Quaternary Science Advances 13 (2024) 100138

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Quaternary Science Advances

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A multi-scenario based micro seismic hazard assessment of the Bhuj City,

western India incorporating geophysical and geotechnical parameters
Kapil Mohan a, b, *, Shruti Dugar a, Vasu Pancholi a, Vinay Kumar Dwivedi a, Naveen Kumar a,
B. Sairam a, Sumer Chopra a
a
Institute of Seismological Research, Knowledge Corridor, Vill. Raisan, Gandhinagar, 382009, India
b
National Center for Seismology, Ministry of Earth Sciences, Lodhi Road, New Delhi, 110003, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The micro-seismic hazard assessment (micro-SHA) of the Bhuj city (highest seismic zone V) has been accom­
Multiple seismic scenarios plished considering seismotectonic as well as shallow subsurface modeling through geophysical (multi-channel
Shallow subsurface modeling analysis of surface waves (MASW) survey at 19 sites) and geotechnical parameters from 28 boreholes distributed
Ground response analysis
in the entire Bhuj city. The average shear wave velocity through the MASW survey at 30 m depth (VS30) is
Seismic hazard assessment
estimated in the range of 400–915 m/s (NEHRP C-type and B-type soil classes). Seismotectonically justified a
total of 54 scenario-earthquakes (SEQs) along all major faults have been considered to evaluate the strong
ground motion at generic soil level having a shear wave velocity of 760 m/s and depth of 12–28 m. The surface
level strong motion (SM) has been estimated through ground response analysis preparing soil models along all
boreholes. The PGA at the surface in Bhuj city has been estimated in the range of 528 cm/s2 to 1020 cm/s2;
highest in the central-western part of the Bhuj city where clay with high plasticity is present. The mean-spectral
acceleration over the study area for 0.2 s (corresponding to 1-2 story), 0.55 s (4-5 story), 1sec (high rise) and
1.25 s period (large structures) are prepared at the surface from all scenario earthquakes. The amplification of SM
in the Bhuj city is computed in the range of 1.7–3.7.

1. Introduction having some pockets of alluvium.

The Bhuj city was established by Hamirji Rao in 1510 AD. After the
independence of India in 1947, the Cutch State became an independent
commissionaire, the Kutch State. Later on (in 1956), it became part of
Bombay State which was bifurcated in Gujarat and Maharashtra in the
year 1960. The Kachchh is given to Gujarat as Kutch district. Bhuj city is
a district headquarters and Municipality, located in the NW portion of
the Gujarat state. It is situated in the highlands between the Rann
(marsh) and the Gulf of Kachchh (Kutch). Bhujia Hill is a major land­
mark in Bhuj city. The Bhuj city has two lakes (Hamirsar and the
Deshadsar). Bhuj City is divided into 15 wards. The census 2011, has
suggested a population of 148,834 in Bhuj city and a total area of 56
km2. It is situated at an elevation of 110 m above mean sea level (MSL)
and rests on sandstones of the Kachchh mainland (Natarajan and
Rajendran, 2017) with a thin soil cover, the bedrock is exposed in most
of the city area (Thakkar et al., 2006; Natarajan and Rajendran, 2017).
The near-surface formations are of weathered sandstone and siltstone
During the past 200 years, the city suffered damage to lives and
properties from three large earthquakes. In Mw 7.8, Allah Bund earth­
quake of 1819 (1819, ABE), about 7000 houses were destroyed (Tandon,
1959) and fifteen hundred people died in the city (Chung and Gao,
1995). During Mw 6.0 Anjar earthquake in 1956 (1956, AE) an MMI
intensity of VI was observed in Bhuj city.
On January 26, 2001, a destructive earthquake smitten in Kachchh
district, Gujarat state, western India. The earthquake occurred at 8:46
IST, on Republic Day of India. Many government offices, educational
institutes, and businesses were closed due to the holiday. The epicenter
was positioned at 23.40◦ N, 70.28◦ E and the focal depth is given about
25 km (IMD, 2001). The magnitude estimated for the earthquake was
Mw7.6 (~70 km ENE of the Bhuj city in the southern margin of the
Banni Plains). The damage was observed up to >350 km of epicentral
distance (Sinvhal et al., 2003).
The earthquake destroyed all the major government buildings like
the District Collector’s office, district panchayat, and hospital in Bhuj

* Corresponding author. Institute of Seismological Research, Knowledge Corridor, Vill. Raisan, Gandhinagar, 382009, India.
E-mail address: kapil_geo@yahoo.co.in (K. Mohan).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.qsa.2023.100138
Received 20 July 2023; Received in revised form 11 October 2023; Accepted 18 October 2023
Available online 28 October 2023
2666-0334/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
K. Mohan et al. Quaternary Science Advances 13 (2024) 100138

Fig. 1. Geological and Tectonic Map of Kachchh (after Biswas, 2016) overlapped with the seismicity from 1668 to 2018 (ISR, 2019).

Fig. 2. Geological and seismotectonic map of Bhuj City (Bhuj Fault confirmed from Morino et al., 2008; Modified After Biswas and Deshpande, 1970; GSI, 2000). The
locations of the MASW survey are given with red triangles. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web
version of this article.)

