' Grammar Hub

1.1
•
Nominal clauses
Nominal clauses function Ii ke nouns. They can be used as the
subject or object of a sentence, after a preposition, an adjective
• Nominal to + infinitive:
To spel!ldso MIAch Mo111ey0111
clothesis tot Ally
or the verb to be.
1A111111eceSSAry.
(ASS1Abject:
this IASe
is rAre)
• Nominal -ing clause (also known as a 'participle clause'):
It's A ,ood ideAto we,irSMArtclothesfor
We11ri1111J
A 1A111iform
CAI/\
helppeoplefeel pArtof the Al/\i111terview.
(ASobject)
te11m.(ASS1Abject) I WAS S1ArprisetA
to le11r111
Abo!Af the dresscode.
I do111't
e~oy we,iriMIJ
formAIclothes.(ASobject) (AfterAl/\Adjective)
I'm excitetA
Abo1At
b1Ayi111,
Some111ew
o!Affih.(AfterA • We often use phrases like Thefact/idea that ...
prepositio111) or Theexperience/problemof ... to introduce a nominal clause.
• Nominal that clause: The fActthAt yolA,ot A hi'h ,rAde showshowhArd
T'1Atshewo111AIJAi111
this ye11ris 111ot
S1Arprisi111,. yolAworketA.
(ASS1Abject:
this IASe
is rAre) The experie111ce
of trAvelli1111J
0111
the orie111t
ExpressWAS
I explAi111etA
thAt shewo1Ald hAveto b1Ay A 111ew
01Atfit. 0111e
shewo1Ald
111everfor,et.
(ASobject)
I'm worriedthAt I wo111'tfit i111.
(AfterAl/\Adjective)
• Nominal question clause: Because that clauses and to+ infinitive clauses can
sometimes sound unnatural as subjects, we often use it as
WMtyolAwe,iris e111tirely
1Apto yo1A.(ASS1Abject)
an empty subject.
MyAppe11rA111ce
cerfAi111ly
AffectshowI feel. (ASobject)
It does111't
S1Arprise
me thAt yolAhAteshoppi111,.
flo111A
felt embArrASSet!
becAIASeof howshe looketA.
NoTTIIII-I=
~0111
l,11-l=e
sl,oppi11J.oes1c'-I=
S111l"pl"iSe
r"e.
(AfterA prepositio111)

1.2 Comparatives and superlatives

• We only use than after comparative adjectives and adverbs • We can use the ... the with comparatives to show that
when it is followed by the thing we are comparing it with. two changes are closely connected. As one thing changes,
it makes the other thing change.
(PSAreMoreexpe111sive
+'1A111
they IASelA
to be.
The che,iperthe tech111olo1jy,
the worse'jlAAlity
it is.
The bi,,er, the better/
Os Are0111ly
frActio111Ally
moreexpe111sive todAy-NoT~ • We can use the structure more than with a small number of
verbs (compensatefor, double,fulfil, make up for, meet)
111"e
111cl~
fMe-l=io1111II~
hi0l"eeitpe1csi-e
-l=l.111c
-l=oJ.11~-
Hise111th1ASiASM
A111d
i111telli,e111ce
morethA111
compe111SAtetA
• We don't put the before a superlative when we use a for hisIAckof experie111ce.
determiner. • To show that there is a big difference between two things
Here's01Ar
che11pest
SMArfpho111e. we can use one of these modifiers before the comparative
NoTffel"e'S
01111"
-1:1.e
che,ipestSMArfpho111e. adjective: a good/great deal,a lot, considerably,dramatically,
• To compare things that are the same, we can use as+ far, significantly,much.
adjective/adverb+ as ... The 111ew
b1Aildi1111J
is co111siderAbly
biljljerthA111
the
PA111ce
MIASic
is ASpop1AIAr
ASit ever WAS- old 0111e.
• We leave out the second + as when the adjective/adverb isn't • To show that there is a small difference, we use these words
followed by the thing we're comparing it with. and phrases before the comparative adjective: a biVlittle,
a fraction,fractionally,marginally,rather,slightly,somewhat.
No111e
of 01Ar
A!Adie111ces
hAvebee111 ASIArlje!
NoT No1ceof 01111"
11111J.ie1teeS 11sl
h11,e l,ee1c11sl11""1e The first film WAS
frActio111Ally
10111,er
thA111
the se11Ael.
• We can modify superlative adjectives using: by far, far
and away,easily,the very.
Tom is by fArthe cleverestboy i111
the clAU-
Tom is the cleverestboy by fAr.
• We can also make a superlative stronger by inserting possible
after the superlative and before the noun.
The shoppi1111J
ce111tre
WASb1Ailt
i111
the best possible
locAtio111.
• We can also use modifiers before the structure as ... as:
almost,at least,easily,everybit, half,just, twice.
Myold pho111e
WASeverybit AS,ood ASthis 111ew
0111e.

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1.1 Nominal clauses

A Correctthe mistakesin each sentence. C Complete the secondsentenceso that it

, It's an unwritten rule what employees must stick to the dresscode. has a similarmeaning to the first sentence,
usingthe word given. Write between two
2 The fact of you wear a uniform sendsa certain messageabout your status. and five words.
3 You'll regret not to wear smarterclothes to yesterday'sinterview. , That designer clothes are hugely
4 David insistedon that he pay for all the designer clothes I'd chosen! expensiveis well-known.
s The reasonfor Sarah'sabsencethat she never received her invitation. FACT
6 That I had forgotten was that the restaurantonly lets in smartly
dressedcustomers. designer clothes are hugely expensiveis
7 The clothing company more than double its annual profits. well-known.

a Sandraalwayswants to buy clothes at the possible lowest price. 2 It's none of my businesswhat he does in
his free time.
B Choosethe correctoptions to complete the conversation. SPENDS
Joey: I'm reallykeen to start I about starting my new job next week.
1

Phoebe: I'm sure 2you to I that you will fit in reallywell. his free time is none of my business.

Joey: They explained 3thatthey have I having a dresscode there. 3 The purchaseof expensiveschool
So ... 4thatI buy I buying a smart suit is my first priority! Will you uniforms is a problem which many
come and help me choose one? parents face.
OF
Phoebe: Of course.I think you should be prepared 5 to spend I that you
spend quite a bit of money. Many parents face
expensiveschool uniforms.
Joey: What do you mean?
► Go backto page 3.
Phoebe: You must know 6 that/ the fact an expensivesuit will last longer
than a cheap one?
Joey: Oh, I see7what I that you mean.OK.But 8/'m needingto know I
what I reallyneed to know is what colour to choose!

1.2 Comparatives and superlatives

A Choose the correct options to complete the sentences. C Complete the sentencesusing a word
[
from the box and your own ideas.
1 Thank goodness I havetech-savvyfriends like you - you're
considerably half marginally twice
a the best b the best friend
1 The green dresscosts €25.The blue
2 I think we need to replaceour company logo with something dresscosts €27.
The blue dresscosts
a funkier than b funkier
3 Winning the Young Tech Designerof the Yearwas 2 My sisteris a fashion vlogger and
moment! earnsten times more than I do!
a the my proudest b my proudest My sisterearns
4 Your handwriting is Carol.Well done!
a the neatest handwriting b the neatest 3 We were expecting 100 people at
s We've redesignedour website so that it's the fashionshow, but only 50 came.

a more user-friendly b user-friendlier Only

we expected came to the fashion
6 CDsweren't around for very long, and CD burners disappearedalmost
show.
4 I believe that you have to do double
a as quickly b as quickly as
the work of others to be sure of
B Write one word in each gap to complete the sentences. success.
1 My sister is a great more concerned about appearancesthan I am. I believe that you haveto work
2 A tailored jacket is and away the most important item of clothing in
your wardrobe. ► Go backto page 7.

3 I dress fraction more informally on Fridays,but I don't feel comfortable

in casualclothes.
4 In my opinion, having the right image is every as important as saying
the right thing.
s Chelseaonly ever buys the best in terms of clothing and accessories.
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2. 1 Narrative tenses

I realised it was a great idea. We were given a month to finish the job.
We were hoping for a better result. The plans were being drawn up at the time.
They had already bought the site. The architects had been chosen.
We had been walking for hours.
• We use the past simple in a story or narrative to explain the • We use the past perfect continuous, often together with the
main events. past simple, for actions that were in progress before another
action in the past.
WeMet on ~1.11t1Ard1.11y,
o!Afside
Vidori1.11
tr1.11in
st1.11tion.
• We use the past continuous to describe the background to a I hl.lldbeenworkinlj1.11II
d1.11y
so I decidednot to ljO01At
story, actions in progress at a particular point or, together with thl.lltni,ht.
the past simple, to describe actions or situations that were • We can use the past simple with did+ infinitive for emphasis.
interrupted by shorter events.
tiedid lookvery1.11~io1AS
whenhe left.
The SIAn
w1.11s
shininljwhenAMyleft the ho1A\e.
• We use the past perfect simple to show that one event
happened before the other.
We don't often use the passive 'orm of past perfect
tie hl.lldw1.11ited
for over1.11n
ho1Ar
by the tiMe she continuous.
fin1.11lly
1.11rrived. ~oMeoneh1.11d
beenw1.11tchinlj
IA\.NoTWel.111o!A
bee11
bei.-,,1
w111½theo!A.

