Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10163-023-01809-2

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Municipal incinerated solid waste bottom ash as sustainable

construction material in the construction of flexible pavements
Sachin Gowda1 · Vaishakh Kunjar2 · Aakash Gupta1 · Vasant G. Havanagi1 · G. Kavitha2

Received: 3 February 2023 / Accepted: 4 September 2023

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Japan KK, part of Springer Nature 2023

Abstract
The main factors driving the reuse of construction waste in pavement are the rapid decline in the availability of conventional
aggregates, increasing haulage distances, and the scarcity of landfill sites. Municipal Solid Waste Incineration (MSWI) is
a popular solid waste treatment method that can reduce landfill clogging. In an attempt to reduce waste accumulation and
conserve natural resources, this study evaluated the effectiveness and feasibility of using MSWI-BA as a partial replacement
for fine aggregate in Bitumen Concrete Grade II (BC-II), a closely graded wearing course widely used in India. The optimal
asphalt content of asphalt mixes for different MSWI-BA percentages was determined using the Marshall mix design. Tests
to determine the resilient modulus, indirect tensile strength, resistance to moisture-induced damage, and rut resistance using
a dynamic creep test were conducted to study the performance of the asphalt mixes with various MSWI-BA contents. From
the research, it is advisable to replace the fine aggregates with MSWI-BA up to 20% to obtain a physically strong, higher
performing, and economically efficient bituminous concrete layer. The toxicity characteristic leaching procedure test results
indicated that the concentration of heavy metals and the levels of toxicity were significantly reduced after it was mixed with
asphalt mix.

Keywords Asphalt mixtures · Municipal solid waste incineration-bottom ash · Marshall mix design and leaching

Introduction all produce municipal solid waste (MSW), which includes

In India, with over 1210 million inhabitants, about 143,449
tonnes of household waste are generated daily, of which
about 111,000 tonnes are collected and about 35,602
tonnes are disposed of [1]. The Central Environmental
Control Board (CPCB) of India claims that waste produc-
tion per person has increased exponentially (0.26 kg/day
to 0.85 kg/day). It is estimated that between 80 and 90
percent of municipal solid waste is disposed of in landfills
without the use of proper management techniques, pollut-
ing the air, water, and soil [2, 3]. If municipal solid waste
is not adequately managed, by the end of 2047, more than
1400 ­km2 of land would be needed for solid waste man-
agement. Our homes, schools, hospitals, and businesses
* Sachin Gowda
sachin08.crri@nic.in
1
Central Road Research Institute CSIR, New Delhi,
New Delhi, India
2
RASTA - Center for Road Technology, Bengaluru 560058,
India
leftover food, used clothes, newspapers, bottles, household
appliances, furniture, paint, batteries, etc., are included.
About 40–60 percent of municipal solid waste in India
is biodegradable, 30–50 percent is inert, and 10–30 per-
cent is recyclable. However, research has shown that the
physical makeup of Indian MSW has changed over time.
Using biodegradable (biological treatment) or waste-to-
energy (thermal treatment) technologies is the best way
to utilise combustible waste and compostable waste. In
biological treatment, waste components are broken down
by microorganisms in a favourable environment. This pro-
cess results in the breakdown of the biodegradable organic
waste into gaseous products and water molecules, leaving
carbon-rich by-products (compost). However, in thermal
processes such as incineration, waste parts are burned in
a controlled oxygenated environment to recover the maxi-
mum amount of thermal energy possible without polluting
the air. Incinerating municipal waste reduces it by 90–95
percent of its original volume and creates incinerated resi-
due. Most of the waste is incinerated during the incinera-
tion process and broken down into gases such as carbon