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K. Mohan et al.
Fig. 3. The flow-chart depicting methodology of estimation of SM at the surface-level.
district. The collapse results in 193 deaths. In Kachchh district 890 vil­
lages in 10 Talukas and a population of 1,523,562 were affected (Mis­
hra, 2004). The 70% damage was reported from 335 villages with a total
death toll of 12,221 (Mishra, 2004). Of 20 medium dams in the Kachchh
district, the damage has occurred at 16 dams, out of which it was serious
at five medium dams. Similarly, 80 minor dams were damaged out of a
total of 165 minor dams, 14 minor dams were severely damaged. The
earthquake had partly destroyed the Bhuj fort, the historic Swaminar­
ayan temple as well as the Prag and Aina Palaces (Mahals) (Vasavada
and Booth, 2001).
The development in Bhuj following the disaster has been extraordi­
nary. The Bhuj city is now developed over 56 sq km (approximately four
times more than the year 2001). It boasts high-rise apartments,
sprawling supermarkets, a recreation center, wide four-lane highways, a
modern hospital, and an operational airport. Bhuj’s development has
been extraordinary since the disaster. The city is now four times larger
than it was in 2001. It has high-rise apartments, a recreation center,
supermarkets, highways, an airport and an ultra-modern modern hos­
pital. The city is expanding and the seismic hazard assessment (SHA) at
the micro-level is essential for safeguarding lives and properties in the
future from any large earthquake in the region.
The strong motion (SM) data is a basic requirement for seismic-
resistant designing. Due to the scarcity of SM data, the only solution is
a simulation based on past seismicity, tectonics and near-surface infor­
mation of the area based on various geotechnical, geological, and
geophysical parameters. 1D Equivalent Linear Ground Response Anal­
ysis (ELGRA) analyses assume the ground surface and all subsurface
boundaries/material layers are straight and extend infinitely in the
vertical direction. (Kramer, 1996).
Presently, we have carried out seismic hazard assessment at the
micro-level in Bhuj City incorporating geophysical, geological and
geotechnical parameters. To address uncertainty, a no. of scenarios are
generated along all major active faults in Kachchh, Gujarat considering
regional parameters.
2. Geology and tectonic setting
The Kachchh is a rift basin situated on the westernmost continental
part of India. The evolution of all three rift basins of western India
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Quaternary Science Advances 13 (2024) 100138
(Kachchh, Narmada, and Cambay) is associated to the disintegration of
Gondwanaland during the periods of Late Triassic/Early Jurassic (Nor­
ton and Sclater, 1979) and the consequent dispersion history of the
Eastern Indian Ocean (Biswas, 1982, 1987). The Saurashtra block
continued as a horst however, the Cambay, Surat and Kachchh basins
subsided for the deposition of Cenozoic sediments. The rifting in
Kachchh started in the Late Triassic along with the Delhi trend as sup­
ported by the presence of continental Rhaetic sediments in the northern
portion of the basin (Koshal, 1984). The Kachchh rift basin was formed
by the subsidence of a block between the Nagarparkar Hills and the
southwest extension of the Aravalli Range (Biswas, 1982, 1987). The
Kachchh Graben became a fully marine basin during the Middle Jurassic
period (Biswas, 1981). The present fault-controlled geomorphic
configuration of the Kachchh is attributed to the inversion in the late
Cretaceous (Biswas, 1987). In general, the post-rift (inversion phase)
geological evolution of the basin is marked by periodic reactivation of
various E-W trending intra-basinal faults like, the Island Belt Fault (IBF),
Kachchh Mainland Fault (KMF), South Wagad Fault (SWF), Katrol Hill
Fault (KHF) and others (Fig. 1), which are also responsible for recurrent
seismic activity in the region.
A major part of the Kachchh is occupied by the Pre-Quaternary rocks,
which show good conformity with the tectonic framework. The sedi­
ments were deposited in the Kachchh rift basin in the sublittoral to the
deltaic environment in two major cycles: a transgressive cycle of the
Middle Jurassic age and a regressive cycle of the Late Jurassic-Early
Cretaceous age (Biswas, 1981).
The Kachchh region is divisible into five main geomorphic units-the
Mainland Kachchh Great Rann, the Wagad Highland, the Island Belt, the
Banni Plain and the Coastal Zone of Kachchh. The Mainland forms the
largest geographic entity in the Kachchh basin. It displays the most
rugged and well-developed sequences of Mesozoic and Cenozoic rocks.
The northern margin of the mainland is bounded by the Kachchh
Mainland Fault (KMF) with the domal hilly region, the Northern Hill
Range to its south. In part, the Katrol Hill Fault (KHF) splits the main­
land into southern and northern mainland Kachchh. The Bhuj city is
present on the mainland of Kachchh.
The Bhuj city is present in the Kachchh District of Gujarat state with
latitudes and longitudes of 23.25◦ N and 69.67◦ E, respectively. The city
is located at a height of ~110 m from the mean sea level. A hill is present
K. Mohan et al. Quaternary Science Advances 13 (2024) 100138

