Comm 806 Note

DISTANCE LEARNING CENTRE
AHMADU BELLO UNIVERSITY

ZARIA, NIGERIA
COURSE MATERIAL
FOR
Programme: Masters in Public Health
Course Code & Title: COMM 806/ Environmental and

Occupational Health Practice, Policy and Legislation
1
COPYRIGHT PAGE
© 2018Ahmadu Bello University (ABU) Zaria, Nigeria
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior
permission of the Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria.
First published 2018 in Nigeria.
ISBN:
Ahmadu Bello University e-Learning project,

Ahmadu Bello University
Zaria, Nigeria.
Tel: +234
E-mail:
2
COURSE WRITERS/DEVELOPMENT TEAM
Editor
Prof. M.I Sule
Course Materials Development Overseer
Dr. Usman Abubakar Zaria
Subject Matter Expert
Dr. Oyedayo M. Oyekunle
Subject Matter Reviewer
Rahamatu Shamsiyyah Iliya
Language Reviewer
Enegoloinu Ojokojo
Instructional Designers/Graphics
Ibrahim Otukoya
Proposed Course Coordinator
Rahamatu Shamsiyyah Iliya
ODL Expert
Prof. Adamu Z. Hassan
3
TABLE OF CONTENTS
i. Course Information……………………………………………………..
ii. Course Introduction and Description……………………………….
iii. Course Prerequisites…………………………………………………..
iv. Course Learning Resources…………………………………………..
v. Course Objectives and Outcomes………………………………………
vi. Activities to Meet Course Objectives……………………………………
vii. Time (To complete Syllabus/Course)…………………………………..
viii. Grading Criteria and Scale ……………………………………….
ix. OER Resources…………………………………………………………..
x. ABU DLC Academic Calendar………………………………………….
xi. Course Structure and Outline……………………………………………..
xii. STUDY MODULES………………………………………………….
Module 1:………………….…………………………………………
Study Session 1: Basic Concepts and Principles of Environmental health and Safety……..
Study Session 2: Environmental Health and Safety Rights of Workers ……………………
Study Session 3: Concept of Occupational Health ……………………
Study Session 4: Exposure Evaluation and Assessment …………………….
Module 2:……………………………………………………………………………..
Study Session 1: Evaluation of Occupational Disorders and Safety…………………….
Study Session 2: Occupational Accidents and Injuries in the Workplace ……………………
Study Session 3: Preventing and Controlling Occupational Diseases, Injuries and Disorders…
Study Session 4: Ergonomics and Psychosocial factors at work …………………….
Module 3:……………………………
Study Session 1: Occupational Health Policies, Regulations and Regulatory Agencies….
Study Session 2: Housing and Workplace Health ……………………
Study Session 3: Environmental Health Law and Legislation ……………………
Study Session 4: Laws on Protecting Health and Safety of Workers…………………….
XIII. Glossary…………………………………………………………….
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i. COURSE INFORMATION
Course Code : COMM 806
Course Title: Environmental and Occupational Health Practice, Policy and
Legislation
Credit Units: Three (3)
Year of Study: 800 Level
Semester: Second
ii. COURSE INTRODUCTION AND DESCRIPTION

Introduction:
I welcome you all to this course and I hope we get the utmost benefit as expected
as we go through the course content. Environmental and Occupational health
practices is a discipline and specialty that studies and implements practical aspects
of environmental protection and safety at work. In simple terms it is what
organisations must do to make sure that their activities do not cause harm to
anyone. The essence of Environmental and occupational health polices is to create
a healthy workplace. An optimum healthy workplace ensures better health
condition for workers with little or no hazards to the lives of employees and
management who are often involved and are found in the same environment.
Environmental and Occupational health practices as a discipline can for
convenience be grouped into two major aspects: the “environmental aspect” and
the “safety and health aspect” The environmental aspect involves creating a
systematic approach to complying with environmental regulations in any state or
country. This could comprise of the management of air emissions to reduce the
company’s carbon footprint and managing the wastes generated by the
organisation. Carbon footprint can be described as the amount of carbon dioxide
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released into the atmosphere as a result of the activities of a particular individual,
organisation, or community. The health and safety aspect involves creating
organised efforts and procedures for identifying workplace hazards and reducing
accidents and exposures to harmful situations and substances. This includes the
training of personnel in accident prevention, accident response, emergency
preparedness and use of protective clothing and equipment. A healthy workplace
can therefore be defined as a working environment in which there is not only an
absence of harmful conditions that can cause injury and illness, but an abundance
of health promoting ones (WHO, 2010). A working environment can have a
significant impact on the health and well-being of employees. The average
employee spends about one-third of the life in the place of work. Therefore,
whatever happens at the workplace will have a significant impact on the life of
workers.
Description:
This course, COMM 806: Environmental and Occupational Health Practice,
Policy and Legislation is a three-credit unit course. It deals with the study of the
basic elements in occupation including the worker, the tools, the process and the
work environment. This is done to ensure proper arrangement of these critical
elements in order to maintain and protect the health and well-being of the worker
and that of the environment. Occupational health experts are interested in
conditioning and controlling the work environment in order to ensure that no
worker’s health is compromised as a result of his/her engagement in assigned task.
Every worker has a right to life and this right is threatened when the work
environment and the work itself increases risk of disease, injury, accident or death.
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Therefore, when workers’ health is protected, their output is maximized to
resulting in organisational growth and development. This course centers on
protecting, maintaining and improving the health and well-being of workers in
their physical as well as work environment.
iii. COURSE PREREQUISITES

You should note that although this course has no subject pre-requisite, you are
expected to have:
1. Satisfactory level of English proficiency
2. Basic Computer Operations proficiency
3. Online interaction proficiency
4. Web 2.0 and Social media interactive skills
iv. COURSE LEARNING RESOURCES

Barbara A. P. (2002). Fundamentals of Industrial Hygiene. 5th edition. National
Safety Council Chicago.
CD Reese (2018). Occupational Health and Safety Management: A Practical
Approach. CRC Press
Concha-Barrientos M, Nelson D, Fingerhut M, Driscoll T, Leigh J. (2005). The
Global Burden Due to Occupational Injury. American Journal of Industrial
Medicine 48: 470-481.
WH Hallenbeck (2018). Quantitative Risk Assessment For Environmental and
Occupational Health. CRC Press
Christensen, E.H. (1964). Human at work: studies on the application of physiology
to working conditions in a subtropical country, Occupational safety and
health series, No.4 (Geneva, ILO).
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Dastur, H.P. (1960). A Doctor’s Approach to Industrial Medicine, Tata Institute of
Social Sciences, Bombay.
Dembe, A.E., Erickson, J.B., and Delbos, R. (2004). Predictors of work related
injuries and illness: National Survey Findings. Occup Environ Hyg. 8:542-
550.
Eaton, D.L., and Klaassen, C.D. (1996). Principles of toxicology. In: Klaassen CD,
(eds.). Casarett & Doull's toxicology: the basic science of poisons, 5th ed.
New York: McGraw-Hill,13- 33.
Freebookcentre.net contains links to thousands of free online technical books. The
books collection are either downloadable or can be viewed online. These
collections include core Computer Science, Electronics, Science, Medical
and many more. You are welcome to follow the link for the free books tour.
Lilienfield, A.M. & Lilienfield, D. (1979). Foundations of Epidemiology. New
York. Oxford University Press.
MacMahon, B. & Pugh, T.F. (1970). Epidemiology: Principles and Methods.
Boston: Little Brown
Moronkola, O.A. and Okanlawon, F. (2003). Fundamentals of Community Health
Education. Ibadan: Royal People
Nwachukwu, A.E. (2000). Industrial and Occupational Health and Safety. Owerri:
Totan Publishers.
Ogundele, B.O. (2001). Health Education in Industries. In Udo, C.O. (ed). Issues in
Human Kinetics, Health Promotion and Education: A Book of Reading in
Honour of Professor J.A. Adedeji. Department of Human Kinetics and
Health Education, University of Ibadan, Ibadan. Ibadan: Chris-Rose
Ogundele, B.O. (2017). Industrial Health Education. In Moronkola, O.A. (ed).
Health Education for Tertiary Institution Students (In Honour of Professor
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J.A. Ajala). Nigerian School Health Association. Ibadan: His Lineage
Publishing
Reilly, B.; Paci, P.; Hall, P. (1995). Unions, safety committees and workplace
injuries. British Journal of Industrial Relations, 33(2):273– 288
Park, K.S. (2013). Preventive and Social Medicine. Jabalpur: Bhanot Publishers.
Takele, T. and Menghesha, A. (2006). Occupational Health and Safety. Ethiopia
Public Health Training Initiative.
United Nations. (2007). Globally Harmonized System for the Classification and
Labelling of Chemicals (GHS), (Rev. 2) (New York and Geneva).
Waldron, H.A. (1980). Occupational Hygiene: An Introductory Text. Blackwell
Science
WHO (2001). Occupational health. A manual for primary health care workers.
World Health Organisation Regional Office for the Eastern Mediterranean,
Cairo, Egypt.
v. COURSE OUTCOMES
After studying this course, you should be able to:
1. Discuss the principles of environmental health
2. Define the concept of occupational health.
3. Describe exposure evaluation and assessment.
4. Evaluate occupational disorders at work.
5. Discuss ways to prevent accidents and injuries at workplace.
6. Explain ergonomics and work organisation.
7. Discuss psychosocial factors at work.
8. Examine housing policy and health.
9. Provide legislation on environmental health.
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10. State laws protecting the health and safety of workers.
vi. ACTIVITIES TO MEET COURSE OBJECTIVES

Specifically, this course shall comprise of the following activities:
1. Studying courseware
2. Listening to course audios
3. Watching relevant course videos
4. Field activities, industrial attachment or internship, laboratory or
studio work (whichever is applicable)
5. Course assignments (individual and group)
6. Forum discussion participation
7. Tutorials (optional)
8. Semester examinations (CBT and essay based).
vii. TIME (TO COMPLETE SYLABUS/COURSE)

To cope with this course, you would be expected to commit a minimum of three
hours daily for the Course.
viii. GRADING CRITERIA AND SCALE

Grading Criteria
A. Formative assessment
Grades will be based on the following:
Individual assignments/test (CA 1,2 etc) 20
Group assignments (GCA 1, 2 etc) 10
Discussions/Quizzes/Out of class engagements etc 10
B. Summative assessment (Semester examination)

CBT based 30
10
Essay based 30
TOTAL 100%
C. Grading Scale (as appropriate for the course):

A = 70 -100
B = 60 – 69
C = 50 - 59
F = 0 - 49
D. Feedback
Courseware based:
1. In-text questions and answers (answers preceding references)
2. Self-assessment questions and answers (answers preceding references)
Tutor based:
1. Discussion Forum tutor input
2. Graded Continuous assessments
Student based:
1. Online programme assessment (administration, learning resource,
deployment, and assessment).
IX LINKS TO OPEN EDUCATION RESOURCES
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OSS Watch provides tips for selecting open source, or for procuring free or open
software.
SchoolForge and SourceForge are good places to find, create, and publish open
software. SourceForge, for one, has millions of downloads each day.
Open Source Education Foundation and Open Source Initiative, and other
organisation like these, help disseminate knowledge.
Creative Commons has a number of open projects from Khan
Academy to Curriki where teachers and parents can find educational materials for
children or learn about Creative Commons licenses. Also, they recently launched
the School of Open that offers courses on the meaning, application, and impact of
"openness."
Numerous open or open educational resource databases and search engines
exist. Some examples include:
OEDb: over 10,000 free courses from universities as well as reviews of colleges
and rankings of college degree programmes
Open Tapestry: over 100,000 open licensed online learning resources for an
academic and general audience
OER Commons: over 40,000 open educational resources from elementary school
through to higher education; many of the elementary, middle, and high school
resources are aligned to the Common Core State Standards
Open Content: a blog, definition, and game of open source as well as a friendly
search engine for open educational resources from MIT, Stanford, and other
universities with subject and description listings
Academic Earth: over 1,500 video lectures from MIT, Stanford, Berkeley,
Harvard, Princeton, and Yale
JISC: Joint Information Systems Committee works on behalf of UK higher
education and is involved in many open resources and open projects including
digitising British newspapers from 1620-1900!
Other sources for open education resources
Universities
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The University of Cambridge's guide on Open Educational Resources for Teacher
Education (ORBIT)
OpenLearn from Open University in the UK
Global
Unesco's searchable open database is a portal to worldwide courses and research
initiatives
African Virtual University (http://oer.avu.org/) has numerous modules on subjects
in English, French, and Portuguese
https://code.google.com/p/course-builder/ is Google's open source software that is
designed to let anyone create online education courses
Global Voices (http://globalvoicesonline.org/) is an international community of
bloggers who report on blogs and citizen media from around the world, including
on open source and open educational resources
Individuals (which include OERs)
Librarian Chick: everything from books to quizzes and videos here, includes
directories on open source and open educational resources
K-12 Tech Tools: OERs, from art to special education
Web 2.0: Cool Tools for Schools: audio and video tools
Web 2.0 Guru: animation and various collections of free open source software
Livebinders: search, create, or organise digital information binders by age, grade,
or subject (why re-invent the wheel?)
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X. ABU DLC ACADEMIC CALENDAR/PLANNER
PERIOD
Semester Semester 1 Semester 2 Semester 3
Activity JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC
Registration
Resumption
Late Registn.
Facilitation
Revision/
Consolidation
Semester
Examination
N.B: - All Sessions commence in January

- 1 Week break between Semesters and 6 Weeks vocation at end of session.
- Semester 3 is OPTIONAL (Fast-tracking, making up carry-overs & deferments)
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XI. COURSE STRUCTURE AND OUTLINE
Course Structure
WEEK/DAYS MODULE STUDY SESSION ACTIVITY
1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.

2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session
3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
Study Session 1: 4. View any other Video/YouTube https://bit.ly/2UAgqCF
5. View referred OER https://bit.ly/2UFF5Gf
Week 1 Title: Basic 6. View referred Animation https://bit.ly/2Uzqn3t
Concepts and
Principles of
Environmental
health and Safety
Pp

Week 2 Study Session 2 4. View any other Video/YouTube https://bit.ly/2w0Ke1Q
Title: 6. View referred Animation https://bit.ly/342i5E7
Environmental
STUDY Health and Safety
MODULE Rights of Workers

1 Pp

15
4. View any other Video/YouTube https://bit.ly/2wU1E0G
Week 3 Study Session 3
Title: Concept of
Occupational
Health
Pp

Week 4
Study Session 4 4. View any other Video/YouTube https://bit.ly/2R4KfJv
Title: Exposure 6. View referred Animation https://bit.ly/2yqM1hG
Evaluation and
Assessment
Pp

Week 5 Study Session1
Title: Evaluation of 4. View any other Video/YouTube https://bit.ly/2yw9tdz
Occupational 5. View referred OER https://bit.ly/2UFF5Gf
Disorders and 6. View referred Animation https://bit.ly/2xHIZoG
Safety
Pp

16
STUDY Study Session2 3. Listen to the Audio on this Study Session
4. View any other Video/YouTube https://bit.ly/3aBann8
Week 6 MODULE Title: Occupational
2 Accidents and
6. View referred Animation https://bit.ly/2UT4k6H
Injuries in the
Workplace
Pp

Study Session3 4. View any other Video/YouTube https://bit.ly/3bFiQWv
Week 7 Title: Preventing 6. View referred Animation https://bit.ly/39C2Zq7
and Controlling
Occupational
Diseases, Injuries
and Disorders
Pp

Week 8 Study Session4 4. View any other Video/YouTube https://bit.ly/39yMnQi,
https://bit.ly/2WYHf5e
Title: Ergonomics 5. View referred OER https://bit.ly/2UFF5Gf
and Psychosocial 6. View referred Animation https://bit.ly/39ABjlm
factors at work
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Pp

Study Session1
Week 9 Title: Occupational 4. View any other Video/YouTube https://bit.ly/33YpbK3
Health Policies, 5. View referred OER https://bit.ly/2UFF5Gf
Regulations and 6. View referred Animation https://bit.ly/2UAzVeo
Regulatory
Agencies
Pp
STUDY
MODULE 1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.

3 2. View the Video(s) on this Study Session
Week 10 Study Session2 4. View any other Video/YouTube https://bit.ly/2X5uMg6
Title: Housing and 5. View referred OER https://bit.ly/2UFF5Gf
Workplace Health 6. View referred Animation https://bit.ly/2X4euE4
Pp
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Study Session3
Week 11 Title: 4. View any other Video/YouTube https://bit.ly/2xJeJKo
Environmental 5. View referred OER https://bit.ly/2UFF5Gf
Health Law and 6. View referred Animation https://bit.ly/3aDXZTb
Legislation
Pp

Study Session4
Week 12 Title: 4. View any other Video/YouTube https://bit.ly/2xJeJKo
Environmental 5. View referred OER https://bit.ly/2UFF5Gf
Health Law and 6. View referred Animation https://bit.ly/3aDXZTb
Legislation
Pp

Study Session5 4. View any other Video/YouTube https://bit.ly/2JzwZZd ,
https://bit.ly/2UWOA2t
Week 13 Title: Laws on 5. View referred OER https://bit.ly/2UFF5Gf
Protecting Health 6. View referred Animation https://bit.ly/3bLn0vY
and Safety of
Workers
Pp
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Week 13 REVISION/TUTORIALS (On Campus or Online)& CONSOLIDATION WEEK
Week 14& 15 SEMESTER EXAMINATION
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Course Outline
MODULE 1:
Study Session 1: Basic Concepts and Principles of Environmental health and
Safety
Study Session 2: Environmental Health and Safety Rights of Workers.
Study Session 3: Concept of Occupational Health
Study Session 4: Exposure Evaluation and Assessment
MODULE 2:
Study Session 1: Evaluation of Occupational Disorders and Safety
Study Session 2: Occupational Accidents and Injuries in the Workplace
Study Session 3: Preventing and Controlling Occupational Diseases, Injuries
and Disorders
Study Session 4: Ergonomics and Psychosocial factors at work
MODULE 3:
Study Session 1: Occupational Health Policies, Regulations and Regulatory
Agencies
Study Session 2: Housing and Workplace Health
Study Session 3: Environmental Health Law and Legislation
Study Session 4: Laws on Protecting Health and Safety of Workers
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STUDY MODULES
MODULE 1
Contents:
Study Session 1: Basic Concepts and Principles of Environmental health and
Safety
Study Session 2: Environmental Health and Safety Rights of Workers.
Study Session 3: Concept of Occupational Health
Study Session 4: Exposure Evaluation and Assessment
STUDY SESSION 1
Basic Concepts and Principles of Environmental health and Safety
Section and Subsection Headings:

Introduction
1.0 Learning Outcomes
2.0 Main Content
2.1 – Concept of Environmental health and safety
2.2- Environmental health and safety plan
2.3- Essential Elements of health and safety plan
2.4- The Principles of Environmental health and safety
2.5- The Practical Approach
3.0 Tutor Marked Assignments (Individual or Group assignments)
4.0 Study Session Summary and Conclusion
5.0 Self-Assessment Questions
6.0 Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities)
7.0 References/Further Readings
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Introduction
I welcome you once again to this course. We shall start by looking at what
environmental health entails and how it affects workers’ safety at work.
According to the Wikipedia, Environmental health and safety is a discipline and
specialty that studies and implements practical aspects of environmental
protection and safety at work. In simple terms it is what organisations must do
to make sure that their activities do not cause harm to anyone. The essence of
environmental health and safety is to create a healthy workplace. An optimum
healthy workplace ensures better health condition for workers with little or no
hazards to the lives of employees and management who are often involved and
are found in the same environment. Therefore, I urge you to sit back and be
attentive so that you get to understand how the environment contributes to the
health of workers.
1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes

After studying this session, I expect you to be able to
1. Define environmental health and safety.
2. Describe environmental health and safety plan.
3. Explain the essential elements of safety plan.
4. Analyse the principles of environmental health and safety
2.0 Main Content

2.1. Concept of Environmental health and safety
Environmental health and safety (EHS) is a discipline and specialty that studies
and implements practical aspects of environmental protection and safety at
work. In simple terms it is what organisations must do to make sure that their
activities do not cause harm to anyone. The essence of Environmental health
and safety is to create a healthy workplace. Environmental health and safety
(EHS) can also be referred to Health safety and environment (HSE) EHS aims
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to prevent and reduce accidents, emergencies, and health issues at work, along
with any environmental damage that could result from work practices. EHS is
motivated by the intention to achieve:
1. The protection of workers, their health, and the natural environment.
2. Compliance with legal requirements and regulatory standards.
3. The increase in productivity, profit, and morale that comes with a safe and
healthy workforce.
In-text Question
What is environmental health and safety?
Answer
Environmental health and safety (EHS) is a discipline and specialty that studies and
implements practical aspects of environmental protection and safety at work.
2.2. Environmental health and safety plan

An Environmental health and safety plan is a document which provides a
framework for ensuring compliance with regulations pertaining to protection of
personnel and environment. The primary purposes of the EHS plan are to
provide:
1. Safety information for employees in an organisation
2. To provide documentation of compliance with occupational and
environmental regulations.
3. To provide information to the EHS Department for use in determining job
specific training requirements.
According to WHO global plan of action for workers health, Capacities should
be built for primary prevention of occupational hazards, diseases and injuries,
including strengthening of human, methodological & technological resources,
training of workers and employers, introduction of healthy work practices and
work organisation and of a health-promoting & protecting culture at the
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workplace (WHO, 2012). Strategic priorities of EHS plan are made to include
the environment, health and safety.
Environment: To provide the guide for an environmentally responsible
organisation that preserves and protects the natural resources.
Health: To provide the framework needed to minimise exposure to health risks
and protect the well-being of employees and management.
Safety: To provide workers the knowledge the need to work in a safe
environment without hazards.
In-text Question
What is environmental safety plan?
Answer
An Environmental health and safety plan is a document which provides a framework for
ensuring compliance with regulations pertaining to protection of personnel and environment.
2.3. Essential Elements of health and safety plan

According to McLeod and Ketcham, 2007 an effective environmental health
and safety plan will include the following essential elements.
1. Hazard recognition, evaluation and control. This involves proactive
recognition in terms of environment, the people actually doing the work,
equipment/materials used in the work process and the processes/practices
involved. Once hazards have been identified and prioritized they be controlled.
The generally accepted hierarchy of control is elimination/substitution,
engineering controls, personal protective equipment and administrative controls.
2. Workplace design and Engineering. In designing a workplace safety of life
and environment must be of paramount importance. Some of the safety codes
are already done by building codes through legislation. These include electrical
and fire suppression standards. Other aspects involve ventilation,
equipment/machine safeguarding processes.
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3. Workplace planning and staffing. For an effective environmental health
and safety plan, an effective human resource management is critical. It includes
the development of accurate job descriptions to take into consideration job
duties (such as respirator use or hearing protection use, manual material
handling, exposure to allergens) that may trigger the need for pre- employment
evaluations and medical surveillance. Limiting exposures by administrative
controls or other safety considerations and development of safety rules would
both be considered in this element (McLeod and Ketcham, 2007).
4. Environmental Management. Environmental management is a very
important element of the EHS plan. The plan takes into consideration the air
emissions and all aspect of the environmental pollution. Issues from proper
permitting to preventing potential environmental liability are considered in this
element.
5. Organisational Communication. Communication within the organisation
keeps employees informed of new and existing policies, procedures, lessons
learned, and missions. Likewise it provides avenues from the front line to upper
management for consideration in the development and revision of those polices.
The flow of information in both directions is critical for an effective
Environmental health and safety plan ((McLeod and Ketcham, 2007).
6. Occupational Health. The nature and scope of an occupational health
program can vary widely from company to company. Often in animal care
settings one might expect pre-employment health evaluations, periodic medical
surveillance, injury protocols (including first aid and bite/scratch procedures)
and maintenance of medical records, and coordination with the departments
when work related health and safety issues arise. One might typically find
coordination of respiratory protection and hearing conservation programs within
the Occupational Health component of a program ((McLeod and Ketcham,
2007).
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7. Collection of information. Information collection aids proper decision
making in designing an EHS plan. Equally important to collection of
information is its subsequent management. The safety and health information
collected must be managed properly to maintain regulatory compliance.
8. Involvement of employee. The involvement of employee in all aspects of a
safety and health plan benefits both the employees and management. It also
serves as a bridge of understanding for actions taken by the employer in terms
of health and safety.
9. Motivation, Behavior, and Attitudes. The goal of this element is to change
behavior and attitude to promote a safer and healthier workplace. It places great
value on visible management leadership and support for changing unsafe
behaviours, attitudes, and work processes.
In-text Question
State any three essential Elements of health and safety plan.
Answer
1.Hazard recognition, evaluation and control
2.Workplace design and Engineering.
3.Environmental Management.
2.4. The Principles of Environmental health and safety

All the tragedies in the workplace can be avoided by sound prevention,
reporting and inspection practices. The global strategy to improve occupational
safety and health adopted in 2003 by the ILO included the introduction of a
preventive safety and health culture, promotion and development of relevant
instruments, and technical assistance. The ILO has adopted more than 40
standards specifically dealing with occupational safety and health, as well as
over 40 Codes of Practice. Nearly half of ILO instruments deal directly or
indirectly with occupational safety and health issues (ILO 1981). The principles
of Environmental health and safety targets the protection and safety of working
men and women. In any country these can be achieved through the setting and
27
enforcing standards, the provision of education,
outreaches and assistance, issuing of permits,
licenses, certificates, registrations and
approvals. The EHS principles cover areas that
are specific to each organisation as well as those
that are general to most organisation. The major
areas are:
1. Environment
2. Occupational health and safety
3. Community health and safety
The environment can be subcategorized into: - Air emissions and ambient air
quality - Energy conservation - Wastewater and ambient water quality - Water
conservation - Hazardous materials management - Waste management - Noise -
Contaminated land The occupational health can be subcategorized into: -
General facility design and operation - Communication and training - Physical
hazards - Chemical hazards - Biological hazards - Radiological hazards -
Personal protective equipment (PPE) - Special hazard environments -
Monitoring Community health and safety can be subcategorized into: - Water
quality and availability - Structural safety of project infrastructure - Life and fire
safety (L&FS) - Traffic safety - Transport of hazardous materials - Disease
prevention - Emergency preparedness and response
2.5. The Practical Approach

The Environmental health and safety principles can be discussed under the
following principles according to Knoll, 2014.
1. Protection of the Biosphere “To make continued progress toward reducing or
eliminating the release of any hazardous substance in an effort to safeguard all
habitats affected by our operations” This principle can be achieved by: - The
reduction of the use and/or emissions of hazardous air pollutants and volatile
28
organic compounds from manufacturing operations through the introduction of
clean technologies. - The provision of water treatment facilities that meet or
exceed discharge criteria. - The monitoring of storm water, conserve water use
and develop processes to efficiently use water and minimise water pollution.
2. Sustainable Use of Natural Resources “To make the best use of renewable
resources, such as water, soil and forests, and conserve non-renewable
resources. This principle can be achieved by: - Sustainable use of renewable
natural resources through efficient use and careful planning. - Seeking
opportunities to use wood from sustainable forests in products. - An attempt to
recycle or make beneficial use of wood scrap generated in manufacturing
operations. - Recycling steel, aluminium and other metal components. - Being
environmentally responsible in the purchase of materials.
3. Waste Reduction and Disposal. “To reduce, recycle, and where possible,
eliminate waste and disposing of all waste using safe and responsible methods
with the intention of eliminating the landfilling of waste” This principle can be
achieved by:
- An attempt to seek opportunities to reduce waste and introduce recycling
process in an organisation’s operations.
- Disposing of wastes only in well-operated and permitted facilities.
4. Conservation “To conserve energy by improving the efficiency of internal
operations”. This principle can be achieved by:
- Making every effort to use environmentally safe and sustainable energy
sources.
- Conserving energy and improve energy efficiency.
5. Risk Reduction “To strive to minimise the environmental health and safety
risks to employees and the communities in which the industries operate through
safe technologies, sound transportation practices, safe facilities and operating
procedures, and preparing for emergencies” This principle can be achieved
through:
29
- The designing of processes to prevent injury to the health and welfare of
workers, the community and the environment.
- The development and implementation of health and safety policies and
programs to help prevent injury and illnesses to workers.
- The development and implementation of health and wellness awareness and
illness prevention programs.
- Designing and developing training programs to provide workers with the
necessary skills and knowledge to fulfill the objectives of the Environmental,
Health and Safety Plan.
6. Safe Products and Services “To reduce and, where possible, eliminate the
use, manufacture or sale of products and services that cause environmental
damage or health or safety hazards” This principle can be achieved through:
- The provision of independent testing to assure the safety of products.
7. Environmental Restoration “To comply responsibly with the law to address
conditions caused by the industrial process that could endanger health, safety or
the environment” 8. Public Information “To comply with the law to inform on a
timely manner those who may be affected by conditions caused by operations
that might endanger health, safety or the environment and will encourage
employees to report dangerous incidents or conditions to management”
In-text Question
Highlight any two environmental health and safety principles.
Answer
1. Protection of the Biosphere
2. Risk reduction
3.0 Tutor Marked Assignments (Individual or Group)

1. Define the term Environmental health and safety plan
2. Outline the major areas and the subcategories that the principles environmental
health and safety cover.
30
4.0 Conclusion/Summary
An Environmental health and safety (EHS) plan is a written document that
provides for safety to environment and personnel in a workplace.
Environmental health safety plan provides a framework for ensuring
compliance with regulations pertaining to protections of personnel and
environment. It also ensures compliance of procedures and guidelines at
workplace. EHS plan takes into consideration the three main aspects of
environment, health and safety that affects workers well-being. We have also
learnt that, a proper understanding and implementation of the principles of
environmental health and safety will reduce not only the hazards imposed to the
health of workers and communities in areas of operation but will reduce
environmental pollution and occupational hazards. This will lead to the
protection of the biosphere and conserve the natural resources.

