Roots of Polynomials

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Roots of polynomials Cheat Sheet Edexcel Core Pure 1
This chapter is concerned with identifying the relationship between the roots of quadratic, cubic and quartic polynomials. Example 1: The roots of a quadratic equation 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 are 𝛼 = and Example 2: The equation 𝑚𝑥 + 4𝑥 + 4𝑚 = 0 has roots of the form 𝑘 and 2𝑘. Find the
values of 𝑚 and 𝑘.
𝛽= . Find integer values for 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐.
Roots of a quadratic equation
𝒃 −1 + 𝑖 −1 − 𝑖 𝑏 𝒃 4
A quadratic equation could have 2 real roots, or 2 complex roots. Using 𝜶 + 𝜷 = −
𝒂 𝛼+𝛽 = + = −1 = − Using 𝜶 + 𝜷 = − :
𝒂 𝛼 + 𝛽 = 𝑘 + 2𝑘 = 3𝑘 = −
2 2 𝑎 𝑚
Simplifying: ∴𝑎=𝑏 Simplifying: 4
 If 𝜶 and 𝜷 are roots of the equation 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 = 𝟎, then: 𝒄
−1 + 𝑖 −1 − 𝑖 1 𝑐
∴𝑚=−
3𝑘
Using 𝜶𝜷 =
𝒃 𝒂 𝛼𝛽 = = = 𝒄
4𝑚
 𝜶 + 𝜷 = −𝒂 2 2 2 𝑎 Using 𝜶𝜷 = 𝒂:
𝛼𝛽 = (𝑘)(2𝑘) = 2𝑘 = =4
𝒄 1 𝑚
Simplifying:
 𝜶𝜷 = 𝒂 ∴ 𝑎=𝑐
2 Simplifying and solving for 𝑘: ∴𝑘 =2
Rewriting the quadratic with 𝑏 = 𝑎 1 So 𝑘 = ±√2
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎 = 0
and 𝑐 = 𝑎: 2 We have two sets of solutions because 𝑘 4 2√2
1 𝐼𝑓 𝑘 = √2, 𝑚 = − =−
𝑥 +𝑥+ =0 has two possible values. Use 𝑚 = − to 3√2 3
Roots of a cubic equation Dividing through by 𝑎:
2
find the corresponding value of 𝑚 in each 4 2√2
A cubic equation could have 3 real roots or 1 real root and 2 complex roots. Multiplying by 2 to ensure that the 2𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 1 = 0 case. 𝐼𝑓 𝑘 = −√2, 𝑚 =
3√2
=
3
constant is an integer: 𝑎 = 2, 𝑏 = 2, 𝑐 = 1
𝟑 𝟐
 If 𝜶, 𝜷 and 𝜸 are roots of the equation 𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄𝒙 + 𝒅 = 𝟎, then:
𝒃
 𝜶+𝜷+𝜸 = −𝒂 Example 3: 𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾 are roots of the cubic equation 7𝑥 − 4𝑥 − 𝑥 + 6 = 0. Find Example 4: The roots of the equation 𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 𝑥 + 3 = 0 are 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝑦 and 𝛿.
𝒄
 𝜶𝜷 + 𝜷𝜸 + 𝜸𝜶 = 𝒂 the values of: (a) Write down the values of ∑ 𝛼 , ∑ 𝛼𝛽 , ∑ 𝛼𝛽𝛾 and ∑ 𝛼𝛽𝛾𝛿.
(a) 𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛾 (b) 𝛼𝛽𝛾 (c) 𝛼 𝛽 𝛾 (d) + + (b) Hence find the values of:
𝒅
 𝜶𝜷𝜸 = − 𝒂 (i) + + + (ii) 𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛾 + 𝛿 (iii) (𝛼 + 1)(𝛽 + 1)(𝛾 + 1)(𝛿 + 1)
Using 𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛾 = − : −4 4
𝛼+𝛽+𝛾=− =
7 7 Using ∑ 𝛼 = 𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛾 + 𝛿 = − : 𝛼+𝛽+𝛾+𝛿
Using 𝛼𝛽𝛾 = − : 6
Roots of a quartic equation 𝛼𝛽𝛾 = −
7 Using ∑ 𝛼𝛽 = 𝛼𝛽 + 𝛼𝛾 + 𝛼𝛿 + 𝛽𝛾 + 𝛽𝛿 + 𝛾𝛿
A quartic equation could have 4 real roots, 4 complex roots or 2 real and 2 complex roots.