Table 1 in the eastern part of Bhuj city (Bhujia Hill) that separates it from
Model Parameters for the simulation of the ground motion. Madhapar town. Hamirsar Lake and Chhatardi Talav are the two major
FAULT MAGNITUDE STRIKE DIP LENGTH WIDTH water bodies present in Bhuj city.
(Mw) (km) (km) The Bhuj city resides on the rocks of the Bhuj and Jhuran formations,
Allah Bund Fault 7.8 285⁰ 50⁰ 85 40 and is basic intrusive. The Bhuj formation forms a thick sequence of
(ABF)d N friable, felspathic and ferruginous sandstone showing graded bedding,
North Wagad 7.6 78⁰ 58⁰ 75 35 ironstone, clays with basic intrusive dikes (Fig. 2).
Fault (NWF)c S
South Wagad 7.6 100⁰ 40⁰ 40 40
Fault (SWF) d N
3. Methodology
Gedi Fault (GF) 7.6d 88⁰b 78⁰ 50d 40d
Sb The present investigation is targeted to estimate the surface SM pa­
Kachchh 7.6 300⁰ 50⁰ 43 42 rameters like peak ground acceleration (PGA) and spectral acceleration
Mainland Fault N
(SA) using geophysical, geotechnical and seismological parameters. The
(KMF)a KMF-A
KMF-B 285⁰ 50⁰ 43 42 geophysical and geotechnical parameters are used for the characterizing
N the near surface. Due to scarcity of SM data, the SM has been simulated
KMF-C 280⁰ 50⁰ 43 42 at the EBL. The surface SM is estimated through a 1D ground response
N analysis. The flow chart showing the adopted methodology has been
KMF-D 280⁰ 50⁰ 43 42
N
shown in Fig. 3 and explained by Mohan et al. (2017, 2018b). The
Katrol Hill Fault 80⁰ 50⁰ 36 42 methodology is based on four main steps.
(KHF)a S
KHF-A 90⁰ 50⁰ (i) Delineation of EBL (a soil layer that is uniformly present in the
S
area with a Vs in the range of 400 m/s to 750 m/s and possesses
KHF–B 36 42
KHF–C 7.5 100⁰ 50⁰ 36 42 an SPT N value of >80) from the geological, geophysical and
S geotechnical data.
Island Belt Fault 278⁰ 45⁰ 30d 40d (ii) Soil model preparation from the geotechnical as well as
(IBF) N geophysical data.
IBF–W 278⁰ 45⁰
(iii) Estimation of the GM at EBL using SFFMT considering scenario
N
IBF–C 35d 40d earthquakes using region-specific earthquake source and propa­
IBF-E 7.5d 278⁰ 45⁰ 40d 40d gation path parameters.
N (iv) Assessment of GM at the top surface by passing GM simulated at
Slip Distribution Random EBL using ELGRA. The SHAKE incorporates a built-in process to
Crustal shear-wave velocity (km/s) 3.6
transform the simulated outcrop level SM (at EBL) to the base
Crustal density (g/cm3) 2.8 rock level SM prior to executing ELGRA.
Rupture Velocity 0.8 x shear-wave velocity
Anelastic Attenuation, Q(f) 124.4f0.82 [Mandal et al. (2004)]
Kappa (s) 0.02 [Mandal and Johnston (2006)]
3.1. Geophysical investigations
Geometrical Spreading, G(R)= {R-1 R ≤ 50 km
R -0 50 ≤ R ≤ 170 km
R -0.5 R ≥ 170 km} The seismic velocity is proved as a reliable parameter for soil char­
Stress drop (bars) 80, 100, 120 and 140 acterization. The Multi-Channel Analysis of Surface Waves (MASW) is
Crustal amplification Boore (2015) an effective technique to measure seismic velocity. The MASW can
Pulsing Percent 50%
recognize different types of seismic waves using the propagation char­
a
Mohan (2014). acteristics (like attenuation and velocity). It works on the dispersive
b
Mandal et al. (2007). nature of surface/Rayleigh waves (at a particular frequency, the sam­
c
Yagi and Kikuchi (2001). pling depth is directly proportioned to its wavelength) (Park et al.,
d
Chopra et al. (2013).
2007). Therefore, we can estimate the Vs structure by inverting the
surface-wave dispersion curve. The MASW is very effective in a sub­
surface environment where a layer with low velocity lies beneath the
Table 2 layer with a high velocity, in such conditions the refraction survey
Frequency dependent amplification characterized by
sometimes gets failed (Kesarwani et al., 2012).
Vs30 = 760 m/s (Boore, 2015).
The data was acquired with Geode Seismograph with 48 channels
Frequency (Hz) Amplification (make Geometrics Inc., USA) using a standard CMP roll-along technique.
0.00001 1 The geophone interval of 2 m was selected. A hammer (of 30 kg) and
0.1014 1.073 metal plate source were chosen. A stack of 20 vertical hammer strikes on
0.2402 1.145
the metal plate is employed to produce seismic waves. Thirteen such
0.4468 1.237
0.7865 1.394
shots were used for each profile at the 4 m interval and 4 m offset from
1.384 1.672 the first geophone. The first shot point was kept at 4 m away from the
1.926 1.884 first geophone. For the second shot, we disabled the first two geophones
2.853 2.079 and shot point at the original position of the 1st geophone. The shot
4.026 2.202
points and geophones were staggered in this way throughout the profile
6.341 2.313
12.54 2.411 length. In the current work, the twenty-four vertical geophones of the
21.23 2.452 frequency of 4.5 Hz are used to record the seismic waves for each shot.
33.39 2.474 These geophones were planted at an interval of 2 m along the profile
82 2.497
line. The data is acquired at 19 sites spread all over the city (Fig. 2).

