St Xavier’s College, Ranchi VAC1- Understanding India

Unit 1 : Introducing India

History and Economics:

History is also closely related to Economics. As the activities of a man in society are very
closely related with the economic matters, the historian of any period must possess at least a
rudimentary knowledge of the economics. In fact, the economic history of any period is an
important branch of history and its understanding is absolutely essential for the proper
understanding of history of any period. There has been a new orientation in our historical
outlook from the days of the materialistic interpretation of history by Marx and such class
struggle, man’s skill in earning, arts and crafts, trade, business and commerce, land revenue,
taxes and a host of all other economic activities of the past figure very prominently in history.
Therefore, a new set of economic history by the use of economic historians have emerged who
try to study the economic history by the use of the economic tools. At present, history is so
closely interlinked with the study of economic problems that it would not be possible to
reconstruct history without knowledge of the relevant economic problems.

History and Sociology:

History and sociology are intimately related and a number of sociologists like Auguste Comte
are also important figure in the development of historical studies. Karl Marx was also a great
historian and sociologist. Both History and Sociology are concerned with the study of man in
society and differed only with regard to their approach.
In the recent years it was realized that a fruitful interaction between the two disciplines was
possible and Emile Durkheim, Max Weber acknowledge the initial dependence of sociology
upon history. Although, history too benefits from the synthesis produced by the sociologists.
Sociologists exercised profound influence on the study of history by developing the certain
narrow areas of human activity. They adopted the sampling techniques and develop their tools
with a view to minimize the subjective element. In brief, sociology is helping history to study
‘social dynamics’ which is a study not of society at rest but constantly in social change and
development social processes and social causation are giving a new perspective to history.
India too our historians are now giving increasing attention to social history.

The Land of India: Geographical Setting; Physical and Natural Environment

Indian subcontinent is a large peninsula. The term peninsula refers to is a piece of land that is
almost entirely surrounded by water but is connected to the mainland on one side. In the north,
the Himalayan mountain separate India from the rest of Asia while the land is surrounded by
the Bay of Bengal in the east Arabian Sea in the west, Indian Ocean in the south and the
Lakshadweep Sea to the southwest. The seventh largest country in the world with a
geographical total area of 3.2 million sq. kms India measures 3214 kms (1997 miles) from
north to south and 2933 kms 1822 miles) from east to west. It has a land frontier of 15,200 kms
(9445 miles) and a coastline of 7,516.6 kms (4671 miles).

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India lies on the Indian Plate, the northern portion of the Indo-Australian Plate, whose
continental crust forms the Indian subcontinent. The country is situated north of the equator
between 8°04' to 37°06' north latitude and 68°07' to 97°25' east longitude and is surrounded by
the Bay of Bengal in the east, the Arabian Sea in the west and the Indian Ocean to the south.
Also, in the east lies the Bangladesh. In the north west Afghanistan and Pakistan border India.
The Gulf of Manner and the Palk Straits separate India from Sri Lanka. The Andaman and
Nicobar island in the Bay of Bengal and Lakshadweep in the Arabian sea are parts of the
territory of India. There are as many as 200 islands in Andaman alone, extending for 350 km.
There are 19 islands in Nicobar group. The Arabian sea consists of the Lakshadweep group.
They are formed on a coral deposit off the Kerala coast .The southern most of this lies just to
the north of the Maldives island which is an independent territory

The Indian landscape, as we know it, evolved before historical time. India's distinct geological
zones and formations played a decisive role in every period of its history. The Himalayan
mountains, the hill ranges, the mineral wealth, the major and seasonal rivers, deserts, lush
plains, jungles, and the peninsula bordered by the sea-all had profound impacts on the history
of multiple peoples over the centuries. The diverse geographical features influenced India's
climate, the evolution of its flora and fauna, and created the conditions to support human
habitation. Each geographical zone enabled the formation of distinct human communities, their
cultures, traditions, and histories.

The making of the Indian subcontinent took several billion years, and was punctuated by
dramatic and tumultuous events. Some 4.5 billion years ago our planet consisted of a core of
molten lava, wrapped in- side successive layers of varying rock. On reaching the outer layer it
formed a solid mantle with enormous continental plates that moved and floated imperceptibly.
Above this mantle the continental and oceanic crust formed-on which all life now exists.