Using 𝛼𝛽 = : 6 = =
𝛼 𝛽 𝛾 = (𝛼𝛽𝛾) = − 1
7
 If 𝜶. 𝜷, 𝜸 and 𝜹 are roots of the equation 𝒂𝒙𝟒 + 𝒃𝒙𝟑 + 𝒄𝒙𝟐 + 𝒅𝒙 + 𝒆 = 𝟎, then: 216 Using ∑ 𝛼𝛽𝛾 = − 𝛼𝛽𝛾 = 𝛼𝛽𝛾 + 𝛼𝛽𝛿 + 𝛼𝛾𝛿 + 𝛽𝛾𝛿
𝒃 =−
 𝜶+𝜷+𝜸+𝜹 = − 343
𝒂 Using the reciprocal result for cubics: 1 1 1 𝛼𝛽 + 𝛽𝛾 + 𝛾𝛼 =− =
𝒄 + + = 1
 𝜶𝜷 + 𝜶𝜸 + 𝜶𝜹 + 𝜷𝜸 + 𝜷𝜹 + 𝜸𝜹 = You can use the following abbreviations 𝛼 𝛽 𝛾 𝛼𝛽𝛾 3
𝒂 Using 𝛼𝛽𝛾𝛿 =
𝒅 to simplify things: 1 𝛼𝛽𝛾𝛿 = 𝛼𝛽𝛾𝛿 = =3
 𝜶𝜷𝜸 + 𝜶𝜷𝜹 + 𝜶𝜸𝜹 + 𝜷𝜸𝜹 = − Using 𝛼𝛽 + 𝛽𝛾 + 𝛾𝛼 = : 𝛼𝛽 + 𝛽𝛾 + 𝛾𝛼 = − 1
𝒂 7 1 1 1 1 𝛼𝛽𝛾 + 𝛽𝛾𝛿 + 𝛾𝛿𝛼 + 𝛿𝛼𝛽 1 1 1 1 ∑ 𝛼𝛽𝛾
𝒆 + + + = + + + = =
 𝜶𝜷𝜸𝜹 = 𝒂 ∑ 𝛼 = − , ∑ 𝛼𝛽 = , ∑ 𝛼𝛽𝛾 = − Substituting back into the reciprocal 1 𝛼 𝛽 𝛾 𝛿 𝛼𝛽𝛾𝛿
𝛼 𝛽 𝛾 𝛿 𝛼𝛽𝛾𝛿 3
1 1 1 −7 1
result: ∴ + + = =
𝛼 𝛽 𝛾 −6 6
7 Using 𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛾 + 𝛿 = (𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛼 +𝛽 +𝛾 +𝛿
𝛾 + 𝛿) − 2(𝛼𝛽 + 𝛼𝛾 + 𝛼𝛿 + 𝛽𝛾 +
= 𝛼 −2 𝛼𝛽
Expressions relating to the roots of a polynomial 𝛽𝛿 + 𝛾𝛿)
= ( ) − 2( ) =
You can use the following rules to quickly find the values of some expressions concerning the roots of a polynomial:

Linear transformations of roots

 Reciprocals:
𝟏 𝟏 𝜶 𝜷
Given a polynomial (up to the fourth degree), you need to be able to find the equation of a second polynomial whose roots are a linear transformation of
Quadratic:  𝜶
+𝜷 = 𝜶𝜷
the roots of the first.
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝜶𝜷 𝜷𝜸 𝜸𝜶 You may decide not to remember these results since they are quite easy to prove; in
Cubic:  + + = each case you simply need to combine the fractions to achieve the 𝑅𝐻𝑆.  If a polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑒 has roots 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾 and 𝛿 then the polynomial with roots 𝑔𝛼 + ℎ, 𝑔𝛽 + ℎ, 𝑔𝛾 + ℎ and 𝑔𝛿 + ℎ,
𝜶 𝜷 𝜸 𝜶𝜷𝜸
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝜶𝜷𝜸 𝜷𝜸𝜹 𝜸𝜹𝜶 𝜹𝜶𝜷
Quartic:  𝜶
+𝜷+𝜸+𝜹 = 𝜶𝜷𝜸𝜹
where 𝑔 and ℎ are real constants, is given by 𝑓 .