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K. Mohan et al. Quaternary Science Advances 13 (2024) 100138

Fig. 4. Scheme of the 1D analysis of the ground response (modified after Tarque et al., 2013).

3.2. Geotechnical investigations

Table 3
Soil model prepared from Geotechnical and Geophysical data for BH-08. The soil investigation in Bhuj City is carried out at 28 boreholes. Out
Depth(m) Thickness (m) Wet Density (gm/cc) Soil Type Vs (m/s) of these 28 boreholes, two boreholes were drilled up to 21 m, one to 18
1.5 1.5 1.77 Sand 374 m, eight to 9 m, 16 to 7.5 m and one of the 6 m depths (Fig. 2) up to the
3.0 1.5 1.80 Sand 358 bedrock depth. The drilling was conducted to understand the stratifi­
4.5 1.5 1.90 Rock 349 cation, to conduct SPT and to do soil and core sampling. The rotary
6.0 1.5 1.80 Sand 354
mechanical drilling was used to drill boreholes following IS: 1892. Total
12.0 6.0 1.80 Sand 545
13.5 1.5 1.90 Rock 580 46 no. of disturbed/SPT soil samples were gathered. The recuperated
19.0 5.5 1.95 Rock 600 samples were charted, marked, covered in polythene packs and dis­
28.0 9.0 2.00 Rock 740 patched to a testing center. Total 20 no. of un-disturbed samples were
29.0 1.0 2.1 EBL 760 gathered according to the standards of IS: 2132–1986. The Shelby tubes
of 75 mm diameter were used and the samples were collected at an in­
terval of every 3 m depth at each site. Total 101 no. of core samples were
Table 4 gathered through drilling work. The core samples were recovered with
Soil model prepared from Geotechnical data for BH-28. the core barrel. For soil samples, physical tests such as Atterberg’s limit,
Depth(m) Thickness (m) Wet Density (gm/cc) Soil Type Vs (m/s) moisture content, grain size analysis, field dry density, and specific
gravity were conducted. All mentioned tests were also conducted on
1 1 1.7 Sand 400
4.5 3.5 1.85 Sand 410
disturbed soil samples (DS) except the field density test. Based on the
7.5 3 1.8 Rock 540 core length, rock quality designation (RQD) and core recovery (CR) were
14 6.5 1.9 Sand 600 also find out.
22 8 2 Sand 740
23 1 2.1 EBL 760
3.3. SM estimation at EBL

Strong motion simulation involves the rigorous mathematical

Fig. 5. Modulus reduction v/s shear strain curves for sand, clay, and rock used in the analysis.

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K. Mohan et al. Quaternary Science Advances 13 (2024) 100138

Fig. 6. Damping ratio v/s shear strain for sand, clay, and rock used in the analysis.

Fig. 7. The Contour map of VS30 in the Bhuj city.

exercise covering the earthquake source/rupture (geometry, nucleation,
and propagation) and seismic wave propagation through different rock
boundaries in the earth’s crust to the surface. While passing through
different subsurface layers, the seismic waves change (amplifies/
deamplifies) and reach the site/EBL. Cancani (1904) initiated the
simulation of SM by generating the SM parameters from the seismic
intensity. Later on, Housner (1947) proposed the concept of black-box
simulation for simulating SM by using white Gaussian noise. Pres­
ently, five types of SM simulation techniques are available. These are (1)
composite source modeling (Saikia and Herrmann, 1985; Saikia, 1993;
Zeng et al., 1994; Yu, 1994; Yu et al., 1995), (2) stochastic simulation
(Boore, 1983; Lai, 1982; Boore and Atkinson, 1987), (3) empirical Green
function technique (EGF) (Hartzell, 1978, 1982; Hadley and Helm­
berger, 1980; Kanamori, 1979; Mikumo et al., 1981; Irikura and Mur­
amatu, 1982; Irikura, 1983, 1986 ; Muguia and Brune, 1984; Hutchings,
1985; Kamae and Irikura, 1998; Irikura and Miyake, 2011), (4)
Semi-empirical approach (Midorikawa, 1993; Joshi and Midorikawa,
2004; Joshi et al., 2001; Mohan, 2014) and (5) Stochastic Finite Fault

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Fig. 8. Borehole locations with Lithologs.

Fig. 9. Engineering Bed layer distribution in Bhuj City.