2. 2 Future in the past

We were travelling to Australia the next day.

Sam was going to start looking for another job.

I thought it would be nice to take a gift.

Jody was to contact me as soon as her plane landed.

Jody was to have contacted me as soon as her plane landed.

We were about to leave the house when the phone rang.

• When we are talking about the past, we sometimes need to • We can also use past forms of be+ supposedto+ infinitive
talk about things that had not yet happened. We can use the or perfect infinitive. These are often, but not always, used for
past continuous or was/weregoing to for this. events that didn't come true.
WhenI s1.11w
her, shew1.11s
le1.11vi~
the next d1.11y. tie w1.11s
S1Apposed
to hl.llve
deliveredthe reporton
JiMw1.11s
ljOinlj
to MeetM1.11ryth1.11t
eveninlj- T1AesdAy.(BIAfhe flliled.)
• We can use the past form of will(would). tie w1.11sn't
S1Apposedto look1.11t
the files. (B1At
he did
Thl.lltdiscoverywo1Ald
t1Arn
01At
to be iMport1.11nt
l1.11ter
on. 1.11nyw1.11y.)
• We can also use past forms of the verb be with the infinitive or • To describe something that was going to happen soon, we use
the perfect infinitive. The infinitive can be used for events that the past form of the verb be with the word about. Sometimes
came true or didn't come true. we add the word just.

tie WAS
to deliverthe reporton T1Aesdlly.
(Andhe did.) ~heh1.11dherco1.11t
on bec1.111ASe
shew1.11s
(j1Ast)
1.11bo1Af
to
tie WAS
to deliverthe reporton T1Aesd1.11y.
(B1At
he flliled.) t 1.11ke
the do'jfor 1.11
w1.11lk.
The perfect infinitive is usually only used for events that
didn't come true.
• You may need to make other changes to pronouns, times,
tie WASto hl.llve
deliveredthe reporton T1Aesdlly. places, etc, in the same way as you do in reported speech.
(B1Athe flliled.)
Ann1.11
w1.11s
le1.11vinlj
for (1.11n1.11d11
the followinljd11y.
NoTAm.di Wdl\IMW'i~.,
for c--~.dlllAdl
fOMorrow.

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2.1 Narrative tenses

A Choosethe option in each sentencethat is NOT correct. B Correctthe underlinedmistakes.Sometimesmore than
one answeris possible.
1 I what he meant.
a had finally been understanding 1 I realised I left my money at home.
2 When I looked out of the window, I saw that it raiofd.
b finally understood
c had finally understood 3 I did to realise that I had forgotten my keys before I left.
4 Janine changed her mind about the theatre but it was
2 to wait in the reception area.
too late as I already bougbt the tickets.
a They told me
s We arrived a little early and we.1Qldto wait until the
b I was telling
manager was free.
c I was told
6 Greg went to see the doctor because he wasn't being
3 Jim had been swimming earlier and his hair wet. fe.eliog well.
a was 7 As soon as we had finished the discussion, we bad.Left.
b had got
C Complete each sentencewith the correctform of the
c was getting
verb in brackets,activeor passive.Sometimesmore than
4 Angie was shocked by what she at the film festival. one answeris possible.
a had seen 1 I was angry because
b saw (I I keep)waiting for an hour.

c has seen 2 The sun was shining and the birds

s He had got the job but he
a hadn't been being told
b wasn't told
c hadn't been told
6 It was a terrible day and it
a was raining
(sing) in the trees.
the starting date.
3 The reason I was tired was that I
(haveto I walk)
all the way home.
4 We (onlyI work)
heavily. on the project for a week when it was cancelled.

b had been raining

c had been rained
s Pete
about the change of plans so he knew nothing.
6 We couldn't use the living room because it

► Go backto page 17.

(not I tel0

(decorate).
I
2. 2 Future in the past
A Choosethe correctoptionsto complete the sentences. B Write one word in each gap to complete the sentences.
1 I couldn't go to the party because I wouldtake I 1 Sonja about to get on the train when
was takinga test the next day. she realised she'd left her ticket at home.
2 When we were at school together, he was becomingI 2 Philippe couldn't believe he was actually
going to becomea doctor. to graduate in three weeks' time.
3 They thought it willI wouldbe fun to play a trick on us. 3 We all knew it ____ be fun to enter the
4 Our new TV was to have been deliveredI delivering competition.
yesterday but it didn't come. 4 Both girls truly believed they going to
s I was about I about to ask him where he got the be famous one day.
money when he made an excuse and left. s At that point it dawned on me that London
6 When the film was released, few people thought it to be my new home.
wouldbe I was beinga success. 6 Marie was about to give in her report
7 The fingerprints found at the scene of the crime when she spotted the mistake.
were beingI were to be vital in solving it. ► Go backto page 21.
s Thinking there was no way he was goingI would to
get into university, he didn't even apply.

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3. 1
•
Future structures
We can use a variety of grammatical forms to express the
future, such as future forms with will, the present simple, the
present continuous and be going to. • We usually don't use will after words which signal
conditional sentences such as if, unless,when, while.
They'llpl111111t
somemoretrees over the 111ex+
few weeks.
So we use present continuous instead of future
Whe111
t.loesthe prese111t111tio111
be,i1117 continuous, and present perfect instead of future perfect.
I'm,oi111,to i111st111II
sol111r
p111111els
0111
my roof.
She'llbe hlll111,i111,
1Ap flyers whileI'm meeti111,with
• We use the future continuous (will be+ -ing) to describe
a situation that will be in progress at a particular point in
the co1A111cil.
NoT ~he'lllie l,11•,.,i1c.,1itp
fl~erswl.ile
the future.
I'll lie med=i•,.,wi-tl.-tl.eeo1itheil.
will be m111ki111,
Scie111tish 111111
imporf111111+
11111111101A111ceme111t
• We can use a modal verb such as may, might or could instead
~ pm.
111+ of will in these future structures to express possibility.
• We use the future perfect simple (will have+ past participle)
to re111ew111ble
They'llbe switchi111, e111er,y
Soo111.
to describe changes that will be completed before a particular
point in the future.
(= t.lefi111itely)
They co1Alt.l
be switchi111,
to re111ew111ble
e111er,y
soo111.
Hewill h111vefi>Cet.l
the 111ir-co111t.litio111i111,
by the e111t.l
of (= it's possible)
the t.l111y. • We also use phrases such as beon the vergeof+ -ing, beon the
• We can use the future perfect simple with adverbs in the brink of+ -ing, be due to+ infinitive, be setto+ infinitive, and be
middle position after will. about to+ infinitive to refer to the future.
Poll1Atio111
i111
01Arcity will SIArely
h111ve 'flAl!llity
imp111det.l 1>111111ielle
111111s
0111the ver,e of Achievi~ her,oAI.
of life by the e111t.l
of the 111ex+
t.lec111t.le.
• We use the future perfect continuous (will havebeen+ -ing) to
focus on the future results of an earlier future process, and/or
to measure the length of time of that process.

The crewwill h111ve

bee111te111ri111,
t.low111
the olt.lfllldory
for twelve weeksby the e111t.l
of )1A111e.

