for suitable cores.
The number of turns N1 are calculated with the help of the magnetic
conductance AL:
Calculation of wire-diameter:
The current density S of the winding can be chosen between 2 and 5 A/mm 2,
(depending on the thermal resistance of the transformer). For this it follows that
for the wire-cross-section and the wire-diameter:
Note:
The wire-diameters proposed by us are calculated for a current density of
3A/mm2.
Tips
 Don't use cores which are too small (Grey Writing) at first, unless you
know what you are doing.
 For high frequencies (>50kHz) and larger current ripples (continuous
mode) you should select somewhat larger cores (Brown writing). With
these the change in flux-density is smaller and with it the hysteresis
losses.
The columns Wmax, Bmax, and N1 are calculated as follows: Let W be the
maximum energy, that the core has to store. This energy amounts to W =
½ L I2. From the data-sheet of the core, the following values are required for
further calculation:
 AL is the magnetic conductance
 Ae is the effective core cross section
 le is the effective core-length
 Amin is the minimum core-cross-section for calculating the maximum
magnetic flux density
From this it follows:
 Wmax: The maximum magnetic energy storage capacity of the core

Wmax is the amount of energy that a core can handle, if the maximum flux-
density in the minimal cross-section Amin is exactly B = 0.3T.
For the core selection Wmax must be larger than W = ½ L I2. A core is
economically favorable if it can handle the necessary energy and also have
a volume which is as small as possible. According to their
volumes Ae·le cores are marked with a colour:
o Cores which are too small (where B in Amin would exceed 0.3T) are
written in bright-grey.
o Cores, whose effective volumes are as small as possible are written
in green.
o Cores that lie 50 to 100% over the smallest volume, are written in
brown.
o Cores, which are even bigger (uneconomically big) are written in
black.
 Bmax: Maximum flux-density, in the smallest core-cross-section Amin.
It amounts to:
 N1: The number of turns of the inductor or of the flyback converter

primary coil.
The number of turns N1 amounts to:
N2: Secondary number of turns of the flyback converter transformer.
N2 is calculated by using the chosen turns ratio N1/N2:
Reference:
http://schmidt-walter-schaltnetzteile.de/smps_e/smps_e.html#sinn

03design Smps

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03design Smps

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SMPS stands for "Switched-Mode Power Supply," which is a type of

Here's a detailed explanation of how an SMPS works:

**1. Rectification:** The SMPS begins by rectifying the incoming AC voltage

**3. Switching:** The heart of an SMPS is a semiconductor switching device

**4. Transformation:** The high-frequency square wave is fed into a

**5. Rectification and Filtering (Again):** The high-frequency AC output from

**6. Voltage Regulation:** The SMPS may include feedback control

**7. Output Filtering:** Additional output filtering components, such as

The advantages of SMPS are as follows:

- **Regulation:** SMPS can offer precise voltage regulation, ensuring a stable

However, SMPS also has some drawbacks:

- **Complexity:** Designing and troubleshooting SMPS circuits can be more

- **Electromagnetic Interference (EMI):** The high-frequency switching in SMPS

In summary, an SMPS is a power supply technology that efficiently converts

Designing a Switched-Mode Power Supply (SMPS) involves several steps and

I. Determine Design Specifications:

4. Load Regulation: Specify the allowable variation in the output voltage

7. Protection Features: Decide on protection features like over-current, over-

II. Select Topology:

1. Buck Converter: For step-down voltage conversion.

2. Boost Converter: For step-up voltage conversion.

3. Buck-Boost Converter: For both step-up and step-down conversion.

4. Flyback Converter: Provides galvanic isolation and is commonly used in

5. Forward Converter: Offers higher power handling with isolation.

6. Push-Pull Converter: Provides isolation and is suitable for medium to high-

7. Full-Bridge Converter: Offers high power handling and isolation.

III. Component Selection:

1. Switching Components: Choose appropriate switches (transistors or

2. Inductors: Select inductors based on the required inductance, current

3. Output Capacitors: Choose capacitors for output filtering, considering

4. Control IC: Select a suitable control IC or microcontroller to regulate the

5. Feedback Components: Determine the feedback components like resistors

IV. Control and Regulation:

1. Implement a control loop using pulse-width modulation (PWM) to regulate

V. Magnetic Component Design:

VI. Simulation and Analysis:

1. Use simulation software like SPICE or specialized SMPS simulation tools

2. Evaluate key parameters such as efficiency, output voltage ripple, and

VII. PCB Layout and Thermal Management:

1. Design the PCB layout carefully to minimize noise, reduce parasitic

2. Implement thermal management techniques, such as adding heat sinks

VIII. Prototyping and Testing:

IX. EMC Compliance and EMI Mitigation:

1. Ensure that your SMPS design complies with electromagnetic

1. Document the SMPS design, including schematics, PCB layout,

2. Create a bill of materials (BOM) for production purposes.

XI. Mass Production and Testing:

2. Perform rigorous testing on production units to verify their performance

Designing an SMPS is a complex task that requires careful consideration of

How to Design an SMPS Circuit: Basic Instructions

Step 1: Determine the Input and Output Voltage

Step 2: Determine the Output Current

Step 3: Calculate the Power

Step 5: Calculate the Duty Cycle

Duty Cycle = Output Voltage / Input Voltage

Step 6: Calculate the Inductance

L = (Input Voltage - Output Voltage) x Duty Cycle / (Switching Frequency x

Step 7: Determine the Capacitance

C = Output Current / (2 x π x Switching Frequency x Ripple Voltage)

Step 8: Determine the Switching Transistor

Step 9: Determine the Diode

Step 10: Determine the Capacitors

1. Rectification: The SMPS begins by rectifying the incoming AC voltage

3. Switching: The heart of an SMPS is a semiconductor switching device

4. Transformation: The high-frequency square wave is fed into a

5. Rectification and Filtering (Again): The high-frequency AC output from

6. Voltage Regulation: The SMPS may include feedback control

7. Output Filtering: Additional output filtering components, such as

- Regulation: SMPS can offer precise voltage regulation, ensuring a stable

- Complexity: Designing and troubleshooting SMPS circuits can be more

- Electromagnetic Interference (EMI): The high-frequency switching in SMPS