Self-Assessment Questions
1. Explain any five essential elements of health and safety plan.
2. Discuss four environmental health and safety principles.
6.0. Additional Activities (Videos, Animations & Out of Class activities) e.g.
a. Visit YouTube https://bit.ly/2UAgqCF. Watch the video & summarise in 1
paragraph
b. View the animation on https://bit.ly/2Uzqn3t and critique it in the discussion

forum

Kavianian, H.R. (1990). Occupational and Environmental Safety Engineering
and Management. Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York.
31
McLeod, V. and Ketcham, G.R. (2007). 14 Essential Elements for a Successful
Health and Safety Programme.
Rokho, K. (2012). WHO and Well-being at Workplace. World Health
Organisation Regional Office for Europe.
Wikipedia (Accessed December, 2018). Environmental health and safety.
http://en.wikipedia.org/org/wiki/Environment_health_and_safety.
World Health Organisation (2010). WHO healthy workplace Framework and
Modelling.
STUDY SESSION 2
Environmental Health and Safety Rights of Workers

Introduction
2.0 Main Content
2.1 - The Environmental Health and Safety Rights of Workers
2.2- Responsibilities of Employees
2.3- The Responsibilities of Employers
Introduction
Work provides a lot benefits to the workers which could be economical, social,
32
physical and psychological. Yet a wide array of workplace hazards also present
dangers to the health and safety of people at work. Workers form the greater
portion of human resources in an organisation and of course one of the greatest
assets of any organisation. It may also be said that workers are the life-wire of any
organisation. Being such a vital component, it is expected that the workers be
protected from harm or hazards that may be emanating from the organisation’s
operations. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights of the General Assembly
in the General Assembly Resolution 217A of 1948 of the United Nations, article
23 provides the right to just and favourable conditions of work.

After studying this session, I expect you to be able to:
1. Describe the basic environmental health and safety rights of workers
2. Discuss the responsibilities of employers
3. Explain employees’ responsibilities
2.0 Main Content

2.1. The Environmental Health and Safety Rights of Workers.
The Canadian Centre for Occupational health and safety (2018) outlines the
basic Environmental health and safety rights of workers. The employees rights
include:
- Right to refuse unsafe work.
- Right to participate in the workplace health and safety activities through the
Health and Safety Committee (HSC) or as a worker health and safety
representative.
- Right to know, or the right to be informed about, actual and potential dangers
in the workplace. The Maine Department of Labour (2013) expanded the three
basic rights of employees include rights to:
- A safe and healthful workplace
33
- Any information your employer has about any exposure you may have had to
hazards such as toxic chemicals or noise.
- To ask your employer to correct dangerous conditions.
- To file a complaint about workplace hazards.
- To participate in enforcement inspections.
- To not be discriminated against for exercising your health and safety rights.
- To refuse work that puts you in immediate danger of serious harm. Before you
refuse unsafe work, request that your employer eliminate the hazard and make it
clear that you will accept an alternate assignment.
- To information on hazards in your workplace, chemicals used in your
workplace, tests your
employer has done to
measure chemical,
noise and radiation
levels and what to do if
you or other employees
are involved in an
incident or are exposed
to other toxic
substances.
- To training from your employer on healthy workplace.
In-text Question
State three rights of an employee
Answer
- Right to refuse unsafe work.
- Right to participate in the workplace health and safety activities through the Health and
Safety Committee (HSC) or as a worker health and safety representative.
- Right to know, or the right to be informed about, actual and potential dangers in the
workplace.
34
2.2. Responsibilities of Employees.
According to the Canadian Centre for Occupational health and safety (2018),
the responsibilities of employees include:
- To work in compliance with Occupational Health and Safety acts and
regulations.
- To use personal protective equipment and clothing as directed by the
employer.
- To report workplace hazards and dangers to the supervisor or employer.
- To work in a safe manner as required
by the employer and use the prescribed
safety equipment.
- To tell the supervisor or employer
about any missing or defective
equipment or protective device that
may be dangerous.
2.3. The Responsibilities of Employers.

According to the Canadian Centre for Occupational health and safety (2018), in
line with maintaining a healthy workplace, Employers are expected to discharge
the following responsibilities to its Employees.
- To establish and maintain a health and safety committee, or cause workers to
select at least one health and safety representative.
- To take every reasonable precaution to ensure the workplace is safe.
- To train employees about any potential hazards and in how to safely use,
handle, store and dispose of hazardous substances and how to handle
emergencies.
- To supply personal protective equipment and ensure workers know how to use
and handle the equipment safely and properly.
35
- To immediately report all critical injuries to the government department
responsible for Occupational Health and Safety.
- To appoint a competent supervisor who tests the standards for performance,
and who ensures safe working conditions are always observed.
In-text Question
State three responsibilities of employers to employees
Answer
- To establish and maintain a health and safety committee, or cause workers to select at least
one health and safety representative.
- To take every reasonable precaution to ensure the workplace is safe.
- To train employees about any potential hazards and in how to safely use, handle, store and
dispose of hazardous substances and how to handle emergencies.

1. Explain basic Environmental Health and Safety Rights of Employees.
2. Discuss the responsibilities of employers to employees.
In this session, you have learnt that, the whole essence of enacting and
implementing the rights and responsibilities of workers is to reduce the wide
array of workplace hazards and dangers to the health and safety of people at
work. Being such a vital document in any organisation, it is expected that the
workers and employees adhere strictly to such laydown rules and reduce
workplace hazards and dangers to the lives. Having learnt what environmental
health and safety is, we are now going to be looking at occupational health in
the next study session. Therefore, I urge you to be very attentive and follow up
for a quick understanding of the topic.

36
1. Employers do have certain responsibilities on their employees. Discuss
a. Visit YouTube https://bit.ly/2w0Ke1Q. Watch the video & summarise in 1
paragraph
b. View the animation on https://bit.ly/342i5E7 and critique it in the discussion

forum

Abrams, H.K. (2001). A Short History of Occupational Health. Journal of
Public Health Policy: 22 (1):34 -80.
Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety (2018). The
Environmental Health and Safety Rights of Employees.
Maine Department of Labour (2013). Know Your Rights.
UNO General Assembly (1948). The Universal Declaration of Human Rights,
General Assembly Resolution 217A, Article 23.
37
STUDY SESSION 3
Concept of Occupational Health

Introduction
2.0 Main Content
2.1 – Concept of Occupational Health
2.2- Aims of Occupational Health
2.3- Rationale for Occupational Health
2.4- Key Principles in Occupational Health
2.5- Basic Concepts in Occupational Health
Introduction:
I welcome you to the other dimension of the course. We are going to be looking
at the concept of occupational health, aims, rationale and some basic concepts in
occupational health. Having understood what we have discussed so far, I expect
you to be very attentive so as to grasp the whole idea of environmental and
occupational health as it relates to workers and the workplace. Feel free to call
my attention if there are areas you need for explanations.

38
1. Define occupational health.
2. Discuss the aims of occupational health.
3. State the rationale for occupational health.
4. Describe the key principles in occupational health.
5. Explain the basic concepts in occupational health.
2.0 Main Content

2.1. Concept of Occupational Health
According to the WHO (2001), occupational health is a multidisciplinary
activity aimed at the protection and promotion of the health of workers by
preventing and controlling occupational diseases and accidents and by
eliminating occupational conditions and factors hazardous to health and safety
at work. It also connotes development and promotion of healthy and safe work,
work environments and work conditions. Occupational health, according to the
WHO (2001) also refers to the enhancement of the physical, social and mental
well-being of workers and support for the development and maintenance of
their working capacity as well as professional and social development at work.
It is also an activity concerned with enabling workers to lead socially and
economically productive lives and to contribute positively to sustainable
development.
The International Labour Organisation (ILO/WHO) defined occupational health

as the “promotion and maintenance of the highest degree of physical, mental
and social well- being of workers in all occupation.” According to the WHO,
the health of every worker and if possible, that of his/her family members
should be the responsibility of the organisation he/she is working for. Ogundele
(2017) defined occupational health as the science of anticipating, recognizing,
evaluating and controlling of health hazards and risk arising in or from the work
environment with the objectives of protecting the health and well-being of
39
workers and the surrounding. According to the scholar, it is an interdisciplinary
field that focuses on preventing and controlling occupational illnesses and
injuries.
Occupational Health is a diverse science applied by occupational health

professionals’ engineers, environmental health practitioners, chemists,
toxicologists, doctors, nurses, safety professionals and others who have an
interest in the protection of the health of workers in the workplace. Successful
occupational health and safety practice requires the collaboration and
participation of both employers and workers in health and safety programmes,
and involves the consideration of
issues relating to occupational
medicine, industrial hygiene,
toxicology, education, engineering
safety, ergonomics, psychology, etc.
Occupational health issues are often
given less attention than occupational safety issues because the former are
generally more difficult to confront. However, when health is addressed, so is
safety, because a healthy workplace is by definition also a safe workplace. The
converse, though, may not be true - a so-called safe workplace is not necessarily
also a healthy workplace. The important point is that issues of both health and
safety must be addressed in every workplace. By and large, the definition of
occupational health and safety given above encompasses both health and safety
in their broadest contexts.
Components of Occupational Health

Occupational health as a discipline covers the following key components:
1. Availability of occupational health and safety regulations at workplace.
40
2. The availability of active and functional occupational health and safety
committee at workplace.
3. Monitoring and control of factory hazards to health.
4. Supervision and monitoring of hygiene and sanitary facilities for health and
welfare of workers.
5. Inspection of health safety of protective devices.
6. Pre-employment, periodical and special health examination.
7. Performance of adaptation of work to man.
8. Provision of First Aid.
9. Health education and safety training for the workers.
10. Advice to employers on how to cater for the health of their workers.
11. Reporting of occupational deaths, diseases, injuries, disabilities, hazards and
their related preventive measures at working
In-text Question
Define occupational health.
Answer
According to the WHO (2001), occupational health is a multidisciplinary activity aimed at
the protection and promotion of the health of workers by
preventing and controlling occupational diseases and accidents and by eliminating
occupational conditions and factors hazardous to health and safety at work.
2.2. Aims of Occupational Health

Occupational health and safety is a discipline with a broad scope involving
many specialised fields. In its broadest sense, it aims at:
• The promotion and maintenance of the highest degree of physical, mental and
social well-being of workers in all occupations;
• The prevention among workers of adverse effects on health caused by their
working conditions;
41
• The protection of workers in their employment from risks resulting from
factors adverse to health;
• The placing and maintenance of workers in an occupational environment
adapted to physical and mental needs;
• The adaptation of work to humans.
• To prevent occupational accidents and illness
• To defend the workers health and safety
• To avoid any possible accidents and risks in the workplace
• To inform and give advice to the workers
• To train company representatives and employees get some ideas from them
and make sure that they attend those training programmes. To protect the
workers because of their age, gender and special problem and
• Rearrange the rules and regulations for them, assess workplace
compliance with rules and regulations applied
Effects of Poor Working Conditions on Workers’ Health and Safety

Poor working conditions of any type have the potential to affect a worker's
health and safety. Unhealthy or unsafe working conditions are not limited to
factories — they can be found anywhere, whether the workplace is indoors or
outdoors. For many workers, such as agricultural workers or miners, the
workplace is “outdoors” and can pose many health and safety hazards. Poor
working conditions can also affect the environment where workers live in, since
the working and living environments are the same for many workers. This
means that occupational hazards can have harmful effects on workers, their
families, and other people in the community, as well as on the physical
environment around the workplace. A classic example is the use of pesticides in
agricultural work. Workers can be exposed to toxic chemicals in a number of
ways when spraying pesticides: they can inhale the chemicals during and after
spraying, the chemicals can be absorbed through the skin, and the workers can
42
ingest the chemicals if they eat, drink, or smoke without first washing their
hands, or if drinking water has become contaminated with the chemicals.
The workers' families can also be exposed in a number of ways: they can inhale
the pesticides which may linger in the air, they can drink contaminated water, or
they can be exposed to residues which may be on the worker's clothes. Other
people in the community can all be exposed in the same ways as well. When the
chemicals get absorbed into the soil or leach into groundwater supplies, the
adverse effects on the natural environment can be permanent. The most
important point to note is that efforts in occupational health and safety must aim
to prevent industrial accidents and diseases, and at the same time recognize the
connection between workers’ health and safety, the workplace, and the
environment outside the workplace.
In-text Question
State any two aims of occupational health and safety
Answer
• The promotion and maintenance of the highest degree of physical, mental and social well-
being of workers in all occupations;
• The prevention among workers of adverse effects on health caused by their working
conditions
2.3. Rationale for Occupational Health

Work plays a central role in people's lives, since most workers spend at least
eight hours a day in the workplace, whether it is on a plantation, in an office,
factory, etc. Therefore, work environments should be safe and healthy. Yet this
is not the case for many workers. Every day workers all over the world are
faced with a multitude of health hazards, such as:
• Dusts;
• Gases;
• Noise;
• Vibration;
43
• Extreme temperatures.
Unfortunately, some employers assume little responsibility for the protection of
workers' health and safety. In fact, some employers do not even know that they
have the moral and often legal responsibility to protect workers. As a result of
the hazards and a lack of attention given to health and safety, work-related
accidents and diseases are common in all parts of the world (ILO, 2017).
Cost of Occupational Injuries and Diseases

Work-related accidents or diseases are very costly and can have many serious
direct and indirect effects on the lives of workers and their families. For workers
some of the direct costs of an injury or illness are:
• The pain and suffering of the injury or illness;
• The loss of income;
• The possible loss of a job;
• Health-care costs.
It has been estimated that the indirect costs of an accident or illness can be four
to ten times greater than the direct costs, or even more. An occupational illness
or accident can have so many indirect costs to workers that it is often difficult to
measure them. One of the most obvious indirect costs is the human suffering
caused to workers' families, which cannot be compensated with money.
The costs to employers of occupational accidents or illnesses are also estimated

to be enormous. For a small business, the cost of even one accident can be a
financial disaster. For employers, some of the direct costs are:
• Payment for work not performed;
• Medical and compensation payments;
• Repair or replacement of damaged machinery and equipment;
• Reduction or a temporary halt in production;
• Increased training expenses and administration costs;
44
• Possible reduction in the quality of work;
• Negative effect on morale in other workers.
Some of the indirect costs for employers are:
• The injured/ill worker has to be replaced;
• A new worker has to be trained and given time to adjust;
• It takes time before the new worker is producing at the rate of the original
worker;
• Time must be devoted to obligatory investigations, to the writing of reports
and filling out of forms;
• Accidents often arouse the concern of fellow workers and influence labour
relations in a negative way;
• Poor health and safety conditions in the workplace can also result in poor
public relations.
Overall, the costs of most work-related accidents or illnesses to workers and
their families and to employers are very high. On a national scale, the estimated
costs of occupational accidents and illnesses can be as high as three to four per
cent of a country's gross national product. In reality, no one really knows the
total costs of work-related accidents or diseases because there are a multitude of
indirect costs which are difficult to measure besides the more obvious direct
costs.
In-text Question
What are some of the direct costs of an injury or illness to workers?
Answer
• The pain and suffering of the injury or illness;
• The loss of income;
• The possible loss of a job;
• Health-care costs.
2.4. Key Principles of Occupational Health

Notable key principles underlie the field and practice of occupational health and
safety. These principles according to Ali (2008) are designed to achieve the
45
overall objective of occupational health which is the fact that work should take
place in a safe and healthy environment. Key principles as documented in Ali
(2008) are briefly discussed below:
1. All workers have rights: Every worker has a right to life and safety. Workers,
as well as employers and governments, must ensure that these rights are
protected and must strive to establish and maintain decent working conditions
and a decent working environment. More specifically these conditions as listed
by the International Labour Organisation (1984) must be ensured:
- work should take place in a safe and healthy working environment;
- conditions of work should be consistent with workers’ well-being and human
dignity;
- work should offer real possibilities for personal achievement,
self-fulfillment and service to society.
2. Occupational safety and health policies must be established: These policies
must be implemented at both the national (governmental) and enterprise levels.
They must be effectively communicated to all parties concerned.
3. A national system for occupational safety and health must be established:
Such a system must include all the mechanisms and elements necessary to build
and maintain a preventive safety and health culture. The national system must
be maintained, progressively developed and periodically reviewed. How this is
true in the case of the Nigerian Labour Congress (NLC) and Trade Union
Congress (TUC) is highly doubtful.
4. A national programme on occupational safety and health must be formulated.
Once formulated, it must be implemented, monitored, evaluated and
periodically reviewed.
5. Stakeholders must be involved in policy formulation: This should be done
during formulation, implementation and review of all policies, systems and
programmes.
46
6. Occupational health programmes must aim at both prevention and
protection: Efforts must be focused above all on primary prevention at the
workplace level. Workplaces and working environments should be planned and
designed to be safe and healthy.
7. Continuous improvement of occupational safety and health must be
promoted: This is necessary to ensure that national laws, regulations and
technical standards to prevent occupational injuries, diseases and deaths are
adapted periodically to social, technical and scientific progress and other
changes in the world of work. It is best done by the development and
implementation of a national policy, national system and national programme.
8. Information is vital for development and implementation of effective
programmes: The collection and dissemination of accurate information on
hazards and hazardous materials, surveillance of workplaces, monitoring of
compliance with policies and good practice, and other related activities are
central to the establishment and enforcement of effective policies.
9. Health promotion is a central element of occupational health practice:
Efforts must be made to enhance workers’ physical, mental and social well-
being.
10. Occupational health services covering all workers should be established:
Ideally, all workers in all categories of economic activity should have access to
such services, which aim to protect and promote workers’ health and improve
working conditions.
11. Compensation, rehabilitation and curative services must be made available
to workers: Action must be taken to minimise the consequences of occupational
hazards.
12. Education and training are vital components of safe, healthy working
environments: Workers and employers must be made aware of the importance
of establishing safe working procedures and of how to do so. Trainers must be
47
trained in areas of special relevance to particular industries, so that they can
address the specific occupational safety and health concerns.
13. Policies must be enforced: A system of inspection must be in place to secure
compliance with occupational safety and health measures and other labour
legislation.
In-text Question
Mention any four principles of occupational health and safety
Answer
1. All workers have rights
2. Occupational safety and health policies must be established
3. A national system for occupational safety and health must be established
4. Stakeholders must be involved in policy formulation
2.5. Basic Concepts in Occupational Health

There are four basic elements in the working environment. They are:
1. The worker
2. The tool
3. The process
4. The work environment
The worker
In developing countries like Nigeria, the work force has several distinct
characteristics:
1. Most people who are employed to work in the informal sectors, mainly in
agriculture, or in small-scale industries, such as garages, tannery and pottery.
2. There are high rates of unemployment, sometimes reaching 25% or higher.
In many developing countries, the rates of unemployment and under
employment are increasing each year.
3. In general, workers are at greater risk of occupational hazards for a variety of
reasons like unfamiliarity with work processes and exposures, inadequate
48
training, predisposition not to complain about working conditions or exposures
because of jobs, whether or not they are hazardous.
Workers are relatively scarce; experience high prevalence of occupational
diseases and malnutrition. There is also inadequate infrastructure and human
resources to diagnose, treat, and prevent work - related diseases and injuries.
The Tool
Tools can range from very primitive tools like a hammer, chisel, and needle,
to automated equipment and other materials used for working.
The process
In the process, materials used can be toxic. The process itself can affect the
potential harmfulness of the materials. For example, the particle size or physical
state (solid, liquid and gas) of potentially harmful substances can determine to a
large extent what ill effects in workers may develop from those substances.
The work environment
Occupational environment means the sum of external conditions and influences
which prevail at the place of work and which have a bearing on the health of the
working population. The industrial worker today is placed in a highly
complicated environment and the work environment is getting more
complicated as human is becoming more innovative or inventive.
Interactions in the Working Environment
1. man and physical, chemical and biological agents.
a. The physical agents.
These include excessive level of
- Noise
- Heat and humidity
- Dust
- Vibration
- Electricity or lighting
- Radiation etc.
49
b. Chemical agents.
These arises from excessive air borne concentrations of
- Chemical dust
- Mists
- Fumes
- Liquids
- Vapors
- Gases
- Dust
c. The biological agents.
These include:
- Presence of insects and rodents
- Microorganisms
- Poisonous plants and animals
d. Ergonomic hazards
These include excessive improperly designed tools, work areas, or work
procedures. Improper lifting or reaching, poor visual conditions, or repeated
motions in an awkward position can result in accidents or illnesses in the
occupational environment.
2. Man and machine
An industry or factory uses power driven machines for the purpose of mass
production. Unguarded machines, protruding and moving parts, poor electrical
and machinery installation of the plant, and lack of safety measures are the
causes of accidents. Working for long hours in an awkward postures or
positions is the causes of fatigue, backache, diseases of joints and muscles and
impairment of the workers’ health and efficiency.
3. Man and his psychosocial environment
50
There are numerous psychosocial factors, which operate at workplace. These
are the human relationships among workers themselves and those in authorities
over them.
Examples of psychosocial factors include: -
- The type and rhythm of work.
- Work stability.
- Service conditions.
- Job satisfaction.
- Managers’ leadership style.
- Job security.
- Workers` participation and communication.
- Motivation and incentives.
It is also important to state that the occupational environment of the worker

cannot be considered apart from his domestic environment. Both are
complementary to each other. The worker takes his worries to his/her home and
bring to his work disturbances that has arisen in his/her home. Stress at work
may disturb his sleep, just as stress at home may affect his work.
Environmental Managers: occupational health personnel who try to eliminate
hazards from the workplace cause many environmental problems.
Toxicology: is the science that studies poison and toxic substances and their
mechanisms and effects on living organisms. In other words, toxicology is the
study of adverse effects of chemical on biologic systems, or when a substance
has a capacity to produce undesirable physiological effect when the chemical
reached a sufficient concentration at a specific site in the body.
Toxicologists: are persons who study poisoning and responsible for defining
quantitatively the level of exposure at which harm occurs and they also
prescribe precautionary measures and exposure limitations so that normal
51
recommended use of chemical substance does not result in excessive exposure
and subsequent harm
Ergonomics: is a multidisciplinary activity dealing with the interaction between
man and his total working environment plus such traditional environmental
elements as atmosphere, heat, light, and sound as well as all tools and
equipment of the work place.
Chemical Engineers are those who design process plant, they choose values,
decide on how access will be gained and how cleaning will take place.
Mechanical Engineers are those who responsible for choosing materials
handling systems or for specifying noise levels on machinery.
Environmental Health Professionals: are those who apply their knowledge
and experience, understand the environmental health hazards, analyse the
technical and social approaches and reduce and eliminate human exposures and
health impacts.
Industrial Hygienists are scientists, engineers, and public health professionals
committed to protecting the health people in the workplace and the community.
In-text Question
State the four basic elements in a working environment.
Answer
1. The worker
2. The tool
3. The process
4. The work environment

1. State at five aims and objectives of occupational health
2. State the general rationale for occupational health
3. Mention at least seven key principles of occupational health
We have learnt in this session that, Occupational health is a multidisciplinary
52
activity aimed at the protection and promotion of the health of workers by
preventing and controlling occupational diseases and accidents and by
eliminating occupational conditions and factors hazardous to health and safety
at work. It also connotes development and promotion of healthy and safe work,
work environments and work conditions. The overall objective of occupational
health is the promotion and maintenance of the highest degree of physical,
mental and social well-being of workers in all occupations. We have also
discussed the basic concepts in occupational health which are the worker,
working tool, working process and the work environment. These concepts
interact in a complex manner to significantly influence the health of workers.
We shall in the next session look at the exposure levels and assessment in the
workplace.

1. Discuss the direct cost of occupational accidents to employers.
2. Explain the indirect cost of occupational accidents/injuries to employees.
a. Visit YouTube https://bit.ly/2wU1E0G . Watch the video & summarise in 1
paragraph
b. View the animation on and critique it in the discussion forum

Achalu, E.I. (2000) Occupational Health and Safety. Lagos: Splendid Publishers
Asogwa, S.E. (2007). A Guide to Occupational Health Practice in Developing
Countries. Enugu: Snaap Press Ltd
53
Oranusi, U.S., Dahunsi, S.O. and Idowu, S.A. (2014). Assessment of
Occupational Diseases among Artisans and Factory Workers in Ifo,
Nigeria. Journal of Scientific Research & Reports 3(2): 294-305.
Moronkola, O.A. and Okanlawon, F. (2003). Fundamentals of Community
Health Education. Ibadan: Royal People
Health Education for Tertiary Institution Students (In Honour
of Professor J.A. Ajala). Nigerian School Health Association. Ibadan: His
Lineage Publishing
Saiyed, H.N. and Tiwari ,R.R. (2004). Occupational health research in India.
Ind. Heal.; 42:141-148.
Park, K.S. (2013). Preventive and Social Medicine. Jabalpur: Bhanot Publishers
54
STUDY SESSION 4
Exposure Evaluation and Assessment

Introduction
2.0 Main Content
2.1 – Classification of Workplace Environment
2.2- Exposure Routes and Assessment
2.3- Evaluation and Measurement of Exposure Levels
2.4- Exposure Factors
2.5- Defining acceptable exposure for occupational environment
Introduction:
In today's working environment, worker performance is affected by a large
number of work factors that span across the job, process, and organisational
levels. The identification and evaluation of the entire domain of work factors are,
thus, crucial to developing integrated and long-term solutions to employee
performance problems. Therefore, the routes of exposure and measurement of the
exposure is very crucial to the well-being of workers. The principal routes of
industrial exposure are dermal and inhalation. Occasionally toxic agents may be
ingested, if food or drinking water is contaminated. Exposure to the skin often
leads to localised effects known as “occupation dermatosis” caused by either
55
irritating chemicals or allergenic chemicals. Such effects include scaling, eczema,
acne, pigmentation changes, ulcers, and neoplasia. Some chemicals may also pass
through the skin; these include aromatic amines such as aniline and solvents such
as carbon tetrachloride and benzene.
This session deals with the various types of working environment and a
classification system to categorise the entire domain of workplace factors
impacting performance. In addition, this session will look at the principal routes
by which a substance can enter the body, quantification of the contaminants and
relevant statistics about the activities that can lead to an exposure known as
exposure factors.

