2.

1: Influences
Geographical Influences
The geography of India is extremely diverse, with landscape ranging from snow-capped mountain ranges to
deserts, plains, hills and plateaus. India comprises most of the Indian subcontinent situated on the Indian
Plate, the northerly portion of the Indo-Australian Plate. Having a coastline of over 7,000 km (4,300 miles),
most of India lies on a peninsula in southern Asia that protrudes into the Indian Ocean. India is bounded in
the southwest by the Arabian Sea and in the southeast by the Bay of Bengal.
The fertile Indo-Gangetic plain occupies most of northern, central and eastern India, while the Deccan
Plateau occupies most of southern India. To the west of the country is the Thar Desert, which consists of a
mix of rocky and sandy desert. India's east and northeastern border consists of the high Himalayan range.
The highest point in India is disputed due to a territorial dispute with Pakistan; according to India's claim,
the highest point (located in the disputed Kashmir territory) is K2, at 8,611 m (28,251 feet). The highest
point in undisputed Indian territory is Kangchenjunga, at 8,598 m (28,208 feet). Climate ranges from
equatorial in the far south, to tundra in the Himalayan altitudes.
Borders
India is bordered by Pakistan, the People's Republic of China, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Nepal, Bhutan and
Afghanistan. Sri Lanka and the Maldives are island nations to the south of India. Politically, India is divided
into 28 states, six federally administered union territories and a national capital territory. The political
divisions generally follow linguistic and ethnic boundaries rather than geographic transitions.
Location and Extend
India lies to the north of the equator. It is the seventh-largest country in the world, with a total land area of
3,287,590 km² (1,269,219 square miles). It has a land frontier of 15,200 km (9,445 miles) and a coastline of
7,516.5 km (4,670.5 miles). The Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal and Lakshadweep in
the Arabian Sea are parts of India.
India is bounded on the southwest by the Arabian Sea and on the southeast by the Bay of Bengal. On the
north, northeast, and northwest are the Himalayas. Kanyakumari constitutes the southern tip of the Indian
peninsula, which narrows before ending in the Indian Ocean.
India is divided into 29 states (which are further subdivided into districts), six union territories and the
National Capital Territory of Delhi. States have their own elected government, while Union Territories are
governed by an administrator appointed by the union government.
States and Territories

1. Andhra Pradesh
2. Arunachal Pradesh
3. Assam
4. Bihar
5. Chhattisgarh
6. Goa
 7. Gujarat
8. Haryana
9. Himachal Pradesh
10. Jammu and Kashmir
11. Jharkhand
12. Karnataka
13. Kerala
14. Madhya Pradesh
15. Maharashtra
16. Manipur
17. Meghalaya
18. Mizoram
19. Nagaland
20. Orissa
21. Punjab
22. Rajasthan
23. Sikkim
24. Tamil Nadu
25. Tripura
26. Uttaranchal
27. Uttar Pradesh
28. West Bengal

 
Geological Influence
The lack of building stone along the Indus and Ganges Valleys, and the easily available timber which was
floated down the rivers from the mountains have influenced architecture in the area from the earliest time.
There is good white marble in Rajasthan, fine red and cream sandstone from Agra for facing materials.

A sandstone and white marble

The Makarana marble (image below) one of the precious early stone material of india.  It is greatly used in
the construction of Taj Mahal, Victoria Memorial (Kolkata), and Dukhnivaran Sahib Gurdwara (Ludhiana).
The excellent building stone in the centre of the peninsula, and in the hill country generally, influenced
Indian architecture from the earliest times. The famous pink marble of Rajputana, used in the buildings at
Delhi and Agra, the "trap " and granite of the Deccan, the sandstone of certain districts.
In Western India the rock-cut " Chaityas " of the Buddhists were produced in the actual geological
formation; for they were carved in the horizontal strata of the living rock, where it rises sheer from the
ground in perpendicular cliffs.
Teak, the principal timber of the country, is found on the Eastern and Western Ghats, and in the Himalayas
while besides ebony and bamboo there are the palms, which grow mostly on the lowlands of the coast, and
supply food, drink, clothing, and building material to the natives. In the low-lying plains of Bengal, the
 alluvial soil was the only material available for building, which, made into bricks, was used extensively in
this district.
             