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 Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management

dioxide ­(CO2), water vapor, and hazardous gases, which Table 1  Basic properties of VG 40 Binder
are cleaned by a sophisticated flue gas cleaning system. Test Name References Results
Bottom ash and fly ash are two general categories for the
inorganic ferrous and non-ferrous metal wastes generated Softening point, °C ASTM D 36–14 [17] 51
from waste incineration. Bottom ash is non-combustible Ductility, cm ASTM D 113–17 [18] > 100
and is removed from the incinerator as a slag-like solid Penetration, mm ASTM D5M-20 [19] 42
residue. Depending on the composition of the waste, Specific gravity ASTM D70-21 [20] 1.06
20–25 percent by weight of the incinerated waste is BA. Viscosity at 135 °C, cS ASTM D4402-15 [21] 450
Most of the slag is disposed of in landfills, only a tiny part
is recyclable. The disposal of MSWI-BA bottom ash is
expensive. The search for better, cheaper, and more envi- Table 2  Basic properties of Aggregates
ronmentally friendly ways to recycle garbage has become Test Name References Results
urgent due to concerns about landfills drying up and the
soaring cost of waste disposal. The limited availability Specific gravity ASTM C 127–15 [22] 2.7
and high cost of traditional paving materials have also Water absorption ASTM C 127–15 [22] 0.50%
prompted research into using waste products such as bot- Combined flakiness and IS 2386 (Part 1):1963 [23] 45.66%
elongation index
tom ash as a supplement or partial replacement for natural
Aggregate impact test IS: 2386 Part-4 (1963) [24] 17.71%
paving materials. Bottom ash consists mainly of oxides
Los Angeles abrasion test ASTM C 131 M-20 [25] 27.1%
of Si, Fe, Ca, Al, Na and K, making it compositionally
comparable to traditional road material, and its effect on
road surface properties can be demonstrated to be tech-
nically, economically, and ecologically justifiable [4]. A The aim of this research is therefore to see how well bot-
comprehensive investigation characterized the chemical tom ash can be used as a partial replacement for fine aggre-
waste from MSWIBA, revealing its potential to release gates in bituminous mixtures. Bituminous Concrete Grade
leachable components and influence groundwater, empha- II (BC-II), according to MoRT&H specifications, was used
sizing proper landfill disposal [5]. Incorporating MSWIBA in this study [16].
in bituminous mixes improved stability with increasing ash
concentration, conforming to leaching regulations. How-
ever, the Los Angeles abrasion value of the bottom ash was Materials used
found subpar [6]. Partial replacement of fine aggregates of
bituminous concrete mixes with coal ash and bottom ash The viscosity-graded binder VG-40 was used in this study.
reduced Indirect Tensile Strength (ITS) values impacting Table 1 summarises the basic properties of the binder used.
the Tensile Strength Ratio (TSR) values. The TSR values It was discovered that the Nominal Maximum Aggregates
increased substantially when hydrated lime was added Sizes (NMAS) of coarse aggregates (10 mm NMAS and
[7]. The use of MSWIBA as a partial aggregate substi- 20 mm NMAS), and fine aggregates (stone dust), acquired
tute showcased cost-saving benefits and waste diversion, from a local quarry, met the requirements of the MoRT&H
though with a lower dynamic modulus [8]. Coal slag as (Ministry of Road Transport and Highways) [16]. The basic
filler improved Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) strength, stiffness, properties of aggregates are tabulated in Table 2.
and flow with optimized bitumen and coal slag ratios [9]. It was observed that MSWI-BA contained some sheet
The use of coal MSWIBA in pavement construction was metal, broken glasses, and ceramic fragments. The MSWI-
found successful, showing that it can perform similarly BA consists of irregularly shaped particles with significant
to natural aggregates when the particle size distribution surface roughness and a porous microstructure, support-
is adjusted appropriately [10–12]. Substituting virgin ing previous density and absorbance results. The MSWI
aggregates with MSWIBA met Superpave requirements BA was subjected to a combined analysis using Scanning
but caused Voids in Mineral Aggregates (VMA) reduction Electron Microscopy (SEM) and X-ray fluorescence (XRF)
and higher bitumen content [13]. Chemical, physical, and techniques to obtain comprehensive insights into the mor-
mechanical analysis of MSWIBA revealed its potential use phological and chemical characteristics of the ash. SEM
as a road base material with the addition of lime treatment analysis revealed that the MSWI BA consisted of agglom-
[14]. MSWI-BA may be dangerous due to high levels of erated and irregularly shaped particles with a rough sur-
water-leachable components. The most typical procedures face texture with open pores. Conversely, the bottom ash
of stabilisation utilising bituminous binders are used to displayed a coarser and irregular morphology with large-
handle such hazardous materials [15]. sized particles. The SEM examination further identified
the predominance of various glassy spheres, spheroids,