1. explain the concept of workplace environment
2. list the types of Workplace environment
3. classify the various workplace environment factors
4. explain the various physical environment factors
5. explain the various non-physical environment factors
6. distinguished between exposure assessment and exposure analysis
7. explain the various routes of exposures to contaminants
8. quantify the exposure of individuals or populations
2.0 Main Content

2.1. Classification of Workplace Environment
2.1.1 Concept of Workplace Environment
A workplace environment is a location where someone works for his or her
employer, (a place of employment). Such a place can range from a home office
to a large office building or factory. For industrialised societies, the workplace
is one of the most important social spaces other than the home, constituting "a
56
central concept for several entities: the worker and his/her family, the
employing organisation, the customers of the organisation, and the society as a
whole". The development of new communication technologies has led to the
development of the virtual workplace, a workplace that is not located in any one
physical space. The design, arrangement and orientation of the work
environment should reflect the full range of personnel. This requires an
awareness of potential differences in physical dimensions such as stature and
forward functional reach (anthropometric) and strength capabilities and
limitations (biomechanical). If these factors are not considered, the workplace
design may increase the likelihood for human error. Additional training,
operations and maintenance manuals, along with more detailed written
procedures, cannot adequately compensate for human errors caused by poor
design.
Elements of Habitability Influenced by the Design Process

To produce suitable living and working conditions within design and budget
constraints, habitability should be incorporated during design. When it is not
possible to strictly adhere to habitability criteria, design alternatives are used to
improve environmental conditions. Examples of alternatives are dampening
noise transmission with acoustic insulation and alleviating vibration by applying
resilience techniques. Workplace ergonomics is a major aspect of designing for
habitability. Ergonomics is the design, placement and arrangement of the
components and spaces on board where crew members live and work. Design
and ergonomics can be improved if addressed early in the planning stages. For
example, the decision to locate crew berthing away (or suitably protected) from
spaces containing noisy or vibrating equipment is easier before construction
starts.
The ambient environmental conditions that impact habitability are:
• Noise levels
57
• Vibration
• Thermal comfort (temperature, humidity and ventilation)
• Illumination
2.1.2 Types of Workplace Environment
There are many different types of workplace environment. Several attempts
have been made to quantify the different types in an organised way, as seen
with the Holland Codes proposed by John Holland, a psychologist with an
interest in matching people with work environments that suit their personalities.
They can be broken
down by the type of
work done, the physical
environment, or the
social and situational
factors that can play a
role in shaping the
workplace. Matching employees with the right environment can result in better
performance and more satisfaction.
Holland’s approach to the types of work environment looked at the nature of the
work done. He identified six different environments:
1. realistic,
2. social,
3. enterprising,
4. artistic,
5. investigative, and
6. conventional.
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Some workplaces use this model to assess prospective employees to determine
if they would be a good fit and to find the best department for their skills and
interests.
In realistic environments, work is more hands on, while investigative
environments place a high priority on thinking and theoretical discussions.
Enterprising environments involve more self initiative to start and innovate
projects. Conventional work environments use set protocols and routines, such
as data basing customer information, while artistic environments promote
creativity and the production of works of art. Social work environments
involve a high degree of interaction, as seen in customer service and teaching.
2.1.3. Workplace Environment Factor Classification System

A workplace environment factor is defined as a load acting upon the worker in
the business environment to produce an output required by the organisation. A
load may be classified according to its effect into either "energy expenditure" or
"energy replenishment." An energy expenditure load results in energy depletion;
an energy replenishment load works as a stimulus that increases human energy
reserves.
Workplace environment factor can be classified into two (2) broad categories
namely:
1. The Physical Environment Factor
2. The Non-Physical Environment Factor
These two interacts together to determine the efficiency of workers at a given
occupational setting.
The physical environment factors are physical conditions in the workplace (e.g.,
noise, heat stress) that expend the three resources of human energy (i.e.,
physical, mental, and emotional). Also, the chemical (e.g., dust, fumes),
biological (e.g., bacteria, viruses), and radiological (e.g., X-rays) factors are part
of the physical environment conditions that drain all three resources of energy.
59
The non-physical or social environment loads are demands imposed upon the
worker due to work situations and conditions that require interaction with others
in the organisation (e.g., social conflict with the supervisor or co-workers). The
organisational loads are demands in the work environment defined by how work
is organised and structured (e.g., working night shift or long hours). The
technical workplace environment conditions deal with the adequacy of
equipment, tools, skills, knowledge, and supervision required to alter materials
or information in some specified or anticipated way to achieve a desired end
result. The social, organisational, and technical environment conditions
primarily influence the emotional energy exertion.
A. Physical Environment Factors
Physical environment conditions are classified according to sources, such as:
1. Physical,
2. Chemical,
3. Radiological or
4. Biological.
Physical factors include noise (exposure to constant or intermittent sounds of a
pitch or level); vibration (exposure to a shaking object or surface that causes
strain on the whole body or extremities); illumination (amount of light at work
surfaces, objects, general area); thermal stress (exposure to heat, cold, wind,
humidity); changes in barometric pressure (effects of pressure due to altitude
effects); kinetic hazards (due to falling or accelerating objects); mechanical
hazards (e.g., hazards due to contact with sharp edges, contact with shearing
devices, body part caught between two surfaces); fall hazards (e.g., trip and fall
such as when a worker encounters an unseen foreign object, stump and fall such
as when a worker's foot suddenly meets a sticky surface or a defect in the
walking surface); immediately dangerous to life and health environments (e.g.,
electrical hazards, pressure hazards, fire arms): awkward or confining work
space (i.e., conditions in which the body is cramped or uncomfortable); and
60
hindrance of freedom of motion due to protective equipment, safety guard use,
and awkward clothing.
Chemical factors refer to the presence of metals, metal fumes, solvents,
pesticides, plastics, gases, and dusts (i.e., particulate matter) in the physical
work environment. They include non-toxic chemicals (e.g., dust and fumes) and
toxic chemicals (e.g., solvents, carcinogens, carbon monoxide or other gases,
metal fumes, heavy metals such as lead, arsenic).
Radiological factors include ionizing and non-ionizing radiation. Examples of
ionizing radiation are X-rays, alpha, beta, gamma particles. Non-ionizing
radiation includes such things as ultraviolet light, infrared, and lasers.
Biological factors are classified into infectious agents (e.g., bacteria, viruses,
parasites), blood borne agents (e.g., medical worker exposed to needle-sticks),
exposure to plant sap (e.g., poison ivy), exposure to insect bites (e.g., bees,
wasps), and animal bites or stings (e.g., dog bites, snakes).
B. Non-Physical Environment Factors

The non-physical environment factors can be grouped into three (3) categories
namely:
1. Social environment conditions
2. Organisational environment conditions
3. Technical environment conditions
Social environment conditions
The social factors are subdivided into social conflict (with individuals inside or
outside the organisation), interpersonal closedness (i.e., the way members of the
organisation do not relate to one another their ideas and feelings); freedom from
prejudice (i.e., acceptance of the worker for work-related traits, skills, abilities,
and potential without regard to race, creed, and national origin, or to life styles
and physical appearance); mobility (i.e., existence or non-existence of upward
61
mobility as reflected, e.g., by the percentage of employees at any level who
qualify for higher levels); and fairness of complaints and disciplinary actions.
The social environment contributes to energy replenishment via social support
(from members inside the organisation), sense of community, interpersonal
openness, social rewards, and knowledge of results. Social rewards include
praise (i.e., opportunities to receive recognition for successful completion of
work, aside from financial incentives); nurturing (i.e., opportunities to receive
guidance for successful completion of work); and participation in decision-
making (i.e., opportunities to get involved in important organisational
decisions). Knowledge of results is centered around feedback information
provided by managers and co-workers.
Organisational environment conditions
Organisational environment classification that impacts energy expenditure
consists of eight sub-categories: time organisation (e.g., working night shifts),
work responsibility (e.g., responsibility for lives and safety of others),
compensation and income security (e.g., fairness and adequacy of base salary),
logical sequence of work activities (for efficiency and effectiveness purposes),
resource factors at the job, organisation, and process levels (e.g., time
availability for job performance), interface factors (i.e., collaboration between
various functions), organisational design factors (e.g., organisational structure),
process design factors (e.g., flow of information between jobs).
The organisational environment factors that impact energy replenishment are
subdivided into autonomy, task organisation, individual growth, reward, and
knowledge of results. Those factors are distinct and different from those
influencing energy expenditure.
Technical environment conditions
Factors in the technical environment determine whether the technology
employed in the business enterprise is adequate with respect to the achievement
of work goals (described in terms of work productivity, quality, and safety).
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Inadequate technical equipment, procedures, and expertise may severely
compromise job performance because they contribute to added physical and
mental task demands. The technical environment conditions are classified into
resource and skill and knowledge factors.
Resource factors include the availability of right tools, equipment, machinery,
and the quality of information received for job performance. Skill and
knowledge factors assess the degree to which the necessary items are provided:
(a) skills and knowledge (i.e., technical expertise required for job performance);
(b) technical procedures (provision of technical procedures required to
transform work inputs to outputs); and
(c) technical supervision (presence of technically competent supervisor).
In-text Question
What is workplace environment?
Answer
A workplace environment is a location where someone works for himself or for his or her
employer.
2.2. Exposure Routes and Assessment

2.2.1 Exposure Assessment
Exposure assessment is a branch of environmental science and occupational
hygiene that focuses on the processes that take place at the interface between
the environment containing the contaminant(s) of interest and the organism(s)
being considered. These are the final steps in the path to release an
environmental contaminant, through transport to its effect in a biological
system. It tries to measure how much of a contaminant can be absorbed by an
exposed target organism, in what form, at what rate and how much of the
absorbed amount is actually available to produce a biological effect. Although
the same general concepts apply to other organisms, the overwhelming majority
63
of applications of exposure assessment are
concerned with human health, making it an
important tool in occupational health.
Exposure assessment is the process of

estimating or measuring the magnitude,
frequency and duration of exposure to an
agent, along with the number and
characteristics of the population exposed. Ideally, it describes the sources,
pathways, routes, and the uncertainties in the assessment. Exposure analysis is
the science that describes how an individual or population comes in contact with
a contaminant, including quantification of the amount of contact across space
and time. 'Exposure assessment' and 'exposure analysis' are often used as
synonyms in many practical contexts. Risk is a function of exposure and hazard.
For example, even for an extremely toxic (high hazard) substance, the risk of an
adverse outcome is unlikely if exposures are near zero. Conversely, a
moderately toxic substance may present substantial risk if an individual or a
population is highly exposed.
2.2.2. Routes of exposure

Contact between a contaminant and an organism can occur through any route.
The possible routes of exposure are: inhalation, if the contaminant is present in
the air, ingestion, through food, drinking or hand-to-mouth route, and dermal
absorption, if the contaminant can be absorbed through the skin. Exposure to a
contaminant can and does occur through multiple routes, simultaneously or at
different times. In many cases the main route of exposure is not obvious and
needs to be investigated carefully.
For example, exposure to byproducts of water chlorination can obviously occur
by drinking, but also through the skin, while swimming or washing, and even
64
through inhalation from droplets aerosolized during a shower. The relative
proportion of exposure from these different routes cannot be determined a
priori.
2.2.3. Major Routes of Exposures to contaminants
Figure 1.4.1: Showing the route of entry in the human body.

A. Inhalation
Inhalation is a major route of exposure that occurs when an individual breathes
in polluted air which enters the respiratory tract. Identification of the pollutant
uptake by the respiratory system can determine how the resulting exposure
contributes to the dose. In this way, the mechanism of pollutant uptake by the
respiratory system can be used to predict potential health impacts within the
human population. Inhalation exposure is the concentration of the airborne
pollutant in the air at the mouth and nose boundary. An assumption is that this
concentration is inhaled by the person. The contact boundary, a particular nasal
or oral region, is selected by the analyst. Intake dose is the mass of the pollutant
that crosses the contact boundary and is inhaled by the individual. Some of this
pollutant is exhaled, and the fraction that is absorbed by the respiratory system
is known as the absorbed dose. A portion of the pollutant may also be expelled
65
by sneezing, coughing, spitting, or swallowing. The remaining pollutant that is
transported through the liquid layer, making contact with the respiratory tract
tissues is the fraction of bioavailability, called the effective dose.
For most chemicals in the form of vapors, gases, mists, or particulates,

inhalation is the major route of entry. Once inhaled, chemicals are either
exhaled or deposited in the respiratory tract. If deposited, damage can occur
through direct contact with tissue or the chemical may diffuse into the blood
through the lung-blood interface. Upon contact with tissue in the upper
respiratory tract or lungs, chemicals may cause health effects ranging from
simple irritation to severe tissue destruction. Substances absorbed into the blood
are circulated and distributed to organs that have an affinity for that particular
chemical. Health effects can then occur in the organs, which are sensitive to the
toxicant.
B. Topical Exposure (Skin or Eye absorption)

Topical exposure is a route by which substances can enter the body through the
skin. Along with inhalation, ingestion and injection, dermal absorption is a route
of exposure for toxic substances and route of administration for medication.
Absorption of substances through the skin depends on a number of factors, the
most important of which are concentration, duration of contact, solubility of
medication, and physical condition of the skin and part of the body exposed. In
Topical Exposure, the absorption is directly proportional with the lipid
solubility and inversely proportional to the molecular weight.
Skin (percutaneous, dermal) absorption is a term that describes the transport of
chemicals from the outer surface of the skin both into the skin and into
circulation. Skin absorption relates to the degree of exposure to and possible
effect of a substance which may enter the body through the skin.
66
Human skin comes into contact with many agents intentionally and
unintentionally. Skin absorption can occur from occupational, environmental, or
consumer skin exposure to chemicals, cosmetics, or pharmaceutical products.
Some chemicals can be absorbed in enough quantity to cause detrimental

systemic effects. Skin disease (dermatitis) is considered one of the most
common occupational diseases. In order to assess if a chemical can be a risk of
either causing dermatitis or other more systemic effects and how that risk may
be reduced one must know the extent to which it is absorbed, thus dermal
exposure is a key aspect of human health risk assessment. Skin (dermal) contact
can cause effects that are relatively innocuous such as redness or mild
dermatitis; more severe effects include destruction of skin tissue or other
debilitating conditions. Many chemicals can also cross the skin barrier and be
absorbed into the blood system. Once absorbed, they may produce systemic
damage to internal organs. The eyes are particularly sensitive to chemicals.
Even a short exposure can cause severe effects to the eyes or the substance can
be absorbed through the eyes and be transported to other parts of the body
causing harmful effects.
Along with inhalation, ingestion and injection, dermal absorption is a route of

exposure for bioactive substances including medications. Absorption of
substances through the skin depends on a number of factors:
• Concentration
• Molecular Weight of the molecule
• Duration of contact
• Solubility of medication
• Physical condition of the skin
• Part of the body exposed including the amount of hair on the skin.
67
In general, the rate of absorption of chemicals through skin follows the
following scheme from fastest to slowest: Scrotal > Forehead > Armpit≥ Scalp
> Back = Abdomen > Palm = under surface of the foot.
To be absorbed through the skin, a chemical must pass through the epidermis,
glands, or hair follicles. Sweat glands and hair follicles make up about 0.1 to 1.0
percent of the total skin surface. Though small amounts of chemicals may enter
the body rapidly through the glands or hair follicles, they are primarily absorbed
through the epidermis.
Chemicals must pass through the seven cell layers of epidermis before entering
the dermis where they can enter the blood stream or lymph and circulate to
other areas of the body. Toxins and toxicants can move through the layers by
passive diffusion. The stratum corneum is the outermost layer of the epidermis
and the rate-limiting barrier in absorption of an agent. Thus, how quickly
something passes through this thicker outer layer determines the overall
absorption. The stratum corneum is primarily composed of lipophilic
cholesterol, cholesterol esters and ceramides. Thus lipid soluble chemicals make
it through the layer and into the circulation faster, however nearly all molecules
penetrate it to some minimal degree.
C. Injection
Injection means introducing the material directly into the bloodstream. Injection
may occur through mechanical injury from “sharps”. Accidental injection
occurs mainly during the administration of drugs. Other injection may occur
from the use of high pressure, air or liquid such as in spray painting, or from the
rupture of high pressure lines. Substances may enter the body if the skin is
penetrated or punctured by contaminated objects. Effects can then occur as the
substance is circulated in the blood and deposited in target organs.
68
Injection it’s the only route in which the entire amount exposed is absorbed
regardless of the chemical administered, because the chemical is introduced
directly into the body. Chemicals may be injected
• intravenously (directly into a vein),
• intramuscularly (into a muscle),
• subcutaneously (under the skin),
• intraperitoneally (within the membrane lining the organs of the
abdomen).
Because the blood is the vehicle of chemical distribution in the body,
intravenous injection is the most rapid method of introducing a chemical into
the body. The almost instantaneous distribution together with the irreversibility
makes intravenous injection a dangerous method of chemical exposure, with a
fair chance of causing drug overdose if improperly administered.
In-text Question
What is exposure assessment?
Answer
Exposure assessment is the process of estimating or measuring the magnitude,
frequency and duration of exposure to an agent, along with the number and
characteristics of the population exposed.
2.3. Evaluation and Measurement of Exposure Levels

To quantify the exposure of particular individuals or populations two
approaches are used, primarily based on practical considerations:
Direct approach
The direct approach measures the exposures to pollutants by monitoring the
pollutant concentrations reaching the respondents. The pollutant concentrations
are directly monitored on or within the person through point of contact,
biological monitoring, or biomarkers. The point of contact approach indicates
the total concentration reaching the host, while biological monitoring and the
use of biomarkers infer the dosage of the pollutant through the determination of
69
the body burden. The respondents often record their daily activities and
locations during the measurement of the pollutants to identify the potential
sources, microenvironments, or human activities contributing the pollutant
exposure. An advantage of the direct approach is that the exposures through
multiple media (air, soil, water, food, etc.) are accounted for through one study
technique. The disadvantages include the invasive nature of the data collection
and associated costs. Point of contact is continuous measure of the contaminant
reaching the target through all routes.
Biological monitoring is another approach to measuring exposure. This
measures the amount of a pollutant within the body in various tissue media such
adipose tissue, bone, or urine. Biological monitoring measures the body burden
of a pollutant but not the source from whence it came. The substance measured
may be either the contaminant itself or a biomarker which is specific to and
indicative of an exposure to the contaminant.
Biomarkers of exposure assessment is a measure of the contaminant or other
proportionally related variable in the body.
Air sampling measures the contaminant in the air as concentration units of ppmv
(parts per million by volume), mg/m3 (milligrams per cubic meter) or other
mass per unit volume of air. Samples can be worn by workers or researchers to
estimate concentrations found in the breathing zone (personal) or samples
collected in general areas that can be used to estimate human exposure by
integrating time and activity patterns. Validated and semi-validated air sampling
methods are published by NIOSH, OSHA, ISO and other bodies.
Surface or dermal sampling measures of the contaminant on touchable surfaces
or on skin. Concentrations are typically reported in mass per unit surface area
such as mg/100cm2. Validated and semi-validated air sampling methods are
published by NIOSH, US EPA, OSHA, ISO and other bodies.
Indirect approach
70
The indirect approach measures the pollutant concentrations in various locations
or during specific human activities to predict the exposure distributions within a
population. The indirect approach focuses on the pollutant concentrations within
microenvironments or activities rather than the concentrations directly reaching
the respondents. The measured concentrations are correlated to large-scale
activity pattern data, such as the National Human Activity Pattern Survey
(NHAPS), to determine the predicted exposure by multiplying the pollutant
concentrations by the time spent in each microenvironment or activity or by
multiplying the pollutant concentrations and the contact rate with each media.
The indirect approach or exposure modeling determines the estimated exposure

distributions within a
population rather than the direct
exposure an individual has
experienced. The advantage is
that process is minimally
invasive to the population and
is associated with lower costs
than the direct approach. A disadvantage of the approach is that the results were
determined independently of any actual exposures, so the exposure distribution
is open to errors from any inaccuracies in the assumptions made during the
study, the time-activity data, or the measured pollutant concentrations.
In general, direct methods tend to be more accurate but costlier in terms of
resources and demands placed on the subject being measured and may not
always be feasible, especially for a population exposure study. Examples of
direct methods include air sampling though a personal portable pump, split food
samples, hand rinses, breath samples or blood samples. Examples of indirect
methods include environmental water, air, dust, soil or consumer product
sampling coupled with information such as activity/location diaries.
71
Mathematical exposure models may also be used to explore hypothetical
situations of exposure.
In-text Question
State the two approaches used in the evaluation and measurement of exposure levels.
Answer
The direct approach and the indirect approach.
2.4. Exposure Factors

Especially when determining the exposure of a population rather than
individuals, indirect methods can often make use of relevant statistics about the
activities that can lead to an exposure. These statistics are called exposure
factors. They are generally drawn from the scientific literature or governmental
statistics. For example, they may report information such as amount of different
food eaten by specific populations, divided by location or age, breathing rates,
time spent for different modes of commuting, showering or vacuuming, as well
as information on types of residences. Such information can be combined with
contaminant concentrations from ad-hoc studies or monitoring network to
produce estimates of the exposure in the population of interest. These are
especially useful in establishing protective standards.
Exposure factor values can be used to obtain a range of exposure estimates such
as average, high-end and bounding estimates. For example, to calculate the
lifetime average daily dose one would use the equation below:
LADD = (Contaminant Concentration) (Intake Rate) (Exposure Duration)
(Body Weight) (Average Lifetime)
All of the variables in the above equation, with the exception of contaminant
concentration, are considered exposure factors. Each of the exposure factors
involves humans, either in terms of their characteristics (e.g., body weight) or
behaviors (e.g., amount of time spent in a specific location, which affects
72
exposure duration). These characteristics and behaviors can carry a great deal of
variability and uncertainty. In the case of lifetime average daily dose, variability
pertains to the distribution and range of LADDs amongst individuals in the
population. The uncertainty, on the other hand, refers to exposure analyst's lack
of knowledge of the standard deviation, mean, and general shape when dealing
with calculating LADD.
2.5. Defining acceptable exposure for occupational environment

Occupational exposure limits are based on available toxicology and
epidemiology data to protect nearly all workers over a working lifetime.
Exposure assessments in occupational settings are most often performed by
occupational/industrial hygiene (OH/IH) professionals who gather "basic
characterisation" consisting of all relevant information and data related to
workers, agents of concern, materials, equipment and available exposure
controls. The exposure assessment is initiated by selecting the appropriate
exposure limit averaging time and "decision statistic" for the agent.
Typically, the statistic for deciding acceptable exposure is chosen to be the
majority (90%, 95% or 99%) of all exposures to be below the selected
occupational exposure limit. For retrospective exposure assessments performed
in occupational environments, the "decision statistic" is typically a central
tendency such as the arithmetic mean or geometric mean or median for each
worker or group of workers.
Methods for performing occupational exposure assessments can be found in "A
Strategy for Assessing and Managing Occupational Exposures". Exposure
assessment is a continuous process that is updated as new information and data
become available.
73
1. How can a work load acts as “energy expenditure “or” energy replenishment.
2. Discuss succinctly the behaviour of contaminants through the various routes
of Entry;
-Pulmonary route
-Dermal route
-Gastrointestinal route
-Intravenous route
-Intraperitoneal route
3. Discuss in detail the two approaches used to quantify exposure to
contaminants in an individual.
4. Define “exposure factors” and state its importance in occupational health.
The work system (i.e., company or organisation) is considered a complex
system because it consists of a large number of work factors. An evaluation of
factors is an important task for optimizing human performance in the
workplace. A workplace environment refers to the working space where an
employee or labour works for his employer. You have also learnt in this session
that:
- exposure assessment is a branch of occupational hygiene that focuses on the
processes that take place at the interface between the environment containing
the contaminant(s) of interest and the organism(s) being considered.
- exposure analysis is the science that describes how an individual or population
comes in contact with a contaminant, including quantification of the amount of
contact across space and time
- exposure to a contaminant can and does occur through multiple routes,
simultaneously or at different times. In many cases the main route of exposure
is not obvious and needs to be investigated carefully.
- the main routes of exposure to contaminants include inhalation, ingestion, skin
74
absorption and injection.

Self-Assessment Question
1. How do the physical and non-physical workplace environment factors
interact to affect worker’s health?
2. Distinguish in details the key differences between exposure assessment and
exposure analysis.
a. Visit YouTube https://bit.ly/2R4KfJv . Watch the video & summarise in 1
paragraph
b. View the animation on https://bit.ly/2yqM1hG and critique it in the

discussion forum

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Ott, W. R., Steinemann, A. C., & Wallace, L. A. (2007). Biomarkers of
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Ott, Wayne, Anne Steinemann, and Lance Wallace. Exposure Analysis. Taylor
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indicator. Windsor, Out, Canada: NFER-Nelson.
Genaidy Ash, Karwowski Waldemar, Paul Succop, Young-Guk Kwon, Ahmed
Alhemoud and Dev Goyal (2000). A Classification System for Characterization
of Physical and Non-Physical Work Factors.
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MODULE 2
Contents:
Study Session 1: Evaluation of Occupational Disorders and Safety
Study Session 2: Occupational Accidents and Injuries in the Workplace
Study Session 3: Preventing and Controlling Occupational Diseases, Injuries
and Disorders
Study Session 4: Ergonomics and Psychosocial factors at work
STUDY SESSION 1
Evaluation of Occupational Disorders and Safety

Introduction
2.0 Main Content
2.1 - Meaning of Evaluation in Relation to Occupational Health and Safety
2.2- Air Sampling/Assessment in Occupational Health Evaluation
2.3- Work Environment and Worker Assessment
2.4- Health Surveillance and Biological Measurement
2.5- Measurement of Occupational Hazards
2.5.1 Particulate Matter Measurement
2.5.2 Noise Evaluation
2.5.3 Evaluating Thermal Environment/Heat Stress
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Introduction:
Beyond identifying occupational health problems and disorders, it is important
to evaluate them in order to make informed decision regarding reducing their
occurrence. This study session is centered on evaluating the working
environment as regards health hazards and threats in order to make well
informed decision on conditioning the work environment to protect and promote
workers’ health and safety.

1. Define evaluation in relation to occupational health and safety
2. Define health surveillance
3. State and explain methods involved in biological measurements in health
surveillance
4. Mention three ways of measuring occupational health hazards
2.0 Main Content

2.1 Meaning of Evaluation in Relation to Occupational Health and Safety.
Occupational health evaluation can be defined as the decision making process
based on measurement of the degree of risk arising from exposure to chemical,
physical, biological, or other agents in the work environment. It also involves
making a judgment of the magnitude of these agents and determines the levels
of contaminants arising from a process or work operation and the effectiveness
of any control measures used. Evaluation in occupational health is concerned
with the assessment of the work environment for decision making on
conditioning the working environment to obtain maximum satisfaction in
productivity, and workers' health, safety and well-being.
The recognition and subsequent identification of the specific contaminants
(dust, fume, gas, vapour, mist, micro-organisms, and sound pressure level etc) is
78
the first stage in the sequence. A number of spot check devices are used such as
detector stain tubes for gases, or in the case of noise, a sound pressure meter.
Once the contaminants have been identified, it is necessary to measure the
extent of the contamination. Evaluation is an important part of the procedure for
measurement. Measured level of contamination must be compared with existing
hygiene standards (always assuming there is such a standard applicable to the
material in question), such as exposure limits, control limits and recommended
limits. In addition, the duration and frequency of exposure to the contaminants
must be taken into account. Following a comprehensive evaluation, a decision
must be made as to the actual degree of risk to workers involved. This degree of
risk will determine the effective control strategy to be applied.
In-text Question
Define occupational health evaluation.
Answer
Occupational health evaluation can be defined as the decision making process based on
measurement of the degree of risk arising from exposure to chemical, physical, biological, or
other agents in the work environment.
2.2. Air Sampling/Assessment in Occupational Health Evaluation

Air is a very important and basic necessity for survival at every point of
reference including the work environment. It is therefore important to
frequently measure air quality so as to monitor and ensure that it is not
hazardous to workers.
Method of Air Quality Sampling and Assessment
There are two methods employed in assessing air quality in the work
environment. They are grab sampling and integrated sampling methods.
Difference in the two methods lies in duration depending on the kind of
information needed. The methods are briefly described below:
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Grab Sampling Method
This is the collection of an air sample over a short period. It is also known as
instantaneous sampling method. Grab samples represent the environmental
concentration at a particular point in time. It is ideal for following cyclic process
and for determining airborne concentration of brief duration but it is seldom
used to estimate eight-hour average concentration.
Integrated Sampling Method
This is the sampling of air for a longer period of time. In integrated sampling, a
known volume of air is passed through a collection media to remove the
contaminant from the sampled air stream.
In-text Question
Mention the two methods employed in assessing air quality in the work environment.
Answer
There are two methods employed in assessing air quality in the work environment. They are
grab sampling and integrated sampling methods.
2.3. Work Environment and Worker Assessment

Aside air quality assessment, it is equally important to assess the working
environment other than air and the worker himself.
Environmental/Area Sampling or Assessment
Environmental sampling includes sampling for gases, vapours, aerosol
concentrations, noise, temperature etc. Which are found on the worker or the
general work area or environment. Area or general room air samplings are taken
at fixed locations in the work place. This type of sampling does not provide a
good estimate of worker exposure. For this reason, it is used mainly to pinpoint
high exposure areas, indicate flammable or explosive concentrations, or
determine if an area should be isolated or restricted to prevent employees from
entering a highly contaminated area.
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Personal/Worker Sampling or Assessment
The objective of personal sampling is to see the extent of exposure of the person
working on a particular contaminant while he/she is working at a location or
work place. For example, if the worker is working in a garage where cars are
painted the area as a whole is sampled to see how much lead which is present in
all car paints, is on the air but with personal sampling one can determine how
much are inhaled by the person performing the work or those who are working
nearby. In short it is the preferred method of evaluating workers’ exposure to air
contaminants.
In-text Question
What is the objective of personal sampling in a work environment?
Answer
The objective of personal sampling is to see the extent of exposure of the person working on a
particular contaminant while he/she is working at a location or work place.
2.4. Health Surveillance and Biological Measurement

Health surveillance is concerned with assessment of the working environment
and the worker and keeping complete record of the outcomes of these
assessments for reference and monitoring. In case of exposure and
accident/hazard manifestations, it is important to keep records of what happened
and monitor the condition of the person and event. Important biological
measurements that are needed in health surveillance include:
• Medical tests e.g.
- Kidney function tests,
- Lung function tests,
- Chest x-rays, etc.
• Biological Sampling
Biological sampling provides us with different information than air sampling. It
indicates exactly what has been absorbed into the body rather than what is in the
environment. Biological Sampling can be defined as the measurement of a
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substance or it’s metabolites in body tissues or fluids in order to assess the
working environment or the risk to exposed workers.
In-text Question
What is health surveillance?
Answer
Health surveillance is concerned with assessment of the working environment and the worker
and keeping complete record of the outcomes of these assessments for reference and monitoring.
2.5. Measurement of Occupational Hazards