In geological terms, India formed a part of a succession of supercontinents. About 280-230

million years ago it was Pangaea, which later fragmented into plates of varying sizes and shapes
that drifted across the earth's surface, forming the land mass of the various continents that are
known today. This phenomenon of the movement of continental plates is called plate tectonics.
By about 180 million years ago, Australia, India, Africa, Antarctica, South America, and
Arabia were all joined in a single land mass called Gondwanaland. On Gondwanaland, the
portion of land that was to become India developed distinctive features. With a bedrock over
3.5 billion years old, India is one of the oldest land masses in the world. Bengaluru, the IT
capital of India and a centre of innovation today, sits on this ancient rock known as the Dharwar
Craton.

Another important feature of this land mass is the Aravalli Range, Asia's oldest hill range,
estimated to be more than 2.5 billion years old. Wind and water have slowly eroded these
mountains and worn them down to form rounded hills. More recently in geological time, the
Aravallis played an important role in dividing the desert of western India from the northern
plains. On the northernmost part of the Aravallis are the remains of over sixteen ancient cities
of Delhi that were founded at this strategic location.

South of the Vindhya Ranges, there appears to have once been a seaway that separated part of
Gondwanaland from the land that was to become peninsular India. Some 105 million years

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ago, the seaway began to disappear as the land moved slowly to fill the gap and fuse with the
northern land mass. This sea supported rich marine life, evidence of which is seen today in the
fossilized coral reefs on the banks of the Narmada River, the marine mammal fossils
encountered in the rocks of Kutch, and the seashell fossils found in the yellow sandstone of the
Thar Desert.

South of this region are the billion-year-old Vindhya Ranges, a collection of ranges that today
run from east to west and separate the Gangetic basin from the Deccan in the south. As the
great forests of Pangaea fell 250 million years ago and were covered by sediment, they were
compacted to create vast coal deposits in the area of Bihar, Odisha, and West Bengal. These
form 98 per cent of India's coal reserves and provide over 60 per cent of India's energy needs
today.
As the land came together and the seaway gradually disappeared, vast quantities of shell
creatures from this seaway were crushed and pressed, forming layers of chalk powder that
became limestone. In other areas, heat and pressure transformed chalk into solid marble stone
to form the multicoloured marble cliffs on the Narmada River, at the very centre of India.
Likewise, other deposits of chalk in Rajasthan metamorphosed to form extensive marble
deposits in Makrana. It was this fine, high quality white marble from the quarries of Makrana
that was used to build the Taj Mahal in Agra in the seventeenth century.

Where once the sea lay and disappeared, river valleys formed, causing the Godavari to move
eastward to- wards the Bay of Bengal, and the Narmada and Tapti to flow in a westerly
direction. All these features evolved over 2.5 billion years before the land that was to become
India had even taken shape, as it was still a part of the larger land mass.

Around 150 million years ago, an island, the Indian Shield, consisting of the Indian
subcontinent, together with the Seychelles and Madagascar, slowly began to separate from the
larger land mass of Gondwanaland. As it divided, it left behind what was to become Africa,
Antarctica, and Australia. India separated from Madagascar 90 million years ago. As the vast
island moved northward, it embarked on one of the longest and fastest journeys undertaken by
any land mass on this planet.

Sixty-six million years ago a huge comet or asteroid 10 kilometres across, hit the earth,
triggering a major extinction. Out of this cataclysmic event only a few creatures survived, such
as crocodiles, turtles, and many of the sea creatures. Small mammals that survived gradually
evolved into a diverse range of creatures from the tiniest mammal-the pygmy shrew-to the blue
whale that is the largest creature ever to live on the planet. Today there are more than 11,000
species of birds that are descendants of the dinosaurs; 1,300 species of birds are found across
South Asia. Plants with seeds endured this event. Other species that survive from this period
include many amphibians and insect species such as dragon- flies that once shared the same
landscape as the dinosaurs.