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Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management

Fig. 1  SEM images of MSWI-BA at different magnifications (a) MSWI-BA × 1.0 K; (b) MSWI-BA × 5.0 K; (c) MSWI-BA × 10.0 K; and (d)
MSWI-BA × 20.0 K

Table 4  Basic properties of MSWI-BA

Table 3  Elemental composition Element Mass
of MSWI-BA fraction Test Name References Results
(%)
Specific gravity ASTM C 128–15 [27] 2.11
SiO2 54.3 Absorption, % ASTM C 128–15 [27] 15.02
CaO 12.8 Liquid limit AASHTO T90 [28] 33.60
Al2O3 9.7 Plastic limit Non-PLASTIC
Fe2O3 5.4 Modified proctor density, ASTM D1557-12 [29] 17.06
MgO 3 KN/m3
K2O 1.7 OMC, % 14.04
Na2O 0.9 CBR, % ASTM D1883-21 [30] 100
P2O5 1 Permeability, cm/sec ASTM D2434 [31] 1.74 × ­10–4
TiO2 0.7
SO3 1.8
Cl 0.8 analysis conducted on the same source samples included
­SiO2 (54.3%), CaO (12.8%), A ­ l2O3 (9.7%), ­Fe2O3 (5.4%),
and MgO (3%), with minor quantities of ­K2O, ­Na2O, ­P2O5,
­TiO2, ­SO3 and Cl. The elemental composition results from
and aggregates with irregular forms in the bottom ash. XRF analysis are tabulated in Table 3 [26].
The results of SEM analysis are presented in Fig. 1. On the When used in the wearing course of the pavement, the
other hand, XRF analysis provided valuable insights into rough texture of the material should increase its skid resist-
the crystalline structure and elemental composition of the ance, although irregularly shaped particles can still affect the
bottom ash. The major elements identified through XRF compatibility of the material. Table 4 summarises the basic

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 Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management