2.5.1 Particulate Matter Measurement
In order to measure dust exposure, it is necessary to determine the composition
of dust that are suspended in the air where workers breathe. Operation that
involves the crushing, grinding, or polishing of minerals or mineral mixtures
frequently do not produce air-borne dusts that have the same size composition.
When air samples are collected in the immediate vicinity of dust producing
operation, larger particles that have not yet had time to settle from the air may
be collected. If a larger number of these particles appear in the dust sample, the
effect of their presence may have to be evaluated separately. To evaluate either
the relative hazard to health posed by dusts or effectiveness of dust control
measures, one must have a method of determining the extent of the dust
problem. Ideally the method employed should be as closely related to the health
hazard as possible. The basic methods are briefly discussed below:
1. Count Procedure
The concern of industrial hygienists has been to measure the fraction of dust
that can cause pneumoconiosis. Since it has been recognised that only dust
particle smaller than approximately 10micrometer are deposited and retained in
the lung method were sought to measure the concentration of these tiny
particles. Microscopic counting of dust collected has long been used for this
purpose.
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2. " Total” Mass Concentration Method
The simplest method of measuring dust concentration is to determine the total
weight of dust collected in a given volume of air. The “total" mass, however, is
determined to a considerable extent by the large dust particle, which cannot
penetrate to the pulmonary space and cause adverse health effect. Thus the total
dust concentration by weight is not a reliable index of "respirable" dust
concentration. This is because in this method of measurement the proportion of
dust that is small enough to penetrate into the pulmonary space (respirable dust
2.5-micrometer) is extremely variable ranging from 5 percent to 60 percent.
3. Respirable Mass Size Selection Measurement (Personal Sampling)
When measuring respirable dust, the method now commonly used is personal or
breathing zone respirable mass sampling. Dust collection devices now available
for this method of sampling also provide a means for a size frequency analysis
of the collected dust. Respirable mass samples are preferably taken over a full 8
hour shift.
However, multiple, shorter period samples (over a 2-4 hour period) may be
collected during an individual full shift period. In general, any dust particle
producing activity will have respirable dust. For example, road construction,
cotton ginning, stone crushing and milling site, farm sites etc. all produce same
amount of dust. By practice 30-40% of dust are respirable. Even if the particle
size cannot be measured, it can be ascertained through the mass produced in a
certain work site that the worker is exposed to respirable dust particle.
Air sampling instruments
The sampling instruments are geared to the type of air contaminants that occur
in the work place that will depend upon the new materials used and the
processes employed.
Air contamination can be divided into two broad groups depending upon
physical characteristics.
- Gases and vapors
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- Particulate
2.5.2 Noise Evaluation
The purposes of a detailed noise assessment are:
1. To obtain specific information on the noise levels existing at each employee
work station
2. To develop guidelines for establishing engineering and/or administrative
controls.
3. To define areas where hearing protection will be required.
4. To determine those work areas where audiometric testing of employees is
desirable and/or required.
Conducting noise evaluation will be helpful in providing healthful work

environment as it helps to determine:
- Whether noise problems exist or not;
- How noisy is created in each work place or station,
- What equipment or process is producing the noise,
- Which employees are exposed to the noise often,
- Duration of exposure to the noise, etc.
Therefore, for evaluation purposes noise measurement is conducted using such
strategy as:
1. Measuring noise levels using area measurement methods
2. Work station measurement Sound measurement in the industrial setting falls
into two broad categories.
1. Source measurement
2. Ambient-noise measurement
Source measurement involves the collection of acoustical data for the purpose
of determining the characteristics of noise radiated by a source. On the other
hand, ambient noise measurement ranges from studying a single sound level to
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making a detailed analysis showing hundreds of components of complex
variations.
Because of the fluctuating nature of many industrial noise levels, it would not
be accurate or meaningful to use a single sound level meter reading. For this
reason, a preliminary and a detailed noise survey has to be conducted in the
industry.
There are various equipment available for noise measurement. Some of these
instruments are:
1. Sound Survey meter/Sound level meter/
2. Octave band analysers
3. Narrow band analysers
4. Tape and graphic level recorders
5. Impact sound level meters
6. Dosimeter
For most noise problems encountered in industries, the sound level meter and
octave band analyser, and if available noise dosimeter provide ample
information.
Sound level Meter/Sound survey meter
This is one of the basic
instruments used to measure
sound pressure variations in air.
This instrument contains a
microphone, an amplifier with
a calibrated attenuator, a set of
frequency response networks,
and an indicating meter. It is an electronic voltmeter that measures the electrical
signal emitted from a microphone attached to the instrument.
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2.5.3 Evaluating Thermal Environment/Heat Stress
Heat stress is a real challenge as there is not only one but four environmental
parameters which must be considered. The extent of stress suffered depends on:
- Air temperature:
This is widely known as room temperature. At its simplest, it could be measured
using ordinary mercury in glass thermometer.
Radiant Temperature:
This is measured by using a globe thermometer. This consists of a hollow
copper sphere measuring about 15cm in diameter, and painted black. A
mercury-in-glass thermometer is inserted into the sphere to a point such that the
bulb of the thermometer is at its center. Radiant heat is absorbed by the sphere,
which indicates a higher reading.
Humidity:
The classical instrument for determining humidity is the whirling hygrometer. It
contains two thermometers side by side. The bulb of one thermometer is
covered with a wetted fabric, whereas that of the other is left dry. As the
instrument is whirled, the water evaporates from the fabric and the evaporative
effect cools the thermometer bulb referred to as the wet bulb thermometer. The
wet bulb reading is usually lower than the dry bulb reading. The differences
between these two thermometers depend upon the amount of moisture already
in the air. The greater the difference between the thermometers the drier the air
and the greater the potential to cool down through sweating.
Air movement
This is commonly measured with hot wire anemometers and vane anemometers.
The older but still very accurate instrument is the kata thermometer. The Kata
thermometer is an alcohol filled thermometer with a large bulb coated with
silvery material. When used, the bulb is heated in warm water until the alcohol
rises into the upper reservoir. Then the bulb is dried with a clean dry cloth and
suspended in the air. The time the alcohol takes to fall from the upper limit to
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the lower limit on the stem is timed using a stopwatch. From the cooling time,
the dry bulb temperature and the kata factor, which is usually printed on the
stem, air speed can be read from the monogram provided with the instrument.
Illumuinance
Use photocells based upon silicon or selenium and they also incorporate colour
correcting filters to match the sensitivity of the human eye. The photocell also
needs to be cosine corrected. Without this, light arriving at glancing angles is
underestimated.
In-text Question
Differentiate between source noise measurement and ambient noise measurement
Answer
Source measurement involves the collection of acoustical data for the purpose of determining
the characteristics of noise radiated by a source. On the other hand, ambient noise
measurement ranges from studying a single sound level to making a detailed analysis
showing hundreds of components of complex variations.

1. Define evaluation in relation to occupational health and safety.
2. Define health surveillance.
3. State and explain biological methods involved in surveillance
4. Mention three ways of measuring occupational health hazards
Occupational health accidents/hazards need to be measured in relation to their
potential health effects on workers. Prevention and control information must be
based on empirical assessment of the study of the work environment in order to
design responsive strategies that will take cognizance of the realities in the work
environment. Evaluation of occupational health hazards provides the needed
insight to make informed decision on meaningful prevention and control
measures. There is also the overwhelming importance of surveillance especially
87
in cases where hazards have manifested. Surveillance entails close monitoring
of events and person involved in the hazard through appropriate reporting,
record keeping and use of collected information. We shall be looking at the
classification of occupational accidents and injuries and their causes in the work
place environment in the next session.

Explain the biological measurements that are needed in health surveillance.
a. Visit YouTube https://bit.ly/2yw9tdz. Watch the video & summarise in 1
paragraph
b. View the animation on https://bit.ly/2xHIZoG and critique it in the discussion

forum

Concha-Barrientos M, Nelson D, Fingerhut M, Driscoll T, Leigh J (2005). The
Global Burden Due to Occupational Injury. American Journal of
Industrial Medicine 48: 470-481.
Hamalainen, T. S. (2007) Global estimates of fatal work-related diseases.
American Journal of Industrial Medicine 50: 28-41.
Landrigan PJ, & Baker DD. (1991). The recognition and control of occupational
disease. JAMA.;266:676–80.
Mbonigaba, E (2015) To Assess the Prevalence of Occupational Health Related
Risks and Use of Safety Measures among employees in Bralirwa
Processing Industries in Rwanda. Occup Med Health Aff3:215
88
Park, K.S. (2013). Preventive and Social Medicine. Jabalpur:
BhanotTakele, T. and Menghesha, A. (2006). Occupational Health and Safety.
Ethiopia Public Health Training Initiative. Publishers.
WHO (2001). Occupational health. A manual for primary health care workers.
World Health Organisation Regional Office for the Eastern
Mediterranean, Cairo, Egypt.
STUDY SESSION 2
Occupational Accidents and Injuries in the Workplace

Introduction
2.0 Main Content
2.1 - Definition of Terms
2.2- Classification of Types of Occupational Accidents
2.3- Causes of Occupation Accidents and Injuries
2.4- Recording and Investigating Accident and Injury
2.5- Accident Rates
2.6- Prevention and Control Occupational Accidents and Injuries
2.7- Importance of First Aid
2.8- First Aid Techniques for Injuries in Workplace.
2.9- Case Study on Workplace Injury and Accident
89
Introduction:
In the last session, you learnt that surveillance of workers’ health entails
medical examinations of workers to ensure that their state of health is
compatible with their job assignment and that their occupational exposure to
hazards does not have any detrimental effects on their health. You also learnt
about various activities that focus primarily on workers’ health; and the ethical
and legal issues surrounding workers’ health surveillance. In this session, you
will learn about occupational accidents and injuries in the workplace. You shall
also be expose to the various factors responsible for occupation accidents and
injuries; with a detail on how to record, investigate and report occupational
accidents and injuries. Finally, this session will discuss on the prevention and
control of accidents in workplaces and make you acquainted with first aid
techniques on several occupational injuries.

1. mention the importance of preventing accidents and injuries in the workplace
and support safety professionals’ efforts in this regards.
2. participate in educating and training workers on prevention and control of
injury and accident in workplace.
3. keeps records and analyse data obtained.
4. give advice on reducing morbidity, disability and mortality due to occupational
accidents and trauma.
5. be acquainted with first aid techniques and be able to provide emergency care
in the workplace.
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2.0 Main Content
2.1. Definitions
Injury: a physical damage to the body tissues caused by an accident or by
exposure to environmental stressors.
Wound: a break in the continuity of body tissue or opening in the skin. A
wound may be an injury but not all injuries are wounds.
Accident: a sudden event that results in an undesired outcome such as property
damage, bodily injury or death.
Occupational Accident: Accident occurring at the workplace which may cause
damage to machinery, tools or people.
Occupational Injury: An injury that arises out of, and in the course of,
employment.
Occupational Safety: Risk identification at the workplace and preventive
measures taken to reduce or eliminate the hazard which may lead to accidents.
In-text Question
Define occupational accident
Answer
Occupational Accident can be defined as accident occurring at the workplace which may
cause damage to machinery, tools or people.
2.2. Classification of Types of Occupational Accidents

Types of Accident
1. Fall or being struck by materials
2. Striking against objects
3. Being caught in, under or between object
4. Over-exertion or strenuous movements
5. Exposure to or contact with extreme temperature
6. Exposure to or contact with electric current
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7. Exposure to or contact with harmful substances or radiation.
8. Other types of accident
Agency
- Machine
-Means of transport and lifting equipment
-Other equipment
-Materials, substances and radiation
-Work Environment
-Other agencies not elsewhere classified
-Agencies not classified for lack of sufficient data
Nature of Injury
-Wound, Fracture and Dislocation
-Burns, Poisonings
-Diseases
Bodily Location of the Injury
-Head
-Trunk
-Upper extremities
-Lower extremities
-Body System
In-text Question
State any five types of occupational accidents.
Answer
1. Fall or being struck by materials
2. Striking against objects
3. Being caught in, under or between object
4. Over-exertion or strenuous movements
5. Exposure to or contact with extreme temperature
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2.3. Causes of Occupational Accidents and Injuries
Human Factors
There are many varying human factors that have an effect on the accident-risk
of the individual at certain times and in certain situations. Some of these factors
are: age, experience, use of medicine or drugs, motivation, etc. But most human
activity requires the avoidance of errors that could result in injuries or material
damage. To avoid an accident an individual must observe and recognise danger,
decide on a course of action and act sufficiently vigorously to avoid the danger.
The accident may occur if a hazard is not seen, recognised or understood as
dangerous, or if one does not take responsibility for personal action, or if one
does not know how to act or for other reasons does not decide to act. Even if the
right decision is made, the muscular response
may be incorrect, ineffectual or too slow.
Environmental Factors
These include both the outside agent of injury
and other factors of the physical
working environment: lighting, noise,
temperature, etc. A necessary factor of injury
is contact with a harmful object, substance or energy. An injury may also be
cause by a lack of energy, e.g. lack of oxygen in the environment.
These injury agents are called hazards. If there is a hazard in the working
environment there is always some possibility of accident. This is the reason why
safety technology has the first priority in accident prevention. Hazards should
be isolated or eliminated so that there is no risk of accident.
Organisational Factors
The social environment has a great effect on human performance. The safety
management approach to accidents is that the immediate causes (unsafe
conditions and unsafe acts) are the only symptoms of roots causes that exist in
93
the management function. These may be errors in the areas of management
policy, confusion of goals, staffing, housekeeping, responsibility, use of
authority, line and staff relationships, accountability, rules, initiative, etc.
Controlling the frequency and severity of accident occurrence and controlling
the quality and quantity of products have much in common. In many cases the
same faulty practice is involved, leading to both accident occurrence and
unsatisfactory production.
2.4. Recording and Investigating Accident and Injury

Companies and health workers need to record and investigate occupational
accidents in order to:
• Identify the real causes of injury, property damages and near-misses
• develop effective methods of preventing future similar accidents
• meet legislative requirements
The accident or injury report should include the following information:
• circumstances of the accident
• cause of the accident.
• available data for accessing the cause of the accident and their effects on the
person and the environment.
• emergency measures taken.
• steps to be taken in the future to avert further accidents.
Accidents may be reported according to:
• cause of accident
• place of the accident
• type of injury
• personal characteristics such as age, sex and the level of education of the
injured.
• time of the accident
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The following point should be considered when developing an accident
recording and investigation system:
• What reports are required?
• Who is responsible for conducting the investigation?
• Who do reports go to?
• What time-frame should be allowed to complete investigation?
• Are there follow-up procedures to ensure that report recommendations are
implemented?
• Have the appropriate authorities been notified?
• What accidents will be recorded and investigated?
• Is a custom designed form needed?
• Are all injuries recorded in the recording system?
• What training will investigators need?
• Where will record of accidents and investigations be kept?
• Does regular analysis identify similar accidents recurring or other trends?
In-text Question
What are some of the ways to report accidents if they occur?
Answer
Accidents may be reported according to:
•cause of accident
•place of the accident
•type of injury
•personal characteristics such as age, sex and the level of education of the injured.
•time of the accident
2.5. Accident Rates

Comparison of accidents between time-period, industries, occupations and
countries can be made only if the industrial accident statistics are considered in
conjunction with data, including employment, work hours, production, etc. For
95
such purposes it is useful to calculate relative measures such as frequency,
incidence and severity rates.
• frequency rate = total number of accident × 103 ÷ total number of work –
hours worked
• incidence rate = total number of accident × 103 ÷ total number of workers
exposed.
Two different severity indicators are recommended:
• the average number of days lost per accidents
• the number of days lost per day worked by persons exposed to risk, or,
failing that, per person exposed to risks.
In some countries the severity rate is defined as the number of days lost per
1000 work-hours. Death and permanent
disabling injuries are dealt with separately
from other accidents in statistics. It is also
possible to convert them into lost working
days, for example, so that death and total
disabling permanent injury are equal to
6000 lost days.
2.6. Prevention and Control of Occupational Accidents and Injuries

The basic accident and injury prevention are as follows:
• Eliminate the hazard from the machine, method, material or facility
structure.
• Control or contain the hazard, by enclosing or guarding it at its source or
attaching an exhaust pipe to remove airborne hazards from the operator.
• Train operating personnel to be aware of the hazard or to follow safe job
procedures to avoid it.
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• Prescribe personal protective equipment for personnel to shield them
from hazards.
• Provide advisory services on safety and health problems and other
matters related to accident and injury prevention.
• Develop a centralised programme to control accidents and fire hazards.
• Keep informed of changes in legislation and safety codes and
communicate such information to management.
• Develop and apply safety standards both for production facilities
(equipment, tools, work methods and safeguarding) and for products,
based on applicable legal and voluntary codes, rules and standards.
• Work closely with the engineering, industrial hygiene, medical and
purchasing departments to ensure that only safe tools, equipment and
supplies are purchased.
• Develop, plan and implement a safety and health inspection programme
to be carried out by the operating supervisors and field safety personnel to
identify potential hazards, both in the workplace and in the use of the
company’s products.
• Along with presentative from the engineering, operating and personnel,
inspect all new equipment to ensure adequate health and safety
safeguards.
• Guide operating supervision in accident investigation to determine the
accident’s cause and to prevent recurrence.
• Review non-disabling-injury accident reports on a sample basis to check
the thoroughness of the accident investigation and corrective actions
taken.
• Correct and analyse data on illness and accidents for the purpose of
instituting corrective action and to determine accidents trends and provide
targets for corrective actions.
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• Ensure education and training of employees in general as well as specific
health and safety principles and techniques.
• Maintain supervisory contacts for new instructions, follow-up and general
health and safety motivation.
• Cooperate with industrial hygiene or environmental quality control
personnel on industrial hygiene problems.
In-text Question
Highlight three ways to prevent and control occupational accidents and injuries.
Answer
•Eliminate the hazard from the machine, method, material or facility structure.
•Control or contain the hazard, by enclosing or guarding it at its source or attaching an
exhaust pipe to remove airborne hazards from the operator.
•Train operating personnel to be aware of the hazard or to follow safe job
procedures to avoid it.
2.7. Importance of First Aid

First aid is the immediate care given to victims of accidents before trained
medical workers arrive. Its goal is to stop and, if possible, reverse harm. It
involves rapid and simple measures such as clearing the air passway, applying
pressure to bleeding wounds or dousing chemical burns to eyes or skin. The
critical factors which shapes first aid facilities in a workplace are work-specific
risk and availability of definitive medical care, e.g. the care of a high-powered
saw injury is obviously radically different from that of a chemical inhalation.
First aid is a fluid concept not only in what must be done (how long, how
complex) but in who can do it.
First aid personnel are persons on the spot, generally workers who are familiar
with the specific conditions of work. They might not be medically qualified but
they must be trained and prepared to perform very specific tasks. First aid
personnel should be selected carefully, taken into account attributes such as
reliability, motivation and the ability to cope with people in a crisis situation.
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In-text Question
Who are first aid personnel?
Answer
First aid personnel are persons on the spot, generally workers who are familiar with the
specific conditions of work.
2.8. First Aid Techniques for Injuries in Workplace

Head Injuries
Crucial steps
1. Maintain an airway
2. Control bleeding
3. Protect against infection
4. Prevent further injury
Facial Injuries
Crucial steps
1. Check for obstructed airway as facial injuries may cause external bleeding
resulting in blockage of airway. The bleeding from the oral cavity can be
particularly heavy.
2. Control bleeding by realigning the jaw, i.e. by grasping the chin and pulling it
straight out.
3. Maintain the airway by turning victim on his/her side.
Chest Injuries
Crucial steps
1. Seal the chest wound from the outside as quick as possible.
2. Never extract foreign objects from the chest wound.
3. Maintain airway.
4. Administer oxygen.
5. Apply mouth-to-mouth resuscitation and external heart massage if necessary.
6. Transport the patient in a sitting position unless he/she is in shock.
Abdominal Injuries
Crucial steps
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1. Cover the wound with a sterile dressing; apply a compression binder to
control hemorrhaging.
2. Look for any penetrating wounds and other symptoms such as vomiting,
abdominal pain and tenderness.
3. Never attempt to replace protruding organs, cover them with sterile gauze and
keep the cloth moist.
4. Place the patient in a semi-sitting position unless he/she is in shock.
5. Keep the patient warm with blanket.
6. Never give patient anything to drink or eat.
Eyes Injuries
Do not interfere with eyes injuries except in minor cases. Refer the victim to
hospital immediately.
Crucial steps
1. Any chemical splash into the eye(s) must be considered a vision-threatening
emergency. Forcibly keep the patient’s eyelid open while irrigating with water
for at least five minutes, then refer the patient to an ophthalmologist. Inform
the ophthalmologist of the nature of the chemical contaminant,
2. Patch the injured eye lightly with a dry, sterile eye pad. If laceration of the
eye is suspected, add a protective shield over the sterile eye pad.
3. Never put eye ointment in an eye to be seen by the ophthalmologist. The
ointment make clear visualizations of the retina very difficult.
Fractures
It is essential to remember the following:
1. Do not harm. Unwise attempts by the patient to continue to use a fractured
extremity may cause laceration of the soft tissues and may lead to the broken
bone penetrating the skin or to the onset of shock.
2. Protect and immobilise. Apply a splint to the fracture so the victim can be
moved more comfortably and without causing any further injuries.
Crucial steps
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1. Place the injured limb in as natural a position as possible before padding and
splinting.
2. If the broken bone is not protruding above the skin, apply traction to
overcome muscle and to straighten the limb with minimum pain. If the broken
bone is protruding above the skin, do not apply traction to avoid contaminating
deep tissues.
3. To control bleeding, apply gentle pressure by covering the wound with a
sterile dressing and wrapping it with an elastic bandage.
4. Never attempt to set an open fracture. Apply the proper splint before moving
the patient.
Thermal Injuries
Crucial steps
1. Prevent shock.
2. Do not attempt to remove patient’s clothes except in the case of a chemical
burn.
3. Wrap the patient in a clean sheet to prevent infection.
4. Miantain body temperature.
5. Neutralise the chemical agent if a neutraliser is available.
6. Determine what chemical agents has been the cause of the burns before
transferring the patients to hospital.
Cold
Crucial steps
1. Immerse the affected part in water heated to about 40oC and 42oC.
2. Do not attempt to thaw the affected area.
3. Do not place the victim close to fire.
4. Do not massage the affected area.
Heat Stroke
Factors contributing to heat stroke are: workload, thermal environment, stress,
non-acclimatization, poor work conditions, overweight, unsuitable clothing,
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poor ventilation, dehydration or shortage of water, alcohol consumption, history
of cardiovascular diseases or recent prickly heat.
Crucial steps
1. Confirmed suspected cases of heat stroke by measuring the body temperature.
A person with a temperature between 40oC and 43oC would be considered a
victim of heat stroke.
2. Sponge with cool water, wrap in cool sheets or towels or cool blow air over
patients.
Shock
Shock means there is not enough blood circulating through the body. Symptoms
of shock include: pale, cold and moist skin, shallowing breathing, bluish
fingernails and lips, thirst and restlessness.
Crucial steps
1. Treat shock by removing the cause: stop bleeding, relieving the pain, splint
the fracture.
2. Prevent infection and maintain body temperature.
3. Lay the patient flat.
4. Burn victims suffering from shock should be given liquids in small amounts.
2.9. Case Study on Workplace Injury and Accidents

CS1-Synopsis of Accident
Injured worker (IW) was tasked to fit up a vehicle’s fuel tank in the workshop.
While fitting up the tank, he was short of one grounding cable. Unable to find a
terminal lug of correct size for the grounding cable, IW decided to use an
existing lug of nearest size and enlarge its hole with a round file. After filing for
10mins without any progress, IW decided to use a bench drilling machine to
enlarge the hole. IW used a self–gripping plier to hold the grounding cable. IW
was wearing cotton gloves on both hands. During drilling, IW’s left hand’s
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glove was caught by the rotating drill bit, thereby resulted in his left thumb
being severed.
CS1-Observations and Findings
Before the accident, IW’s employer had only conducted induction briefing on
generic safety and health rules to new employees, but not any job-specific RA
and SWP related to their works. IW’s employer had established RA and SWP
for the workshop activities, including drilling task. However, IW was not aware
of the RA & SWP. He had not been briefed about the hazards, risks and control
measures of the bench drilling machine, which had been identified in RA and
SWP. Most of the other engineers were also not aware of the RA and SWP in
the workplace, and how the risks of injuries could be controlled or mitigated. At
the time of the accident, the rotating spindle and chuck of the drilling machine
were not securely guarded.
CS1-Lessons Learnt
• Employer should ensure secure guarding of the dangerous parts of machines
in the workplace. The drilling machine’s spindle and chuck should be securely
guarded.
• Employer should ensure employees’ awareness and knowledge of WSH
hazards and control measures. There should be a proper communication or
briefing of relevant RA and SWP to all personnel who are liable to be exposed
to the risks posed by the work activities carried out in the workplace. The
briefing on RA and SWP should be documented.
• Warning notices or signage, where reasonably practicable, should be clearly
displayed at or near the machinery to warn of the presence of dangerous part(s),
and the ‘dos & don’ts’ for machinery safety.

1. For the purposes of accident prevention, investigations must be ‘fact finding
and not fault finding’.
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Discuss the above mentioned statement in the light of the actual occupational
accident recording and investigating system at the local and national level.
2. Discuss the method used in measuring accident or severity rate in Nigeria and
also explain the indicators adopted.
3. As an industrial hygienist you are asked to record and investigate accidents
and injuries in a coal mining industry.
• What are the vital information your report should contain?
• What are the points you would considered when developing the report?
• After your investigation, what are the preventive and control measures you
would suggest to be put in place to prevent accidents and injuries in the mine.
An occupational injury is a physical damage to the body caused by an accident
or by exposure to workplace hazards; while an occupational accident is a
sudden event that results in an undesired outcome such as property damage,
bodily injury or death. Many causative factors are responsible for injuries and
accidents in workplace viz: human, environmental and organisational factors. It
thus important to record and investigate occupational accidents and injuries in
order to identify the real causes and develop effective methods of preventing
future similar event. Conclusively, workers must be train on how to administer
first aid treatment in case of emergency or sudden occurrence of accident in a
workshop.
Explain the crucial steps to be follow in the administration of first aid
treatment to workers affected by the followings:
• Abdominal injuries
• Heat stroke
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• Fracture of the spine and pelvis
• Poisoning
• Haemorrhage
• Impaired breathing
a. Visit YouTube https://bit.ly/3aBann8 . Watch the video & summarise in 1
paragraph
b. View the animation on https://bit.ly/2UT4k6H and critique it in the

discussion forum

Benjamin O. Alli (2008). Fundamental principles of occupational health and
safety. International Labour Office – Geneva: ILO 2008. Pg 86 – 87.
ISBN 978-92-2-120454-1
Bureau for Workers’ Activities (ACTRAV), ILO. 1996. Your health and safety
at work: A modular training package (Geneva).
EU. 2004. Statistical analysis of socio-economic costs of accidents at work in
the European Union, final report, July 2004. Available at:
http://epp.eurostat.cec.eu.int/cache/ity_offpub/ks-cc-04-006/en/ks-cc-04-
006- en.pdf.
Hamalainen, P.; Takala, J.; Saarela, K. L. 2006. “Global estimates of
occupational accidents”, in Safety Science, Vol. 44, pp. 137–156.
ILO. 1984. Conclusions concerning future action in the field of working
conditions and environment, adopted by the 70th Session of the
International Labour Conference, 26 June, section I, para. 2. –––. 1989.
105
The organisation of first aid in the workplace, Occupational Safety and
Health Series, No. 63 (Geneva
McCunney R.J. Rountree P.P (1998). Occupational and environmental
medicine. Self- assessment review. Philadelphia Lippincott Williams &
Wilkins.
World Health Organisation (2001). Occupational Health: A manual for primary
health care workers. World Health Organisation Regional Office for the
Eastern Mediterranean, Cairo. WHO-EM/OCH/85/E/L. Page 97 – 114.
STUDY SESSION 3
Preventing and Controlling Occupational Diseases, Injuries
and Disorders
Introduction
2.0 Main Content
2.1 - Meaning of Prevention and Control of Occupational Diseases
2.2- Hierarchy of Prevention and control methods
2.2.1- Elimination
2.2.2- Substitution
2.2.3- Engineering Control
2.2.4- Administrative Control
2.2.5- Use of Personal Protective Equipment
2.2.6- Hygiene and Environmental Sanitation
2.2.7- Industrial Health Education
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Introduction:
Previous session focused on identifying and evaluating occupational health
problems. Having identified and evaluated these problems, it is important to
evolve strategies to reduce their occurrence to the barest minimum. The focus of
this session is on preventing and controlling occupational diseases, injuries and
disorders.