3 .2 Negative inversion
• We use negative inversion when we want to emphasise • There are also some inversions which do not contain negative
a negative element of a sentence. We place the negative words and phrases. These include sentences which start with
element at the beginning and we invert(= swap over) the only for time expressions, such as Only after, Only when, Only
subject and auxiliary verb. once,Only if, Only by, Onlyrarely,and Rarely,Hardly and Barely.
I hAve111ever
see111
S1AchWA my life. = Neverhlllve
Ste i111 0111ly
by re111di111,
the i111str1Adio111s
three times did I
I See111
SIAch
WASte i111
my life. 1A111derstA111d
whAtto do.
I'm 1110+
SAyi111,
we 111eet.l
to le111ve = By 1110
1110111. me111111S
AMI SAyi~ we 111eet.l
to le111ve
1110111.
No "'"Yco1Ald
I everdriveIll petrol-poweret.l
c111r
"'"i111. , With some inversions, such as No sooner... than, Not only,
• We add do, doesor did in inverted clauses when there is no Hardly,etc, it's the first verb and the subject which inverts.
auxiliary verb. Not 0111lyWAShe IAte,he 111111s
111lso
1A111prep111ret.l.
receivedAll\Apolo,y.= Neverdid shereceiveAll\
She111ever 1/Ardlyhllldwe SA+dow111whe111
the fire AIArM
Apolo,y. we111t
off.
• We use than after the phrase no sooner. • With other inversions, such as Onlyafter, Not until, etc,
Nosoo111er
hAdshewritte111
the doc1Ame111t
thll\111
her it's the verb in the main clause which inverts.
comp1Ater
crAshet.l. 0111ly
AfterI'dArrivet.l
did I re111lise
I'd,ot the
• Inversion is often used with the structure not only ... but also. dAywro111,.
Not 0111ly
did I meet the chA111cellor,
b1AtI Alsomet the Not 1A111til
he't.lSpe111t
hoiArS 0111li111e
did he fillldIll
e111viro111me111t
mi111ister. S1Ait
Ablephoto.
• Some words and phrases change in inversions, and negative
verbs become positive. • We don't use inversion when the negative word or phrase is
the subject.
Noboiiytold me 111bo1At thAt 0111ce.➔ Not 0111cedid
llllllyboiiy
tell me Abo1At thlllt. No111e
of my colle111,1AeSt111ke
p1Ablic trA111Sport.
_.,c,-tdlke
NoT No1ceof I'll~ eolle11.,1iteS p1itlili,
-tr11•1Spor-t.
YolA M1ASt111't
Sillythlllt1A111t.ler
AIIIY ➔
circ1AmStA111ces.
• The verb and subject invert after neitherand nor.
V111der 1110
circ1AmStA111ces MIAS+ yolASAY thAt.
Thlllt's1110+the 0111ly sol1Atio111
by llllllY ➔
Mel!IIIIS- No111e of their stAff k111ew
the 111111swer,
111111d
111either
did we.
By 1110 Mel!IIIIS
is thllltthe 0111ly sol1Atio111. I hlllve111't
told A111yo111e,
A111d
111or
MS)Ake.

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3.1 Future structures

A Match the statements(1-7) with their purposes(a-g).
1 We're going to build a zero-emissions home.
2 I'll call the manager, if you like.
3 I think you'll be famous someday!
4 When are they going to close down that factory?
s The talk begins at 10 am.
6 I think I'll just take the bus instead.
7 With all these clouds, it's going to rain very soon!
a making a prediction from strong evidence
b explaining plans
c talking about a fixed scheduled event
d making a prediction based on opinion more than evidence
e making an offer
f asking about plans
g making a decision while speaking

B Choosethe correctoptions to complete the sentences.
1 We'll be testing I have tested the new equipment for a
few hours tomorrow.
2 They'I I have been layingI laid the foundation by the
end of next week.
3 I'll be meeting I have met Jim later today, if you'd like
to join us.
C Complete the secondsentenceso that it has a similar
meaning asthe first sentence.Use between two and five
words, includingthe word in bold.
1 Thirty minutes from now, the meeting will conclude. DUE
The meeting conclude
in half an hour.
2 The scientists will make the discovery any day now. VERGE

4 Will you have be workingI been workingwith the The scientists are the discovery.
company for very long when you retire? 3 In less than a minute, the rocket will launch. ABOUT
s The company will have built I been building two new The rocket launched.
hotels by the end of the year. 4 The two companies are close to sealing the deal. BRINK
6 They won't have taken I be taking questions from the The two companies
audience after the talk. sealing the deal.
7 By the time she finishes the marathon, Kayla will have s By the end of the year, the agreement will have expired. SET
jogged I beenjogging for six hours.

I
The agreement is by year's end.
8 He'll probably still be working unless he decides I will
6 I'll be collecting samples and she'll be recording them. WHILE
decide to leave it for next week.
She'll be recording samples them.
► Go backto page 26.

3 .2 Negative inversion

A Rewritethe sentences(1-6) using inversionand the words given.

1 Nobody asked me if I passed my driving test.
Not once
2 I'd just arrived home when they called me back to the office.
No sooner
3 We seldom see players with such natural ability.
Rarely
4 He is really clever and incredibly funny.
Not only
s Tina realised her purse had been stolen when she went to pay her bill.
Only when
6 You must not open that door.
Under no circumstances

B Write one word in each gap.

Anna was in charge of organising her company's annual conference. She had met the manager a week before
to settle the plans, and no 1 had they sat down to talk than the manager was called away. She
waited forty-five minutes, and 2 until she got up to leave did the manager re-appear. On the day
of the conference, 3 no means did everything go according to plan. Not 4
was
the turnout low, but she 5 had trouble with the conference venue. 6 in a million
years would she have thought things could go so wrong.
► Go backto page 31.

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4.1
•
Conditionals without if
We can use inversions to replace the word ifin some conditional sentences.
In first conditional sentences, we can use should to replace if

~holAlli ho.veA~~ 'flAeStio~s,

~OIA ao~'t hesito.teto co.II.(= If ~OIA
pleASe hAve... oR If ~OIA
sho1Alli
ho.ve... )
• In second conditional sentences, we can use were to replace if
Wereit bo.~~eli,there wo1,dli (= If it werebo.~~eli... )
be A~ 01Atcr~-
WereI to lio the 'flAiz,l'M SIAre wi~! (= If I wereto lio ... )
I wo1Alli
• In third conditional sentences, we can use had to replace if This use of inversion is more common in formal language.
Ho.Iihe IASeli
A bro.i~tro.i~i~, ljAMe,he wo1Alli More.(= If he ho.IiIASeli
ho.vereMeMbereli ... )
• We can also sometimes use verbs, -ing, past participles and the imperative in place of if.

Suppose (that) I had a chip in my brain, would I be smarter?

Assuming (that) you complete the experiment, will you have all the data?
Providing (that) we didn't make any mistakes, the results should be correct.
Provided (that) you believe in yourself, you will definitely succeed.
Read more books, and you will improve your memory.

• With the imperative and Imagine/Suppose (that), you cannot swap the clauses round.
IMAlji~e
~olAwereoffereliA bro.i~iMplo.~t,wo1Alli ~olAwo.~tit?
NoT WeMliA~"" w111•,+
111 i,A-..,ihe~"" wel'eaffel'" i+?
1,,-.ihi,,,pli11•1+

4. 2 Wishesand regrets

to wish that I wish/ If only I didn't blush so easily.

the present
I wish/ If only I could stop stammering.
was different
I wish/ If only you would speak more clearly.

I wish/ If only I had participated in the study.

to wish that I wish/ If only I could have participated

the past was in the study.
different
I shouldn't have gazed at the floor all the time!

• lfonly often sounds more dramatic or emphatic than wish. It can be used about other people, but usually suggests the speaker's opinion.

If o~I~~o.vilihAlik~ow~the o.~swer!(= I wish~o.viliho.Iik~ow~the o.~swer!)

• To be more formal, we use were instead of was after I/he/she/it.
If o~I~ I wereMoreco1ilie~t.
Hewisheshe wereMoreco~filie~t.
• When you want to talk about your own wishes, use could instead of would.
I wishI co1Alli
SpeAk
(hi~ese. NoT I wishI wa.-liA
spe-.k(hihese.
• We can also use ought to have+ past participle to talk about things that were ideal or desired in the past.

The~ o~ht to hAveMA~o.,elithe Meeti~, better.

• We can use would love to have+ past participle to talk about regrets.
I wolAlli tiMe to explo.i~M~ views.(= I liili~'t ho.vee~o~h tiMe o.~athAt'sA sho.Me.)
love to hAvehAlie~OIAljh
• We can also use if+ past perfect simple+ modal verbs (subordinate clause) and modal verb+ have+ past participle to talk about imagined
situations in the past with regret.

I co1Alli
hAveIMr~eliMore,if I hAiiprepo.reli
for the clo.sses.