properties of MSWI-BA. The comprehensive particle diam-

eter range of MSWI-BA extended from 0 to 9.5 mm, offer-
ing a holistic representation of the particle size distribution.
However, to gain deeper insights into the grain size distribu-
tion of MSWI-BA particles suitable for replacing the bitu-
minous mix, a wet sieve analysis that specifically focused on
particles passing through a 4.75 mm sieve was performed
according to IS 2420-4 (1985) [32]. As the research focused
specifically on the replacement of Bituminous mix with Bot-
tom ash particles within the 0 to 4.75 mm sieve range, the
resulting grain size distribution data for particles passing
through the 4.75 mm sieve has been diligently reported
in Table 5 and visually represented in Fig. 2. Because the
gradation requirement of particles passing a 4.75 mm sieve
matched the particle size distribution of MSWI-BA parti-
cles, the finer grade for wearing coarse BC-II was used in
this study. MoRT&H has laid out the requirements for these
gradations [16]. The final obtained gradation is illustrated in
Fig. 3. The BA was procured from Timarpur-Okhla Waste
Management Co. Pvt. Ltd. (TOWMCL), Delhi.
Experiments
Bituminous mix design
Six different percentages were employed to replace the fine
aggregates (passing a 4.75 mm IS sieve) in the asphalt mixes
to study the effects of MSWI-BA on those combinations: 0%
(control mixture), 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, and 50%. The BC-II
mix that complies with MoRT&H specification is considered
for the study [16]. The asphalt institute MS-2 was referred
for the Marshall mix design and determination of optimum
binder content (OBC) [33]. Hot bitumen was added to the
mixture to prepare the MSWI-BA asphalt mix. Compaction
was applied to Marshall Specimens at 75 blows on each side
at 155 °Celsius mixing temperature. The Marshal mix design
approach was used for the mix design (ASTM D 6927–15)
[34]. Three specimens were prepared for each ash replace-
ment and asphalt cement amount. Thus, a total of 90 speci-
mens were produced.
Fig. 2  Grain Size Distribution of MSWI-BA
The increased porosity of the MSWI-BA and higher
asphalt absorption within the aggregate blend led to incom-
plete coating of aggregate particles, resulting in subsequent
disintegration upon compaction. As a result, until an accept-
able coating was noticed, tests were conducted for each per-
centage of ash concentration in increments of 0.5 percent
asphalt content. Using trial and error, the initial proportion
of asphalt material was raised as the ash content increased.
As a consequence, the asphalt concentration for the various
combinations ranged from 4.25 to 8 percent. The specimens
were then cooled to room temperature.
The bulk specific gravity (­ Gmb) of the prepared samples
were determined as per ASTM D 2726-19 [35]. A separate,
loose mix with a binder content near the expected OBC was
prepared for the determination of the theoretical maximum
specific gravity (­ Gmm) as per ASTM D 2041-03a [36]. Speci-
mens were then transferred to a preheated water bath having
a temperature of 60 °C for 30 to 40 min. Marshall stabil-
ity and flow tests were performed on these samples follow-
ing the specification laid out in ASTM D6927-15 [34]. As
indicated by the test technique, the Marshall sample is set
underneath the Marshall testing head. Compressive loading
is applied at a consistent pace of 51 mm/minute until the

Table 5  Gradation of I.S Sieve (mm) % Finer

MSWI-BA
4.750 100
2.360 90.8
1.180 68.8
0.600 56.8
0.425 46.4
0.300 38.4
0.150 21.2
0.075 13.2
Fig. 3  Gradation for BC-II