Teak wood logs
Terra-cotta seems to have been employed in early times, and the ease with which plastic clay was pressed
into moulds may be responsible for some of the exuberance of ornament in later periods. Lime for building
was obtained by burning limestone, shells, and kankar, a nodular form of impure lime found in river valleys.

A terracotta clay
 
Climatic Influence
India's climate is strongly influenced by the Himalayas and the Thar Desert. The Himalayas, along with the
Hindu Kush mountains in Pakistan, provide a barrier to the cold winds from central Asia. This keeps most of
the Indian subcontinent warmer than most locations in similar latitudes. The Thar Desert is responsible for
attracting the moisture laden monsoon winds that provide most of India's rainfall.
It is difficult to generalize India's climate. India's huge size sees climatic conditions in Kashmir having little
relation to that in the extreme south. In addition to this, the varied topography of the land sees many
regions having their own microclimates. Climate in India ranges from tropical in the south to a temperate
climate in the north. Parts of India in the Himalayas have a polar climate.
Meteorologists divide the year into four main seasons for most of the country: monsoon, summer, winter
and withdrawal of the monsoons. Parts of India that lie in the Himalayan region see five seasons: spring,
summer, monsoons, autumn and winter. Sustained snowfalls occur only in the elevated sections.
 
Temperature averages in India; units are in degree Celsius.
Summer lasts between March and June in most parts of India. Temperatures exceed 40 °C (104 °F) during
the day.The coastal regions exceed 30 °C (86 °F) coupled with high levels of humidity. In the Thar desert
area temperatures can exceed 45 °C (113 °F).

Summer is followed by the southwest monsoon rains that provide most of India with its rainfall. The rain-
bearing clouds are attracted to the low-pressure system created by the Thar Desert. The official date for the
arrival of the monsoon is 1 June, when the monsoon crosses the Kerala coast. The southwest monsoon
splits into two arms, the Bay of Bengal arm and the Arabian Sea arm. The Bay of Bengal arm moves north-
wards crossing northeast India in early June. It then progresses eastwards, crossing Delhi by June 29. The
Arabian Sea arm moves north-wards and deposits much of its rain on the windward side of Western Ghats.
By early July, most of India receives rain from the monsoons.
The monsoons start retreating by August from northern India and by October from Kerala. This short period
after the retreat is known as the retreat of the monsoons and is characterized by still weather. By
November, winter starts setting in the northern areas.
Winters start in November in northern India and late December in southern India. Winters in peninsula India
see mild to warm days and cool nights. Further north the temperature is cooler. Temperatures in some
parts of the Indian plains sometimes fall below freezing. Most of northern India is plagued by fog during this
season.
 
Historical Influence
Important Historical Events
Early Times
India has been home to several ancient civilizations and empires, some dating back to more than 2,000
BC. Culture and religions have flourished over the millennia, and foreign influence has ebbed and flowed.
1858 - India comes under direct rule of the British crown after failed Indian uprising.
1885 - Indian National Congress founded as forum for emerging nationalist feeling.
1920-22 - Nationalist leader Mahatma Gandhi launches anti-British civil  disobedience campaign. Mahatma
Gandhi steered India to independence.

Independence
1947 - End of British rule and partition of sub-continent into mainly Hindu India and Muslim-majority
Pakistan. Hundreds of thousands die in communal bloodshed.
1948 - War with Pakistan over disputed territory of Kashmir.
1966 - Mr Nehru's daughter Indira Gandhi becomes prime minister.
1971 - Third war with Pakistan over creation of Bangladesh, formerly East Pakistan.
1974 - India explodes first nuclear device in underground test.
 
Population Reaches A Billion 
2000 May - India marks the birth of its billionth citizen.
2001 - A high-powered rocket is launched, propelling India into the club of countries able to fire big
satellites deep into space.
Image copyright Getty Images Image caption Disputed Siachen, dubbed the world's highest battlefield
2002 January - India successfully test-fires a nuclear-capable ballistic missile - the Agni - off its eastern
coast.
2002 February - Inter-religious bloodshed breaks out after 59 Hindu pilgrims returning from Ayodhya are
killed in a train fire in Godhra, Gujarat. More than 1,000 people, mainly Muslims, die in subsequent
violence.
 