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4.1 Conditionalswithout if
A Completeeach secondsentenceso it meansthe same asthe one before it. C Complete the sentenceswith the correct
form of the verbsin brackets.
1 If I had dropped my coffee on her carpet, I would have felt embarrassed!
Had , I would have felt embarrassed! (act) confidently, and
you will never again feel embarrassed.
2 If brain implants were available to everyone, I would definitely get one!
2 Suppose you (arrive)
Should , I would definitely get one!
late for an exam, what would you do?
3 If you practised Sudoku puzzles more, you would get better at them.
3 Provided that you think before you
Were , you would get better at them. speak, you (not say)
4 If you become dizzy after taking the medication, please contact your doctor. anything silly.
Should , please contact your doctor. 4 Were I (say)the
wrong thing, I would apologise.
B Choosethe correctoptionsto completethe sentences.
s Assuming you (prove)
, ImagineI Imaginingthat you met Elon Musk, what would you say to him? he was cheating, would you tell the
2 SupposeI Providingthat we didn't make any errors during the experiment, examiner?
the data should be correct. 6 Should Al become a reality, we
3 LookI Supposewe look at the problem from a different angle, we might be (need)to improve
able to find a solution. human intelligence.
4 ImagineI Assumingthat she told us the truth, I think we can conclude that 7 (I know) that the
she's innocent. research was unethical, I would never
s SupposingI Providedall the participants had been men, would that have have taken part in it.
made a difference to the results? s Unless the government
6 ConductingI Conductmore research, and you will have a clearer picture. (increase)funding
for the programme, the researchers will
never be able to complete their study.
► Go backto page41.

4. 2 Wishesand regrets
A Choosethe correctoptionsto completethe sentences.

2
I wish I had made a better first impression.= I made I didn'tmakea good impression.
I wish I could understand what the lecturer was saying.= I understandI don't understand.
I
3 You shouldn't have been so clumsy!= You wereI weren'tclumsy.
4 Helena wishes her new boss was more friendly.= Her new boss isI isn'tfriendly.
s I would love to have taken part in the experiment.= I took I didn'ttake part.
6 You ought not to have worn that eccentric outfit.= You woreI didn'twear an eccentric outfit.
7 If only I didn't feel so socially awkward.= I feelI don't feelsocially awkward.
s If only he could express himself more clearly.= He is I isn'table to express himself clearly.
B Completethe sentenceswith the correctform of the C Correctthe mistakesin each sentence.
verbs in brackets.
1 You shouldn't have copy your essay from the internet.
1 I wish I (prepare)more thoroughly for 2 The girls wish they was on holiday.
my interview yesterday.
3 You could had told me the truth - I would have
2 If only I (know)whether or not I've believed you!
got the job!
4 I would love to had taken part in the research.
3 I wish I (can I get) her autograph but
I wasn't brave enough.
s The scientists ought to have make their findings public.
6 Gemma doesn't wish she was so shy.
4 If only I (not I say)that I'm
disorganised! 7 If only I hadn't get embarrassed with new people.

s I wish I (can I think) clearly under s I could have done better, if I haven't been so nervous.
pressure but I get so stressed. ► Go backto page43.
6 I wish I (not I have to) go through
job interviews!

GRAMMAR HUB 129

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5. 1 The passive

We were made to wait for over an hour.

I hate being kept waiting.

He would like to be given the chance to retake the test.

They got thrown off the course.

I need to have my phone serviced.

• Remember that we use the passive when we don't say who or • We can use get+ object+ past participle when we talk about
what causes the action (usually because the person or thing is causing something to happen or be done by somebody else.
not known, not important or not obvious).
~heis pop1.tlAr
becA1.tSe
she1eh thi~,s clo~e.
WeweremAcle to sit the e>eAmAljAi~.NoTWewel'e The~AreA~,r~becA1.tSe the~ Are~ot 1etti~, their
mdl.Ae bo,_,.A+osi++IceeiMm,_,,_i.,.
b~+Iceeit"lmi•c--+icm pArceh tieliverecl
o~ time.
• We use by when we know who does/did an action and we • We can also use get+ object+ -ing to talk about causing
want to mention it. someone or something to do something.
rclo~'tmi~clbei~, tolclb~ m~ bonto workIAteb1.ttr The booko~ 'jAmetheor~1ot ~IASA~
thi~ki~,.
clo~'tlikeit whe~rht11veto coverfor otherpeople.
• We can use an infinitive or -ing passive form, depending on
the verb or construction that comes before it. Some verbs can
In both the get passive and the causative, get is usually less
be followed by an infinitive or -ingwith no or little change in
formal than have.Don't use it in formal situations.
meaning. Prepositions are always followed by -ing.
WeArrA~'jecl to be pAicli~ cAsh.
The lettert11Skecl
1.tS
whe~we ht11cl
hAclthe ho1.tSe
b1.tilt.
NoTThele#el' 11slte.A
MSwhelfl
we hit.A
10½
rAppreciAteclbei~, tolclAbo1.tt
the clelA~. +l,el,oMSe
bMil+.
The chilclloveclto be/ bei~ throw~1.tp i~ the Air.
Joh~~~~evertAlkst11bo1.tt bei~, throw~01.ttof colle,e.
• We use the causative (in any tense) when someone does
something for us, or when we are victims of a crime or
accident. The causative with have is more formal than the
causative with get.
r 1ot m~ hAirc1.tt.oR rhAclm~ WAiiet
stole~o~
the trAi~.

5. 2 Passivereporting structures
• Some verbs, such as allege,assume,believe,expect,know, say, • We can sometimes use modal verbs before the reporting verb.
report,rumour,suppose,understand,are often used in the rt CAM
beAU1.tmecl
thAtthe b1.tsi~eu
is stillprofitAble.
passive as reporting verbs. The verb rumourcan only be used in
• In both personal and impersonal constructions, we can use
this way.
the reporting verb in the past if we are referring to something
• We often use the impersonal it with these verbs. people expected/knew/thought,etc. However, if the action was
rt is r1.tmo1.trecl
thAtthe PrimeMi~isterwillA~~o1.t~ce
her done in the past, and we are reporting it now, the verbs must
resi,~Atio~toclA~-(= Thereis Ar1AM01.tr
+Mt ...) reflect this.
• With an impersonal it passive, we can follow the reporting verb lle WAS kMow~ to be hitii~,.
with either an infinitive or that. rt WAS tho1.t1httht11t
the~ hAclfAilecl.
rt is 1.t~clerstooti
to beAcomplicAteclsit1AAtio~. lle is 1.t~tierstoocl
to hAvemAclecoMtAct.
rt is 1.t~clerstoocl
+Mt the sit1AAtio~
is complicAtecl. rt is believetithAthe cliscoverecl
AmericA.
• With a personal reporting structure, beginning with I/you/he/
she/it/we/they,we use the past participle of the reporting verb,
followed by to+ infinitive.
Do not use that in a personal passive (one that begins
He is known to be a thief. with I/You/He/She,etc).

She is thought to be
to be plA~~i~,to MAkec1.th.NoTffe
lle is r1.tmo1.trecl
planning a comeback.
is I "41110"41M +1.,_+
l,e is pldlm,i•,, ,..+s.
+ollldllte
They are rumoured to have
started a secret mission.
They are believed to have
been watching us.

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5. 1 The passive
A Findthe mistakesand correctthem. Some sentences C Completethe sentencesin the passiveor causative.
are correct. 1 Active: They made him sign the document.
1 I was made to fill in pages of details on the form. Passive:He
2 I dislike to be spoken to as if I don't understand anything. 2 Active: If you're not careful, they'll throw you out.
3 He looks forward to be spoiled when he visits his family. Passive:If you're not careful, you'll
4 In my school, we used to get told off for the slightest things.
s You look different - have you had your hair done? 3 Active: I'd like to know how much it costs for you to
6 Do you know what we were made do in the intelligence test? clean my car professionally.
Causative: I'd like to know how much it costs to
B Completethe sentenceswith the correct-ing or infinitive
passiveform of the verb in brackets.
4 Active: How on earth are we going to find someone
1 I miss spend summer holidays on the
to repair that window on a Sunday?
beach. (be able to)
Causative: How on earth are we going to get
2 Justine begged ___ for the things she'd said
?
in anger. (forgive)
s Active: I'm sure they didn't tell me to be here half an
3 The taller kids tended for basketball,
hour early.
regardless of their ability. (choose)
Passive:I don't remember
4 The manager wouldn't tolerate with.
(disagree)
6 Active: Someone will steal your car if you leave
s Paul didn't mention by the police -
it there.
do you think he's hiding something? (stop)
Causative: You'll get
6 He couldn't remember onto an elephant,
although he had the photo to prove it had happened. (lift)
► Go backto page 51.