 Products of powers: The same logic follows if the polynomial is cubic or quadratic.
Quadratic:  𝜶𝒏 × 𝜷𝒏 = (𝜶𝜷)𝒏
Example 5: The quartic equation 2𝑥 + 4𝑥 − 5𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 1 = 0 has roots 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾 and 𝛿. Find equations with integer coefficients that have roots:
Cubic:  𝜶𝒏 × 𝜷𝒏 × 𝜸𝒏 = (𝜶𝜷𝜸)𝒏 (i) (2𝛼), (2𝛽), (2𝛾) and (2𝛿). (ii) (𝛼 − 1), (𝛽 − 1), (𝛾 − 1) and (𝛿 − 1).
Quartic:  𝜶𝒏 × 𝜷𝒏 × 𝜸𝒏 × 𝜹𝒏 = (𝜶𝜷𝜸𝜹)𝒏
In general, you can remember (i) If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥4 + 4𝑥3 − 5𝑥2 + 2𝑥 − 1 = 0 then the new 𝑤 𝑤 𝑤 𝑤 𝑤
𝑓 =2 +4 −5 +2 −1=0
that ∑ 𝛼 = (∑ 𝛼) − 2(∑ 𝛼𝛽) equation will be given by 𝑓 . 2 2 2 2 2
 Rules for sums of squares:
Simplifying: 1 1 5
Quadratic:  𝜶𝟐 + 𝜷𝟐 = (𝜶 + 𝜷)𝟐 − 𝟐𝜶𝜷 ⇒ 𝑤 + 𝑤 − 𝑤 +𝑤−1=0
8 2 4
Cubic:  𝜶𝟐 + 𝜷𝟐 + 𝜸𝟐 = (𝜶 + 𝜷 + 𝜸)𝟐 − 𝟐(𝜶𝜷 + 𝜷𝜸 + 𝜸𝜶) Multiplying by 8 to ensure all coefficients are integers: ⇒ 𝑤 + 4𝑤 − 10𝑤 + 8𝑤 − 8 = 0
Quartic:  𝜶𝟐 + 𝜷𝟐 + 𝜸𝟐 + 𝜹𝟐 = (𝜶 + 𝜷 + 𝜸 + 𝜹)𝟐 − 𝟐(𝜶𝜷 + 𝜶𝜸 + 𝜶𝜹 + 𝜷𝜸 + 𝜷𝜹 + 𝜸𝜹)
(ii) If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥4 + 4𝑥3 − 5𝑥2 + 2𝑥 − 1 = 0 then the new 𝑓(𝑤 + 1) = 2(𝑤 + 1) + 4(𝑤 + 1) − 5(𝑤 + 1) + 2(𝑤 + 1) − 1 = 0
 Rules for sums of cubes: equation will be given by 𝑓(𝑤 + 1).
You won’t need to know the
Expanding brackets then simplifying: ⇒ 2(𝑤 + 4𝑤 + 6𝑤 + 4𝑤 + 1) + 4(𝑤 + 3𝑤 + 3𝑤 + 1) − 5(𝑤 + 2𝑤 + 1) + 2𝑤 + 2 − 1 = 0
Quadratic:  𝜶𝟑 + 𝜷𝟑 = (𝜶 + 𝜷)𝟑 − 𝟑𝜶𝜷(𝜶 + 𝜷) result for a quartic polynomial.
⇒ 2𝑤 + 12𝑤 + 19𝑤 + 12𝑤 + 2 = 0
Cubic:  𝜶𝟑 + 𝜷𝟑 + 𝜸𝟑 = (𝜶 + 𝜷 + 𝜸)𝟑 − 𝟑(𝜶 + 𝜷 + 𝜸)(𝜶𝜷 + 𝜷𝜸 + 𝜸𝜶) + 𝟑𝜶𝜷𝜸