On its journey northward at about the same time as the asteroid hit, the island experienced
massive volcanic activity that caused vast eruptions on the land and in the sea. These outflows
left their mark, and created what is known as the Deccan Traps (from the Swedish word for
'steps'). This was one of the largest series of lava flows in the earth's history and successive
outpourings created layer upon layer or steps of lava, totalling some 2 kilometres in depth. It

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probably took place over a relatively short period of 1.5 to 4 million years. The cooling and
subsequent hardening of the lava flows created the 500,000 square kilometre region that
includes the Western Ghats and extends across the Deccan Plateau, retain- ing its layered form
created by the lava. The plateau is rich in mineral wealth and became a fertile agri- cultural
region, still supporting millions of people in the states of Maharashtra, Andhra, Telangana,
Karnataka, and beyond.

The Himalayas are considered to be 'young' mountains. It is here in the Himalayas that the
world's highest peaks are found-Mount Everest, approximately 8,848 metres, in Nepal. K2,
measuring 8,611 metres, is the second highest mountain and lies in the Karakoram Range in
Pakistan. The third highest peak is Kanchenjunga at 8,586 metres, located on the border of
Nepal and Sikkim, in India. The Himalayan mountain range continues to grow as the Indian
land mass moves northward at the rate of 5 centimetres per year. This has made the Himalayas
and neighbouring regions susceptible to earthquakes. The people who live in this region have
learnt to design their homes and adapt their lifestyles to the nature of these mountains. At the
same time that the island was moving northward, the northern and central portions of the
Western Ghats also experienced severe volcanic disruptions. In contrast, the southern Western
Ghats were free of this activity. It is said that the relative peace in this region offered refuge to
many species.

As the Indian Shield continued drifting northward it encountered the Tethys Sea that existed
between India and the Eurasian land mass. Around 55-50 million years ago, the collision
between the Indian plate and Eurasian land mass began. As the two crashed into one another,
the Indian plate buckled and was pushed beneath the Eurasian plate. The uplift created the
Himalayas, the Karakoram, the Hindu Kush, and other great mountain ranges, with deep
valleys, gorges, jagged ridges, and mountain passes. Today, the remains of the ancient seabed
of the Tethys forms the sparsely populated southern edge of the Tibetan Plateau to the north of
the Himalayas. In the high valleys of the Himalayas there is abundant evidence of ancient
marine life. Vast quantities of sea creatures are found here. Fossil evidence of the ancient ocean
is found in the Zabarwan Hills a few kilometres from Srinagar in Kashmir. In 1956, at the very
summit of Mount Everest, a Swiss climber discovered the fossilized remains of a sea lily
(crinoid). India is today a distinctive part of Asia in the northern hemisphere. The highest
mountains in the world form its northern barrier, and are shared between India's neighbours-
Pakistan, Tibet, Nepal, and Bhutan. Common geographical features created over millions of
years are also shared with Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. This story of the creation of the Indian
landscape spanning 5 billion years had a significant impact on the climate and the cultural
history of the subcontinent.

Enormous mountain ranges stretch from west to east and consist of different landscapes
dictated by varying altitudes and rainfall. The lower regions of the Himalayas are well watered
with forests and rich agricultural pockets in valleys and on terraced slopes, as found in
Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh. Higher regions, with a
harsher climate, have a lower diversity of plant and animal species and fewer human
settlements. The northern slopes of the Himalayas, the Trans- Himalayan region, have less
precipitation making them less hospitable and yet having their own distinctive cultures- acted
as found in Ladakh and northern Himachal Pradesh. The Himalayas have as a protective barrier
throughout history. There are also a few mountain passes that have linked communities,
resulting in cultural exchanges, trade, and ideas for more than 2,000 years. The Himalayas and
Karakoram ranges are home to over 10,000 glaciers including the Siachen Glacier which is one

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of the largest outside the polar regions. These are rapidly retreating due to the effects of climate
change.

After the last Ice Age ended about 11,550 years ago, the region from the Indus to the east of
Bengal be- came wetter and forested, and was home to rhinoceros and elephants. Today rhinos
and elephants are limited to small reserves in the Terai grasslands of the Himalayan foothills
and in Assam. Some northern rivers still support small populations of blind river dolphins and
the gharial, a fish-eating crocodilian, and are the winter home for millions of migratory birds
from the steppes of Central Asia, Mongolia, and eastern China. Tigers likely entered the plains
from the east about 12,000 years ago, and spread south across the peninsula.