5. 2

3
Passivereportingstructures
A Choosethe correctoptionsto completethe sentences.
We are supposed to be I to be being there at nine o'clock.
It is rumoured to be I that the company is in difficulty.
Two members of staff are alleged to transferI have transferred
C Rewritethe sentencesusingboth personaland
impersonalpassivestructures.Usethe reporting
verb in bold.
1 People believehe is very rich.
I
He
money into private accounts.
It
4 It is I was originally thought that they were related.
2 Some people report that he was awarded over one
s They are believed to plan I be planninga trip abroad.
million dollars.
6 The police are known to be I have been following him for the
He
past few months.
It
7 It was thought that there was I to be a secret tunnel, but
nothing has been found. 3 They sayshe knows her subject inside out.

s On her first day, it I she was expected to write three reports. She
It
B Completethe text with a suitableform of the verbs in the box.
4 Critics claim that the game's story is too complex.
announce discuss focus look make plan
The game
It
Director disputes s Many think that it is a complex problem.
Home Articles About us Contocl The problem
It
Following tomorrow's meeting, Collins is expected
1
6 People assumeshe is shy but she'sjust quiet.
his resignation. The company is thought
2 She is
to specialise in the near future. They
are expected 3 on only one product, It is
and Collins is known 4 his objections to ► Go backto page 55.
this very clear on several occasions in the past. Although
Collins is understood 5 the situationwith
top management for several weeks, the company is now
rumoured 6 for a way to force him out.
GRAMMARHUB 131
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6.1
•
Past modals of speculation and deduction
We use must+ have+ past participle for things we believe
logically happened.
• Although could/might/may have+ past participle all mean
It's" h~e book,\o it M&A.\t
hi:\veti:\keM
her" loM'j
tiMe
the same thing, might/may not have expresses possibility,
to re\Mrchi:\Md
write.
whereas couldn't have expresses certainty.
• We use could/might/may well+ have+ past participle for
things we believe likely happened. It's possibleth"t AleddidM't\ee the eMi:\il.= Aid
"""Y/Miljht Mothi:\ve\eeMthe eMi:\il.NoTMeJ.
They'restill Mot\IA.re
wh"tCi:\&A.\J
the fire b&A.t
it
teMlel1.'½
ho11wesee11
½heer.,111il.
"""Ywellhi:\vebeeMst"rtJ deliberi:\tely.
• We use could/might/may+ have+ past participle for things we
• We can use phrases that start with Thereis+ a/an/the+
think possibly happened.
adjective+ noun+ (that) to speculate, with adjectives such
The pli:\Me
Miijhthi:\vecri:\\hJiMthe MO&A.Mti:\iM\
b&A.t as distinct, fair, high, remote, slim and slight, and nouns such as
they Meverfo&A.Md
the wrecki:\,e. chance, likelihood and possibility.
• We use can't/couldn't+ have+ past participle to say something Therei\ " di1tiMctpouibility+Mt he picked1A-p
was not logically possible. the illMe\\whileiMthe j&A.Mljle.
They co&A.ldM't
hi:\veb&A.ilt
this Mi:\Uive
fort iMj&A.\t"
week. • We can also use phrases that start with It is+ adverb+
adjective+ (that) to speculate, with adverbs such as extremely,
highly, reasonably,somewhat and quite, and adjectives such as
likely and possible.
It's 11A-ite
pouible+Mt riv"Iexplorer\\i:\bot"'jJ
their pli:\M\.

6. 2 -ing and infinitive forms

• We use -ing after a preposition.
\he pr"i\J the jo&A.rMi:\list
for expo\iM'j
the iM_j&A.\tice.
• We use to+ infinitive after the word time, but after the
They'reMotiMterestJiMfiMdiMlj o&A.t
the tr&A.th. phrase have a good/greattime .. . , we use -ing.
• We also use -ing after expressions such as It's no good ... ,
lt'snotworth ... , There'snopoint(in) ... and ... haveagood It'stiMeto Mi:\ke " deci\ioM.NoTIt's-f:ir,,e
time/difficulty/fun/problems ... . rt1111lti11i,
di eletiSie11.

It'sMotworthp1A-blishiM'j
the "rticleif it will,et Weh"d" ijYMttiMe P"iMtiM'j the wi:\11.
NoTWe
l,111el
III i,redl½½iMe½epo11i1..t
fl.e wo11II.
yo&A.
firJ.
There'\MO poiMt(iM)helpiM'jpeoplewhoi:\reIA-M'jr"tef&A-1. • Some verbs can be followed by -ing (e.g. appreciate, suggest)
Yo&A.'11
hi:\vediffic&A.lty
j&A.\tifyiM'j
th"t i:\M\wer. and some can be followed by to+ infinitive (e.g. attempt,
• We use to+ infinitive after adjectives, nouns, quantifiers and manage). Some can be followed by either, usually with a
the word time. change of meaning (e.g. remember, stop, try).
\he'\ M'jerto ,et st"rtJ oMherwork. WhydoM'tyo&A. try doiM'j
\oMere\MrchoMliMe?
They IA-r'jJ peopleto t AkeshelteriMthe Mew~cility. (= experiMeMt)
The reporti\ leMljthy, i:\Md
there'\too MIA.eh
to rMdiM I triJ to 1et iMto&A.ch
with)i:\M b&A.t
co&A.ldM't
fiMd
oMeMiljht. heri:\Mywhere.
l..et'spick" 'joodtiMeto reviewthe Mi:\terii:\I\. (= i:\tfeMpt)
• We can use -ing or infinitive without to after the object
of sense verbs like hear, see, etc. The infinitive without to
emphasises a complete action that is seen or heard, while
the -ing emphasises an ongoing activity.
I \l,\wherdriMkiM'j
the coffee.
(= The "dioMWi:\\
iMpro1re\\.I didM't\ee her
fiMi\hthe coffee.)
I \AWherdriMk the coffee.
(= The i:\dioMWi:\\coMpletJ. I \i:\W
herfiMi\h
the coffee.)

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6.1 Past modals of speculation and deduction

A Findand correctmistakesin someof the sentences. B Choosethe correctoptionsto complete the
sentences.
1 You may have been exhausted after such a long journey.
2 She must be lying. She might not have travelled all that distance There is a distinctpossibilityI extremelypossible
in one day. It's impossible! that they checked in under a false name.

3 They could have taken a wrong turning, but it's hard to tell at 2 It is a slim chance I somewhat likelythat the
this stage. courier company had the wrong address.

4 He must well have taken his bike with him as he loves cycling. 3 There's highlypossibleI a remote chance that the
Sphinx was carved more than 10,000 years ago.
s Janessa couldn't possibly have climbed Mt Kilimanjaro with a
4 There isn't the slightestpossibilityI highly
broken ankle.
unlikelythat anyone survived that plane crash.
6 She can't have been a globetrotter in her youth because she has
souvenirs from all round the world.
s It's not a distinctlikelihoodI completely
impossiblethat she made her way out of the
7 Jonathan must not have got our message. I suppose we'll only
cave alive.
find out when we hear from him.
6 There's somewhat possible I a reasonablechance
s They must have already left because their room is empty and that Geoff kept copies of alI the correspondence.
their bags are gone.

C Completethe text with the words in the box.

couldn't it might must there well

Cabeza de Vaca may 1 have been one of the luckiest and unluckiest explorers ever. Of the
600 men on his 1527 expedition to the Americas, he was one of only four to survive. While they probably
imagined a difficult journey, they 2 have known the misfortune that awaited them.
They risked it because 3 was a possibility of finding gold. Before they even set foot on land,
100 men deserted. They 4 have been too exhausted to continue.
Shortly before reaching the coast, a hurricane killed 60 more. On land, the Apalachee people they

I
encountered weren't very hospitable. 5 is likely they sensed the explorers' ill intentions.
The Spanish tried to escape, and they 6 have been successful except for another hurricane!
More men died, the natives in Texas enslaved them, and it was ten years before Cabeza de Vaca and his last
three men were finally free.
► Go backto page 63.

6. 2 -ing and infinitiveforms

A Choosethe correctoptionsto completethe sentences. B Write the correctform of the verb in brackets.
It's no good him for information. He doesn't give Justin was disciplined for (express)not
anything away. finishing his assignment.
a to ask b asking 2 She brought food for the picnic, but there wasn't enough
2 It's time our invention to the test! I.go)round.

a putting b to put 3 It's not worth (do) such hard work for
so little money.
3 Despite putting his heart and soul into the project,
he had a hard time it. 4 I'm sorry, but this is a bad time (discuss)
this topic.
a to finish b finishing
s Is she having difficulty (adjust)to her
4 Even though the city has got money, they have
new life?
little to those in need.
6 They advised him on (invest)in new
a to give b giving
business ventures.
s It's correct that her life was a true rags-to-riches story.
7 There are many ideas here (help)
a saying b to say you get started on the project.
6 I'm not very keen on a meeting on a Saturday. s Your plan failed miserably. Have fun
a to arrange b arranging (explain)that to the boss!
7 The police didn't have enough evidence the crime. 9 I saw them (steal)the bike. I witnessed
a to solve b solving the whole thing from start to finish.
► Go backto page67.
8 Jason found it harder with his colleagues after
the disagreement.
a to work b working

GRAMMAR HUB 133

 Grammar Hub
7 .1 it clefting
• We can use the structure It+ is/was +'focus'+ defining relative clause to focus on a particular
piece of information in a sentence. This focus could be:

It was Tenzing Norgay and Edmund Hillary who first reached the summit of Mount Everest.
It was 1953 when Sir John Hunt successfully led the expedition to reach the summit of Mount Everest.