Source Modeling Technique (SFFMT) (Motazedian and Atkinson, 2005).
Every simulation technique follows certain assumptions of source
geometry, propagation path, and site effects but rarely estimates all
three in one step. Due to advancements in the research methodologies,
the SM simulation can be effectively done by dividing it into three major
parts (i) source characterization & rupture propagation, (ii) wave
propagation from source to base rock/EBL and (iii) wave propagation
from EBL to surface considering soil effects. Generally, techniques are
chosen based on available input parameters (seismic source, propaga­
tion path and site). The SFFMT is a well-tested SM technique of

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Table 5 simulation and well tested in Gujarat by Chopra et al. (2010, 2013),
Depth of Engineering Bed Layer (EBL) in different boreholes. Mohan et al. (2017, Mohan et al., 2018b and 2021); in Uttarakhand
BH No. EBL Depth (m) BH No. EBL Depth (m) (Mittal and Kumar, 2015; Mittal et al., 2016a), in Delhi (Mittal et al.,
2016b) and in NW Himalaya (Mohan et al., 2023) for SHA. In view of
BH-01 15.0 BH-15 15.0
BH-02 17.0 BH-16 20.0 this, the technique has been selected to estimate the SM at EBL in the
BH-03 14.0 BH-17 15.0 present study. As opposed to static corner frequencies, this technique
BH-04 13.0 BH-18 18.0 assumes that corner frequency varies with time and that the total energy
BH-05 12.0 BH-19 16.0 emitted from the fault is independent of sub-source size (Motazedian
BH-06 12.0 BH-20 16.0
BH-07 12.0 BH-21 15.0
and Atkinson, 2005). In the SFFMT simulation technique the simulated
BH-08 28.0 BH-22 22.0 time series of each sub-fault is controlled by the rupture history. Unlike
BH-09 28.0 BH-23 13.0 other simulation techniques, the SFFMT is based on the conservation of
BH-10 20.0 BH-24 13.0 the moment in the single triggering of each sub-fault (Silva and Darragh,
BH-11 25.0 BH-25 28.0
1995; Beresnev and Atkinson, 1998).
BH-12 23.0 BH-26 20.0
BH-13 26.0 BH-27 19.0 The Bhuj City belongs to seismic Zone V of the official zoning map
BH-14 16.0 BH-28 22.0 (BIS) and is located in close proximity to major active faults (Katrol Hill
Fault (KHF) in the south; Kachchh Mainland Fault (KMF), Allah Bund
Fault (ABF) and Island Belt Fault (IBF) in the north and South Wagad
Fault (SWF) and North Wagad Fault (NWF) in the north-east) (Fig. 1).
Table 6
Since Bhuj city is surrounded by the KHF, KMF, IBF, ABF, Gedi Fault,
The Maximum PGA values estimated at EBL (within/Base rock) of each borehole
NWF and SWF (some are active also), therefore, for the sake of seismic-
(in cm/sec2) due to all considered scenario earthquakes.
resistant designing of buildings, the quantification of the effect of the
BH No. PGA(cm/sec2) BH No. PGA(cm/sec2) possible seismic potential of these major faults is essentially required. In
BH-01 330 BH-15 324 view of this, the possible scenario earthquakes have been considered
BH-02 336 BH-16 276 along all major faults (i.e. KMF, KHF, ABF, IBF, Gedi Fault, NWF and
BH-03 308 BH-17 329
SWF) based on the past seismicity, recent active fault/paleoseismo­
BH-04 293 BH-18 339
BH-05 324 BH-19 317 logical study Kothyari et al., 2022a, 2022b), recent subsurface geolog­
BH-06 340 BH-20 287 ical and geodetic analysis (Suribabu et al., 2022; Dumka et al., 2023;
BH-07 311 BH-21 311 Chauhan et al., 2016; Jani et al., 2021, Kothyari et al., 2021; Mishra
BH-08 303 BH-22 288 et al., 2021), seismological and geophysical conditions (Abdul Azeez
BH-09 274 BH-23 361
BH-10 288 BH-24 281
et al., 2021; Chaudhary et al., 2019; Mohan et al., 2015, 2018a; Patel
BH-11 269 BH-25 341 et al., 2020) in the region.
BH-12 268 BH-26 361 The KHF (Fig. 1) is an active fault with three active segments (Morino
BH-13 324 BH-27 313 et al., 2008) which can produce a magnitude of Mw 7.5 earthquake
BH-14 299 BH-28 325
(Chopra et al., 2013; Mohan, 2014) and the KMF is a ~150 km long
active fault having four segments (Prizomwala et al., 2016). Based on
paleoseismological studies, Malik et al. (2008) have suggested KMF as
an active fault and had produced two large earthquakes in the recent

Fig. 10a. The Surface peak ground acceleration distribution map of Bhuj city due to an earthquake of Magnitude Mw 7.8 along ABF.

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K. Mohan et al. Quaternary Science Advances 13 (2024) 100138

Fig. 10b. Normalized Spectral Acceleration plots with Mean and Standard Deviation from Allah Bund Fault.