The Thar Desert is the eastern end of the arid band that stretches from Morocco on the Atlantic
coast through Arabia and across the Indus. Nomadic communities, traders, travellers with
camel caravans followed ancient routes across the desert. The Silk Route that linked China to
Europe with branches into western India brought trade in precious items of spices and gems,
and the cultural exchange of ideas and inventions. The Thar is surprisingly quite densely
populated. Recently, water brought by canals has replaced the pre- historic rivers of this region
to support cultivation in this arid zone. There are several traditional com- munities that continue
to live in the desert, while maintaining their own characteristic lifestyles: some settled and
others are still nomadic. Kingdoms and princely states of the desert quarried the sandstone
outcrops that provided stone for the construction of forts and cities such as Jaisalmer, Pokhran,
and Jodhpur positioned strategically on these trade routes.

The semi-arid zone is a band that stretches from the foothills of the Himalayas to the Arabian
Sea covering the states of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan east of the Aravallis, and most of
Gujarat. This region receives little benefit from the monsoon rains, and was originally
grassland-with animals such as the antelope, gazelle, and the Asiatic lion. Today, much of this
region is irrigated by canals and wells that serve to make it a rich agricultural region, with
wheat, cotton, and groundnut cultivation.

MAJOR PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS

1. The Himalayan Mountains

2. The Northern Plains (Indus-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plain)
3. The Peninsular Plateau
4. The Indian Desert
5. The Coastal Plains and
6. The Islands

The Himalayas

The Himalayas and the associated mountains arcs girdling the sub-continent on the stretch in a
consistent north west- south east direction for about 2400 km between the gorges of the Indus
and the Tsango-Bhramaputra. The section between the Indus and the Sutlej and the Kali is
termed as Kumaon Himalayas. The other two sections between the Kali and the Tista and
between the latter river and the Dihangare described as the Nepal and the Assam Himalayas.
Kanchanjunga (8598 Mtrs) is the highest mountain peak in India. The Greater Himalayas which
have an average altitude of 6000 m have within them almost all the prominent peaks such the

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Everest (8848m) , Kanchenjunga (8598m) Nanga Parbat (8126m) ,Nanda devi (7817m) and
Namcha parbat (7756m).

• Himalayas northern borders of India. These mountain ranges run in a west-east

direction from the Indus to the Brahmaputra.
• They form an arc, which covers a distance of about 2,400Km.
• Their width varies from 400km Kashmir to150km in Arunachal Pradesh.
• The Himalaya consists of three parallel ranges in its longitudinal extent.
• The range lying to the south of the Himadri forms the most rugged mountain system
and is known as Himachal or lesser Himalaya.
• The ranges are mainly composed of highly compressed and altered rocks.
• The outer most range of the Himalayas is called the Shivalik’s.
• The Brahmaputra marks the eastern most boundary of the Himalayas.

The Northern Plains (Indus-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plain)

The great plain of India is formed by the Indus, Ganga and the Brahmaputra rivers. The plain
extends for 3200 km between the mouths of the Ganga and the Indus, all along the foot of the
mountain rim, with a width varying from 150 to 300 km. The longitudinal extent from the
banks of the Ravi and the Sutlej to the Ganga delta alone is of 2400 km. The plain is narrowest
in Assam and broadens towards the west. It is 160 km wide near the Rajmahal Hills and 280
km near Allahabad. The plains are alluvial in nature.

• The northern plain has been formed by the interplay of the three major river systems,
namely the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra along with their tributaries.
• This plain is formed of alluvial soil The deposition of alluvium in a vast basin lying at
the foothills of the Himalaya over millions of years, formed this fertile plain.
• It spreads over an area of 7 lakh sq km The plain being about 2400 Km long and 240
to 320 Km broad, is a densely populated physiographic division

Peninsular plateau

Rising from the alluvial plains of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, south of the Yamuna Ganga line,
the great Indian plateau extends towards the south to encompass the whole of Peninsula. With
a general elevation of 600-900m, the plateau makes an irregular triangle with its concave base
lying between Delhi ridge and Rajmahal hills and the Apex formed by Kanya Kumari . The
outlying projections of the peninsular plateau presented by the Aravallis, Rajmahal and
Shillong hills convey some idea of its original northerly limits.