1. Differentiate between prevention and control of occupational diseases and
injuries.
2. Highlight the procedures involved in preventing and controlling occupational
diseases.
3. Design a simple Health Education programme for workers in an identified
occupational setting.
2.0 Main Content

2.1 Meaning of Prevention and Control of Occupational Diseases
Prevention is the highest and utmost aim of disease control in Epidemiology. It
refers to actions and strategies taken to ensure that diseases do not occur at all.
When related to work setting, prevention entails strategies and efforts aimed at
ensuring that occupational disease, injury and disorder do not occur at all. It
might combine many strategies but the aim of the strategies is solely tied to
ensuring that disease, disorder or injury does not occur. On the other hand,
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control has prevention embedded into it as a strategy. In its broadest term
disease or injury control describes actions and strategies aimed at reducing the:
- incidence of a disease or injury,
- duration of disease and injury
- risk of transmission, if communicable
- physical and psycho-social effects of disease or injury
- financial burden on an industry due to disease and injury occurrence.
In actual sense, disease and injury control is combination of primary prevention
and secondary prevention and in extreme cases, tertiary prevention.
Occupational diseases and injuries are, in principle, preventable. Among the

approaches to prevent these include, developing awareness of occupational
health and safety hazards among workers and employers, assessing the nature
and extent of hazards, introducing and maintaining effective control and
evaluation measures. These efforts are carried out by stakeholders including
government, employers of labour and workers themselves.
On the part of the government, efforts are largely promulgation of and
enforcement of occupational health laws and policies. Government bears the
responsibility of ensuring safety regulations for industries operating within its
area or country. Since working conditions which might be a reflection of the
societal living condition also affect workers’ health, provision of social
amenities and industrial support could also be a way government can help in
boosting workers’ health and well-
being. Takele and Menghesha
(2006) thus noted that occupational
health programmes have been
developed hand-in-hand with the
improvement of social conditions
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for underserved and unprivileged workers. The authors noted that the classic
occupational hygiene model of
controlling a hazard, indicates that the ideal situation is to prevent exposure
altogether. This is known as control at the source and constitutes primary
prevention. It utilizes substitution or enclosure of the hazard, as well as other
means. When it is impossible to prevent exposure through these approaches,
then exposure reduction becomes the most appropriate strategy. In reducing
hazard exposure, measures like ventilation, use of protective barriers, or any
other related measure could be adopted. Other primary prevention methods
include use of personal protective equipment, administrative controls, safety
training and biological measure like immunization. Early detection and
remediation of hazard exposure underlay secondary prevention strategies. On
the part of the occupational health expert in the industry, efforts aimed at
determining the extent of exposure include locating the source of the hazard as
well as the pathway through which workers can be exposed to it. These are
discussed in details in subsequent session of this course material.
In-text Question
Define prevention at work place.
Answer
When related to work setting, prevention entails strategies and efforts aimed at ensuring that
occupational disease, injury and disorder do not occur at all.
2.2. Hierarchy of Occupational Hazard Prevention and Control Methods

Occupational hazard and prevention and control measures have been generally
classified into six:
1. elimination,
2. substitution,
3. engineering controls,
4. administrative controls,
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5. use of personal protective equipment and
6. industrial health education (Takele and Menghesha, 2006).
2.2.1 Elimination
Elimination in Epidemiology connotes the interruption on the spread or
transmission of a disease or health problem. It precedes eradication and as such,
it is vital to realizing the goal of disease or injury eradication. In an industrial
setting, eliminating a hazard completely is the ideal solution to occupational
health problems although it is nearly difficult to achieve. There are however
certain barriers that make elimination nearly impossible. Some identified
barriers include:
1. The quality of the potential hazardous product may have a service life of
many years, and even a small defect in quality could cause it to fail in use. This
might lead to liability claims. Sometimes quality standards may also have been
set or approved by the customer or a regulatory authority.
2. Applications to change the production method may then be difficult or
expensive.
3. The cost of the product may be increased. Raw materials or energy costs may
be higher or the production time may be increased if the new method is slower.
It is important to consider workers’ health and safety when work processes are
still in the planning stages. For example, when purchasing a machine, safety
should be the first concern rather than cost.
It is important that industrial machines conform to safety standards. These

machines must be designed with the correct guard on them to eliminate the
danger of a worker getting caught in the machine while using it. Machines that
are not produced with the proper guards on them may cost less to purchase, but
cost more in terms of accidents, loss of production, compensation, etc.
Unfortunately, many machines that do not meet safety standards are exported to
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developing countries like Nigeria, causing workers to pay the price with injuries
and mishaps and in some instances, their lives.
2.2.2 Substitution
Substitution involves replacing a hazardous product or process by a safer or less
hazardous one. Substitution, in the agricultural industry could involve using less
hazardous pesticides such as those based on pyrethrums (prepared from natural
product), which are considered to be less toxic to humans than some other
pesticides. This particular substitution is practiced in some countries because
the substitute chemicals do not leave residues on food and therefore reduced
long-term costs. The substituted materials may cost more to buy and may cause
resistance in insects. So it can be seen that there are many factors to be
considered when choosing a chemical or chemical substitute.
2.2.3 Engineering Controls
It is not easy to find safer chemical substitute (in fact, no chemical should be
considered completely safe). It is important to review current reports every year
on the chemicals used in the work places so that safe chemicals could be
considered for the future. When looking for safer substitute, a less volatile
chemical is selected of a highly volatile one or solid, instead of liquid. Other
examples of substitutions include using:
1. Less hazardous instead of toxic ones.
2. Detergent plus water cleaning solutions instead of organic solvents
3. Using Freon instead of methyl bromide chloride as a refrigerant
4. Leadless glazes in the ceramics industry
5. Leadless pigments in paints
6. Synthetic grinding wheels (such as aluminum oxide, silicon carboide) instead
of sandstone wheels.
An engineering control may mean changing a piece of machinery (for example,

using proper, machine guards) or a work process to reduce exposure to a hazard;
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working a limited number of hours in a hazardous area; and there are number of
common control measures which are called engineering control. This includes
enclosure, isolation and ventilation.
Enclosure
If a hazardous substance or work process cannot be eliminated or substituted,
then enclosure of the hazard is the next best method of control. Many hazards
can be controlled by partially or totally enclosing the work process. Highly
toxic materials that can be released into the air should be totally enclosed,
usually by using a mechanical handling device or a closed glove system that can
be operated from the outside. The plant can be enclosed and workers could
perform their duties from a control room.
Enclosing hazards can minimise possible exposure, but does not eliminate them.
For example, maintenance workers who serve or repair these enclosed areas can
be exposed. To prevent maintenance workers from being exposed, other
protective measures (such as protective clothing, respirators, proper training,
medical surveillance, etc) must be used as well as safety procedures. Machine
guarding is another form of enclosure that prevent workers coming into contact
with dangerous parts of machines. Workers should receive training on how to
use guarded machine safely.
Isolation
Isolation can be an effective method of control if a hazardous material can be
moved to a part of work place where fewer people will be exposed, or if a job
can be changed to a shift when fewer people are exposed (such as weekend or
midnight shift). The worker can also be isolated from hazardous job for
example by working in an air-conditioned control booth. Whether it is the job or
the worker that is isolated access to the dangerous work areas should be limited
to few people as much as possible to reduce exposures. It is also important to
limit the length of time and the amount of substance(s) to which workers are
exposed if they must work in hazardous area. For example, dust producing work
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should be isolated from other work areas to prevent other worker from being
exposed. At the same time, workers in the dusty areas must be protected and
restricted to only a short time working in those areas. It must however be noted
that isolating the work process or the worker does note eliminate the hazard
which means workers can still be exposed.
Ventilation
Ventilation in work place can be used for two reasons:
- to prevent the work environment from being too hot, cold, dry or humid
- to prevent contaminants in the air from getting into the area where workers
breathe.
Generally, there are two categories of ventilation.
1. General or dilution Ventilation
2. Local Exhaust ventilation
General or dilution Ventilation
This adds or removes air from work place to keep the concentrations of an air
contaminant below hazardous level. This system uses natural convection
through open doors or windows, roof ventilators and chimneys, or air
movement produced by fans or blowers. It is recommended to use the general
ventilation system if the following criteria are fulfilled:
1. Small quantities of air contaminants released into the work room at fairly
uniform rate.
2. Sufficient distance between the worker(s) and the contaminant source to
allow sufficient air movement to dilute the contaminant to a safe level.
3. Only contaminant of low toxicity is being used.
4. No need to collect or filter the contaminants before exhaust air is discharged
into the community environment.
5. No corrosion or other damage to equipment from the diluted contaminants in
the workroom area.
Local Exhaust Ventilation
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This is considered the classical method of control for dust, fumes, vapours and
other air-borne toxic or gaseous pollutants. The ventilation system captures or
contains the contaminants at their source before they escape into the work room
environment. A typical system contains one or more hoods, ducts, air cleaners
and a fan. Such systems remove but do not dilute like general exhaust
ventilation although removal may not be 100 percent complete. This method is
very useful especially for the chemical or contaminants that cannot be
controlled by substitution, changing the process, isolation or enclosure. One
other major advantage in such system requires less airflow than dilution
ventilation system.
2.2.4 Administrative Control
Administrative controls limit the amounts of time workers spend at hazardous
job locations. Administrative control can be used together with other methods of
control to reduce exposure to occupational hazards. Some examples of
administrative controls include:
1. Changing work schedules, for example two people may be able to work 4
hours each at a job instead of one person working for 8 hours at that job.
2. Giving workers longer rest periods or shorter work shifts in order to reduce
exposure time.
3. Moving a hazardous work process so that few people will be exposed.
4. Changing a work process to a shift when fewer people are working.
5. Ensuring workers’ promotion as and at when due.
6. Provision of health and sanitation facilities.
An example of administrative controls being used together with engineering
controls and personal protective equipment is: a four-hour limit for work in a
fully enclosed high noise area where ear protectors are required.
It should be noted that administrative controls only reduce the amount of time a
worker is exposed to hazard. In essence, they do not eliminate exposure. This
thus makes the use of PPE important as will be discuss below.
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2.2.5 Use of Personal Protective Equipment
Personal protective equipment (PPE) is the least effective method of controlling
occupational hazards and should be used only when other methods cannot
control hazards sufficiently. PPE can be uncomfortable, may decrease work
performance and may create new health and safety hazards. For example, ear
protectors can prevent hearing warning signals, respirators can make it harder to
breathe, earplugs may cause infection and leaky gloves can trap and spread
hazardous chemicals against the skin. Personal protective equipment includes:
1. Eye Protection Using Google
Eye protection embraces spectacles, goggles and handled screens.
No eye protection is effective if it is not worn. Common complaints from users
are:
• discomfort
• restricted vision
• impaired vision (caused by misting
or scratching)
2. Face shield and gloves
Gloves are perhaps the most common
personal protective equipment, being an almost automatic reaction to the idea of
a hazardous agent in contact with the hands. Selection should take into account
a wide range of parameters. Some of these parameters include:
• The dexterity or skill required to perform the work
• Physical protection against cuts, grazes and bruises
• Whether the wrist and arm need protection as well.
• Permeability of gloves to chemicals
• Dust retention characteristics
3. Protective clothing
At its simplest term protective clothing means overalls or lab coats for general-
purpose use. They are intended to protect the user (or the user’s own clothing)
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from everyday wear, tear or dirt. There are a number of special hazards that may
be encountered against which such basic clothing may not be adequate:
- Corrosive liquids which could soak into the clothing and so come in contact
with the skin, causing serious damages. Impermeability is thus an important
factor here.
- Dust retention: When working with powders, a fabric that holds dust could
generate an airborne exposure hazard as the person moves around.
- Thermal environment: normal clothing may be too warm or too cold for a
particular environment. In extremes cases, chemical protective clothing might
be necessary. Typically, this comprises a one-piece suit made from an
impervious material.
4. Respiratory protective Equipment (RPE)
In selecting RPE one should consider:
• The physical nature of contaminant- whether it is gaseous or particulate.
• The chemical nature of the contaminant – whether it is reactive or corrosive.
• Comfort factors.
5. Hearing Protection
Hearing protection is perhaps a more descriptive term than the commonly used
ear defenders since it is the hearing that is at risk, not the ears. Protection can
take two forms.
- Ear muffs which are fit over and around the ears with a fluid of foam filled
cushion sealing them against the head.
- Ear plugs which snugly inside the ear. There are a variety of types, including
foam and soft rubber plugs.
As the noise is produced over a range of frequencies the choice of hearing
protection must be based on the measured spectrum of the noise. Choosing
hearing protection is only partly a matter of finding protectors with the right
attenuation. It is equally important to find ones that are comfortable and
practicable for the Work demand.
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2.2.6 Other Administrative Strategies Including Hygiene and
Environmental Sanitation
Provision of health and sanitation facilities
Workers health, physical and psychological developments are associated with
the working and the external environment. The general sanitation of the industry
and the healthful conditions are necessary for conserving health or to ensure the
protection of occupational health safety and hygiene and measuring or
providing the efficiency of the work place. Therefore, an industrial plant should
satisfy the following conditions and facilities:
- The provision of safe potable and adequate water supply.
- Proper collection and disposal of liquid waste.
- The provision of adequate sanitary facilities and other personal services.
- General cleanness and
maintenance of
industrial establishment
of protecting good
maintenance (house-
keeping) of the plant.
- Maintaining good ventilation and proper lighting systems.
Water Supply
The provision of safe and adequate water supply is the most important element
in industrial settings. Water can be used for the following purposes in an
industrial plant:
1. It may be used as raw material in the production process.
2. Used for cooling purposes in the machines
3. Used for cleaning and washing of equipment
4. Used by employees to keep their personal hygiene.
5. Serve as a means for waste disposal in water carrying systems.
6. For drinking and cooling purposes.
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In general, the water supply should be safe, adequate and wholesome and which
satisfy public health standards. The number of taps or fountains required varies
from 1 for 50 men to 1 for 200men, depending upon the plant arrangement.
However, the standard is an average of 1 tap or fountain for 75 persons.
Sanitary Facilities
Observation of many plants or industries in developing countries will indicate
that latrines and toilets used by the workers are of a primitive and unsanitary
nature or in some cases there are none at all. In some countries the public health
services and labour legislation laydown regulations concerning sanitary
facilities to be provided including the number for male and female workers.
Example:
- At least 1 suitable latrine for every 25 females
- At least 1 suitable latrine for every 25 males
In a factory where the number of males employed exceeds 500, it is sufficient to
provide 1 toilet or latrine for every 60 males provided that sufficient urinals are
provided. Washing Facilities: adequate, suitable and conveniently accessible
washing facilities should be provided for employees. There should be a supply
of running water; in addition, soap and clean towels should be supplied and
common towels should be discouraged as much as possible.
The recommended standards: -
- 1 wash basin for every 15 workers for clean work
- 1 wash basin for every 10 workers doing dirty work
- 1 wash basin for every 5 workers handling poisonous substances or engaged in
handling food stuffs. The walls of washing rooms should preferably be glazed
tiles and the floor made of the same tiles or hard asphalt.
Points to be considered in providing shower services as documented in Takele
and Menegsha (2006) include:
- All showers should be separated for male and female workers to guarantee
privacy.
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- Emergency facilities must be available where there is a danger of skin
contamination by dangerous or poisonous substances.
- Emergency shower or eye wash facility.
- Accessory materials.
Refuse Disposal
Proper solid waste management starting from the source to generation to the
final disposal site is highly required in industries where different kinds of
wastes are generated. Industrial solid wastes may contain hazardous materials
that required special precaution and procedures. But combustible solid wastes
except poisonous and flammable or explosive materials can be handled in the
convenient manner.
Liquid waste collection and disposal
Industrial liquid wastes if not properly disposed could pollute rivers, lakes,
environment and drinking water supply. Toxic liquid wastes should be diluted,
neutralized and filtered, settled or otherwise chemically treated before being
discharged into a stream or river or on open land. Under no circumstances
should be toxic, corrosive, flammable or volatile materials be discharged into a
public drainage system.
Illumination/lighting
The intensity of light source is measured by the standard candle. This is the
light given by a candle, which has been agreed upon so that it is approximately
uniform. The intensity of illumination is measured by the foot-candle. This is
the illumination given by a source of one candle to an area one foot away from
the source. For checking illumination, the foot-candle meter is very useful.
Inspectors in determining and measuring illumination at the factory workers
bench can use it. The window glass area of the workroom should be (usually)
15-20 % of the floor area.
Advantage of good lighting
• Safeguards eye sight
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• Reduce accident and hazards
• Saves the workers time and cut down the amount of spoiled work and
therefore it is economically profitable.
2.2.7 Industrial Health Education
Industrial Health Education according to Ogundele (2017) is aimed at
empowering industrial workers with the requisite knowledge, attitude and skills
required to adopt safety practices at the work setting with a view to promoting
their health and well-being. Industrial Health Education is therefore an
important strategy to improve, promote and maintain health of workers.
Ogundele (2017) identified three components of industrial Health Education:
1. Industrial health services
2. Industrial health instruction
3. Healthful industrial environment
Industrial Health Services

These are services rendered by the employers or in collaboration with the
employees to ensure optimum workers’ health and productive. These services
are both preventive and curative in nature and are aimed at preventing
occupational diseases as well as treating these diseases, if and when they occur.
Proposing an encompassing view of the concept Udoh (1981) noted that
industrial health services are the procedures carried out by physicians, nurses,
dentists, health educators, social workers to:
a. appraise, protect and promote the health of the employers and employees;
b. counsel employers for the purpose of helping them obtain needed treatment
or for arranging work schedule in line with workers’ abilities;
c. help in the prevention and control of communicable diseases
d. provide emergency care for injury and sudden illness;
e. promote optimum sanitary conditions and provide adequate and proper
sanitary and safe facilities; and
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f. protect and promote the health of industrial workers.
Services included in the industrial health component of the industrial health
services include:
1. pre-employment medical examination
2. periodic medical examination
3. keeping and maintaining of health record and history.
Industrial Health Instruction

This is an organized programme of instruction designed to serve as a tool to
inculcate accurate and scientific functional knowledge to aid attitude formation
required to adopt safe and healthy behaviour at the work setting.
The main essence of this component is prevention of occupational diseases and
hazards. It is the first step to the control of industrial diseases and hazards as it
has primary prevention as its focus. Ogundele (2017) noted that media for
health instruction in the industry include:
1. lectures
2. group discussions
3. film shows
4. Information, Education and Communication materials like health
posters, hand bills, flyers, etc.
Healthful Industrial Environment
Work is done in the industrial environment and industrial health is largely
dependent on the health of the industrial environment. Healthful industrial
environment has been erroneously viewed in the light of physical environment
only. Meanwhile, the psycho-social environment also constitutes important
aspect of the industrial environment. Indices of a healthful industrial
environment as documented in Ogundele (2017) include:
1. comfortable surrounding with appropriate hearing, lighting, space,
ventilation, sanitation and water control
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2. control of noise level
3. provision of facilities to rest, obtain and eat healthy food and perform waste
disposal functions.
4. Suitable accommodation for workers and their families
5. Job security.
6. Proper training of workers to match work demands.
7. Safety regulations to protect workers’ health.
8. Sanitation in the work place.
9. Provision of accident/life insurance scheme.
10. Prompt payment of salary.
In-text Question
List the hierarchy of occupational hazard prevention and control methods.
Answer
1. elimination,
2. substitution,
3. engineering controls,
4. administrative controls,
5. use of personal protective equipment and
6. industrial health education

1. Differentiate between prevention and control of occupational diseases and
injuries
2. State five strategies that could be employed in preventing and controlling
occupational diseases
Every work setting can be potentially harmful to workers because of the
presence of hazards. It is therefore important to make efforts to prevent and
control these hazards. Prevention as used in this course material refers to
primary prevention which deals with strategies and efforts aimed at reducing the
122
possibility of the occurrence of an occupational disorder to zero level. On the
other hand, control combines elements of primary prevention with secondary
prevention and in extreme case, tertiary prevention. Secondary prevention
attempts to curtail the spread or transmission of a health problem that have
begun. It can also involve strategies aimed at reducing impact and reducing cost
of the health problem. In order to ensure that the work environment is safe and
secure, prevention and control strategies must be ensured using various means.

Briefly discuss the indices of a healthful industrial environment as documented
in Ogundele (2017).
a. Visit YouTube https://bit.ly/3bFiQWv . Watch the video & summarise in 1
paragraph
b. View the animation on https://bit.ly/39C2Zq7 and critique it in the discussion

forum

Dastur, H.P. (1960). A Doctor’s Approach to Industrial Medicine, Tata Institute
of Social Sciences, Bombay.
Health Education for Tertiary Institution Students (In Honour of
Professor J.A. Ajala). Nigerian School Health Association. Ibadan: His
Lineage Publishing
Park, K.S. (2013). Preventive and Social Medicine. Jabalpur: Bhanot
Publishers.
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WHO (1993). International Classification of Diseases and Related Health
Problems, Tenth Revision, Vol. 2. WHO. Geneva.
STUDY SESSION 4
Ergonomics and Psychosocial factors at work
Introduction
2.0 Main Content
2.1 - Ergonomics
2.2- Psychosocial factors at Work
Introduction:
Ergonomics is a word that has gained a lot of attention over the last fifteen or so
years. It has appeared on talk shows, in news magazines, in the press, and in
many other forms of public discourse. Throughout this time, it has had many
different meanings, depending on the speaker and the speaker’s agenda. The
term ergonomics was coined in 1950 by a group of physical, biological, and
psychological scientists in the United Kingdom to describe their
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interdisciplinary efforts to design equipment and work tasks to fit the operator,
say Plog, Niland, and Quinlan (1996, p. 347). The 1966 Random House
Dictionary of the English Language defines ergonomics as “biotechnology.”
The 1967 World Book Dictionary describes it as “the study of the relationship
between individuals and their work or working environment, especially with
regard to fitting jobs to the needs and abilities of workers: The essential nature
of ergonomics is the convergence of the disciplines of human biology
(especially anatomy, physiology and psychology) on the problems of Man at
work.” The word has its roots in the Greek words ergon, meaning “work” and
nomos, meaning “ law ” (Brauer, 1994). Thus it can also be taken to mean “the
laws of work.” In addition, this session will also discuss what psychosocial
factors at work entails and how vital it is for a workplace environment.

1. Define ergonomics.
2. Explain the various kinds of ergonomics.
3. Explain Psychosocial factors at work.
4. Discuss the importance of accounting for psychosocial factors.
2.0 Main Content

2.1. Definition and Meaning of Ergonomics
Ergonomics is concerned with the interaction between the worker and the job.
The simplest definition of ergonomics is “the science of making the job fit the
worker”; another is “the application of human sciences to the optimisation of
people’s working environment”. International Labour Organisation (ILO)
defines ergonomics as: “the application of the human biological sciences in
conjunction with the engineering sciences to the worker and his working
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environment, so as to obtain maximum satisfaction for the workers which at the
same time enhance productivity.”
Ergonomics include: Ergonomics of the office and workplace; work
ergonomics: minimise back injuries; office chair, posture and driving
ergonomics, and manual material handling to prevent injury.
2.1.1 Ergonomics of the Office and Workplace

Back pain is one of the most common work - related injuries and is often caused
by ordinary work activities such as sitting in an office chair or heavy lifting.
Applying ergonomic principles - the study of the workplace as it relates to the
worker - can help prevent work-related back pain and back injury and help
maintain a healthy back.
The goal of an ergonomics programme in industry is to adapt the workplace to a
specific worker, dependent on the job description, required tasks and physical
makeup of the employee performing those tasks. Two types of situations
typically cause people to begin having back pain or to sustain a back injury
while on the job:
1. Non-accidental injury, where pain arises as a result of normal activities and
requirements of the task. Poor body mechanics (such as slouching in an office
chair), prolonged activity, repetitive motions, and fatigue are major contributors
to these injuries. This may occur from sitting in an office chair or standing for
too long in one position.
2. Accidental injury results when an unexpected event triggers injury during the
task. A load that slips or shifts as it is being lifted, and a slip and fall or hitting
one’s head on a cabinet door are typical examples. These accidents can jolt the
neck, back and other joints with resulting muscle strain or tearing of soft tissue
in the back.
Back injury from physically demanding jobs
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Occupations that are physically demanding and require repetitive lifting (such
as in nursing or heavy industry) are at greatest risk for both non-accidental and
accidental back injury. For example, many healthcare workers have back
problems because patients are of different stature and weight with varying
needs. Often, the patients need help changing position, rising from a chair and
walking. Similarly, the physical effort needed on an accident or fire scene to
release a trapped person or save a life is unpredictable. The same problems
occur in the construction industry where consistencies of tasks are a challenge.
Office chair back injuries
People who sit most of the day, such as those who works at a computer while
sitting in an office chair, are also at high risk for non-accidental back injury.
Office ergonomics, or computer ergonomics, can help minimise the risk of
repetitive injury, such as carpal tunnel syndrome, and the risks associated with
prolonged sitting in an office chair such as neck strain lower back pain and leg
pain. Staying physically fit, strong and flexible improves the likelihood of
avoiding back injuries in all types of work environments.
2.1.2 Work Ergonomics: Minimise Back Injuries
There are certain basic ergonomic guidelines that may help an employee avoid
back pain or back injury:
• Develop a job description based on the forces present in a particular work
environment; the time spent performing the task and the biomechanics (which
define human motions and seated posture in an office chair) used in the task.
• Use body posture as a tool that can be changed to meet the job demands with
minimum stress on the muscles,
ligaments, bones and joints.
• Learn and use appropriate body
mechanics to limit extra mechanical
stress in completing the task.
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• Maintain fitness and flexibility and develop a reserve of strength.
Identifying poor posture and risks
Many potentially harmful situations that lead to back injury can be identified
and avoided by following four basic rules of thumb:
1. Prolonged static posture is the enemy: The healthy body can only tolerate
staying in one position for about 20 minutes. That is why sitting on an airplane,
at a desk in an office chair, or at a movie theatre becomes uncomfortable after a
short time. Standing in one place, such as standing on a concrete floor at an
assembly line for extended periods of time tends to cause back pain. Holding
the same position slowly diminishes elasticity in the soft tissues (muscles
ligaments and tendons in the back). Then, stress builds up and causes back
discomfort and/or leg discomfort.
The solution is simple. Whether you are sitting in an office chair or standing in
a line, change positions frequently. Just move. Stand or sit, stretch, take a short
walk. After returning to the standing or sitting posture, use an alternate posture
for just a few moments and some of the tissue elasticity needed to protect the
joints will return.
2. Frequent or repetitive stretching to the end range of motion or awkward,
angled postures can bind the joints. Unlike jobs that require long-term sitting in
an office chair, jobs that require frequent repetitive motion can cause great
discomfort. Such jobs involve lifting from the floor, lifting overhead, moving
bulky loads, or using rotational force or twisting while handling material and
which signal back injuries might be on the way.
3. Heavy loads offer greater risk: If the job requires moving heavy or bulky
objects, it is important to have the proper tools or get help.
4. Fatigue from sitting in an office chair for days, from work or from insomnia
can make people move more awkwardly. If one is overtired or feels fatigued, it
is advisable to avoid lifting heavy objects alone or quickly.
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2.1.3 Office Chair and Posture Ergonomics
Posture is very important both at home and on the job. Back-friendly posture is
a valuable component of preventing or managing back pain while performing
any activity. Incorrect posture while standing for long periods of time, sitting in
an office chair, and driving are all common causes of back pain.
Standing posture
Maintain the natural curve of the spine when standing promotes “good posture.”
So, what does that mean? The human spine looks a little bit like an S from the
side, and maintaining those two curves is important (see Figure 2.4.1).
• Keep your head directly over the shoulders

(that is, “chest out, head back”)
• Keep the shoulders directly over the pelvis
• Tighten the core abdominal muscles
• Tuck in the buttocks
Fig. 2.4.1: Standing Posture
• Place the feet slightly apart, with one foot positioned slightly in front of the
other and knees bent just a little bit (that is, not locked).
If this posture is new it may feel strange at first, but after a while it will feel
natural. If it feels too weak or tiring, use light weights or elastic bands to work
the muscles between the shoulder blades (for example, rhomboids and middle
trapeziums). It will quickly get easier.
If standing on a concrete floor is required at work, it is best to wear shoes with
good support and cushioning. A rubber mat placed on the concrete floor will
ease pressure on the back and enhance the favourable ergonomic conditions.
Use a railing or box to prop one foot up while standing to help take pressure off
the back. This standing position takes some practice. Remember to change feet
and positions every 20 minutes.
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Office chair sitting posture
Posture is important for sitting in office chairs and at a workstation. Many of us
spend hours in front of the computer, resulting in back pain or neck pain. Much
of this pain may be avoided by a combination of:
• Adopting a user-friendly workstation by adjusting the office chair, computer
and desk positioning
• Modifying sitting posture in an office chair. Many people sit towards the front
of their chair and end up hunching forward to look at their computer screen. The
better seated posture is to sit back in the office chair and utilize the chair’s
lumbar support to keep the head and neck erect.
• Taking stretch breaks and walking breaks if sitting in an office chair for long
periods of time.
A consistent, comfortable workstation depends on where the computer screen is
situated, where the hands and feet are placed, and the kind of office chair.
Figure 2.4.2 provides a common sense, easily remembered approach to fitting a
seated workstation to the individual worker. To make it work, begin by
selecting or adjusting the position or the work surface, then adjust the office
chair.
• Choose the surface height for the desk (standing, sitting or semi seated) best
for the task to be performed. Architects and
draftsman may want a higher surface for
drawing while computer entry work could be
seated or standing, depending on the need to
use other tools or references. The specific
height of the work surface will also need to
vary based on the height of the individual
worker. Fig. 2.4.2: Office Chair Sitting Posture
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• Adjust the seat of the office chair so that the work surface is “elbow high.” A
fist should be able to pass easily behind the calf and in front of the seat edge to
keep the back of the legs from being pressed too hard and the feet from
swelling. Two fingers should slip easily under each thigh. If not, use a couple of
telephone books or a footrest to raise the knees level with the hips. The backrest
of the office chair should push the low back forward slightly. If these
adjustments cannot be adequately made with the existing office chair, a
different make or type of chair may be considered.
• Fit the height of the computer screen. Sit comfortably in the newly adjusted
office chair. Close both eyes and relax. Then, slowly reopen them. Where the
gaze initially focuses should be when the eyes open is the place to put the center
of the computer screen. The screen can be raised using books or a stand if
needed.
In-text Question
Define ergonomics.
Answer
Ergonomics is the application of the human biological sciences in conjunction with the
engineering sciences to the worker and his working environment, so as to obtain maximum
satisfaction for the workers which at the same time enhance productivity.
2.2. Definition of psychosocial work environment

What does the term “psychosocial” mean? The expression, “psychosocial work
environment” covers aspects concerning both our work and our working
conditions. In the English scientific literature, we find the expression
“psychological and social factors in the work arena”. The psychological factors
are perceptions and interpretations of work-related matters, while the social
factors involve the influence of the social context and the interpersonal factors.
These concepts have merged into the term “psychosocial”.
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The expression “psychosocial work environment” can be divided into three
components;
1. Organisation
The organisation of the working environment can be defined as the individual’s
relation to their duties and to others in the workplace, and the practical
organisation of work. This component emphasizes the external influences or
stimuli at work. Here, one is concerned with specific characteristics of working
conditions, such as if the workplace has an organisational chart, if the premises
are adequate in terms of equipment available, the expectations and shift work
schedule are clearly explained, etc. For example, it is not good to work in a
place where no one knows who is responsible, where the required tools are not
in place and the expectations and working schedule are unclear. In addition, one
can include management issues in this component. Good management is
essential for a good working environment. A leader who lacks good leadership
skills can make a workplace totally unbearable. Another factor that fits under
this component of psychosocial work environment is the phenomenon of
“reorganisation.” This can affect a work place significantly. Reorganisation
often means job cuts and changes, which again creates turmoil and uncertainty
among employees. Such changes may also influence the health of workers.
2. Social interaction
Psychosocial working conditions are also determined by the interaction between
environmental factors, other workers and the individual. Included here are
“psychological effects” of the work. Collaboration and cooperation or the lack
thereof are the consequences of how these interactions work. If there are many
conflicts at work, this may reduce the overall productivity, and people will try
to avoid working in such a place. Conflicts may also cause health problems
among the workers. Insomnia and muscle pain (tensions) are common
consequences of problems in the social life at the workplace.
3. Individual perception
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All people are unique. We do not perceive things in the same way. People are
different, they perceive their surroundings differently. We cannot change our
different personalities and ways of behaving, at least not very much! This is
important to remember in working life. We have individual perceptions and
evaluations, and these have consequences for health, well-being and
performance for both ourselves and others. This is the reason why it is almost
impossible to create the perfect work place. What is perfect for you is not
perfect for me. I like the walls in my kitchen to be painted yellow, while my
colleague wants them to be grey. This cannot be changed, but it helps if
everyone is aware that differences in opinions exist. These differences stem
from cognitive and emotional processes, as well as characteristics of the
individual employee. This component of the psychosocial work environment
emphasizes the worker’s individual interpretation; how external influences are
perceived, processed and disseminated. When, for instance, health personnel are
presented with a patient experiencing a conflict at work, it is important to
remember this: any issue has always at least two sides.
The following three questions are very important for determining if one has a
good working environment or not:
a. Is your work comprehensible? Do you know what is expected of you? Do you
know what is happening at work, what will happen, and why? Is it your
experience that decisions at work will be made and implemented arbitrarily,
without you receiving any prior explanation?
b. Is your work manageable? Do you have the equipment and the assistance
required for you to do your job? Is there a reasonable balance between demands
and resources? Are you listened to and respected? Do you understand the goals
for the activity you specifically perform?
c. Is your work meaningful? Do you understand the meaning of your work in a
larger context? Do you understand what your efforts mean for the management,
employees and even outside the workplace? One thing is to tell the world that
133
you are putting bricks on top of each other at your work. Another thing is to tell
the world that you are building a cathedral. There are differences between these
two perceptions of a work place. The work is the same, but the life of the
cathedral builder is more likely to be a better one than that of the person only
concentrated upon the bricks themselves.
In-text Question
What are the three components of psychosocial work environment?
Answer
Organisation
Social interaction
Individual perception

1. Describe ergonomics of the office and workplace.
2. Explain psychosocial factors of work.
In this session, you have learnt the definition and meaning of ergonomics
including the ergonomics of the office and workplace. We further discuss the
psychosocial factors at work and how it promotes workers’ performance if
properly adhered to the rules.