Fig. 11a. The Surface peak ground acceleration distribution map of Bhuj city due to an earthquake of Magnitude Mw7.8 along IBF.

past. According to Maurya et al. (2016), KHF and KMF can produce a
high-magnitude seismic event. Several studies in the Kachchh region
related to seismic hazard assessment have assigned moment magnitude
on various active faults (Chopra et al., 2013; Mohan, 2014; Petersen
et al., 2004).
To simulate a past or a scenario earthquake, the selection of the
possible earthquake source locations, its geometry, parameters and the
nucleation point of fault rupture are very important issues. In the case of
scenario earthquakes, these properties/parameters can be considered
based on geology, tectonic setting, and seismicity in the region.
Therefore, based on past paleoseismological and seismological
studies, the synthetic ground motions have been generated for possible
scenario earthquakes (along KHF (three segments), KMF (four seg­
ments), ABF, IBF (three segments), GF, NWF and SWF) in the Kachchh
region using model parameters given in Table 1. Boore and Joyner
(1997) have proposed crustal amplifications at different velocities. The
same has been used in the current study at generic soils with Vs30 of
760 m/s (Table 2). Mandal et al. (2004) have studied the site-specific
attenuation of seismic waves/quality factor at some stations in
Kachchh (including Bhuj), the same has been used in the current study.
To overcome the uncertainty, the stress drop of 80, 100, 120 and 140
bars (as very high stress drop of ~150 bars was estimated during 2001
Bhuj earthquake) and the Kappa value of 0.02 has been considered for
all earthquake scenarios. A total of 56 different combinations of input
parameters have been considered to estimate the GM at the EBL of each
borehole.
3.4. Soil modeling and ELGRA for assessment of GM at surface level
The seismic waves may travel through a no. of kilometers in rock and
only a few meters (less than 100 m) in soil, even then the GM gets
significantly affected/amplified in soil. An important and common
problem in geotechnical earthquake engineering is estimating ground
response. The GRA can be used to assess amplification, site natural

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K. Mohan et al.
Fig. 11b. Normalized Spectral Acceleration plots with Mean and Standard Deviation from Island Belt Fault.
Fig. 12a. The surface peak ground acceleration distribution map of Bhuj city due to an earthquake of Magnitude Mw7.6 along Kachchh Mainland Fault.
periods, design spectra and ground motion for evaluation of the lique­
faction potential (Fig. 4).
The ELGRA is a popular methodology for computing ground motion
at the surface incorporating the effect of near-surface soil layers. The
ELGRA is an iterative process to estimate the transfer functions as so­
lutions to vertically propagating horizontal shear waves when passed
through a soil column of different properties like density, stiffness and
damping. It requires the following inputs: (i) Classification of soil on the
basis of its type, density thickness and N value/shear-wave velocity and,
(ii) base rock depth/depth of the EBL, (iii) estimated/recorded accel­
erogram at the EBL/base rock, and (iv) shear modulus curves and critical
damping.
The lithology is classified based the presence of maximum constit­
uent (sand, silt or clay) following the grain size analysis. In case sand, silt
or clay occupies more than half (50%) in soil, then the soil is classified as
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Quaternary Science Advances 13 (2024) 100138
sand, silt or clay, respectively. If every component occupies less than
half (50%), the lithology of the maximum constituent becomes repre­
sentative lithology.
Based on the lithological classification, soil properties (like N-value,
wet density and plasticity index) and geophysical parameters (shear
wave velocity), the soil models are prepared for all 28 boreholes to
conduct ELGRA. The groundwater table was not encountered till the
termination depths in the drilled boreholes. The soil models prepared for
BH-01 & 09 are given in Tables 3 and 4, respectively. The sand is found
at the shallower depth in Bhuj city.
3.5. Ground response analysis
The ELGRA has been applied to estimate the surface SM. The and
damping ratio (β)and modulus reduction (G/G max) vs. strain curves are
K. Mohan et al.
Fig. 12b. Normalized Spectral Acceleration plots with Mean and Standard Deviation from Kachchh Mainland Fault.
Fig. 13a. The surface peak ground acceleration distribution map of Bhuj city due to an earthquake of Magnitude Mw7.6 along North Wagad Fault.
used to assess the behavior of soil under cyclic loading. Through the use
of equivalent-linear soil properties, we address the non-linearity of
damping and shear modulus in an iterative process to obtain values for
modulus and damping that are well-suited to effective strains in every
layer. The modulus reduction (G/G max) and damping ratio (β) vs. strain
curves of Sun et al. (1988), Seed and Idriss (1970) and Schnabel (1973)
proposed for clay, sand, and rock, respectively (Figs. 5 and 6). The
curves are readily accessible in the SHAKE database (SHAKE, 2000).
4. Results and discussion
The micro-SHA has been conducted in the Bhuj city considering
geophysical (MASW survey) and geotechnical parameters. The shear
wave velocities have been measured at 19 sites using the MASW tech­
nique. The Vs at the surface in Bhuj city is found to vary between 260
and 620 m/s. The Vs have been found to vary between 500 m/s and
1300 m/s at 30 m depth. The average Vs at 30 m depth (VS30) is found
in the range of 400–915 m/s (Fig. 7). The study area therefore falls in
soil classes C and B following NEHRP soil classification. Most of the area
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Quaternary Science Advances 13 (2024) 100138
has dense soil (C-type soil).
The Vs30 dispersal in Bhuj city is shown in Fig. 7. The maximum
Vs30 (700–~900 m/s) is assessed in the western and central areas of the
city (Fig. 7) where Bhuj sandstone is exposed at the surface. The rest of
the city has shown less Vs30 value in the range of 500–550 m/s due to
the presence of recent sediments (Fig. 7).
The Bhuj city is located in the Kachchh rift and the Bhuj Sandstone is
present everywhere in the city overlain by alluvium at many places
(Fig. 2). The lithologies of the drilled boreholes are given in Fig. 8. The
sediments (alluvium) have been found from 1 to 4 m depth as the first
layer followed by Bhuj Sandstone in the Bhuj city as a second layer. At
some patches (in the NW part of Bhuj City), the sediments have been
found up to 21 m depth. The layers have been classified following Indian
Standards soil classification.
The determination of the EBL depth is necessary at every borehole as
the detailed soil model has to be prepared up to this depth level for the
estimation of surface SM through ELGRA. The Vs measurements by
MASW survey confirmed that Vs > 760 m/s layer is detected at similar
depths where the N-value is > 100 blow counts in the boreholes. Thus
K. Mohan et al. Quaternary Science Advances 13 (2024) 100138

