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INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction:
Geology deals with the study of the earth as a whole, its origin, structure, history (including the
development of life) and nature of the processes, which have produced its present states. For the
comprehensive study of any subject, field visit always plays a vital role. An applied respect of science civil
engineering expected for its existence, if it does it include the field visits. A branch of geology,
engineering geology, forms the basement of the civil engineering foundation.
Taking this view in mind INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING, PULCHOWK CAMPUS, DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL
conducted the three days trip to Malekhu from 6 th of Chaitra, 063 to 8th, which provided us to develop
the cooperative feelings through ourselves regarding the practical aspects of the study because it
stimulated group discussion, co-operation, curiosity and motivation during the fieldwork.
Centrally located map wise, Malekhu geologically is a very beautiful area, having diverse topography.
Location of the Trishuli River hundreds of feet below the original level, diverse lithology, and the
presence of various side chain rivers all around, surrounding the area, has made this area even better for
geological field study. Though it is located very near from the valley, just around seventy kilometers from
the capital, and though it is easily accessible and can be reached in about three hours by road.
Hundreds of types of rocks, their various attitudes, the diverse river morphology, various landslide sites,
geologically useful structures, and availability of various types of construction materials make this area
even more important for geological survey, site selection, and other studies.
1.2 Location:
The study area lies in the mid zonal region and is a part of Lesser Himalaya of central Nepal. Malekhu
Bazaar is an ancient terrace of Trishuli River and its adjoining parts of Dhading district.
Geographically , it is situated between the latitude of 27° 45′ to 27° 05′and longitude 84° 59′ to 84° 88′
lying in the Mahabharata Range. The study area cover about 20 sq km and the altitude of the area is
about 310 m from the mean sea level.
Malekhu is situated seventy kilometers southwest from the Kathmandu Valley along the Prithvi Highway,
it is a quiet place surrounded all over by many side chain rivers and the Trishuli River itself.
1.3 Accessibility:
It is easily accessible by local vehicle on the highway, and takes about three hours to reach the site. As it
is situated on the sides of the Prithvi Highway, it is a quiet place surrounded all over by many side chain
rivers and the Trishuli River itself.
1.4 Topography:
The area lies to the south of the Ganesh Himal (7400m). The lowest altitude of the area is the point of
confluence of the Malekhu Khola, Thopal Khola and the Trishuli River and the area under study is Irang
(1094 m).
1.6 Methodology:
The methodology of any study may be either the inspection i.e. the field visit or the inferred one. The
true inspection was the methods used in our study, which included the detail field visits to know the real
nature of geological structures. The field inspection methods includes the collection of samples, testing
its nature in the field, identification and the vegetation of the area etc. those places which are
inaccessible where also studied by the inferred methods following the study of area through maps
predominantly.
2.1 Definition
The force of gravity acts to tear the mountain down causing a variety of phenomenon collectively called
mass wasting or mass movement, whereby geological materials are moved downward from one place to
another. Mass movement refers to all types of movement either slowly or quickly and with or without
failure plane.
2.2.1 Landslide:
Landslide is a natural phenomena involving the movement of earth mass or rocks down a slope, referred
to a large scale. Otherwise, this phenomena may be called fall, slide or flow, according to its nature.
Landslides mainly occur due to the instability of the surface beneath the exposed area. Basically, two
conditions are required for a landslide to occur:
1 The slope is too steep
2 The solid rock beneath the exposed surface is very weak.
Not all movement down the slope is landslide. They differ accordingly as follows:
1. If the materials have no distinct surface of movement, and move in the air, finally bouncing or
rolling or vertically falling downwards, then it is called Fall.
2. If the materials have a distinct planar or curved surface of movement, and slide over the slip
surface, then it is called Slide.
3. If the material moves along a slope, due to the presence of excessive water content and if the
rate of flow of the water suspended materials is very high, then it is called Flow.
If the upper (hard and competent) rock or soil layer floats and moves over the lower (soft and weak)
rock or soil layer (which behaves like a liquid), then it is called Spread.
Features of a Landslide:
a) Crown:
The original surface above the surface of landslide is called Crown of a landslide.
b) Slip Surface / Surface of Rupture:
The immediate surface where the landslide movement starts is called Slip Surface or Surface of
Rupture.
c) Main Scarp:
The exposed surface below the slip surface is called Main Scarp of a landslide.
d) Displaced Material:
All materials deposited from top to the bottom of landslide are called Displaced Material.
e) Tip:
The tip of a landslide is the topmost point on the line between the crown and the slip surface.
g) Toe:
Toe is the lowest point or line of the landslide site.
Dimension of landslide:
a) Length:
Length of a landslide is the distance of the straight line from the slip surface to the toe (up to where
the materials of the landslide reach).
b) Breadth:
Breadth of a landslide is the horizontal distance measured at the toe, from the beginning to the end
point of the displaced material scattered in the process.
c) Depth:
Depth is the maximum distance between the sliding particles to the ground (the base of the sliding
hill).