13
Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management
failure of the sample. Marshall stability is the maximum
load at which the specimen fails, whereas the flow value
is the measure of the deformation of the sample, which is
measured using a flow meter.
Similarly, the entire process is repeated at different binder
contents, and a series of Marshall stability, flow, ­Gmm, ­Gmb,
percent air voids ­(Va), and density values were obtained.
Separate graphical plots of each parameter were made
against different bitumen contents. In this study, the bitumen
content with respect to 4 percent air void was considered the
optimum, and the other obtained parameters like VMA, sta-
bility, unit weight, and flow values were checked to be under
the specified limits as per the Ministry of Road Transport
and Highways (MoRT&H) Specifications [16].
Bituminous mix performance tests
The most widely used test methods for determining the
moisture sensitivity of an asphalt mixture are the AASHTO
T-283 indirect tensile test protocols, also known as modified
Lottman tests [37]. The indirect tensile test involves load-
ing a cylindrical specimen along its vertical diametral plane
[38]. According to AASHTO T 283, a total of six Marshall
samples were prepared at 7 ± 0.5% air voids (by volume
of mix); out of these, three were tested as unconditioned,
and the other three were tested as conditioned specimens.
The tensile strength ratio (TSR) is the ratio of the average
indirect tensile strength of the conditioned specimens to the
average indirect tensile strength of unconditioned speci-
mens. It is expressed as a percentage. Conditioning of the
specimen was done by keeping the specimens in a water bath
maintained at 60 °C for 24 h and then curing them at 25 °C
for 2 h before commencing the test. The unconditioned test
was conducted at 25 °C. MoRT&H suggests a minimum of
80% TSR to make the mix resistant to moisture damage [16].
The resilient modulus was calculated as per ASTM D
4123-82 [39]. The test was run using the IPC Global Uni-
versal Testing Machine. For each replacement percentage,
three Marshall samples were tested. A Haversine loading
waveform, 0.1 s of loading followed by 0.9 s of rest and an
assumed Poisson's ratio of 0.35 were used to complete 100
conditioning cycles. A load equivalent to 10% of the indirect
tensile strength of the mix was applied during the MR test.
The MR test was performed at two different temperatures of
25 °C and 35 °C. This was done to assess how well the blend
performed in terms of stiffness as the temperature increased.
The dynamic creep test was carried out according to
European standards at 40 °C (EN 12697-25) [40]. As per
Indian conditions, a recommended tyre pressure of 560 kPa
was applied in the uniaxial creep test at 40 °C to simulate
stress in an asphalt concrete surface layer [41]. A seating
load of 100 kPa was applied to ensure that the actuator and
sample make firm contact. One thousand eight hundred
cycles are used as a termination condition. The samples must
first be preconditioned for at least 2 hours at 40 °C. The con-
ditioning time should be increased if there is a discrepancy
between skin and core temperatures.
Environmental evalation
The samples of MSW-BA and asphalt mixtures were ana-
lysed for the presence of lead (Pb) using the toxicity char-
acteristic leaching procedure (TCLP) adopted by both the
Central Environmental Control Board (CPCB) of India
and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The
extraction of the leachable elements is done using USEPA
Test Method 1311, and the testing procedure will be based
on the Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP)
[42]. TCLP is an analytical method that simulates sanitary
landfill contaminant leaching in waste samples.
This test was performed to simulate the leaching that may
occur if MSWI-BA is used in bituminous mixes. The solid
waste samples can be classified as hazardous or non-hazard-
ous based on the concentrations of the TCLP constituents
and the guidelines set forth by the CPCB, India TCLP regu-
latory standard as per Schedule II of Hazardous and Other
Wastes, Rules, 2016 [43].
Results and discussion
Marshall mix design
Five Marshall indices (Marshall Stability, Flow, % Air voids
and Voids in Mineral Aggregates and Marshall Quotient)
are exhibited in Figs. 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8. Table 6 indicates
the OBC values for different mixes. It is to be noted that
the results illustrated are the average value of the results of
three samples. The binder demand increases with an increase
in the MSWI-BA replacement. The aggregate blend in the
Fig. 4  Marshall Stability v/s Binder Content
13