Fig. 13b. Normalized Spectral Acceleration plots with Mean and Standard Deviation from North Wagad Fault.

Fig. 14a. The surface peak ground acceleration distribution map of Bhuj city due to an earthquake of Magnitude Mw7.6 along South Wagad Fault.

the EBL for Bhuj City is a layer with N > 100 blow counts and Vs > 760
m/s. The depth of EBL is varying between 12 m and 28 m. The EBL is
found deeper (23 m–28 m) in the western part (near Hamirsar lake) and
in the south-eastern part of Bhuj City and shallower in the south-western
part with a depth of 12–15 m (Fig. 9 and Table 5).
The SM has been simulated at the EBL from all major possible sources
(KMF, KHF, ABF, IBF, Gedi Fault, NWF and SWF) deciding suitable
scenario earthquakes. This SM is the rock outcrop motion/free air SM as
it presumes the absence of any other soil/rock layer above bedrock. It is
essential to convert this SM as the SM within the soil/rock layer to es­
timate the response of soil layers present above it. The values of PGA
estimated at EBL (within) of each borehole (in cm/sec2) considering all
the scenario earthquakes are presented in Table 6. The PGA in Bhuj city
varies between 269 m/s2 and 361 m/s2 at EBL. The SHAKE has an inbuilt
capacity to estimate outcrop ground motion to the soil (within/base
rock) ground motion (Fig. 4).
The soil models for each borehole above EBL are prepared. A total of
54 scenario earthquakes are considered and ground motions are esti­
mated at EBL for each borehole to compensate for uncertainties. The
input SM (simulated) when supplied at EBL and permitted to pass
through the prepared soil layer (of any borehole), either gets reduced or
amplified at the boundary of each layer. The resultant response is
received at the surface and mainly presented with the PGA parameter
(from accelerograms) and spectral acceleration (from Response
Spectra). This process is carried out using the SHAKE program. The
fault-wise description of GRA has been given below.
4.1. Allah Bund Fault (ABF)
The ABF is located ~120 km north of Bhuj city (Fig. 1). A total of 4

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K. Mohan et al. Quaternary Science Advances 13 (2024) 100138

Fig. 14b. Normalized Spectral Acceleration plots with Mean and Standard Deviation from South Wagad Fault.

Fig. 15a. The surface peak ground acceleration distribution map of Bhuj city due to an earthquake of Magnitude Mw7.6 along Gedi Fault.

scenarios have been considered at each borehole to assess the GM at EBL
owing to ABF considering the parameters mentioned in Table 1. The
surface level GM has been estimated by applying the input motion with
PGA varying between 25 and 38 cm/sec2 at EBL. The output motion at
the surface of the boreholes (after ground response analysis) has been
estimated with a maximum PGA value in the range of 55–102 cm/s2
(Fig. 10 (a)). The highest PGA of 102 cm/s2 has been computed at BH-13
(near Hamirsar lake), in the central part of the Bhuj city area. The
response spectra correspond to 5% damping at the surface of each
borehole have also been computed from 0.1 s to 5.0 s. These response
spectra of all the 28 boreholes (with Mean, SD, Mean + SD, and
Mean− SD) have been shown in Fig. 10(b). The maximum peak spectral
acceleration (PSA) of 336 cm/s2 has been observed on BH-16 at the
period of 0.11 s.
4.2. Island Belt Fault (IBF)
The IBF is present at ~70 km north of Bhuj city. A total of 12 sce­
narios (from the three segments of IBF) are considered at each borehole
to assess the GM at EBL owing to IBF. The input parameters considered
for SM simulation have been given in Table 1. The SM at the surface has
been estimated by applying the input motion with PGA varying from 30
to 39 cm/s2 at EBL. The output motion at the surface of the boreholes
(after ELGRA) has been estimated with the PGA in the range of 60–130
cm/s2 (Fig. 11 (a)). The highest PGA of 130 cm/s2 has been computed at
BH-16, in the northwestern portion of the Bhuj city area. The response
spectra correspond to 5% damping at the surface of each borehole have
also been estimated from the period of 0.1 s–5.0 s. These normalized
response spectra from the 28 boreholes (with Mean, SD, Mean + SD, and
Mean− SD) have been shown inFig. 11(b). The maximum PSA of 451

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K. Mohan et al. Quaternary Science Advances 13 (2024) 100138

Fig. 15b. Normalized Spectral Acceleration plots with Mean and Standard Deviation from Gedi Fault.