Description of Landslide:
The site of our study was near Richoktar, where we crossed the Malekhu river bridge and walked along
the road to the site. The type of failure was rock mass failure, due to numerous joints in the rock. Huge
mass of rocks was deposited on the roadside, where some mass was removed away from the road
surface. There was exposure of rock in the scarp of mass movement. The failure masses of rock were
deposited in the lower part of mass movement and road surface, in the form of stone, boulders and
gravel.
The base rock might have been cut when constructing the road, thus the rock instability resulted and
mass movement might have occurred in that area. The slope of the surface was vertical and the rocks
had many weak joints in that area. The deposited masses were removed from the surface of road to
access for smooth traffic flow.
Four layers of gabion wall were constructed to check for flow of rock mass on the road surface. This
gabion wall might also have helped for the stability of existing rock in its original position. The applied
solution was cheap, easy and less time consuming one.
1. Planner Failure:
It is possible when the dip direction of planner features such as joints, beddings or foliations is at the
same direction (±20˚) as that of the hill slope or cut slope.
2. Wedge Failure:
It is possible when two planes intersect obliquely across the slope face and their line of intersection
plunges at the same direction as the dip direction of hill slope or cut slope. When a wedge shows an
intersection parallel or close to the direction of the slope up to 32° on either side of the direction of
slope, it is names as a central wedge and from 32° to 65°, named as lateral wedge.
3. Topping Failure:
It is possible when the planner features dip opposite to hill slope or cut slope and the hill slope or cut
slope is steep enough than the planner features. In general, the hill slope or cut slope is at least 55°.
3.1 Definition:
Rock is defined as the naturally forming, hard and compact solid aggregates or assemblage of minerals
forming crust of the earth. If rocks are formed from assemblage or aggregates of only one mineral is
called Monomineralic Rock and if they are formed with assemblage or aggregates of more than one
mineral are called Multimineralic Rock. The piece or clock of rock which is detached from rock mass
having diameter of more than 256mm is known as Boulder.
Metamorphic rocks:
These are formed by alteration of alignment, texture, structure, chemical composition etc. in pre-
existing rocks due to the action of temperature, pressure and chemical reaction. Metamorphic rocks are
generally hard and have interlocking grains.
Metamorphic rocks can be clearly distinguished from other types of rocks by the features like cleavage,
foliation, and schistocity and by the presence of such minerals which are known to be of metamorphic
origin. Metamorphic rocks often exhibit an interlocking texture of the constituent minerals grains. Thus
these rocks are basically identified in the field on the basis of color, texture as well as structure.
Sedimentary Rock:
The rocks formed by the deposition of sediments are called sedimentary rocks. Sediments are the loose
soil grains which are transported by natural agents like river, air and glacier and then deposited on the
earth surface. These sediments deposited over along time go into the process of lithification, where each
particle is joined by cementing material and rocks are formed. In the process of sediment deposition, the
grain size, grain orientation, grain type, color etc may vary.
According to the mode of transportation the sedimentary rocks are divided into three different types.
Clastic Rocks: The rocks which are formed by deposited mechanically are known as
clastic rocks.
Chemical Deposits: The rocks that are formed by chemical precipitation are known as
chemical deposits.
Organic Deposits: The rocks that are formed by deposited organically are called
organic deposits.
The process of formation of layers in sedimentary rocks is called “stratification”. The stratification having
thickness less than 1 cm is called “lamination” and that more than 1 cm is called “bedding”.
Location (L2): 200m from damaged Malekhu Bridge on right bank of Malekhu River
Location (L4): About 450 m from old damage Malekhu Bridge on right bank of Malekhu River
Location (L6): About 1450 km from old damage Malekhu Bridge on right bank of Malekhu River
Location (L8): About 1955 km from old damage Malekhu Bridge on right bank of Malekhu River (Bhaise
Dhoban Marble).
5.1 Definition:
The surface waters flowing in courses of their own are known as streams and the large stream flowing
through extensive area and receiving water from smaller side streams is known as river. The defined
course followed by the river is known as the river channel.
Velocity: The velocity has the significant role for river channel morphology. The fast
moving rivers are capable of erosion and carrying a greater amount of
materials. The velocity itself depends on the gradient and discharge of river.
Lithology: The nature of rocks along the channel and along the side may effect for the
river channel morphology. Some types of rocks are more easily eroded by
river water. The river channel, which passes through the limestone, will be
straight.
Load: The river channel may also be affected by the load condition of the river. If
the river is fully loaded it will not have further capacity to erode and
transport the materials of the channel. But if the river is under loaded it will
erode its channel effectively.
5.5.2 Fan:
When sediments flow down from high gradient tributaries on the low relief, the sediments get
accumulate forming a fan shaped deposit, which is called fan deposit. The fan which is deposited due to
water is known as Alluvial fan. If the materials are dominantly composed of large angular fragments,
then the deposit is called debris fan.