Discuss two types of ergonomics at workplace.
134
a. Visit YouTube 1. https://bit.ly/39yMnQi , https://bit.ly/2WYHf5e .
Watch the video & summarise in 1 paragraph
b. View the animation on https://bit.ly/39ABjlm and critique it in the discussion

forum

Gbefwi, N. B. (2004). Health Education and Communication Strategies: A
Practical Approach for Community – Based Health Practitioners and
Rural Health Workers. Lagos: West African Book Publishers Limited.
http://www.Spine-health.com/Wellness/Ergonomics (Assessed 09/07/2012)
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MODULE 3
Contents:
Study Session 1: Occupational Health Policies, Regulations and Regulatory
Agencies
Study Session 2: Housing and Workplace Health
Study Session 3: Environmental Health Law and Legislation
Study Session 4: Laws on Protecting Health and Safety of Workers
STUDY SESSION 1
Occupational Health Policies and Regulations
Introduction
2.0 Main Content
2.1 - Occupational Health Policies
2.2 - Occupational Health Regulations
Introduction:
In the previous session, we learnt about accidents, injuries and also how
disorders at work affects the well-being of the worker and productivity. We also
discussed ways on how to prevent such ailments. In this session, you will learn
136
about occupational health policies and regulations.

1. Highlight occupational health policies
2. Describe occupational health regulations
3. Discuss the roles of occupational health regulations.
2.0 Main Content

2.1. Occupational Health Policy
There is the dire need to have certain policies and regulations in place so as to
protect workers exposed to industrial hazards and accidents in the workplace.
Before independence, developing countries adapted the occupational health
polices of the home countries of their colonial masters. After gaining
independence, these developing countries automatically inherited policies and
regulations of the countries of their former colonial masters which they in the
course of time made attempts to revise as circumstances and the needs
demanded. In the case of Anglophone West African sub-region including
Nigeria, some of the occupational health policy in operation are those enacted in
Britain. Certain provisions of occupational health policies and regulations as
embodied in the statutes of most countries within the Anglophone West African
sub-region are very similar. What may differ is the wording and perhaps the
penalties but in every respect, the message is essentially the same.
In general terms, occupational health policies are aimed at:

 securing the health, safety and welfare of persons at work
 safe-guarding persons other than those at work against risks to health or
safety arising from work activities.
 controlling explosive, highly inflammable or dangerous substances.
137
 supervising the emission of noxious or offensive substances from prescribed
classes of premises where trade is carried out.
 ensuring previously existing health, safety and welfare policies and
regulations are progressively replaced by an up-date system of policies and
regulations and approved codes of practice.
In-text Question
State any three aims of occupational health policies.
Answer
1.securing the health, safety and welfare of persons at work
2.safe-guarding persons other than those at work against risks to health or safety arising
from work activities.
3.controlling explosive, highly inflammable or dangerous substances.
2.2. Occupational Health Regulations

The factories Act 1987 was a landmark regulation in occupational health in
Nigeria. A substantial revision of the colonial regulation, Factories Act 1958,
the 1987 Decree, changed the definition of a factory from an enterprise with 10
or more workers to a premise with 10 or more workers thereby providing
oversight for the numerous small-scale enterprises that engage the majority of
the work force in Nigeria. The current regulation is the Factories Act 1990
which in essence is the same as the 1987 regulation. The regulation is arranged
in parts and sections for easy reference in the following order:
Part 1 Registration of Factories
General Definition of a Factory
Generally speaking, premises whether under cover or in the open air constitute a
factory if one or more persons are employed in any process for the purposes that
may be specified by the regulation governing such registration, provided that
the work is carried out by way of trade or for the purpose of gain, and provided
also that the employer has the right of access or control.
138
Registration of Workplaces
Registration of workplaces is usually made mandatory for occupiers of
factories. An appropriate body as may be specified in law is vested with the
responsibility to register workplaces in accordance with laid down rules or
guidelines. Registration is sought by applicants in prescribed forms and on
being satisfied that the premises are suitable for use as a factory of the nature
stated in the application, such appropriate body so appointed will authorise the
registration of the factory and a certificate of registration is issued to the
applicant to that effect. Refusal to issue certificate of registration to an applicant
is usually expected to be communicated in writing to the applicant stating the
grounds for such refusal. Contravention to this provision or rule will be liable
on conviction to a fine as may be specified in the statutes of each country.
Notification of change of business premises
It is expected that after an application seeking registration of a factory has been
submitted to the appropriate body, and a change becomes desirable, such a body
should be notified of such new development in writing. Any occupier of
business premises who contravenes this provision is usually liable on conviction
to a fine or imprisonment as may be stated in the country’s regulation.
Part II Health (General Provisions)
Various regulations are available for the health, safety and welfare of workers in
each country today. However, the following factors are commonly adopted to
enhance good housekeeping and the promotion and maintenance of health of the
workers:
i. Cleanliness
This factor calls for each factory to be kept in a clean state and free from
effluents arising from any drain, sanitary convenience or nuisance. Refuse
should be removed on a daily basis, using suitable methods. The floors of every
work place should be washed at least once in a week. In situation of offensive
trades, daily washing is required together with some other effective measures.
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The walls, partitions and ceilings are washed in accordance with prescribed
regulations. Repainting with oil paint or vanishing at least once in every five
years and washing at least once a year with hot water and soap or cleaned by
other suitable methods. Premises where offensive trades are carried out should
be white-washed or colour-washed and then white or colour washing should be
repeated at least every year.
ii. Overcrowding
With respect to overcrowding, regulation aims to ensure that all factories where
work is being carried on should not be so overcrowded as to cause risk or injury
to the health of persons employed therein. To this end, each workroom must not
be less than 9ft (2.75m) high measured from floor to the lowest part of the
ceiling or where there is no ceiling, to the lowest part of the roofing material.
The cubic capacity space available for each worker must be at least 400 cubic ft
(11.33m3). This cubic air space excludes any space that may be3 more than 14ft
(4.30m) from the floor level.
iii. Ventilation
Ventilation aims at ensuring continued removal of polluted air and odour from
occupied premises and the preservation of a pure dust-free atmosphere of proper
temperature and humidity with sufficient movement of air.
It is therefore required that all factories and workplaces should be adequately
ventilated to achieve the desired effect. Open windows provide the simplest
form of ventilation so long as the work place is not situated in a dusty
surrounding. In order to derive maximum effect, factories should be sited to
take advantage of prevailing wind where possible. A mechanical means of
ventilation is desirable when natural ventilation cannot be adequate and where a
factory is situated in a dusty environment, or where the existence of fumes,
gases or other impurities is harmful.
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Mechanical means of ventilation may also be of absolute necessity depending
on the nature of business in a factory. For example, in a spinning department of
a textile industry, mechanical means of ventilation is preferred to open windows
where strong current of air prevails.
It is emphasised that whosoever is appointed in each country to make
regulations should do so specifying a standard of adequate ventilation for
workplaces or for any class or description of factory.
iv. Lighting
Sufficient natural lighting is highly desirable in any room and particularly in a
factory. However, effective provision is usually made to secure and maintain
adequate and suitable artificial lighting for the job. Particular attention should
be paid to the replacement of dead bulbs and fluorescent tubes. Glazed windows
and skylights used for the lighting of workplaces and passages are kept clean
and unobstructed except screens used to mitigate heat or glare penetration.
v. Drainage of floors
In any processing business liable to render the floor wet to such an extent that
the wet is capable of being removed by drainage, effective means should be
provided and maintained for draining. To do this effectively and with ease, it is
required that floors should be constructed with a slight slope to aid natural
drainage into gutters. Where such gutters discharge into drains, such drains are
required to have a suitable gradient.
vi. Sanitary conveniences
Provision usually requires that sufficient and suitable sanitary conveniences be
provided, maintained and kept clean for all persons employed in the workplace.
Effective lighting of the conveniences is important from the point of view of
encouraging patronage and promoting healthful practice.
In an event where persons of both sexes are to be engaged, except for the
situation where only persons engaged are members of the same family, such
conveniences should be available separately to afford proper and separate
141
accommodation for both sexes and clearly marked “males” or “females.”
However, in order to have ease of usage, the following requirements are
necessary: one unit for every 25 female persons employed one unit for every 20
male persons employed, but if more than 100 persons are employed, sufficient
urinal accommodation is also provided, after the first 100 persons, 1 unit for
every 40 workers.
Furthermore, it is required that sanitary conveniences should be separated from

working places by corridors or open space. Also, the walls and floors of sanitary
conveniences should be provided with tiles. Wash-hand basins should be
provided. Provision of doors ensures privacy during use.
Part III Safety (General Provisions)
Powered machinery
Eye injuries caused by accident arising from powered machinery in industries
are common. In order to minimise these eye injuries; appropriate eye protective
devices must be worn by workers. Industrial regulation requires that every
power shall be provided with an efficient starting and stopping devices.
Other machinery
It is demanded also that every dangerous part of any machinery other than the
prime movers or transmission machinery should be securely fenced if it is likely
to endanger the people. The term “prime mover” refers to every engine, motor
or other appliances which provides mechanical energy derived from steam,
water, wind, electricity, combustion of fuel or other sources.
“Transmission machinery” on the other hand includes shaft, wheel, drum,
coupling, pulley system of fast and loose pulleys, clutch, driving belt or other
devices by which the motion of a prime mover is transmitted to or received by
any machine. Machinery or its part is dangerous if it is a possible cause of
injury to anybody acting in a way which a human being may be reasonably
expected to act.
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Unfenced machinery
On rare occasions an examination of a machine may reveal that it requires
immediate lubrication or adjustment and that this can only be carried out while
the machine is working. In such rare instances, and subject to very stringent
conditions, an authorised person by the management of a factory who is 18
years of age and above may approach such unfenced machinery while it is in
motion for the purpose of examination, necessary lubrication or adjustment.
All other prime movers and flywheels must be securely fenced irrespective of
their position. Such fencing is required by regulation to be a substantial
construction and maintained in an efficient state of repairs. In the circumstance
where the management of a factory claim that a machine or its part cannot be
securely fenced, as they often do, its use should be banned. Compliance with
provisions governing fencing of machinery by management in industries should
be strictly enforced as non-compliance often leads to accidents.
Fire
In many countries, adequate and effective means for detecting fire in industries
and other related workplaces are available. Such means should be correctly
installed in appropriate places within the factory. Most importantly, the
management of a factory should ensure that all staff employed are adequately
trained to enable them operate the fire extinguishers provided in the workplaces.
Fire drills are called for in order to make workers conversant with the practice
of handling fire incidents.
This practice is controversial in some quarters on the claims that it may make
workers non-responsive to situations of real fire outbreaks in the factory or
workplace. The two options should be weighed for a proper decision. The
possibility of escape in an event of a fire outbreak in a workplace should be
given due consideration. Adequate means of escape therefore should be
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provided. Emphasis is laid on doors which ensures easy exit for persons
working in locked factories. Such doors should be easy to open from inside and
they should open outside unless they are sliding doors. All exits should be
distinctively marked in red letters, in adequate size and in English or any other
local language understood by the workers. The routine practice of checking the
condition of all fire equipment should be inculcated.
Part IV Welfare (General Provisions)
Water
A supply of sufficient and safe drinking water must be provided and maintained
for all workers and kept free from contamination always. The water supplied
should be readily accessible to all person employed. Where the supply of water
is not pipe borne, it should be contained in suitable containers.
Washing facilities
Facilities for washing are required to be provided by the management of a
factory in adequate and suitable number. These should be easily accessible to
the workers and kept in a clean and orderly condition to encourage usage. More
often than not, workers wash up without the use of soap. It is important to
ensure that soap is provided by the employer to facilitate thorough cleaning
especially for workers handling poisonous agents. Special washing
arrangements should be made for workers engaged in asbestos factories.
Cloak room
The provision and maintenance of suitable accommodation for changing and
keeping of clothing not worn by the workers during working hours cannot be
over-emphasised. Utilisation of this facility can be maximized where the
workers are supplied with appropriate protective clothing especially in certain
processes where poisonous chemicals and other substances are present. In such
situations, prohibition of workers taking their protective clothes home is
imposed to safeguard their families from unnecessary poisoning which can
result from accidental contamination by the clothes.
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First aid
The first aid box or cupboard of a suitable size must be provided for 150
workers. Such a box must contain materials required for first aid. Where more
than 150 workers are employed, additional first aid box must be provided for
every 150 workers. Each first aid box must be prominently marked “FIRST
AID” and placed under the charge of a responsible staff that should be known
by the workers and always readily available during working hours. The contents
of a first aid box should include items such as sterilized dressing for cuts and
burns, scissors, cotton wool, waterproof and adhesive plasters, antiseptic cream,
eye bath and drops, tourniquet, etc. It is worth mentioning that tourniquet is
being omitted in the list of items in some countries due to danger arising from
abuse. However, they should only contain what is laid down in the country’s
regulation. Where first aid personnel are trained, simple medications may be
stocked. In certain circumstances, factories such as saw mills, certain chemical
works, blast furnaces, iron mills, etc., are required to provide and maintain an
ambulance room. This service will facilitate easy summoning of an ambulance
or other means of transport needed in cases of accidents or illness. The persons
in charge of the ambulance room may be a qualified nurse engaged in the clinic.
Part V Health, Safety and Welfare (Special Provisions and Regulations)
Protective wears
Suitable protective wears (including clothing) and appliances must be provided,
maintained and its continuous use encouraged in all factories and workplace
where workers are engaged in any process involving exposure to wet
conditions, injuries or offensive substances. For example, such suitable
protective wear may include, where necessary, suitable gloves, effective
screens, foot wears, waterproof aprons, goggles, head covers, etc.
Staff canteen
Workers in large establishments are provided with separate rooms or canteens
where their meals are prepared and served at appropriate times. Eating is
145
prohibited at workplaces, where dangerous substances such as lead, mercury,
cyanide, etc, are present. The provision of adequate running water is desirable
to ensure that the workers observe personal hygiene. Efforts should be geared to
educate and enlighten the workers on the rationale behind these practice.
Samples
An inspector of factory may after informing an employer or any of his agents in
the workplace take for analysis samples in sufficient quantity of any substance
used or intended to be used in a workplace. Particularly if the inspector thinks
such a sample may prove on examination to constitute danger to the workers.
Such sample must be analysed by a government chemist or an authorised person
who may be required as a witness at a subsequent legal proceeding.
Part VI Notification and Investigation of Accidents and Industrial Diseases
Notification of accidents
Any accident in a factory which causes loss of life or disability for more than a
specified period of days (in the case of the Nigeria provision – three days) must
be reported in writing to the inspector of factories by the employer. If death
occurs to an injured person later as a result of an accident, the inspector must be
informed immediately. In most countries there are prepared forms for these
types of reports.
Notification of industrial diseases
If an employer suspects that a case of occupational disease has occurred in the
factory, he must immediately notify in writing the nearest inspector of factories.
Some of the occupational diseases which are reportable include: Lead poisoning
including poisoning by any preparation or compound of lead; phosphorous
poisoning; mercury poisoning; manganese poisoning; arsenic poisoning; aniline
poisoning; poisoning by carbon bisulphide; benzene poisoning of blood; chronic
ulceration due to chronic acid, or dichromate of potassium sodium, ammonium
or any preparation of these substances; anthrax; pathological manifestations due
to radium or other radioactive substances, or x-rays; jaundice due to toxic
146
substama; anaemia due to toxic substama; primary epitheliomatous ulceration of
the skin arising from the handling of or use of tar, pitch, bitumen, mineral oil,
paraffin, or other compounds, products or residues of these substances;
poisoning by halogen derivatives of hydrocarbons of the aliphatic series;
compressed air illness; and asbestosis.
Part VII Special Applications, Extension and Miscellaneous Provisions
Power and duties of inspectors
To ensure compliance with occupational health regulations, factory inspectors
are empowered to enter and inspect upon presenting relevant credentials to the
occupier of a factory or his accredited agent. Every part of a factory including
registers, certificates and other relevant documents required under available
regulations of the country may be inspected. Workers also may be questioned
for relevant information during such visits.
No employer or his representative shall deny the inspector entry or obstruct him
in carrying out his lawful duties. An inspector may prosecute or defend in a
court of law any accused charged or any complainant arising under the law.
Duties of employers
Each employer should furnish a worker a place of employment free form
hazards which are capable of causing or likely to cause death or serious physical
harm. The employer should permit only those workers qualified by training or
experience to operate equipment and machinery. Each employer must enlighten
his workers of any manufacturing process which is dangerous or hazardous.
Employers should provide and train their workers in the use of appropriate
personal protective wears. Furthermore, the employer shall make all operating
departments aware of all occupational health regulations governing the factory’s
operations and ensure that all equipment and materials purchased meet
recognised safety practice. Employers may take full disciplinary action against
any worker who violates observation of safety practice in workplaces.
147
Duties of workers
Workers should comply with laid down health and safety regulations relating to
their workplaces, particularly those regulations which are applicable to their
own actions and conducts. They may request an inspector of factory to conduct
incidental inspection if they so believe an imminent danger exists or a violation
of a regulation by the occupier of a factory threatens their physical well-being.
Workers are also expected (duty bound) to use all protective wear and
appliances placed at their disposal by their employers. Unfortunately, majority
of the labour force are uninformed. Because of high rate of illiteracy, most
employees are unaware of their rights and labour regulations especially those
which are applicable to their own actions and conduct. The role of trade
unionists and other health professionals in educating and enlightening workers
on occupational health related issues will go a long way to compliment efforts
of the employers in this regard.
Other regulations include:
• Environmental Impact Assessment Act. Cap E12, LFN 2004
• The Land Use Act. Cap 202, LFN 2004
• Harmful Waste (Special Criminal Provisions Act) Cap. H I, LFN 2004
• Nuclear Safety and Radiation Protection Act, - Cap N 142, LFN 2004
• Oil pipelines Act, Cap 07, LFN 2004
• Nigerian Mining Corporation Act. Cap N120, LFN 2004
• Animal Diseases (control) Act. Cap A17, LFN 2004
• Nigeria Urban and Regional Planning Act Cap N138, LFN 2004
• Quarantine Act, Cap Q2, LFN 2004
• National Environmental Health Practice Regulations 2007
• Workmen’s Compensation Law 1990 etc.
148
In-text Question
Define a factory
Answer
A factory is a premises whether under cover or in the open air constitute a factory if one or
more persons are employed in any process for the purposes that may be specified by the
regulation governing such registration, provided that the work is carried out by way of trade
or for the purpose of gain, and provided also that the employer has the right of access or
control.

1. Enumerate five occupational health regulations.
2. discuss three occupational health regulatory agencies.
In this session, you have learnt about occupational health policies, occupational
health regulations as well as the occupational health regulatory agencies. We
shall discuss on housing and health in the next session.

Discuss extensively the roles played by occupational health regulations in
Nigeria.
a. Visit YouTube https://bit.ly/33YpbK3 . Watch the video & summarise in 1
paragraph
b. View the animation on https://bit.ly/2UAzVeo and critique it in the

discussion forum
149
Aibor, M. S. & Olorunda, J. O. (2006). A Technical Handbook of
Environmental Health in the 21st Century for Professionals and Students.
Akure: His Mercy Publishers.
Federal Government of Nigeria (1999). Constitution of the Federal Republic of
Nigeria. Abuja: Government Printing Press.
Federal Government of Nigeria (1987). Factories Act 1987. Lagos: Government
Printing Press.
Olojoba, A. O. (2009). Occupational Safety Services and Public Helath.
Ughelli: Ama Ohoror Printing Press Coy.
STUDY SESSION 2
Housing and Health

Introduction
2.0 Main Content
2.1 - Housing and Settlements
2.2- What is the link between housing and Health?
2.3- Review of Housing Policy in Nigeria
150
Introduction
In this session, we are going to learn about housing as an element in the
environment. A house is a man-made physical structure which is designed to
offer shelter. Quality of housing in broad context of dwellings is highly
significant as determinants of health. Housing protects against the stresses of
physical environment, satisfy psychological requirements and the need for a
locus of primary social group-family. Rapid urbanization and population growth
has created a great need for additional housing units, amenities and other
facilities. In most African cities, between 50-75% of the population live in
grossly inadequate housing conditions. Most deficiencies are in the size, and
stability of the house structures, security of occupants’ tenure, piped water,
sanitation, drainage, electricity and collection of house hold wastes. This session
focuses on types of housing, building codes and regulations and in particular
how housing influences health of the people.

1. Describe the expected needs of good housing.
2. Explain what advice you will give to people during construction of their
buildings.
3. Discuss the link between housing and health.
4. Provide critical appraisal of local and international responses to housing
problems.
2.0 Main Content

2.1. Housing and Settlements
A house provides shelter which among others is a basic need in life. We
describe the different types of settlement/housing and focus on what can be
referred to as good housing.
151
Traditional village settlements
Traditional village settlements are the oldest form with varying degree of self-
government. Rural population lives in dwellings built according to traditional
patterns from locally available materials such as mud, bamboos and thatch
roofing.
Temporary Settlements
Lack of infrastructures such as transportation, recreation facilities and
opportunities to work has resulted in the recent rural–urban migration. In
majority of African towns and cities, illegal settlements to accommodate the
rural–urban influx are growing. Temporary settlements such as construction
camps, slums, squatters and other forms of spontaneous settlements resulting
from emergencies are inevitable. Substantial portions of urban population live
in these settlements often under the worst environmental conditions.
Permanent Settlements
Permanent housing in most cases conform with town plans and building codes,
are categorized according to age of construction and the use to which the house
is subjected. The different types of housing are described below:
i. Sound housing – no defects or slight defects correctable by regular
maintenance.
ii. Deteriorating housing – needs more repairs than would be provided by
regular maintenance and has one or more defects which must be corrected to
ensure safe and adequate shelter.
iii. Dilapidated housing – would not provide safe and adequate shelter because
it needs extensive repairs or rebuilding due to one or more critical defects.
Basic needs provided by good housing.
A house should be built to meet the physiological and psychological needs of
human beings and sited in suitable environment that enable its occupants to live
a healthy and reasonable life. Good housing should provide basic physiological
152
needs, basic psychological needs, protect against contagious diseases and
accidents.
Housing Codes and Standards

It is sometimes difficult to establish acceptable housing standards since
conditions affecting housing are different within and outside countries. Human
requirement for space differ depending upon climate, socioeconomic standards
and cultural values of the groups. Space requirement is not only measured by
area, but also volume which vary with such parameters like floor areas, height
of ceiling, rate and means of ventilation, thermal and illumination requirements
and structural standards. There are minimum standard for construction that are
outlined in building codes-all matters relating to space, sanitary arrangements,
light, ventilation, safety, fire protection, plumbing, heating, materials for
construction, construction features (which relate to rodent and insect control).
But frequently these building codes do not include standards for water, sanitary
facilities, plumbing, wiring and some other elements of residential environment.
These codes are taken care of in other special codes such as public health acts
and water regulation. Building regulations and bye laws are meant to ensure that
building does not endanger lives after construction and that they promote health
and provide environment aesthetics. While regulations are of general
application, bye-laws are often restricted to the town planning authority.
A good housing must ensure access to safe water, facilities for management of
solid and liquid wastes, control of pests and the ventilation and lighting must be
optimal for health of the family members.
In-text Question
What are the basic needs provided by good housing?
Answer
A house should be built to meet the physiological and psychological needs of human beings
and sited in suitable environment that enable its occupants to live a healthy and reasonable
life. Good housing should provide basic physiological needs, basic psychological needs,
protect against contagious diseases and accidents.
153
2.2. What is the link between housing and Health?
The link between housing and health: The structure, design and location of
housing and population density can influence health both physical and mental in
many ways. One aspect of housing of obvious relevance to health is water- its
accessibility and quality. Contaminated water is responsible for transmission of
many diseases- typhoid, cholera, hepatitis, dysentery, amebiasis and giardiasis.
Availability of sanitary facilities relating to disposal of solid and liquid wastes -
Human feaces is a principal source of waste harboring pathogenic organisms
causing many communicable diseases especially infections of gastrointestinal
(GI) tract. Quality of air in a dwelling place is also important. Cross ventilation
allows for free flow of oxygen. A large proportion of chronic respiratory
disorders in rural areas have been related to burning of fossil fuels indoors.
Actual structure of the housing can also be important for health in many ways.
Make shift structures almost invariably fail to guard against extreme
temperatures of heat and cold which can increase morbidity and mortality.
Responses to housing problems

Concept of healthy housing embodies the physical structures including all
necessary facilities, services and equipment needed for the physical and mental
health and social welfare of the individuals, family and community.
Government and developmental agencies have responded in variety of ways to
the enormous demands for extension of infrastructure, expansion of services
and facilities and growth of illegal settlements. These are done through:
i. Development of low cost building and construction techniques
ii. Provisions of loans and credit schemes.
iii. Rented accommodation
iv. In Site and service schemes
154
v. Employee housing scheme.
In-text Question
What is the aspect of housing that is relevant to health and what are its implication if
negated?
Answer
One aspect of housing of obvious relevance to health is water- its accessibility and quality.
Contaminated water is responsible for transmission of many diseases- typhoid, cholera,
hepatitis, dysentery, amebiasis and giardiasis.
2.3 Review of Housing Policies in Nigeria
Housing policy in Nigeria is not totally new as such hosing policies in Nigeria
could be discussed under five political historical phases; the pre-independent era
(the period before 1960), the post- independence era (the period between 1960
and 1979), the second republic era (the period between 1979 and 1983), the
military era (the period between 1984 and 1999), and the post military era or the
third republic (1999 to date). Housing policy of the colonial era was
characterised by direct provision of housing through the provision of staff
quarters for expatriates and other indigenous staff of the multinational
organisations and the administrative officials of the colonial government. The
era witnessed the creation of Urban Councils in 1946, the establishment of
Lagos Executive Board (LEBD) in 1928 through the Lagos Town Planning
ordinance of 1928 the board later metamorphosed into the present day Lagos
State Development Property Corporation (LSDPC). The corporation to date
remains the largest supplier of public housing in Nigeria.
The formation of the Nigerian Building Society in 1955, and the enactment of
Regional Housing Corporation in 1959 all occurred during this era. The post-
independence era witnessed significant improvements in housing provision.
This was largely enhanced by the First National Development Plan (1962-1968)
155
and the Second National Development Plan 1970-1974). The establishment of
the National Council on Housing in 1971 led to further improvement in housing
delivery. The third National Development Plan (1975-1980) made further
improvements on housing programmes, policies and supply in the country. The
fusion of the Nigerian Building Society into Federal Mortgage Bank of Nigeria
with the promulgation of Decree No 7 of 1977 also brought further
improvements into housing delivery in Nigeria. In 1978, the government of
Olusegun Obasanjo sees accessibility to land by the majority at the appropriate
location as one of the major problems hindering both public and private sector
housing delivery. The land tenure system before this period was characterised
with multiple ownership pattern and concentrate land ownership in the hands of
unscrupulous elements and land speculators. These accentuate the costs of land
mostly in urban areas. This prompted the then government to promulgate the
Land Use Act (LUA) of 1979, enacted in order to guarantee access to land by
all Nigerians. Pre- promulgation of the LUA, multiple land tenure characterised
the land structure of the country.
The LUA came to stabilize and streamline the ownership and acquisition of
land. Also, during the era, the 1979 constitution placed more emphasis on the
importance of local building materials, labour and construction industry. Within
same year, the Employees Housing Scheme Decree No 54 of 1979 was enacted.
This decree made provision for staff housing and housing estates. The housing
policy in the 1980s and 1990s placed more emphasis on building societies and
mortgage provision. In all of these, the rural areas were neglected, left the
qualitative issues in this part of the country unattended to whereas the housing
stocks in the urban areas were improved upon (Ibimilua and Ibitoye 2015).
Housing shortage in urban centres accentuated by high rate of urbanization
prompted this selective attention by the government. The military era improved
on the housing delivery policies met on ground. The period between 1979 and
156
1983 witnessed tremendous improvement in the provision of public housing.
Direct construction of supposedly low cost housing was vigorously pursued,
while governments at both the state and the federal levels set specific targets of
delivering large number of low cost housing units. The laudable goal and the
vigour at which this was pursued were marred with harp corrupt practices and
politicisation of the scheme. Houses delivered then were ended up been too
expensive and indirectly inaccessible by the low income earners, while most of
them were built in poor locations. The military coup of 1984 though a necessary
evil truncated the housing delivery target of the civilian government. The
military era that came on board (1964-1999) equally showed a pious intention
of meeting the housing needs of the poor. Housing finance seems to pre-occupy
the policy framework of the successive governments under this era. This was
enhanced by the promulgation of the Mortgage Institutions Decree No 53 of
1989. The decree promoted the realization of the major and specific objectives
of the National Housing Policy.
Complementing this is the Economic Liberalisation Policy of Babangida’s

administration which motivated the participation of the private organisation in
housing delivery. This was preceded by the promulgation of the Urban and
Regional Planning Decree 88 of 1992 as well as the National Housing Fund
(NHF) Decree No 3 of 1992. The NHF was tasked with the responsibility of
ensuring sustainable flow of mortgage for housing construction and delivery.
The 1992 policy gives priority to housing finance with mandatory provision for
contributory scheme of 4% by all Nigerian workers into the NHF to allow them
access mortgage facility. The era witnessed the springing up primary mortgage
institutions. Workers through their respective labour unions for the reason
malpractices associated with the scheme kicked against the mandatory
contribution and there was a policy adjustment that makes the contribution into
the scheme voluntary.
157
Before the millennium, the policy of ‘housing for all in year 2000’ was
formulated to re-echo the policy goal of the National Housing Policy of 1999.
The policy affordable for all by the year 2000 was piously pursued, but it was
marred according to Ibimilua & Ibitoye (2015) by administrative bottlenecks
which made the stated aim of the policy unachievable in and beyond the year
2000. Nevertheless, in year 2002, the Housing and Urban Development Policy
was formulated. This policy was meant majorly to correct the shortcomings of
the Land Use Act as well as to allow land banking and ownership to operate in a
free market economy. The post military era has been able to witness significant
improvement in the Nigerian housing situation. Contrary to the general
expectations the federal government policy on monetization and privatization
are retarding the objectives of housing policies and progammes. Other
constraints to housing development and delivery in Nigeria are poverty, high
cost of building materials, inadequate financial instruments for mobilization of
funds, short maturity preference of lending institution, political instability, sharp
practices among government officials, the unresolved problem of land
ownership despite its nationalisation in 1979, over-politicisation of housing
programmes, high rate of rural-urban migration, as well as high rate of poverty.