Religious Influence
Diverse Religions of India
The Indian subcontinent is the birthplace of four of the world's major religions; namely Hinduism, Buddhism,
Jainism, and Sikhism.
India is among the most religiously diverse countries in the world. Although India is a secular state, which
means that no religion is valued over any other in the eyes of the government, Hinduism is by far the
country's most practiced religion, with nearly 80% of the total country identifying as Hindus. This translates
to over 1 billion people. Following Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism, and Buddhism are also popular.
Indian citizens are guaranteed freedom of religion under the country's Constitution.
Aside from the country's designation as a religiously diverse country, Indian religions are also some of the
world's oldest religions. Hinduism, Sikhism, Buddhism, and Jainism all have ties to the Indian subcontinent,
and continue to have a considerable amount of followers to date.

Religion in India, Census 2011

The Hindu Religion
Thus Hinduism is a pantheistic religion: It equates God with the universe. Yet Hindu religion is
also polytheistic: populated with myriad gods and goddesses who personify aspects of the one true God,
allowing individuals an infinite number of ways to worship based on family tradition, community and
regional practices, and other considerations.
Pantheist asserts an identity between God and nature
Polytheistic relating to or characterized by belief in or worship of more than one god.
Three main Hindu Gods

 Brahma, the Creator

Brahma is the first member of the Hindu Trinity and is “the Creator” because he periodically creates
everything in the universe. (The word periodically here refers to the Hindu belief that time is cyclical;
everything in the universe — except for Brahman and certain Hindu scriptures — is created, maintained for
a certain amount of time, and then destroyed in order to be renewed in ideal form again.)

 Vishnu, the Preserver
Vishnu is the second member of the Hindu Trinity. He maintains the order and harmony of the universe,
which is periodically created by Brahma and periodically destroyed by Shiva to prepare for the next
creation.
Vishnu is worshipped in many forms and in several avatars (incarnations). Vishnu is an important,
somewhat mysterious god. Less visible than nature gods that preside over elements (such as fire and rain),
Vishnu is the pervader — the divine essence that pervades the universe. He is usually worshipped in the
form of an avatar (see below).

 Shiva, the Destroyer

Shiva is the third member of the Hindu Trinity, tasked with destroying the universe in order to prepare for its
renewal at the end of each cycle of time. Shiva’s destructive power is regenerative: It’s the necessary step
that makes renewal possible.
Hindus customarily invoke Shiva before the beginning of any religious or spiritual endeavor; they believe
that any bad vibrations in the immediate vicinity of worship are eliminated by the mere utterance of his
praise or name.
 
Social Influence

 Society has traditionally been strongly patriarchal and strongly hierarchal. The presence of the caste
system has made Indians very rank and status oriented. Social relations often begin with a certain
amount of sizing up based on caste, ethnic group or rank and how they are related to each other in a
certain way prescribed by caste rules
 Arranged marriages have long been the norm in Indian society. Even today, the majority of Indians
have their marriages planned by their parents and other respected family-members. In the past, the
age of marriage was young. The average age of marriage for women in India has increased to 21
years
 Purity is associated to women with ritual cleanliness--daily bathing in flowing water, dressing in
properly laundered clothes of approved materials, during her menstrual period, a woman is considered
polluted and refrains from cooking, worshiping, or touching anyone older than an infant. In much of the
south, a woman spends this time "sitting outside," resting in an isolated room or shed. During her
period, a Muslim woman does not touch the Quran.
 India has had a long romance with the art of dance. The Hindu Sanskrit texts Nātyaśāstra (Science of
Dance) and Abhinaya Darpana (Mirror of Gesture) are estimated to be from 200 BCE to early centuries
of the 1st millennium CE
 The current population of India is 1,379,492,981 as of Thursday, June 18, 2020, based on
Worldometer elaboration of the latest United Nations data.
 India's population is equivalent to 7% of the total world population.
 India ranks number 2 in the list of countries (and dependencies) by population.
 Indian cuisine consists of a variety of regional and traditional cuisines native to the Indian subcontinent.
Given the diversity in soil, climate, culture, ethnic groups, and occupations, these cuisines vary
substantially and use locally available spices, herbs, vegetables, and fruits.