It is Mount Everest which has always captured people's imaginations.

It was the challenge of the climb which inspired generations of climbers.
It was because he had almost reached the summit one year previouslythatTenzing Norgay was
hired for the expedition.

It was to show his respect for the people of Nepal that Sir Hunt asked Tenzing to make the final
climb to the summit.

It wasn't until years later that Tenzing revealed which climber had first stepped onto the summit of
Mount Everest.

In sentences like this, we usually leave out the second defining relative clause to avoid
repeating the same information.
It w111s111't
Joh111
f#1A111t
whofirst cliMbetA Everest- it w111\EdM1A111d
flill111ry.
NoT1-tw"'11.'Hel.1,!h,oA=wl,11
firs-I=
di,nl,etiEleres-1=i,tw"'iEiA,111111.iA
lfill"'r~
whefir~ cliMl,etiE,el'ei't.

7 .2 what clefting and all clefting

• We can use a what clause+ be+ second clause in order to emphasise the information in the second clause.
With this structure, the information in the what clause is usually known or understood whereas the information in the
second clause is usually new and therefore the main focus of the sentence.
Wh111t
Pri1111111<A is to e\c111pe
w111111h the r111t
r111ce.
Wh111t
they 111eetAetA,
111ftertheirw111lki111
the \111ow, 111
w111\ hot b111th.
Wh111t
he decidedto do WIii\ to ch1111111e
c111reer\.
• To emphasise a verb in the second clause, we can use the structure: what clause with do+ be+ second clause. We can use
the infinitive with or without to after the verb be.
Wh111t
he doesis (to) cliMbcell1Al111r
pho111e
tower\.
• We can use All instead of What at the beginning of the first clause. This emphasises the idea of there being 'only one thing'.
AllyolA111eetA
to do i111
the i111terview
is (to) 111ct
111111t1Ar111lly.
(= the 0111ly
thi1111 to do)
yolA111eetA
• It is also possible to use Why, Where, How, When to begin this kind of cleft sentence.
Whyhe e111joys
ex+reMesportsis III Mysteryto Me.

• The structure what clause+ be+ second clause is reversible.

Wh111t
he e111joys
111bo1Athisjob is livi1111
i111 oR1-ivi1111
the wilder111e\\. i111
the
wilder111eu
is whlllthe elll_joys
111bo1At
hisjob.
The structure what clause with do+ be+ second clause is not reversible.
Wh111t
they did w111\ NoTMe~e-te-t=l.e
Moveto the co1A111tryside. ,1111111-l=r~1iiAe
w"'1wl..,.,t-tl.e~IAiiA.

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7 .1 it clefting
A Write one word in each gap to complete the responses. C Complete the second sentenceso that it has a similar
meaning to the first sentence,usingthe word given.
1 Did you know that Jack was going to come with us?
Write between two and five words.
No, it a surprise that he decided to come.
1 Susan wasn't hysterical, Jane was.
2 What time did Antonio arrive home?
WAS
It was seven o'clock I heard his key in the lock.
It hysterical, not Susan.
3 Was he worried about the cost offixing his laptop? 2 Not until after we were rescued did I realise the danger
No, it was losing all his work he was more we had been in.
worried about. UNTIL
4 You've met my sister,haven't you? It were rescued
No, it was your brother I met. that I realised the danger we had been in.
s Did you recognise Stella straight away? 3 We took part in the charity walk because we wanted to

No, it wasn't somebody introduced us that raise money.

I realised it was her! IT
money that
B Readthe questions.Use it clefting and the information in we took part in the charity walk.
bracketsto complete the answers.
4 What caused her to fail the interview was her
1 What first got you interested in rock climbing? over-confidence.
(myfriendSeb) WAS
first got me It caused her to
interested in the sport. fail the interview.
2 What do you think attracts people to Yosemite? s I believe yoga will help you to relax.
(theideaof beingin the wilderness) THAT
I think attracts It yoga will
so many people to go there. help you to relax.

[
3 When did you set out to climb the Half Dome? 6 Somebody else upset Mzia,not you.
(earlyin the morning) YOU
we set out. It upset Mzia.
4 When did you realise how high the Half Dome is? ► Go backto page 74.
(onlywhen I reachedthe top)
I realised how high up it is!

7 .2 what clefting and a// clefting

A Reorderthe words to make sentences. B Rewritethese sentencesusingwhat clefting or all clefting.
1 about the winter/ dislike/ is/ What/ the long nights/ I 1 I've found that working underwater isn't as bad as it
sounds.

2 I/ want/ a normal life/ All/ is What

2 I'm only saying that you should think twice before
moving to Antarctica.
3 we're I a solution to our problems/ to find/ is/ here/ What
All
3 I'm going to look for a job as a window cleaner.
4 the last train/ we missed/ happened/ that/ What/ was
What
4 I only asked for your opinion.
s I/ to ask you/ did/ All/ a simple question/ was
All
s I bought a ladder and a bucket.
6 I/ remember/ All/ is/ really difficult/ the questions/
were I that What
► Go back to page 79.

GRAMMAR HUB 135

' Grammar Hub
8.1
•
Relative clauses with complex relative pronouns
We use whoseto add information about someone's
possessions.
• In less formal English, we put the preposition at the end of
the clause.
I WAShAppyto meet 4eor'jiA,whosesisterhAdhelped MArti111,
whoseho1ASeI WASstAyi111'j
i111,WASA very
me fi111d
A plAceto stAy. tidy perso111.
• We use wherebyto add information about a method (formal). The perso111
(who)I depe111d
0111
the most ...
They i111trod1Aced
A 111ew
systemi111
the compA111y whereby The plAce{which)I ofte111
ret1Ar111
to ...
everybodyhASA f1AII
i111d1Actio111
0111
their first dAy. • Formal constructions can use a variety of prepositions
• We use whom to add information about a person where they depending on meaning.
are the object of the clause (formal). The perso111
i111
whomI hAvethe most co111fide111ce
...
The peoplewhomI ASkedwereAlli111
fAvo1Ar
of the plA111. The perso111
to whomI se111t
the letter ...
• In very formal English, we place the preposition (generally only The perso111
for whomthe mo111eyWAS bei111'j
rAiSed...
with whom, whoseand which) before the relative pronoun.
The PrimeMi111ister,
i111
whoseho11101Ar the eve111t
WASbei111'j
held, welcomedAllthe 'jlAeSh- The relative pronoun whom is very formal. We don't
The perso111
0111
whomI depe111d the most ... usually use it with a preposition at the end of the clause.

The plA<eto whichI ofte111

ret1Ar111
... The perso111
to whomyolA'jAvethe mo111ey
...
NoTTl.e perio•,wl.oM~oM1"'-e+heMo11e~ +o...

8. 2 Pronouns and determiners

• We use determiners before nouns to identify a number, an • Pronouns can be the same words as determiners but they are
amount or a group. not followed by a noun. They replace the noun, often to avoid
repeating it.
WehAveA few tomAtoes.
I hAdA <o1Apleof c1ApS
of coffee whileI WAS
wAiti111,. YolA
looklike yolA111eedwAter- I'll,et yolAsome.
Yo1A111eed
to ,et somefreshAir. NoT )loM look like~oM ..ee~ w!ll+er I'll-,e+
~oM

• Some common determiners include: a/an, the,this/that/these/

iOMeWlllftl'.
those,all, some(of), none, (a) little,(a) few (of), my/your/their/ • Some common pronouns include: 1/he/they/etc,me/you/
its/etc, any, much,more,both (of), enough,a lot of, other,each/ him/her/etc, this/that/these/those,there,some,mine/yours/
every,one/two/three/etc, either(of). his/etc, both, several,anyone/something/etc,others,none,
either.
• We can use some common determiners like millions of, loads
of, tons of when we want to exaggerate a point, especially in • We can also use one or one'sas pronouns to refer to people
informal English. in general. These are especially used to make generalisations
in formal English. One'sindicates possession.
I feel So'jlAilty
becAIASe
I Ate loAdSof chocolAte
IAst111i,ht. J>ietsMAke0111e
reAlisehowM1Ach
food CAIi\
impAd
0111e's
life.