Fig. 5  Marshall Flow v/s Binder Content
Fig. 6  % Air Voids v/s Binder Content
Fig. 7  VMA v/s Binder Content
MSWI-BA asphalt mixture had higher asphalt absorption
due to the higher porosity of the BA particles. The bitumen
fills the pores of the aggregates, which are present in the
aggregates; thus, there is a higher absorption of bitumen
over the surface of aggregates. Hence, there is a significant
13
Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management
Fig. 8  Marshall Quotient for different mixes
Table 6  Optimum Binder Mix type OBC (%)
Content for different mixes
Control Mix 5.73
50% Replacement 7.40
40% Replacement 6.70
30% Replacement 6.36
20% Replacement 6.16
10% Replacement 5.95
rise in the optimum binder content of the mix as the BA
replacement increases. Mixes prepared with the least per-
centage replacement, that is 10% has the least OBC for the
BC-II mix. The mix with 50% replacement being the highest
replacement dosage considered in the study yields a higher
optimum binder content. The bitumen required for the 10%
replacement of MSWI-BA was 4.0% more than that required
for the control mix. This accounted for a 3.84% increase in
the optimum binder content compared to the control mix.
Marshall stability value was highest for the mix with
10% MSWI-BA replacement with an increase of 4.16%.
Whereas higher MSWI-BA replacement corresponding to
50% resulted in 20.10% lesser stability compared to the
Marshall stability obtained for the control mix. The higher
asphalt binder content leads to lesser bonding due to the
increased film thickness and the rough surface of aggregates
becoming smooth. Other than for the 40% replacement mix,
a substantial decreasing trend in the Marshall stability can be
observed with further addition in the MSWI-BA content. For
an effective asphalt pavement, the flow value should be in
the range of (2–5) mm. The mixes with 40 and 50% replace-
ment of MSWI-BA showed a flow value more than 5 mm
which is beyond the permissible limit. The results obtained
from other mix dosages are well within the tolerance limits
specified by MoRT&H specifications [16].
The Marshall Quotient is a sort of pseudo-stiffness that
measures the material's resistance to permanent deformation.
From Fig. 8, it can be observed that the mix containing 20%
Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management
of MSWI-BA as fine aggregate replacement is the stiffest
among other mixes, followed by the 10% replaced mix and
the Control Mix. The results show that the mixes containing
MSWI-BA with lower replacement percentages are stiffer
than the conventional BC-II mix. They tend to have more
resistance to permanent deformation when compared with
the control mix. By analysing these Marshall parameters, the
mix with 20% replacement yields better results compared to
other mixes due to its better stability, low flow value, and
compatible optimum binder content required. In addition,
other volumetric properties are well within the limits set as
per MoRT&H [16].
From the ITS test, it can be observed that bituminous
mixes with 10% MSWI-BA replacement as fine aggregate
resulted in the lowest tensile strength and crack resistance of
any other mix. It has been observed that the indirect tensile
strength of the mix increases with an increase in ash content.
At higher ash content (= 50%) ITS value was the highest.
This is due to the fact that with an increase in ash content,
the optimum binder content also increased subsequently,
which increased the tensile strength. The tensile strength
ratio (TSR) values are also plotted in Fig. 9. MoRT&H sug-
gests a minimum of 80% TSR, so those mixes offer good
resistance to moisture damage [16]. The TSR values are
higher for mixes containing MSWI-BA, which shows that
these mixes offer more resistance to moisture-induced dam-
age. This may be due to the presence of calcareous materials
in the MSWI-BA, which naturally act as filler. As a result of
the stronger bond between the bitumen and the aggregates,
removing the bitumen from the coated aggregates becomes
difficult. All six mixes satisfy the specifications given by
MoRT&H [16].
Modulus of resilience
From Fig. 10, it has been observed that the modified mix
with 50% MSWI-BA replacement is the stiffest among all
other mixes. The mixes containing BA are stiffer when
Fig. 9  ITS & TSR Values for different mixes
Fig. 10  MR values at 25 °C and 35 °C
compared with the control mix. Thus, they offer more
resistance to permanent deformation when compared to
control mixes. The MR value decreases when the tempera-
ture increases to 35 °C. Essentially, the MR value of the
mix must increase as the OBC content increases for each
% increase in BSWI-BA replacements. The modulus of
resilience, on the other hand, significantly decreases as the
temperature rises. This effect is predictable given that it is
well-known that the stiffness of a material reduces as its
temperature rises.
The material expands and the free volume rises as a result
of the movement of molecules and collision at higher tem-
peratures. Temperature causes both the space between the
molecules that make up a substance and atomic vibration
to increase.
Rutting evaluation using dynamic creep test
The dynamic creep test for both the control mix and the
bituminous mix whose fine aggregates are replaced has
been done at 40 °C. From Fig. 11, the increment in stiff-
ness for the mixes having bottom ash percentages of 20%,
30%, 40%, and 50% as fine aggregate replacement is less
Fig. 11  Permanent Actuator deformation for different mixes
13