The location of another fragment of the peninsular block in the Shillong plateau gives the
indication of the possible connection. The Shillong Plateau a highly dissected and jungly tract
descends in a deep slope towards the Surma valley. The northern outliers are represented by
the Mikir and the Rengma hills.

• The Peninsular Plateau The Peninsular plateau is a table land composed of the old
crystalline, igneous and metamorphic rocks.
• It was formed due to the breaking and drifting of the Gondwana land and thus, making
it a part of the oldest landmass.

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• The part of the Peninsular plateau lying to the north of the Narmada river covering a
major area of the Malwa plateau is known as the Central Highlands.
• The Vindhyan range is bounded by the Central Highlands on the south and the Aravalis
on the northwest.
• The Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats mark the western and the eastern edges of
the Deccan Plateau respectively.

The Indian Desert

The Thar Desert is the eastern end of the arid band that stretches from Morocco on the Atlantic
coast through Arabia and across the Indus. Nomadic communities, traders, travellers with
camel caravans followed ancient routes cross the desert. The Silk Route that linked China to
Europe with branches to western India brought trade in precious items of spices and gems, and
he cultural exchange of ideas and inventions.

The Thar is surprisingly quite densely populated. Kingdoms and princely states of the desert
quarried the sandstone outcrops that provided stone for the construction of forts and cities such
as Jaisalmer, Pokhran, and Jodhpur positioned strategically on these trade routes. The semi-
arid zone is a band that stretches from the foothills of the Himalayas to the Arabian Sea
covering the states of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan east of the Aravallis, and most of Gujarat.
This region receives little benefit from the monsoon rains, and was originally grassland-with
animals such as the antelope, gazelle, and the Asiatic lion.

Throughout history this region was also the gateway between West and Central Asia and the
subcontinent, facilitating the movement of people and domestic livestock over thousands of
years. Indian traders have travelled through the semi-arid zone to West Asia carrying goods in
both directions. These trade routes and travellers on them have brought and took Buddhism,
Christianity and Islam to new lands. This was also the cultural crossroads for the exchange of
ideas between Greek, Roman and Persian worlds.

THE Coastal Plains

• The Peninsular plateau is flanked by stretch of narrow coastal strips, running along
the Arabian Sea on the west and the Bay of Bengal on the east.
• The western coast, sandwiched between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea, is a
narrow plain
• The plains along the Bay of Bengal are wide and level.
• Large rivers such as the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri have
formed extensive delta on this coast.
• Lake Chilika is an important feature along the eastern coast.

The Western and Eastern Ghats frame the Deccan Plateau and separate it from the sea. The
Ghats leave a narrow coastal strip that runs along the coast of the Indian peninsula. The Western
Ghats are recognized as an ecological 'hotspot', with some of the world's greatest diversities of
amphibians, snakes, mammals, insects, and birds. Many of these species are found nowhere
else on the planet. This sanctuary of many diverse species is being threatened by
overexploitation and misguided development. The well-watered and moist landscape is an
important source of spices, including indigenous pepper and cardamom that were prized in the
ancient world and brought great wealth through trade to the subcontinent.

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India's coastline from west to east covers 7,500 kilometres, with the Arabian Sea to the west,
the Bay of Bengal to the east, and the Indian Ocean in the south. The seas were rich with sea
life and provided an abundance of salt. Along this coast are an extraordinary array of both
historical and contemporary ports: Dholavira, Lothal, and Surat in Gujarat, Bombay

The Islands

Two strings of islands: the coral islands and atolls of Lakshadweep are off the Kerala coast to
the west, while to the east are the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The Andaman and Nicobar
Islands form a string of 572 islands to the east of the Bay of Bengal stretching north-south,
from about 280 kilometres south of Burma (present-day Myanmar) to the northern tip of
Sumatra. Only thirty-seven of these islands are inhabited. A few islands still have isolated
and uncontacted peoples such as the Sentinelese. The original forest cover was predominantly
rainforest with indigenous species and a mix of species from the Indian and Malayan regions.
Fourteen of the 270 bird species recorded are endemic. There are also endemic amphibians
and butterflies to be found here.

The coast and seas linked India to the world. Ancient trade routes connected the Red Sea,
Arabia, and Africa to the west, and Java, Southeast Asia, the Spice Islands, and China to the
east.