Some pronouns cannot be used as determiners.

ThAt'jlASS
is mi111e.
NoTTI."'+ii ,,,i11e1llllU-
Some determiners cannot be used as pronouns.
ThAtis my 'jlASS-
NoT Tlllll'f:
1l"'uii m~-

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8. 1 Relativeclauseswith complexrelative pronouns

A Choosethe correctoptions to complete the
sentences.
1 Do you know the name of the person to who
whom the letter must be addressed?
2 That's Melanie, whose I who mother is the manager
of our company.
3 This is the mobile which I whereby I am most
interested in.
4 His father, to whom I whom he would often
go for financial help, had refused to give him
more money.
s We need to find a solution whereby I which
everyone will be happy.
6 The new supermarket will benefit the villagers,
among whom I for whom there are a number of
families without cars.
B Complete each sentencewith a word or phrasefrom the box.
for whom into which into whose whereby whose with which
I
1 A pedometer is a mechanical or digital device
we count steps taken while walking.
2 The owner, pocket the pedometer can be
slipped, can then use it to calculate their distance travelled.
3 More recently, mobiles have started featuring fitness apps,
pedometers or 'step counters' have been
incorporated.
4 Some experts claim that people daily number
of steps is lower than 10,000 should be concerned about their
health and fitness.
s Most fitness experts agree that any method
our steps can be counted is a useful one.
6 Pedometers make people exercise is not a
priority aware of their daily activity and motivate them to do more.

C Match the sentence beginnings(1-6) with the endings (a-f) to make sentences.
1 We reached an agreement a mood never changes.
2 He was uncomfortable because it was a situation in b which he never recovered.
3 Paula is a person whose c house we were all staying.
4 This will be popular with the team, among d whereby everyone was satisfied.

s The explorer contracted an illness from e whom any extra support is appreciated.
We still hadn't met Mr Dawson, in whose f which he had never been before.

I
6
► Go backto page 88.

8.2 Pronounsand determiners

A Underlinethe determinersin each sentence.Some sentenceshave more than one determiner.
1 I could do with a little help starting this fitness programme.
2 The doctor said I should leave the car at home and do more walking.

3 Both of the sports centres in my area are too far to walk to.
4 There was little point in talking to him since he wouldn't listen.
s One of the techniques is bound to suit you.
6 The canteen had two healthier options but I didn't fancy either of them.

B Change one determiner into a pronoun in each sentenceby crossingout some words.
1 Some people have a gluten-free diet because they genuinely can't eat it without getting sick, but many people believe that
avoiding gluten is just healthier.
2 I try to drink a couple of litres of water every day, but I'm pretty sure that I don't drink enough water.
3 A lot of people I know are cutting back on sugar and caffeine, but I don't want to cut back on either sugar or caffeine.
4 I've started following a vegan diet so I like to try vegan restaurants, but there are only a few vegan restaurants in my area.
s I prefer fruit and vegetables that have been grown organically to those fruit and vegetables that haven't.
6 The government should make companies that produce food with a lot of sugar use less sugar to help people have better diets.

C Complete each sentencewith the correctpronoun. More than one answer issometimespossible.
Jack couldn't decide which of the two sandwiches to get so he just bought
2 Some people enjoy running, while find it really boring.
3 Now I can't tell which shoes are - they look the same as yours.
4 'Which of the two matches do you want to watch on TV?" - I really don't mind.'
s I know we said we'd buy oranges but don't look very nice.
6 We haven't got any football boots in stock but we'll be getting some new in next week.
► Go backto page 93.

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9. 1 Noun phrases
• We can use possessive adjectives, quantifiers, numbers and modified quantifiers before nouns to make noun phrases.

Those researchers are highly qualified.

Their study is well funded.

Many eager participants started immediately

Two of the five speakers disagreed.
Almost every single student showed up early.
• We can use relative clauses, prepositional phrases, that clauses and to+ infinitive after nouns to make noun phrases.

The clinic where she works just closed.

The woman sitting down is my colleague.
They shared a wealth of knowledge.

I question the idea that humans are still evolving.

They looked for a cheap place to eat and sleep.

• We can use phrases such as the fact that, the idea that and the beliefthat to turn a sentence into a noun phrase.

A l111Ml1AA'1e
diesever~two weeks.Th111t (= The filletth111t
is re11rett111ble. III l111Ml1AA'1e
dies ever~two weeks
is re,rett111ble.)
PeoplebelieveIAMl1AA'1e streM,theMS
soci111l
ties. Thisis SLtpporteiA
b~ rese111rch.(= The beliefth111t
IAMl1AA'1e
streM,theMS soci111l
ties is SLtpporteiA
b~ rese111rch.)

9. 2 Participle clauses and verbless clauses

• We use present and past participles as well as combinations
of both to form participle clauses.
Participle clauses appear near the nouns they refer to.
feeli~ LtMSLtre of the reSLtlh, testeiAthe
M111r~
When that noun is missing, or the clause appears closer
coMfi,Ltr111tioMoMceMore.
to another noun which it doesn't refer to, it becomes a
t.eft to their owMdevices,childreMCAM solvecoMpleic 'dangling participle' and is grammatically incorrect.
probleMS-
WhiledoiM'1 rese111rch,
f r111MkMoticeiA
the rooM
llti1vi~jLtStfiMisheiAhisrese111rch,
Trti1viS
weMtfor 111 11ettiM'1cold. NoT ~JkileJ.oi11re~e11r,II,
,t,l.e1'00,11
w111lk to relAlC- ~o,t,tolJ..(IMcorred:
the rooMWASM't doiM'1 rese111rch)
• We can use prepositions such as before,after and despite
before participle clauses with present participles (but not • When the participle clause involves using the verb be,we can
past participles). omit the verb altogether and the clause becomes 'verbless'.
Beforeti1rriviM'1
ti1tthe office, SLtS'IMteicteiAher boss. Too iMp111tieMt
to w111it,
Pti1Ltl
bti1r11eiA
iM111MddeM111MdeiA
NoT '8efo1'c
"'"' i-ecl11-t=
,t,l,coffi,c1 ~1,1~1111
-t=c,c,t,ecl
I.cl'l,ou. (= JeiM'1
the reSLtlh. too iMpti1tieMt
to wti1it,...)
• We can use conjunctions such as if, when and while before • We can start a clause with just a participle, with words such as
participle clauses with both present and past participles. when,after or becausebeing implied.
Whilewti1iti~for the bLtS,
Pti1Ltlti1
ht.\d" Mti1rvelloLtS
ide111. lle111riM'1 for jo~!(= After he111riM'1
the Mews,Aleicle111pt
WheM to AMSwer
presseiA 1"estioMS,
J0Mth111Mbec111Mever~ for jo~I)
the Mews,Aleicle111pt
MervoLtS-

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9. 1 Noun phrases
A Choosethe option which isclosestin meaning to B Rewritethese sentencesusingnoun phrases.
the sentence. Usethe words in bold to help you.
1 Lisaquestioned many of her professors,and only one gave I speakthree languagesand two of them are
a clear answer. Latin-based.
a Many of the professorsLisaquestioned only gave one languagesI speakare
clear answer. Latin-based.
b Only one of the many professorsLisaquestioned gave 2 I have little money, but I saveit all ... well, almost.
a clear answer. I save money I have.
2 I have two younger brothers, and they are language experts. 3 I'vereadveryfew piecesof research,but this is one
a Both of my younger brothers are language experts. of them.
b Two of my younger brothers are language experts. This is piecesof research
3 Very few of the participants enjoyed the study. I'veread.

a Almost all of the participants disliked the study. 4 The writer drawstwo conclusionsand they both
seem dubious to me.
b Quite a few of the participants enjoyed the study.
conclusionsseem
4 Jakeis standing at the workstation, and he's running reports.
dubious to me.
a The man standing at the workstation is running reports.
s The researchersinterviewed many people.Quite a
b The man standing at the workstation and running few had no savingsat all.
reports is Jake.
intervieweeshad no
s They're looking for a safe location so they can try out their savingsat all.
experiment.
6 Theycan'tconductthe experimentin peace.That is
a They're searchingfor a safe location to try out annoying.
their experiment.
is annoying.
b They're looking to try out their experiment at
7 That man is in charge of the experiment.He's

I
a safe location.
wearing a white lab coat.
6 Many people applied for the trial, but few were qualified to join.
The is in charge of the
a Many of the few people applying for the trial were experiment.
qualified to join.
8 Many linguistsbelievelanguageisalive,and this is
b Few of the many people applying for the trial were factored into their theories.
qualified to join.
factored into linguists'
theories.
► Go backto page 101.