5.5.3 Delta:
Deltas are deposits built at the mouths of streams. The deltas are usually triangular in shape with their
apex pointed upstream. When a stream enters an ocean or lake, the currents of the flowing water
dissipate quickly. This results in the deposition of the series of sedimentary layers, which make up the
delta. The material of most deltas is well sorted and many deltas are uniformly graded.
Middle Terrace:
As its name it is the middle part of the higher and lower terrace. This terrace will also over the high flood
level of the river.
Lower Terrace (Flood Plain):
During floods a river overflows its bank and submerges the adjacent low-lying areas where deposition of
alluvial material takes place. A wide belt of alluvial plain formed in this way on either side of a stream, is
called 'flood plain'.
Channel Bar:
Many rivers are forced to rope a part of their load along their beds, especially in the flatter regions along
their course. Most commonly the deposits so formed take the shape of long narrow ridges called
channel bars. Since they are made up of sand, they are also called sand bar. The river will flow from both
side of the channel bar. They are temporary in nature because an increase in velocity, the river may cut
down and take the sand along with it.
Point Bars:
In meandering rivers, sediment deposits occur as point bars. The point bars are the crescent shaped
deposits, which occur at inside bends of a river channel.
Island:
They are hard rocks forming a small island in the river channel.
Attitude:
Attitude refers to the three dimensional orientation of some geological features such as a beds, joints,
folds etc. The attitudes of planner features are defined by their strike and dip.
Strike:
It is a geographic direction of extension of the layers of rocks and may be explained as the direction of
intersection of the bedding plane with a horizontal plane.
Dip amount:
The amount of dip is the angle between the geological plane and imaginary horizontal plane i.e. it refers
to the inclination of the bed.
Dip direction:
It refers to the direction to which the beds inclined.
7.1 Fault:
The fractures along which there has been relative displacement of the blocks are known as faults. The
phenomenon of development of these fractures and occurrence of relative displacement is known as
faulting. Faulting may result in the rupture of the bodies of rocks into different parts or blocks and
separation of these blocks relative to each other. The displacement of block may take place in any
direction relative to the fracture surface, i.e. parallel, inclined and even rotational.
Parts of faults:
1. Hanging wall The block above the fault plane.
2. Foot wall The block below the fault.
3. Fault line Intersection of fault with the surface of the earth.
Types of Unconformity
Sheet Joints These joints are found in massive igneous rock. The block consists of
one set of prominent join plane, which often appear as sedimentary
strata.
Tension Joints These joints are developed due to tensile forces acting on the rock.
The most common location of such joints is in the folded sequence
especially on the outer margin of crests and trough. In igneous rock
such joints are formed due to cooling and contraction of magma.
Shear joints These joints are commonly observed in the vicinity of fault planes
and shear zones, where their relationship with shearing forces is
clearly establishes.
Classification of Joints
Source: www.freewebtown.com/ardni_987 Page 4
7.5 Engineering Significance of the Geological Structures:
I. Fault zones are inherently weak, porous, unstable, incompetent and run the serious risk of
recurrence of faulting. They also face ground water problems and hazards of earthquakes and
landslides. All these render the fault places highly dangerous to withstand any civil engineering
structures over them. So it is desirable to avoid or to be far away from them to ensure that civil
engineering projects are free from any harmful effects of faults.
II. For the foundation of dam on the large fold, the flank which is dipping toward downstream is
unfavorable and the one which is dipping upstream is comparably safer.
III. Since joints are a set of cracks or open fractures, they act as planes of complete breakage or non-
cohesion. As a result, such a site is not compact, massive or coherent, which means that it is
physically weak. Through these joints water is likely to percolate and saturate the rocks. Further,
this may cause decay of rocks along joint planes. Both these facts further reduce the physically
strength of rocks considerably. This seriously affects the suitability of the site for the foundation of
dams, bridges etc. This makes the region unsuitable for tunneling purpose also.
Hence, the total sum of rating is found 47. It lies between (60-41) and the class number is ІІI and the rock
type is fair. The average stand-up time is 1 week for 5 m span.
Location 2:
S.N PARAMETERS VALUE RATING (R)
Strength of Intact Rock Material
1 1. Point load strength index 100-250 MPa 12
2. Uniaxial compressive strength
2 Drill core quality 50-75% 13
3 Spacing of discontinuity 60-200 mm 8
Condition of discontinuity
(Guide lines for discontinuity)
A. Discontinuity length (Persistence) 3-10 m 2
4 B. Separation (Aperture) none 6
C. Roughness Slightly rough 3
D. Infilling None 6
E. Weathering Unweathered 6
5 Ground water Completely dry 15
GOOD ROCK ∑R =71
Hence, the total sum of rating is found 71. It lies between (61-80) and the class number is ІІ and the rock
type is good. The average stand-up time is 1 year for 10 m span.
Hence, the total sum of rating is found 79. It lies between (61-80) and the class number is ІІ and the rock
type is good. The average stand-up time is 1 year for 10 m span.
Location 4:
Hence, the total sum of rating is found 69. It lies between (61-80) and the class number is ІІ and the rock
type is good. The average stand-up time is 1 year for 10 m span.