River System of India

The rivers may be classified as follows :

The Himalayan
The Deccan
The Coastal
The rivers of the inland drainage basin

1. The Himalayan Rivers

The Himalayan rivers are generally snow-fed and flow throughout the year. During the
monsoon months (June to September), the Himalayas receive very heavy rainfall and the
rivers carry the maximum amount of water, causing frequent floods. The major Himalayann
rivers include The Indus, The Ganga, and The Brahmaputra rivers.

2. The Deccan Rivers

The Deccan rivers are generally rain-fed and, therefore, fluctuate greatly in volume. A very
large number of them are non-perennial. The Peninsular drainage system is older than the
Himalayan Rivers. Some of the prominent rivers include the Godavari popularly known as the
Dakshin Ganga, the is the largest peninsular river system. The Penganga, the Indravati, the
Pranhita, and the Manjra are the major tributaries of Godavari. The Kaveri originates from the
Brahmagiri hills ( 1,341 m) located in Kogadu district of Karnataka. The Koyna, the
Tungabhadra, and the Bhima are the major tributaries of the Krishna, that flows thorugh
Anhdra Praesh, Karnataka and Maharashtra.The Narmada originates from the western flank of
the Amarkantak plateau and flows though Gujarat. Mahanadi that originates from Sihawa in
Raipur district Chhattisgarh and runs through Odisha and finally discharges its water into the
Bay of Bengal.

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3. The Coastal Rivers

The coastal rivers, especially on the west coast, are short and have limited catchment areas.
Most of these are non-perennial as well. The rivers on the inland drainage basin are few and
ephemeral.

4. The Rivers of the Inland Drainage Basin

They drain towards individual basins or salt lakes like the Sambhar or are lost in the sands,
having no outlet to the sea.

Others Geographical Facts : Climate

The Himalayan range in the north acts as the perfect meteorological barrier for the whole
country. Even though it falls under Monsoon climatically category, the climate varies from one
place to another. Also despite the country's size and its varied relief, the seasonal rhythm of the
monsoon is apparent throughout. Some mountains are adjoined to the north by China Nepal
and Bhutan. A series of mountain ranges separate India from Burma. Although much of
northern India lies beyond the tropical zone, the entire country has a tropical climate marked
by relatively high temperatures and dry winters.

Rainfall is very heavy in the north-eastern region, the western slopes of the Western Ghats and
parts of the Himalayas, all of which receive over 2,000 mm annually. The eastern part of the
peninsula, extending up to the northern plains, receives rainfall varying from 1,000 to 2,000
mm a year, while the area from Western Deccan up to the Punjab plains gets between 100 mm
and 500 mm a year. Rajasthan, Kachchh and Ladakh have hardly any rainfall.

There are two monsoons: the south westerly monsoon between May and September, and the
north-easterly monsoon between October and January. In summer, intense heat on the plains
of northern India and the Tibetan Plateau result in a low-pressure formation. This draws
moisture from the cooler high- pressure formations over the Arabian Sea and the Indian Ocean.
As these moist clouds move eastward across the sea and reach the barrier of the Western Ghats,
the clouds rise and deposit heavy rain on the coastal area, nourishing the rich soil and deciduous
forests and abundant wildlife of the Western Ghats. As the winds continue across the Bay of
Bengal they gather additional moisture and reach the eastern Himalayas, and deposit immense
amounts of rain that feed the rivers, forests, and paddy fields of Northeast India. The wall
created by the Himalayas forces the monsoon clouds to turn to the north-west, and travel over
the Gangetic plain. The annual rainfall over the Gangetic plain supports the agriculture that
feeds much of the country. By the time the monsoon clouds reach the semi-arid and desert
regions of the Northwest, they are depleted and the rainfall is scanty.

The north-eastern monsoon between late October and late December draws rain-bearing clouds
that travel across the Bay of Bengal bringing rain to the south-east coast of India, to Tamil
Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh. These regions are not adequately fed by the south westerly
monsoon. The monsoons that have watered the subcontinent for millennia are changing in both
intensity and predictability, with potentially alarming implications for agriculture and
thousands of communities of the subcontinent. The monsoon has also played an important role
in trade and the exchange of ideas for many thousands of years, as the monsoon winds helped
to push ships across the Arabian Sea strengthen each season.

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