Table 7  Metal concentrations (Lead as Pb) of leachates from TCLP
tests
Parameter MSWI-BA MSWI-BA with Threshold Limit
Bituminous Mix as per Schedule
II of Hazardous
and Other Wastes,
Rules, 2016, Mg/L
Lead as Pb 0.77 0.08 5.0
(Mg/L)
than the control mix. Due to the decrease in stiffness, the
resistance to permanent deformation increases. It has been
observed that as BA replacement dosages increase by 20%
the resistance to permanent deformation decreases. Thus,
Rutting resistance shows a negative correlation with the % of
MSWI-BA replacement. In CM, 40% and 50% replacement
mixes, the secondary deformation is linear, which shows
continuous and ductile failure throughout the 1800 cycles.
However, in the case of 10%, 20%, and 30% replacement
mixes, it shows the slightest deformation; the deformation
increases suddenly and then stabilizes, which leads to an
increase in the slope of the deformation curve. This might
happen due to the brittle failure of the mix, whereas other
mixes show progressive failure throughout the test cycles.
Environmental evaluation
Table 7 summarises the heavy metal concentrations (Lead as
Pb) of leachates from TCLP tests that were conducted on the
MSWI-BA. The results showed that Lead is present, but the
TCLP results of MSWI-BA showed that all Lead concentra-
tions in leachates were below the CPCB, India TCLP regu-
latory standard as per Schedule II of Hazardous and Other
Wastes Rules, 2016 [43]. As a result, the MSWI-BA used
in this study could be classified as non-hazardous waste.
Also, after being mixed with bitumen, the heavy metal con-
centration (Lead as Pb) of leachates was undetectable (less
than 0.1 mg/L). This means that the trace element and heavy
metal concentrations in MSWI-BA could be controlled after
mixing it with bituminous binder, as the binder is highly
hydrophobic and prevents any pollutant from leaching out.
The test results indicate MSWI-BA would be well encapsu-
lated by a bituminous binder and could be used as an aggre-
gate substitute for a bituminous mix. The results obtained
are in good agreement with those of other researchers [44].
Conclusions
By replacing the fine aggregate of wearing course BC-II
with MSWI-BA the following results were observed.
The stability of the mix increased for a 10 percent BA
replacement and then started reducing substantially for a
13
Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management
further increase in replacement dosages. With the addition of
MSWI-BA, the optimum binder requirements of the mixes
increased, increasing bitumen costs, while aggregate costs also
decreased since BA is free of cost. According to the results,
blends containing MSWI-BA at lower replacement percent-
ages are stiffer than the traditional BC-II blend. When com-
pared to the control mix, they often exhibit greater resistance to
permanent deformation. The mixes with 50% MSWI-BA as a
substitute for fines are found to be the stiffest among all mixes
considered. Bituminous mix with 10% MSWI-BA replacement
as fine aggregate produced the lowest ITS and TSR values of
any mix tested. It has been observed that the indirect tensile
strength and tensile strength ratio of the mix increase with
the increase in MSWI-BA replacement. At higher ash con-
tent (= 50%) ITS value was the highest. With the addition of
MSWI-BA, the affinity of coated aggregates towards bitumen
is increased, thus offering more resistance to moisture damage.
Bituminous mix with 50% BA as fine aggregate replacement
provided higher resistance to moisture-induced damage due
to the presence of higher bitumen content, and BA being a
calcium-rich material, itself acts as an anti-stripping agent.
All of the mix varieties were found to be capable of resisting
moisture-induced damage as they have a TSR value > 80%.
The cost evaluation provided an economic insight into differ-
ent mix varieties. The mix with 30% MSWI-BA replacement
resulted in an economic mix with 0.96% cost reduction com-
pared to the control mix.
The heavy metal concentrations (Lead as Pb) were within
legal limits, according to the TCLP data for the MSWI-BA.
It was also shown that using MSWI-BA instead of natural
aggregate in bituminous mixes would pose minimal environ-
mental problems since the bituminous binder is good at lower-
ing metal concentrations in leachates. The test findings of the
current study showed that, in terms of both physical qualities
and environmental safety, the use of MSWI-BA in hot-mix
asphalt mixes is viable.
As a result of this work, the researcher recommends replac-
ing up to 20% of the fine aggregates with a physically strong,
better performing, and more economically efficient bituminous
mix to be used as a wearing course.
Acknowledgements The authors would like to acknowledge the Prin-
cipal Scientific Advisor (PSA), Government of India and IIT-Delhi for
funding the project to CSIR-CRRI under Delhi Cluster-“Delhi Research
Implementation and Innovation” (DRIIV), Theme Solid Waste Man-
agement, WP-6 Use of construction & demolition wastes, incinerated
residues in road construction scheme.
Funding Principal Scientific Adviser to the Government of India.
Data availability Data will be made available on reasonable request.
Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management

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