1. What advice will you give to people during construction of their buildings.
2. Discuss the link between housing and health.
3. Provide critical appraisal of local and international responses to housing

problems.
In this session, we have learnt that a house that meets specific standard in terms
of the location, construction, facilities and services is essential to sound health.
158
It is important that houses meet the standard building codes, standards for water,
sanitary facilities, plumbing, wiring and some other elements of residential
environment for people living in such houses to be in optimal health. We have
also provided a brief overview of housing policy in Nigeria. In the next session,
we will look at the laws and legislation on environment in Nigeria.

Describe the qualities of a good house?
a. Visit YouTube https://bit.ly/2X5uMg6 . Watch the video & summarise in 1
paragraph
b. View the animation on https://bit.ly/2X4euE4 and critique it in the discussion

forum

Howard, G., (2002) Healthy Villages: A guide for communities and community
health workers. Geneva: World Health Organisation at
http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/hygiene/settings/hvintro.pdfa
ccessed on 20 March 2016.
Basset, W.H. (2007). Housing Acts. Environmental Health Procedures. Seventh
Edition. Taylor and Francis Group. London and New York. pp 458
Ibimilua, A. F. and Ibitoye, O. A. (2015). Housing Policy in Nigeria: An

Overview. American International Journal of Contemporary Research.
Vol. 5, No. 2; April 2015.
159
STUDY SESSION 3
Environmental Health Law and Legislation

Introduction
2.0 Main Content
2.1 - Environmental Health Law and Legislation in Nigeria
2.2- Techniques in Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
2.3 - Role of Stakeholders in EIA
2.4- Environmental Audit
2.5- Environmental Impact Statement
Introduction:
Less privileged populations have been known to suffer from harmful effects of
activities carried out by more privileged persons, one of which is dumping of
toxic wastes near communities. These injustices have led to the coming together
of affected communities and concerned individuals and organisations in order to
address these injustices and ensure fair treatment of the less privileged
communities. These efforts have gone further to ensure that laws are enacted to
protect the environment and human populations from harmful activities. One of
such is the Harmful Waste Act of Nigeria that was enacted in response to the
Koko toxic waste dumping incident of 1986. Therefore, the role of legislation in
160
inducing responsible attitudes and behaviors towards the environment cannot be
overlooked. This is because legislation serves as an effective instrument for
environmental protection, planning, pollution, prevention and control.

1. Discuss the environmental laws of Nigeria
2. Explain environmental impact assessment
3. Explain the act that established EIA
4. Discuss the role of law enforcement agents in EIA
5. Define audit and understand its application
6. State the methods involved in environmental audit
7. Explain the use of Environmental Statement in handling environmental
challenges.
2.0 Main Content

2.1. Environmental Health Law and Legislation in Nigeria
The role legislation plays in ensuring responsible attitudes and behaviours
towards the environment is important. Legislation serves as an effective tool for
environmental protection, planning, pollution prevention and control. Nigerian
legislation on the environment are below;
CONSTITUTION OF THE FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF NIGERIA (1999)
The constitution, as the national legal order, recognises the importance of
improving and protecting the environment and makes provision for it. Relevant
sections are:
• Section 20 makes it an objective of the Nigerian State to improve and protect
the air, land, water, forest and wildlife of Nigeria.
161
• Section 12 establishes, though impliedly, that international treaties (including
environmental treaties) ratified by the National Assembly should be
implemented as law in Nigeria.
• Section 33 and 34 which guarantee fundamental human rights to life and
human dignity respectively, have also being argued to be linked to the need for
a healthy and safe environment to give these rights effect.
NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL STANDARDS AND REGULATION
ENFORCEMENT AGENCY (NESREA) ACT 2007
• Administered by the Ministry of Environment, the National Environment
Standards and Regulation Enforcement Agency (NESREA) Act of 2007
replaced the Federal Environmental Protection Agency (FEPA) Act. It is the
embodiment of laws and regulations focused on the protection and sustainable
development of the environment and its natural resources. The following
sections are worth noting:
- Section 7 provides authority to ensure compliance with environmental laws,
local and international, on environmental sanitation and pollution prevention
and control through monitory and regulatory measures.
• Section 8 (1)(K) empowers the Agency to make and review regulations on air
and water quality, effluent limitations, control of harmful substances and other
forms of environmental pollution and sanitation.
• Section 27 prohibits, without lawful authority, the discharge of hazardous
substances into the environment. This offence is punishable under this section,
with a fine not exceeding, N1,000,000 (One Million Naira) and an
imprisonment term of 5 years. In the case of a company, there is an additional
fine of N50, 000, for every day the offence persists.
162
REGULATIONS (UNDER NESREA) National Effluent Limitation
Regulations.
• Section 1 (1) requires industry facilities to have anti-pollution equipment for
the treatment of effluent.
• Section 3 (2) requires a submission to the agency of a composition of the
industry’s treated effluents.
• National Environment Protection (Pollution Abatement in Industries and
Facilities producing Waste) Regulations (1991).
• Section 1 Prohibits the release of hazardous substances into the air, land or
water of Nigeria beyond approved limits set by the Agency.
• Section 4 and 5 requires industries to report a discharge if it occurs and to
submit a comprehensive list of chemicals used for production to the Agency.
Federal Solid and Hazardous Waste Management Regulations (1991).
• Section 1 makes it an obligation for industries to identify solid hazardous
wastes which are dangerous to public health and the environment and to
research into the possibility of their recycling.
• Section 20 makes notification of any discharge to the Agency mandatory.
• Section 108 stipulates penalties for contravening any regulation.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT (EIA) ACT. CAP E12,

LFN 2004.
An Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is an assessment of the potential
impacts whether positive or negative, of a proposed project on the natural
environment: The E.I.A Act, as it is informally called, deals with the
considerations of environmental impact in respect of public and private projects.
Sections relevant to environmental emergency prevention under the EIA
include: -
• Section 2 (1) requires an assessment of public or private projects likely to have
a significant (negative) impact on the environment.
163
• Section 2 (4) requires an application in writing to the Agency before
embarking on projects for their environmental assessment to determine
approval.
• Section 13 establishes cases where an EIA is required and
• Section 60 creates a legal liability for contravention of any provision.
THE NIGERIAN URBAN AND REGIONAL PLANNING ACT CAP

N138, LFN 2004
The Urban and Regional Planning Act is aimed at overseeing a realistic,
purposeful planning of the country to avoid overcrowding and poor
environmental conditions. In this regard, the following sections become
instructive:-
• Section 30 (3) requires a building plan to be drawn by a registered architect or
town planner.
• Section 39 (7) establishes that an application for land development would be
rejected if such development would harm the environment or constitute a
nuisance to the community.
• Section 59 makes it an offence to disobey a stop-work order. The punishment
under this section, is a fine not exceeding N10, 000 (Ten thousand naira) and in
the case of a company, a fine not exceeding N50, 000.
• Section 72 provides for the preservation and planting of trees for
environmental conservation.
HARMFUL WASTE (SPECIAL CRIMINAL PROVISIONS) ACT CAP

H1, LFN 2004
The Harmful Waste Act prohibits, without lawful authority, the carrying,
dumping or depositing of harmful waste in the air, land or waters of Nigeria.
The following sections are notable:
164
• Section 6 provides for a punishment of life imprisonment for offenders as well
as the forfeiture of land or anything used to commit the offence.
• Section 7 makes provision for the punishment accordingly, of any conniving,
consenting or negligent officer where the offence is committed by a company.
• Section 12 defines the civil liability of any offender. He would be liable to
persons who have suffered injury as a result of his offending act.
OIL IN NAVIGABLE WATERS ACT, CAP 06, LFN 2004. The Oil in
Navigable Waters Act is concerned with the discharge of oil from ships. The
following sections are significant: -
• Section 1 (1) prohibits the discharge of oil from a Nigerian ship into territorial
waters or shorelines.
• Section 3 makes it an offence for a ship master, occupier of land, or operator
of apparatus for transferring oil to discharge oil into Nigerian Waters. It also
requires the installation of anti-pollution equipment in ships.
• Section 6 makes punishable such discharge with a fine of N2,000 (Two
thousand naira).
• Section 7 requires the records of occasions of oil discharge.
ASSOCIATED GAS RE-INJECTION ACT, CAP 20, and LFN 2004.
The Associated Gas Re-Injection Act deals with the gas flaring activities of oil
and gas companies in Nigeria. The following sections are relevant to pollution
prevention: -
• Section 3 (1) prohibits, without lawful permission, any oil and gas company
from flaring gas in Nigeria.
• Section 4 stipulates the penalty for breach of permit conditions
THE ENDANGERED SPECIES ACT, CAP E9, LFN 2004.
This Act focuses on the protection and management of Nigeria’s wildlife and
some of their species in danger of extinction as a result of overexploitation.
These sections are noteworthy:
165
• Section 1 prohibits, except under a valid license, the hunting, capture or trade
in animal species, either presently or likely being in danger of extinction.
• Section 5 defines the liability of any offender under this Act.
• Section 7 provides for regulations to be made necessary for environmental
prevention and control as regards the purposes of this Act.
SEA FISHERIES ACT, CAP S4, LFN 2004.
The Sea Fisheries Act makes it illegal to take or harm fishes within Nigerian
waters by use of explosives, poisonous or noxious substances. Relevant sections
include the following: -
• Section 1 prohibits any unlicensed operation of motor fishing boats within
Nigerian waters.
• Section 10 makes destruction of fishes punishable with a fine of N50, 000 or
an imprisonment term of 2 years.
• Section 14 (2) provides authority to make for the protection and conservation
of sea fishes.
OIL PIPELINES ACT, CAP 07, LFN 2004.
The Oil Pipelines Act and its Regulations guide oil activities. The following
sections are pertinent;
• Section 11 (5) creates a civil liability on the person who owns or is in charge
of an oil pipeline. He would be liable to pay compensation to anyone who
suffers physical or economic injury as a result of a break or leak in his pipelines.
• Section 17 (4) establishes that grant of licenses are subject to regulations
concerning public safety and prevention of land and water pollution.
NUCLEAR SAFETY AND RADIATION PROTECTION ACT, CAP

N142, LFN 2004.
The Act is concerned with the regulation of the use of radioactive substances
and equipment emitting and generating ionising radiation. In particular:
166
• Section 4 provides authority to make regulations for the protection of the
environment from the harmful effects of ionising radiation.
• Section 15 and 16 makes registration of premises and the restriction of
ionising radiation sources to those premises mandatory.
• Section 37 (1) (b) allows an inspector verify records of activities that pertain to
the environment.
• Section 40 clarifies that the same regulations guiding the transportation of
dangerous goods by air, land or water should also apply to the transportation of
radioactive substances.
NIGERIAN MINING CORPORATION ACT. CAP N120, LFN 2004.

This Act establishes the Nigerian Mining Corporation. It has authority to engage
in mining refining activities and to construct and maintain roads, dams,
reservoirs, etc. In particular:
Section 16 creates a civil liability on the corporation for the physical or
economic damage suffered by any person as a result of its activities.
QUARANTINE ACT, CAP Q2, LFN 2004.

The Quarantine Act provides authority to make regulations for preventing the
introduction, spread and transmission of infectious diseases such as cholera,
yellow fever, typhus, etc. under this Act, violation of any regulation is
punishable with a fine or an imprisonment term of 2 years or both.
RIVER BASINS DEVELOPMENT AUTHORITY ACT, CAP R9, LFN

2004.
The River Basins Development Authority is concerned with the development of
water resources for domestic, industrial and other uses, and the control of floods
and erosion
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ANIMAL DISEASES (CONTROL) ACT, CAP A17, LFN 2004.
The Animal Disease (Control) Act makes it an offence to import any animal,
hatching egg or poultry into Nigeria except under a permit. The following
sections are relevant: Section 5 provides an inspector with the authority to take
emergency measures where necessary. Section 10 stipulates penalties for
contravening any regulation. Section 13 requires owners of trade animals to
possess a movement permit and ensure the fitness of their animals. Section 20
provides authority to make regulations that prevent and control the spread of
animal diseases.
FACTORIES ACT, CAP F1, LFN 2004. The Factories Act promotes the
safety of workers and professionals exposed
to occupational hazards. Under this Act, it is
an offence to use unregistered premises for
factory purposes. In particular: Section 13
allows an inspector take emergency measures
or request that emergency measures be taken
by a person qualified to do so in cases of
pollution or any nuisance.
WATER RESOURCES ACT, CAP W2, LFN 2004.

The Water Resources Act is targeted at developing and improving the quantity
and quality of water resources. The following sections are pertinent: Section 5
and 6 provides authority to make pollution prevention plans and regulations for
the protection of fisheries, flora and fauna. Section 18 makes offenders liable,
under this Act, to be punished with a fine not exceeding N2000 or an
imprisonment term of six months. He would also pay an additional fine of N100
for everyday the offence continues.
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THE FEDERAL NATIONAL PARKS ACT, CAP N65, LFN 2004.
The National Parks Act is concerned with the establishment of protected areas
used for resource conservation, water catchments protection, wildlife
conservation and maintenance of the national eco-system balance.
NIGER-DELTA DEVELOPMENT COMMISSION (NDDC) ACT, CAP

N68, and LFN 2004.
The Niger-Delta Development Commission Act is concerned with using
allocated funds to tackle ecological problems arising from the exploration of oil
minerals in the Delta. Section 7 (1) (b) empowers the Commission to plan and
to implement projects for the sustainable development of the Delta in the field
of transportation, health, agriculture, fisheries, urban and housing development,
etc. The Commission, under this Act, has a duty to liaise with oil and gas
companies and advice stakeholders on the control of oil spillages, gas flaring
and other related forms of environmental pollution
OTHER LEGISLATION: Environmental Sanitation Law: This is a law of

Lagos State focused on environmental sanitation and protection. It punishes in
varying degrees acts like street obstruction, failure to clean sidewalks, cover
refuse bins or dispose wastes properly.
Environmental Pollution Control Law Section 12 of this law under the Laws of
Lagos State makes it an offence to cause or permit a discharge of raw untreated
human waste into any public drain, water course or onto any land or water. This
offence is punishable with a fine not exceeding N100,000 (One hundred
thousand naira) and in the case of a company, a fine not exceeding N500,000.
CRIMINAL CODE: The Criminal Code contains provisions for the prevention
of public health hazards and for environmental protection. Hence: Sections 245-
248 deal with offences ranging from water fouling, to the use of noxious
substances.
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In-text Question
Mention any four environmental health law and legislation in Nigeria.
Answer
1.National Environmental Standards and Regulation Enforcement Agency (NESREA) Act
2007
2.Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Act. Cap E12, LFN 2004.
3.Oil in Navigable Waters Act, Cap 06, LFN 2004
4.Niger-Delta Development Commission (NDDC) Act, Cap N68, And LFN 2004.
2.2. Techniques in Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) has been adopted as an environmental
management and planning tool by many developed and developing countries
after its introduction in the United States in the late 1960s. The EIA can be
defined as a systematic process for identifying, predicting and evaluating
potential impacts associated with a development project. The EIA process must
proffer mitigation measures to avoid, reduce or minimise the negative impacts
on the environment, public health and property. It must also enhance positive
impacts. The mitigation measures entail identifying possible alternative site,
project, process design, including that of not proceeding with the project. EIA is
not a one – off process which terminates in the production of a report on the
effects of the project and associated mitigation measures. It also deals with
monitoring the construction and operational phases, and acting on the results of
such monitoring till final closure.
The post-closure care is also an integral part of the EIA process. Many EIA
systems are built on the original 1969 National Environmental Protection Act
(NEPA) in the United States, which explicitly included the words “human
health”. Nigeria, for example, is a Lower Middle Income Country (LMIC)
whose EIA system contains similar wording. Despite this, influencing the actual
functioning of these systems, including under NEPA to comprehensively
incorporate health has, however, proven challenging and remains a missed
170
opportunity for public health. The EIA legislations and the required procedural
guidelines for carrying out the EIA process became effective since the 1970s in
developed countries. Nigeria took a giant leap when she promulgated her main
EIA legislation (i.e. EIA Act No.86) in 1992 (6). The Nigerian EIA Act No. 86
of 1992 (8) makes the EIA mandatory for development projects likely to have
adverse impacts on the environment prior to implementation {Section 14(1) (a)
& (b)}. Section 14 (1) (d) further states that the Federal, States, Local Councils
or any of its agencies, prior to environmental assessment of the project in
accordance with the EIA Act, shall not “under the provisions of any law or
enactment, issue a permit or license, grants an approval or takes any other
action for the purpose of enabling the project to be carried out in whole or in
part.”
In-text Question
Define EIA
Answer
The EIA can be defined as a systematic process for identifying, predicting and evaluating
potential impacts associated with a development project.
2.3. Role of Stakeholders in EIA

The environmental stakeholders are under moral and legal obligations to protect
and enhance the natural environment. They can do this by combating
destructive environmental projects; promoting environmental sustainability of
natural resources, good environmental policy/practice; and striving for
environmental justice. The environmental stakeholders include the government
regulators, the projects proponents, the local communities, the non-
governmental organisations (NGO’s) and the general public. In essence,
everyone is a stakeholder in the environment. The government has a major role
171
to play in providing a national framework for integrating development and
conservation. The government should:
• Establish a comprehensive system of environmental law and provide for its
implementation and enforcement by all stakeholders.
• Review the adequacy of legal, political and administrative controls concerning
implementation and enforcement mechanisms, recognizing the local
approaches.
• Ensure that national policies, development plans & programs, budgets and
other decisions take full account of their effects on the environment.
• Use economic incentive or disincentive as appropriate to achieve
sustainability.
In Nigeria, the EIA regulations are principally contained in the EIA Act No. 86
of 1992. The law is administered by Federal Ministry of Environment, Housing
& Urban Development (FMEH&UD). But in practice the law stands abrogated,
as it has not been rightly enforced by the regulator since its commencement.
This is due to lack of technical resources by the government regulatory body on
the one hand and the considerable leverage of the operators of projects (with
potential hazards) over the regulator on the other hand. Both the regulator and
operators often engage in pretend game at the expense of the local communities.
The multinational oil and gas industry gives itself moral and legal authority to
regulate its own activities and also dictates to the government agencies
regarding the regulatory regime. This enables the law to be prostituted to the
greedy oil and gas industry. Consequently, the multinational views
collaboration with local communities as an undue burden on it rather than a
means to develop a productive rapport with its social environment.
EIA is mandatory for activities in all sectors of the economy. The activities in
the oil and gas sector for example which require an EIA include:
a) Oil and gas fields development;
172
b) Construction of off-shore, on-shore, and overland pipe line;
c) Construction of oil and gas processing facilities;
d) Construction of oil refineries;
e) Waste treatment and disposal.
2.4. Environmental Audit

The term audit has it origin in the financial sector. Auditing in general is a
methodical examination involving analyses, tests and confirmations of
procedures and practices whose goal is to verify whether they comply with legal
requirements, internal policies and accepted practices. It can also be said that a
systematic, documented, periodic, and objective review of facility operations
and practices related to meeting environmental requirements is referred to as
environmental audit. The policy also identified several objectives for audits:
• Verifying compliance with environmental requirements;
• Evaluating the effectiveness of in-place environmental management
systems; and
• Assessing risks from regulated and unregulated materials and practices.
There are few key elements that absolutely should be a part of every audit.
i. Systematic: Following some type of auditing program, using standard
practices, done comprehensively, providing for that "head to toe" type review.
Basically, following rules about how to do the audit and not just winging it.
ii. Documented: The audit is recorded mostly via writing or on a computer or
via software. The findings are documented, and kept track of it.
iii. Periodic: This means that the audits are done regularly, not just once. This is
subjective as your audits could be bi-annually, annually, every other year, every
five years, etc.
iv. Objective: The audit is performed by someone without a vested interest in
the outcome. So, if you are an environmental manager, your job is to pay, or
173
position depends on the finding of the audit he/she is conducting, it's not
objective. This is basically saying to have an outsider do the audit.
v. Verifying compliance: Ensuring you are in compliance with every rule and
regulation which applies to the operation or facility, and all facets of those
regulations. Not just picking and choosing, electing to ignore the ones you are
not sure about or know you are not in compliance with. It means you are on the
same level with every applicable federal, state, and possibly even local
government and city regulations that apply to the environmental issues.
In-text Question
What is environmental audit?
Answer
Environmental audit is a systematic, documented, periodic, and objective review of facility
operations and practices related to meeting environmental requirements.
2.5. Environmental Impact Statement

The Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) is a document prepared by a
proponent or developer applicant describing a proposed program or project;
alternatives to the project and measure to be adopted to protect the environment.
The EIS shall include a description of the likely significant effect, direct and
indirect, on the environment of the development, explained by relevance to its
possible impact on historical, archaeological, cultural heritage.
Characteristics of an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)
• Clear, concise summary
• Full glossary
• Contents and authorship clearly set out
• Brief history of proposed development
• Full description of the proposed project, objectives, geographical boundary,
short and long term impacts, reversible or permanent impacts
• Full description of existing environment - data assembly
174
• Alternative actions - the no-action alternative
• Justification of proposal - economic, social and environmental
• Proposal for protection of the environment from proposed actions - risks and
mitigation actions for components of the system failing
• Effect on local infrastructure
• Communication - full involvement of the public
• The decision - public release of the decision
In-text Question
State any four characteristics of EIS
Answer
• Clear, concise summary
• Full glossary
• Contents and authorship clearly set out
• Brief history of proposed development

1. What are environmental health laws?
2. Discuss the Nigerian legislation on the environment
3. Define EIA and outline how it came into existence.
4. Briefly outline characteristics of environmental impact statement.
In this session, you have learnt about the laws and legislation on environmental
health. In addition, you have also learnt that Environmental Impact Assessment
(EIA) has been adopted as an environmental management and planning tool by
many developed and developing countries to handle environmental challenges.
Therefore, the importance of EIA cannot be overemphasised because is a major
problem that threatens the existence of human. The environmental stakeholders
in particular and by extension everyone is under moral and legal obligations to
protect and enhance the natural environment. Environmental impact statement
175
(EIS) is a planning tool intended to identify and mitigate significant adverse
environmental effects of projects. Environmental impact assessment (Audit and
statement) is the process of identification, description and assessment of the
direct and indirect effects of a project on: human beings, fauna and flora; soil,
water, air, climate and the landscape; the interaction of these factors; and on
material assets, and the cultural heritage.

In details, describe the essential elements of environmental audit.
a. Visit YouTube https://bit.ly/2xJeJKo . Watch the video & summarise in 1
paragraph
b. View the animation on https://bit.ly/3aDXZTb and critique it in the

discussion forum

Fatona, P.O. Adetayo, O. &Adesanwo, A. (2015). Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA) Law and Practice in Nigeria: How Far? How Well?
American Journal of Environmental Policy and Management1(1): 11-15.
Ogunba, O.A. (2004). EIA systems in Nigeria: evolution, current practice and
shortcomings. Environ Impact Asses Review, 24: 643–60.
Echefu, N. and Akpofure, E. (2002). Environmental Impact Assessment in
Nigeria: Regulatory Background and Procedural Framework. Echefu
and Co, 25 Beckweri Street, D/Line, Portharcourt and Nigeria, UNEP
EIA Training Resource Manual, pp. 63-74.
176
United Nations Environment Program (1991). Environmental Law Guidelines
and Principles Environmental Impact Assessment.
Mackenzie Valley Review Board (2013). Report of Environmental Assessment
and Reasons for Decision: EA1011-001 Avalon Rare Metals Inc.
Nechalacho Rare Earth Element Project. Yellowknife, NWT, Canada,
Mackenzie Valley Review Board, 2013c.
177
STUDY SESSION 4
Laws on Protecting Health and Safety of Workers

Introduction
2.0 Main Content
2.1 – Labour Law
2.2- Factory Act
2.3- Workman’s Compensation Law
Introduction
One of the effects of the Europeans coming into this part of the world was the
introduction of wage-earning employment. In the course of time it was
discovered that it was absolutely necessary to safeguard the interest of both the
employer and the employee, hence the introduction of the various means of
regulating employer-employee relationship. Initially, it was thought that the
employees were being made objects of servitude but in the long run it became
apparent that this sort of relationship requires the incorporation of rules to avoid
either party being cheated out rightly.
In common law, there are certain duties which an employer owes the employees.
The point however must be made that apart from this duties, growing
industrialisation has brought into existence a number of statutes designed to
govern, order and regulate industrial activities generally. The purpose of this
178
session is to examine these statutes as they relate to employer and employee
relationship. Therefore, you will learn about labour laws, factory act and
workman compensation law in this session.