9 .2 Participle clausesand verbless clauses

A Choosethe correctoptionsto complete
the sentences.
, SensingI Senseddanger, Henry shut down the
machine immediately.
2 Havingalreadyleft I Leavingthe building,
Danielledidn't feel like returning to get
her phone.
3 BeforenotifyingI notifiedher supervisor,Anna
wanted to make surethe experiment was
a success.
4 When askingI askedabout the research,Kyle
refusedto reply.
B Rewritethese sentencesusingparticipleclausesor verbless
clausesand the word in bold.
1 I understand animal behaviour better now that I've read
the article. having
2 The octopus hid in the coconut shell becauseit felt threatened.
feeling
3 Theseexperimentscan teach us a lot if you do them properly.done
4 I guessedthe answer becauseI didn't know. knowing

s TooI Toobeingcautious to take risks,Martin

decided to stay on at hisjob. s The crow had never seen the tool before but used it
6 Despite handedI handing in her notice, Sarah perfectly. despite
put in great effort during her last days at work.
7 HavingbeentoldI Beingtold to speed up the 6 Shewasn't fast enough to win the race,but she came in a close
study, David cut corners to make his deadlines. second.too
s If successful/beingsuccessful,
we can publish
the results in a sciencejournal. ► Go backto page 103.
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10.1 Discoursemarkers
• We use discoursemarkersto connect ideas,or to give further information regardingour attitude
to what we're sayingor writing.
• We use some discoursemarkersto join two clauseswithin a sentence.Theycan be positioned either at the beginning of
a sentence(followed by a comma) or in between the two clauses.They may be usedto expresscauseand consequence,
or to describea contrast.

Despite having a degree in BusinessStudies,Karladidn't get the job.

Karladidn't get the job despite having a degree in BusinessStudies.
Owing to his lack of qualifications, Omar was unable to find a job in the field.
Omar was unable to find a job in the field owing to his lack of qualifications.

. ., Whereas Kim is determined to succeed, her sister lacksambition.

Her sister lacksambition, whereas Kim is determined to succeed.
• We use some discoursemarkersto connect ideasin two separatesentences.Thesediscoursemarkerscan be positioned at
the beginning of the secondsentence,in which casethey should be followed by a comma. Somecan also be placedafter
the subject of the secondsentence,and should in this casebe followed by a comma, or at the end of the secondsentence.

He'sdoing researchinto Arctic animals. As a matter of fact, he's leaving for Greenland next week. I
He's leaving for Greenland next week, as a matter of fact.
The novel was a huge bestseller.Conversely,the film version was never as successful./
The film version, conversely,was never as successful.
Mediterranean resorts are making a comeback. For instance,Mykonos is now seen as a holiday hotspot
for Europe'syoung celebrities./ Mykonos, for instance,is now seen as a holiday hotspot for Europe's
young celebrities./ Mykonos is now seen as a holiday hotspot for Europe'syoung celebrities, for instance.
It seemsthat no crime had taken place. In any case,it wasn't a matter for the police./
It wasn't a matter for the police, in any case.
Tax income increased because of tourism. Moreover, it has created hundreds of new jobs./
It has, moreover, created hundreds of new jobs.

10.2 Ellipsisand substitution

• Ellipsisinvolvesleavingout words and phrasesto avoid repeatingthem.
• In written English,there area number of grammaticalitems that are often left out.

He'sinto politics and (he) is passionate about activism.

They should organise a campaign and (they should)create some positive publicity.
We're going to start a petition and (we're going to) organise a protest meeting.
'I thought you were going on the march.'Yes,I am (going on the march).'
So many students are apathetic, but Kieraisn't (apathetic).
• In spokenEnglish,we can alsoleaveout some grammaticalitems for the sakeof brevity,
when it's clearwho/what we're talking about.
1 1
to \Ave the forestfroMtieveloper\!(= I CAl/\
subject: (Al/\t believewe MAI/\A1'eti t believe...)
to joil/\the ,rotAp?(= AreyolAplAl/\1/\il/\1'
auxiliaryverb: YolAplAl/\1/\il/\1' ...)
A\ to whichro1Ate
auxiliaryverb+ subject+ verb:Al/\ypreferel/\ce we tAke?(= J)oyolAhAveAI/\Y
preferel/\ce
...)
• We often substitutethe following words and phrasesto avoid repeatingwords.
do:AreyolA,oil/\1'il/\tofowl/\?WillyolAPo\t MYletter if yolAtio?
{to AvoitirepeAtil/\1' '1'oil/\to towl/\1)
not: I MAIJ hAveto or'iAl/\i\e the CAMpAi'il/\i b1AtI hope1/\ot.
(to AvoiifrepeAtil/\1' 'thAtI dol/\'thAveto or,Al/\i\ethe CAMpAi,1/\')
1
do so:l>eAdivAte the b1Ar1IAr AIArM. Ill\ortlerto tio \o, yo1A 11l/\eetito key ill\thiscotie1/\IAMber.
{to Avoitl repeAtil/\1' 'tleAdivAte the btAr,IAr AIArM')
do it: I oftel/\reAtlcl/\,li\h-lAl/\1'1AA1'e1/\ew\pAper\. I tlo it to iMproveMYvocAbtAIAry.
(to Avoitl repeAtil/\1' reAdcl/\,li\h-lAl/\1'1AA1'e 1/\ew\pApers')
do that: I SpecificAlly A\ketiyolA1/\otto reAtlMYeMAih.WhytlitlyolAtlo +hllt?
{to Avoitl repeAtil/\1' 'reAdMYeMAih')

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10.1 Discourse markers

A What is the function of the discoursemarkersin bold? Readthe
sentencesand choosethe correct options.
Largehotel complexes consume huge amounts of water,
whereas smallerfamily-run hotels tend to use less.
a contrasting two different ideas
B Choosethe correct options to complete the
sentences.
1 We haven't visited all the monuments yet.
Owing to I In any case,Faridisn't that keen on
sightseeing.

b comparing two related ideas 2 We managed to visit all the most important
museums in the city whereasI despiteour
2 Walking holidays,for instance,are an environmentally-friendly
limited budget.
choice.
3 Becausethe cost of living in Venice is so high,
a suggesting a possibility
many people are leaving.MoreoverI For
b giving an example instance,many inhabitants are worried about
3 Huge building projects tend to attract investors.Conversely, the danger of flooding.
small businessessometimesstruggle to raisemoney. 4 Many of the streetsin Venice are very narrow.
a repeating and reinforcing an idea The 'CalletaVarisco',converselyI for instance, is
b contrasting two different ideas just 53 centimetres wide!
4 The room wasn't at all expensive.As a matter of fact, it was one s Owing to I Despiterising water levels,Venicecity
of the cheapest placeswe stayed. authorities are building flood barriersto protect
the city.
a adding more information
6 Riding on a gondola is a bucket list experience
b giving an example
for many visiting Venice.Somesayit is one of
s Farmersare warning that crops may fail owing to the lack of rain. the most iconic tourist experiences,as a matter
a offering an explanation offact I moreover!
b trying to persuadesomeone ► Go backto page 111.
6 Despite placing adverts on various websites,Aishadidn't
manageto sell her products.
a describing a situation

b contrasting two different ideas

[
10.2 Ellipsis and substitution
A Crossout the words that can be omitted in the B Replacethe phrasesin bold with the words and phrasesin
conversation. the box.

Dom: Do you know who I saw the other day? do do it do so doing that don't
Ali: No, who did you see? 1 'Do you have time to help out at the animal shelter?'
Dom: Klaus.
'No, I'm afraidI don't have time to help out at the animal
Ali: Do you mean your old roommate from college? shelter.'
Dom: Yeah!I can't believe it - I saw him again after all 2 'I'd like to volunteer with you at the weekend.'
these years. 'That'sgreat. You'll haveto fill out this form in order to
Ali: What happened when you saw him? volunteer with us at the weekend'.
Dom: Yes.He gave me his phone number and he 3 'I volunteer at an animal shelter every weekend.'
gave me his email address. 'I reallyadmire you for volunteering at the animal shelter'.
Ali: Are you planning to meet up soon? 4 'Are you enjoying your voluntary work?'
Dom: He'sgoing to be visiting the areaagain next
'Yes.I didn't know how fulfilling it would be, but now
month, so he'll give me a ring when he does
I know how fulfilling it is'.
visit the areaagain.
s 'I've alwayswanted to volunteer at the cats' home.'
'So why don't you volunteer at the cats'home?'
► Go backto page 117.

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