1. Discuss the history of labour law in Nigeria.
2. Discuss the whole essence of labour law in Nigeria.
3. Determine factors of a master/servant relationship.
4. Identify various statutes on labour law in Nigeria.
5. Review and examine the relevance of those statutes designed to govern, order
and regulate industrial activities generally.
6. Discuss the Factory Act.
7. Discuss the instruments for providing compensation for the employees in
case of injury.
8. Explain the concept of workman compensation.
9. State the features of workman compensation law and other labour laws.
10. Explain the various Workers' Compensation fraud.
2.0 Main Content

2.1. Labour Law
2.1.1. History of labour law in Nigeria
Labour law in Nigeria is generally defined as that branch of the country’s law
which regulates industrial relations. In essence, labour laws are meant to
guarantee peace and harmony in the industry so as to increase productivity and
profits. Our labour laws are largely a reflection of our colonial heritage. By
virtue of this, many principles of British labour law featured prominently in our
labour statutes. The main characteristics of the incursion of the colonial masters
179
were the introduction of labour laws and policies which seemed largely
designed to facilitate the commercial and economic objectives and interests of
the colonial masters. Thus, in spite of the fact that Britain proudly claimed to
observe the Bill of Rights and the rule of law, labour leaders were targets of
repression and oppression for no other justifiable reason than that they had the
effrontery to demand for their rights.
In 1861, Lagos was ceded to the British Crown and in 1862 it was made a
colony or settlement as it was sometimes called. By virtue of the Supreme Court
Ordinance 1876, English common law, doctrines of equity and statutes of
general application were received into Nigerian legal system and by extension,
Nigerian law. Notwithstanding that the offence of criminal conspiracy as it
affected trade unions had been abolished in England by the Conspiracy and
Protection of Property Act as far back as 1875, Nigerian workers did not enjoy
such protection until 1939 when the Trade Union Ordinance was enacted. Apart
from statutes and laws regulating employment, common law has played and
continues to play an important if not dominant role in regulating the relationship
of master and servant or, as it is known in modern times, employer and
employee. The courts have by themselves also developed rules which have
become permanent features of the contract of employment. By these rules,
certain obligations and rights are implied into contracts of employment in order
to give such contract the required and necessary business efficacy.
According to the eminent Professor of Law, Professor Uvieghara, Nigeria
judges provide the vehicle by which the received English common law is
brought into Nigerian law with binding effects. The learned author cited the
Supreme Court judgement in Ezeani V Njidike (1965) as an example of the
distinctive character which the Nigeria judicial decisions are taken on in the
light of the prevailing unfavourable local circumstances.
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Labour law in Nigeria has come to stay and had grown considerably well after
its first introduction following the cession of Lagos to the British crown in 1861
and has enjoyed a high level of judicial activism up to date. It is now part and
parcel of our laws with up to date legislations which take care of as they
emerge.
2.1.2. Purpose of Labour Law
One of the major purposes of labour law is to regulate the relationship between
an employer and an employee. By this, the common law and statute have
established that an employer is under an obligation to ensure the safety and
security of his employee. Therefore, it is now recognised that an employer owes
a duty to each employee to take such action as the nature of the work and
circumstance of the employee demand so that the employee is reasonably safe at
his place of work.
An often quoted statement of this important duty of the employer is that of

Lord Wright in Wilson and Clyde Coal Co. Ltd V English (1938) AC57 at 80
where he said that:
… the whole course of authority consistently recognises a duty which rests on
the employer and which is personal to the employer to take reasonable care for
the safety of his workman, whether the employer is an individual, a firm or a
company, and whether or not the employer takes any share in the conduct of the
operations.
Therefore, the primary purpose of labour law is that it imposes direct liability on
the employer and is separate from the Master’s vicarious liability for negligence
of his servants. This is a duty imposed on the master and recognised by the
common law. It is popularly referred to as the ‘Duty of Care’ but is subject to
certain limitations as it is open to defenses of volenti non fit injuria and
181
contributory negligence. This duty is now statutorily under the Factories Act
and other statutes designed for the safety of workers.
2.1.3. The Scope of Labour Law

To understand the major scope of labour law, one has to look at the likely and
probable legal consequences which may follow it in a situation where there is a
breach of any of the obligations imputed on either the employer or the
employee. A typical example of the scenario being examined is wrongful
dismissal of an employee by the employer without recourse to the regulations
and guidelines of the company. This under the law is a typical example of
wrongful dismissal. This will automatically give rise to a civil proceeding at the
instance of the wrongfully dismissed employee.
On the other hand, where an employee who is under an obligation to give

adequate and substantial notice to his employers before quitting such job
abandons his employers without recourse to the conditions of his employment,
he will be the defendant at the suit of the company/employers for damages
caused as a result of his unprofessional attitude to work without recourse to the
regulations and conditions of his employment.
In-text Question
Define labour law in Nigeria and its purpose
Answer
Labour law in Nigeria is generally defined as that branch of the country’s law which
regulates industrial relations. In essence, labour laws are meant to guarantee peace and
harmony in the industry so as to increase productivity and profits.
2.2. The Factories Act

We have already discussed the Factory Act in the previous session, this is just
an addition to what we have learnt. The Factories Act, cap 126 laws of the
182
Federation of Nigeria (LFN) 1990 was primarily designed to govern order and
regulate industrial activities generally.
In essence, its main duty is to prevent occupational accidents and diseases in
factories. In PULLEN V. PRISON COMMISSIONARS [1957] 3 ALL E.R.470,
Lord Goddard, C.J. commenting on the object of the English Factories Act of
1937 said:
The Factories Act, 1937, is an Act which is designed for the protection of
persons working in factories, that is to say, it is an act which is intended to and
does put obligations on employers of labour in factories, to take various
precautions for the protection of their work-people.
It is also important to state at this point that it has earlier being said that Nigeria
labour law principally is derived from English labour law and as such the
Factories Act, LFN 1990 is the Nigerian version of the English Factories Act
of 1961 albeit with little modification to fit into our own peculiar local
circumstances.
Essentially, it is an off-shoot of the English common law, most of which is now
codified. However, a thorough understanding of the provisions of section 37(1)
of the Act will reveal the following points:
1) A factory premises must be used for trade or gain in order to qualify as a
factory. The phrase “trade” or “gain” connotes an intention to make profit.
Thus, the kitchen of a manual hospital had been held not to be a factory because
the mincing of meat by electrical means carried on in it was not carried on by
way of trade or gain.
2) The employer must have access to or control over the premises if the place is
to be a factory.
3) Generally, the person or persons who work in a factory must be employed.
Thus it has been held that a prison workshop was not a factory under the
definition of factory in the Act since there was no relationship of master and
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servant or employment for wages. Part II of the Act, which is on general health
provisions, imposes on the occupiers of factories, duties designed to protect the
health of those employed in such places. Sections 7-12 deal with cleanliness,
overcrowding, ventilation, lighting, damage of floors and sanitary conveniences.
The principal provisions of part III of the Act are those dealing with general
safety provisions with particular emphasis on the provision for fencing of
machinery. Machinery under the Act is divided into three classes:
a) Prime movers see sec. 14; these are engines, motors and other enhancements
which provide mechanical energy derived from steam, water, wind, electricity,
the combustion of fuel and other sources.
b) Transmission machinery; See section
15. This consists of every shaft, wheel,
drum, pulley, and system of fast and
loose pulleys, coupling, clutch, driving-
belt or other devices by which the motion
of a prime mover is transmitted to or
received by any machine or appliances.
c) Other dangerous parts of machinery. The combined effect of the provision of
sections 14(1), 15(1) and 17(1) of the Act is that it is obligatory on the occupier
of a factory to securely fence their parts of a machinery unless they are in such
position or of such construction as to be safe to every person employed or
working on the premises as it would be if securely fenced.
The Nature of Fencing

The primary purpose of section 17 of the Act is that it imposes a duty to fence
every dangerous part of machinery on the owner of the factory.
Prime movers and transmission machinery must be securely fenced. The duty to
fence any other part of machinery arises only if that part is dangerous.
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In determining whether a part of machinery is dangerous, the test to be applied
is forcibility. In other words, a part of machinery is dangerous if it could
reasonably cause harm. Section 19 of the Act, which specifically provides for
fencing of dangerous machineries provides as follows:
All fencing or other safeguards provided in pursuance of the foregoing
provisions of the Act shall be of substantial construction, and constantly
maintained and kept in position while the parts required to be fenced or
safeguarded are in motion or in use, except when any such parts are necessarily
exposed for examination and for any lubrication or adjustment shown by such
examination to be immediately necessary, and all the conditions specified in
section 18(2) of this Act are complied with.
From the above provision of the Act, machinery means, for purpose of fencing,
machinery used in the course of the factory’s processes or production as distinct
from machinery which is merely a product of the factory. The fencing
requirement therefore, extends to all machinery forming part of the equipment
of a factory, whether in a fixed position or capable of moving from place to
place, thus they apply to a mobile crane and also vehicles used in a
factory…but not visiting vehicles….
It is therefore submitted that the duty to fence imposed by the Act is absolute
and strict in the sense that it is neither qualified by such words as as far as
reasonably practicable nor does it impose on the occupier a duty to take all
practicable measures. The duties to fence apply irrespective of practicability.
An occupier of a factory cannot therefore excuse his failure to securely fence
machinery by suggesting that fencing would make the machinery unusable.
In essence, strict or absolute obligation to fence does not mean that the fence
must be so constructed that it cannot be climbed over, or broken down, by an
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employee who is determined to get out the machinery. That would be
demanding the impossible from the employers.
In-text Question
What test is used to determine whether a part of machinery is dangerous?
Answer
Forcibility
2.3. Concept of Workman Compensation

Workers' compensation is a form of insurance providing wage replacement
and medical benefits to employees injured in the course of employment in
exchange for mandatory relinquishment of the employee's right to sue their
employer for the tort of negligence. The trade-off between assured, limited
coverage and lack of recourse outside the worker compensation system is
known as "the compensation bargain".
One of the problems that the compensation bargain solved is the problem of
employers becoming insolvent as a result of high damage awards. The system
of collective liability was created to prevent that, and thus to ensure security of
compensation to the workers. Individual immunity is the necessary corollary to
collective liability. While plans
differ among jurisdictions,
provision can be made for
weekly payments in place of
wages (functioning in this case
as a form of disability
insurance), compensation for
economic loss (past and future),
reimbursement or payment of medical and like expenses (functioning in this
186
case as a form of health insurance), and benefits payable to the dependents of
workers killed during employment (functioning in this case as a form of life
insurance).
General damage for pain and suffering, and punitive damages for employer
negligence, are generally not available in workers' compensation plans, and
negligence is generally not an issue in the case. These laws were first enacted in
Europe and Oceania, with the United States following shortly thereafter.
2.3.1. Worker Compensation Law

Workers' compensation is insurance that provides cash benefits and/or medical
care for workers who are injured or become ill as a direct result of their job.
Employers pay for this insurance, and shall not require the employee to
contribute to the cost of compensation. Weekly cash benefits and medical care
are paid by the employer's insurance carrier, as directed by the Workers'
Compensation Board. The Workers' Compensation Board is a state agency
that processes the claims. If Board intervention is necessary, it will determine
whether that insurer will reimburse for cash benefits and/or medical care, and
the amounts payable. In a workers' compensation case, no one party is
determined to be at fault. The amount that a claimant receives is not decreased
by his/her carelessness, nor increased by an employer's fault.
However, a worker loses his/her

right to workers' compensation if
the injury results solely from his
or her intoxication from drugs or
alcohol, or from the intent to
injure him/herself or someone
else. A claim is paid if the
187
employer or insurance carrier agrees that the injury or illness is work-related. If
the employer or insurance carrier disputes the claim, no cash benefits are paid
until the workers' compensation law judge decides who is right. If a worker is
not receiving benefits because the employer or insurance carrier is arguing that
the injury is not job-related, he or she may be eligible for disability benefits in
the meantime. Any payments made under the Disability Program, however, will
be subtracted from future workers' compensation awards.
If you can return to work but your injury prevents you from earning the same
wages you once did, you may be entitled to a benefit that will make up two-
thirds of the difference. You may also return to work in light or alternate duty
before you are fully healed.
2.3.2. Other Forms of Labour Law

A. Common-law Remedies
Common law imposes obligations on employers to provide a safe workplace,
provide safe tools, give warnings of dangers, provide adequate co-worker
assistance (fit, trained, suitable "fellow servants") so that the worker is not
overburdened, and promulgate and enforce safe work rules.
Claims under the common law for worker injury are limited by three defenses
afforded employers:
• The Fellow Servant Doctrine is that employer can be held harmless to the
extent that injury was caused in whole or in part by a peer of the injured worker.
• Contributory negligence allows an employer to be held harmless to the
extent that the injured employee failed to use adequate precautions
required by ordinary prudence.
• Assumption of risk allows an employer to be held harmless to the extent
the injured employee voluntarily accepted the risks associated with the
work.
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B. Statutory Compensation Law
Workers' compensation statutes are intended to eliminate the need for litigation
and the limitations of common law remedies by having employees give up the
potential for pain- and suffering-related awards, in exchange for not being
required to prove tort (legal fault) on the part of their employer. Designed to
ensure employees who are injured or disabled on the job are not required to
cover medical bills related to their on-the-job injury, the laws provide
employees with monetary awards to cover loss of wages directly related to the
accident as well as to compensate for permanent physical impairments.
The laws also provide benefits for dependents of those workers who are killed
in work-related accidents or illnesses. Some laws also protect employers and
fellow workers by limiting the amount an injured employee can recover from
an employer and by eliminating the liability of co-workers in most accidents.
US state statutes establish this framework for most employment. US federal
statutes are limited to federal employees or to workers employed in some
significant aspect of interstate commerce.
2.3.3. Workers' Compensation Fraud

Workers' compensation fraud can be committed by doctors, lawyers, employers,
insurance company employees and claimants, and may occur in both the private
and public sectors.
The topic of workers' compensation fraud is highly controversial, with claimant
supporters arguing that fraud by claimants is rare—as low as one-third of one
percent, others focusing on the widely reported National Insurance Crime
Bureau statistic that workers' compensation fraud accounts for $7.2 billion in
unnecessary costs, and government entities acknowledging that "there is no
generally accepted method or standard for measuring the extent of workers'
compensation fraud as a consequence, there are widely divergent opinions about
the size of the problem and the relative importance of the issue."
189
According to the Coalition Against Insurance Fraud, tens of billions of dollars
in false claims and unpaid premiums are stolen in the U.S. alone every year.
The most common forms of workers' compensation fraud by workers are:
1. Remote injury. Workers get injured away from work, but say they were hurt
on the job so that their workers' compensation policy will cover the medical
bills.
2. Inflating injuries. A worker has a fairly minor job injury, but lies about the
magnitude of the injury in order to collect more workers' compensation money
and stay away from work longer.
3. Faking injuries. Workers fabricate an injury that never took place, and claim
it for workers' compensation benefits.
4. Old injury. A worker with an old injury that never quite healed claims it as a
recent work injury in order to get medical care covered.
5. Malingering. A worker stays home by pretending the disability is ongoing
when it is actually healed.
6. Failure to Disclose. A worker knowingly, or unknowingly, makes a false
statement or representation about their injury.
The most common forms of workers' compensation fraud by employers are:

1. Underreporting payroll. An employer reports that workers are paid less than
they actually are in order to lower their premiums.
2. Inflating experience. An employer claims workers are more experienced than
they actually are in order to make them seem less risky and therefore less
expensive to cover.
3. Evasion. An employer fails to obtain workers' compensation for their
employees when it is required by law. Workers are often deceived into thinking
they are covered when they are not.
190
4. Through the introduction of "opt-out plans" that are governed by the federal
Employee Retirement Income Security Act, or ERISA, which is regulated by
the Labor Department. The "opt-out plans" provide lower and fewer payments,
make it more difficult to qualify for benefits, control access to doctors and limit
independent appeals of benefits decisions.
2.3.4. Categories of Compensation

The Act made provisions for four categories of compensation namely;
(i) Compensation in fatal accident cases
There are cases where death results from the injury. Section 4 of the Act
provides, inter alias that a sum equal to the deceased workman’s forty –two
month’s earning shall be paid to the defendants wholly dependent on his
earnings.
(ii) Compensation in the case of total permanent incapacity
Incapacity is total and permanent where it completely disables the workman for
future employment. Section 5 provides that the amount of compensation
payable in such cases shall be fifty-four month’s earnings of the workman.
(iii) Compensation in the case of partial permanent incapacity
This is an incapacity which permanently reduces the workman’s pre-accident
earning capacity. Section 7 provides, inter alia, that the workman shall be
entitled to a percentage of his 54 month’s earnings as specified in the second
schedule to the Act, being the percentage of the loss of earning capacity caused
by that injury.
(iv) Compensation in the case of temporary incapacity
In the case of temporary incapacity, the workman shall be paid as compensation
his basic pay for the first six months of his incapacity.
Thereafter, if the incapacity continues, he shall be paid half of his basic pay for
an additional period of three months, and if the incapacity thereafter continues,
he shall be entitled to a quarter of his monthly salary for a succeeding period of
191
fifteen months. Any such sum paid under this head shall be deducted from any
sums eventually paid to the workman as compensation.
The provision of sections 12(1) and (3) of the Act are to the effect that
compensation payable under the above categories shall be paid to the court, and
any sum so paid shall be paid to the person entitled thereto or be invested or
otherwise be dealt with for his benefit in such manner as the court thinks fit.
This is subject however, to the provision of section 19 of the Act, which
provides that an employer is not entitled to end or diminish any payment which
he is bound to pay under the Act.
2.3.5. Case Studies: Worker’s Compensation

Case One:
Worker injured discs in her back while working in an office environment. She
received medical care including a back fusion surgery for which the insurance
company paid. Worker was receiving weekly payments while out of work. The
worker felt as though she was being treated fairly. When she finished her
medical treatment the insurance company offered an amount for settlement of
about $17,000.00 for her resulting disability. That amount just did not seem
right. She called for a free consultation with us. After hearing her story, it
became clear that the insurance company was attempting to get the worker to
settle for far less than she was entitled. In working as her advocate, we
determined that the worker had been paid less per each week while out of work
than what she was entitled to receive. Also, the doctor’s impairment ratings
(critical to a worker’s compensation case) were inaccurate. We sat down with
the doctor to determine the appropriate rating.
The insurance company had not presented the appropriate questions to the
doctor in obtaining the ratings. The insurance company was not advocating for
the injured worker. In offering their original settlement amount, the insurance
192
company did not appropriately consider the worker’s continuing health care
issues related to the work injury. They did not inform the worker of what all
they had failed to consider. They were hoping that the worker’s lack of
understanding about the system would work in the insurance company’s favor.
The insurance company fought the injured worker’s claim for additional
compensation all the way but in the end round up paying $130,000.00 to the
injured worker. After paying the attorney’s fee and costs, this worker increased
her compensation dramatically over what she almost accepted from the
“trusting” insurance company, and she continues her employment today.
Case Two: Robert Palamar v. Illinois State Toll Highway Authority, 12 WC

30587
Facts
The petitioner, a toll booth worker and former weightlifter, began to experience
left shoulder pain a few years prior to 2010. An x-ray of the left shoulder taken
in November of 2011 demonstrated mild arthritic changes about the glen
humeral joint with mild AC arthritis. A left shoulder MRI scan the same month
revealed severe post-traumatic or osteoarthritic degenerative changes with
marked chondromalacia, a small partial-thickness rotator cuff tear and mild
bursitis. He subsequently underwent an injection into the shoulder.
On March 6, 2012, the petitioner returned to his shoulder physician,
complaining of pain in the left shoulder and left knee, reporting that he had been
involved in an altercation four days prior. The doctor diagnosed a left rotator
cuff tear and opined that it was related to the petitioner’s “active adult
activities” and his duties working in a toll booth, specifically the extending of
his arm up and above to tractor trailers and down to passenger cars. The doctor
recommended conservative treatment, including physical therapy and injections.
193
Issues
- Did the petitioner sustain an accident arising out of and in the course of his
employment on March 6, 2012?
- Did the petitioner provide timely notice of the alleged accident to his
employer?
Outcome
The Arbitrator found that petitioner failed to prove that he sustained an accident
arising out of and in the course of his employment on March 6, 2012. The
Arbitrator pointed out the petitioner’s extensive pre-existing history of left
shoulder problems, for which he had received extensive treatment within less
than a year prior to the alleged date of accident. The Arbitrator also viewed
video evidence of the typical work activities of a toll booth collector and found
that such activities did not constitute repetitive trauma, especially in light of the
fact that most motorists in fact extend their arms close enough to the toll booth
such that little or no reaching out and up is required by the toll booth operator.
The Arbitrator further found that the causation opinion of the treating physician
was based on conjecture and speculation and thus of no probative value.
With regard to notice, the Arbitrator found that the petitioner failed to provide
notice to the employer of his left shoulder injury within 45 days of March 6,
2012. The Arbitrator found it relevant that as a 20-year employee, the petitioner
failed to prepare a written report of injury, as per the employer’s protocol. A
representative of the employer testified that she only became aware of an
alleged shoulder injury in late 2012, following the filing of the Application for
Adjustment of Claim on August 29, 2012.
Based on these findings, the Arbitrator denied the petitioner’s claim for
compensation and the claim was dismissed. The Arbitration Decision was
affirmed and adopted by the Commission.
194
In-text Question
1.What do you understand by workers’ compensation?
2. state four categories of workers’ compensation.
Answer
1.Workers' compensation is insurance that provides cash benefits and/or medical care for
workers who are injured or become ill as a direct result of their job.
2. four categories of workers’ compensation are;
(i) Compensation in fatal accident cases
(ii) Compensation in the case of total permanent incapacity
(iii) Compensation in the case of partial permanent incapacity
(iv) Compensation in the case of temporary incapacity

1. Write extensively on the history and features of the Worker Compensation
Law of the following countries:
• United States
• Germany
• Canada
• Australia
• Japan
• New Zealand
• United Kingdom
• India
2. Discuss with relevant examples the workers' compensation fraud committed
in any profession of your choice and how can be these corrected.
3. As an Occupational Health student, you are asked to review the Nigeria’s
Employee Compensation Act. Identify the lapses and provide measures to be
taken to handle them.
4. What is the relationship between the Factories Act and the Workmen’s
Compensation Act, if any?
195
In this session, we have been able to learn the basis of the enactment of the
Labour law and Factories Act, the importance of fencing of industrial and
factory’s machineries. We have also seen that workers’ compensation makes it a
liability for employers to provide financial and medical compensation to
employees who suffer death or incapacity resulting from accident or injury in
the workplace. However, we have also learnt that both workers and their
employers in private and public sector abuse this insurance policy by
perpetuating all forms of fraudulent practices.

Discuss the significance, relevance and purpose of labour law to an
employee?
a. Visit YouTube https://bit.ly/2xJeJKo . Watch the video & summarise in 1
paragraph
b. View the animation on https://bit.ly/3aDXZTb and critique it in the

discussion forum

Nwazuoke, A.N. (2001). Introduction to Nigeria Labour Law. (1st ed.). Ago-
Iwoye: Department of Public Law & Jurisprudence, Faculty of Law,
Olabisi Onabanjo University.
Ogunniyi, O. (2004). Nigeria Labour and Employment Law in Perspective. (2nd
ed). Lagos: Folio Publishers Limited.
The 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria.
196
Guyton, Gregory (1999). "A Brief History of Workers' Compensation". The
Iowa Orthopaedic Journal. 19: 106–110. Retrieved 6 May 2017
https://lawpadi.com/11-things-every-nigerian-know-employee-compensationact
J. Hood, B. Hardy, and L. Simpson. Workers' Compensation and Employee
Protection Laws (St.Paul: West Academic Publishing, 2017).
Legal Information Institute. "Workers' Compensation". Cornell University Law
School. Retrieved 7 February 2014.
Oliphant, Keith (2012). Employers' Liability and Workers' Compensation.
Walter de Gruyter. p. 482.
Quiggle, James. "Worker's Compensation Fraud". Coalition Against Insurance
Fraud. Retrieved 27 February 2013.
Spellman, Frank (2016). Occupational Safety and Health Simplified for the
Industrial Workplace. London, U.K.: Bernan Press. p. 57. ISBN 978-1-
59888-809-6.
Wertz, Keith (2000). Managing Worker's Compensation: A Guide to Injury
Reduction. CRC press. p. 207.
197
XIII. GLOSSARY
Accident a sudden event that results in an undesired outcome such as property

damage, bodily injury or death.
Core Competencies Basic (core) knowledge elements or competencies related
to infection prevention and control that are required by all Health Care Workers.
Damage The loss of inherent quality suffered by an entity (physical or
biological).
Danger The degree of exposure to a hazard.
Harm The loss to a person (or people) as a consequence of damage.
Hazards Any existing or potential condition in the workplace which, by itself
or by interacting with other variables, can result in death, injury, property
damage or loss. Simply, hazard is a potential source of harm. An occupational
hazard is a thing or situation with the potential to harm a Worker. A safety
hazard causes accidents that physically injure Workers. A health hazard results
in the development of disease.
Health and Safety Representative A non-management individual chosen by
Workers in a
workplace that has less than 20 but greater than 5 employees, who is responsible
for inspecting the workplace at least once per month to identify situations that
may be a source of danger or hazard to Workers.
Health Care Provider Any person delivering care to a client/patient/resident.
This includes, but is not limited to, the following: emergency service workers,
physicians, dentists, nurses, respiratory therapists and other health professionals,
personal support workers, clinical instructors, students and home health care
workers. In some non-acute settings, volunteers might provide care settings,
volunteers might provide care and would be included as health care providers.
Hierarchy of Controls The hierarchy of controls is a ‘model’ for hazard
control. The hierarchy of controls describes control measures for any hazard as
198
being directed either at the source of the hazard, along the path to the workers,
or at the workers themselves. The use of the hierarchy of controls for any
hazard is considered a best practice when dealing with the hazards of infectious
agents.
Infection Prevention and Control Practices and procedures that help prevent
or reduce the risk of transmission of microorganisms to staff,
clients/patients/residents or visitors.
Injury Physical damage to body tissues caused by an accident or by exposure to
environmental stressors. This injury may lead to death and is then called a “fatal
accident” or may cause partial disability or lead to sick leave for a period of
time.
Internal Responsibility System A system in which every individual is
responsible and accountable for health and safety, including Employers,
Supervisors and Workers
Joint Health and Safety Committee(JHSC) A committee composed of
Workers and management required at any workplace that employs 20 or more
Workers, to identify situations that may be a hazard and to make
recommendations for improvements in health and safety.
Occupational Accident Accident occurring at the workplace which may cause
damage.
The work environment Occupational environment means the sum of external
conditions and influences which prevail at the place of work and which have a
bearing on the health of the working population.
Environmental Managers: occupational health personnel who try to eliminate
hazards from the workplace cause many environmental problems.
Toxicology: is the science that studies poison and toxic substances and their
mechanisms and effects on living organisms. In other words, toxicology is the
study of adverse effects of chemical on biologic systems, or when a substance
199
has a capacity to produce undesirable physiological effect when the chemical
reached a sufficient concentration at a specific site in the body.
Toxicologists: are persons who study poisoning and responsible defining
quantitatively the level of exposure at which harm occurs and they also
prescribe precautionary measures and exposure limitations so that normal
recommended use of chemical substance does not result in excessive exposure
and subsequent harm.
Ergonomics: is a multidisciplinary activity dealing with the interaction between
man and his total working environment plus such traditional environmental
elements as atmosphere, heat, light, and sound as well as all tools and
equipment of the work place.
Chemical Engineers are those who design process plant, they choose values,
decide on how access will be gained and how cleaning will take place.
Mechanical Engineers are those who responsible for choosing materials
handling systems or for specifying noise levels on machinery.
Environmental Health Professionals: are those who apply their knowledge
and experience, understand the environmental health hazards, analyse the
technical and social approaches and reduce and eliminate human exposures and
health impacts.
Industrial Hygienists are scientists, engineers, and public health professionals
committed to protecting the health of people in the workplace and the
community.
Occupational Illness A condition that results from exposure to a physical,
chemical or biological agent to the extent that the health of the Worker is
impaired, including occupational disease recognised under the Workplace
Safety and Insurance Act.
Occupational Injury An injury that arises out of, and in the course of,
employment. Occupational Safety Risk identification at the workplace and
200
preventive measures taken to reduce or eliminate the hazard which may lead to
accidents.
Provincial Infectious Diseases Advisory Committee A multidisciplinary,
scientific advisory body that provides evidence-based advice regarding multiple
aspects of infectious disease identification, prevention and control.
Risk The likelihood of harm (in defined circumstances).
Routine Practices The infection prevention and control practices that must be
used routinely during all activities to reduce the infection risks to you and to
clients/patients/residents and to control the transmission of microorganisms in
all health care settings.
Safe Behaviour Acting in such a way that no risk of injury is caused by one’s
behavior.
Safety The absence of danger.
Safety Professional A person whose basic job function and responsibility is to
prevent accidents and other harmful exposures and the personal injury, disease
or property damage that may ensue.
Staff Anyone conducting activities in settings where health care is provided,
including but not limited to, health care providers.
Workplace health surveillance The removal of the causative factors of
disease.
201

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DISTANCE LEARNING CENTRE

AHMADU BELLO UNIVERSITY

Programme: Masters in Public Health

Course Code & Title: COMM 806/ Environmental and

© 2018Ahmadu Bello University (ABU) Zaria, Nigeria

First published 2018 in Nigeria.

Ahmadu Bello University e-Learning project,

ii. COURSE INTRODUCTION AND DESCRIPTION

iii. COURSE PREREQUISITES

iv. COURSE LEARNING RESOURCES

vi. ACTIVITIES TO MEET COURSE OBJECTIVES

vii. TIME (TO COMPLETE SYLABUS/COURSE)

viii. GRADING CRITERIA AND SCALE

B. Summative assessment (Semester examination)

C. Grading Scale (as appropriate for the course):

IX LINKS TO OPEN EDUCATION RESOURCES

N.B: - All Sessions commence in January

1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.

1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.

MODULE Rights of Workers

1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.

1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.

1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.

1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.

1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.

1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.

1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.

MODULE 1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.

1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.

1. Read Courseware for the corresponding Study Session.

Week 14& 15 SEMESTER EXAMINATION

Section and Subsection Headings:

1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes

2.0 Main Content

2.2. Environmental health and safety plan

2.3. Essential Elements of health and safety plan

2.4. The Principles of Environmental health and safety

2.5. The Practical Approach

3.0 Tutor Marked Assignments (Individual or Group)

5.0 Self-Assessment Questions

b. View the animation on https://bit.ly/2Uzqn3t and critique it in the discussion

7.0 References/Further Readings

Section and Subsection Headings:

1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes

2.0 Main Content

2.3. The Responsibilities of Employers.

3.0 Tutor Marked Assignments (Individual or Group)

5.0 Self-Assessment Questions

b. View the animation on https://bit.ly/342i5E7 and critique it in the discussion

7.0 References/Further Readings

Section and Subsection Headings:

1.0 Study Session Learning Outcomes

2.0 Main Content

The International Labour Organisation (ILO/WHO) defined occupational health

Occupational Health is a diverse science applied by occupational health

Components of Occupational Health

2.2. Aims of Occupational Health

Effects of Poor Working Conditions on Workers’ Health and Safety

2.3. Rationale for Occupational Health

Cost of Occupational Injuries and Diseases

The costs to employers of occupational accidents or illnesses are also estimated

2.4. Key Principles of Occupational Health

2.5. Basic Concepts in Occupational Health

It is also important to state that the occupational environment of the worker