Fig. 16a. The peak surface ground acceleration distribution map of Bhuj city due to an earthquake of Magnitude Mw7.5 along Katrol Hill Fault.

cm/sec2 at 0.11 s has been observed at BH-16. 0.1 s–5.0 s. The normalized response spectra from the 28 boreholes
(with Mean, SD, Mean + SD, and Mean− SD) have been shown inFig. 12
(b). The maximum PSA of 1453 cm/s2 at 0.12 s has been observed at BH-
4.3. Kachchh Mainland Fault (KMF) 16.

The KMF is located ~40–50 km north of Bhuj city. A total of 16

scenarios from all four segments of KMF are considered at each borehole
to assess the GM at EBL owing to KMF. The input parameters considered
for SM simulation have been mentioned in Table 1. The GM at the sur­
face has been assessed by applying the input motion with PGA varying
from 90 to 154 cm/sec2 at EBL. The output motion at the surface of the
boreholes (after ground response analysis) has been estimated with the
PGA in the range of 192–517 cm/s2 (Fig. 12 (a)). The highest PGA of
517 cm/s2 has been observed at BH-16, in the northwestern portion of
the Bhuj city area. The response spectra correspond to 5% damping at
the surface of each borehole have also been estimated from the period of
4.4. North Wagad Fault (NWF)
The NWF is present ~70 km north-east of the Bhuj city. A total of 4
scenarios are considered at each borehole to estimate the SM at EBL due
to NWF. The input parameters considered for SM simulation have been
mentioned in Table 1. The GM at the surface has been assessed by
applying the input motion with PGA varying from 182 to 396 cm/s2 at
EBL. The output motion at the surface of the boreholes (after ELGRA)
has been estimated with the PGA from 57 to 128 cm/s2 (Fig. 13(a)). The
highest PGA of 396 cm/s2 has been observed at BH-16, in the

14
K. Mohan et al.
Fig. 16b. Normalized Spectral Acceleration plots with Mean and Standard Deviation from Katrol Hill Fault.
Fig. 17. The maximum surface peak ground acceleration distribution map of Bhuj city area.
northwestern portion of the Bhuj city area. The response spectra at 5%
damping on the surface of every borehole have also been calculated from
0.1 s to 5.0 s. The normalized response spectra from the 28 boreholes
(with Mean, SD, Mean + SD, and Mean− SD) have been shown inFig. 13
(b). The maximum PSA of 439 cm/s2 at 0.1 s is observed at BH-16.
4.5. South Wagad Fault (SWF)
The SWF is situated ~100 km north-east of Bhuj city. A total of 4
scenarios are considered at every borehole to estimate the SM at EBL due
to SWF. The input parameters considered for SM simulation have been
mentioned in Table 1. The GM at the surface has been assessed by
applying the input motion with maximum PGA varying between 41 and
69 cm/s2 at EBL. The output motion at the surface of the boreholes (after
ELGRA) has been estimated with the maximum PGA in the range of
50–110 cm/s2 (Fig. 14(a)). The maximum PGA of 110 cm/s2 is
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Quaternary Science Advances 13 (2024) 100138
calculated at BH-11, in the north-western portion of the Bhuj city area.
The response spectra correspond to 5% damping at the surface of each
borehole have also been estimated from the period of 0.1 s–5.0 s. These
normalized response spectra from the 28 boreholes (with Mean, SD,
Mean + SD, and Mean− SD) has been shown in Fig. 14(b). The maximum
PSA of 348 cm/sec2 at 0.1 s is observed at BH-11.
4.6. Gedi Fault (GF)
The GF is located ~130 km north of the Bhuj city. A total of 4 sce­
narios are considered at every borehole to estimate the SM at EBL due to
Gedi fault. The considered input parameters for SM simulation have
been mentioned in Table 1. The GM at the surface has been assessed by
applying the input motion with PGA varying from 13 to 26 cm/s2 at EBL.
The output motion at the surface of the boreholes (after ELGRA) has
been estimated with the maximum PGA in the range of 33–62 cm/s2
K. Mohan et al. Quaternary Science Advances 13 (2024) 100138

Table 7 4.7. Katrol Hill Fault (KHF)

The surface PGA, PSA, and amplification due to all the scenario earthquakes.
Borehole Maximum Maximum Mean Pre- PGA The KHF is located ~25 km south of Bhuj city. A total of 12 scenarios
No. PGA at Base PGA at PSA dominant Amplification from all three segments have been considered at every borehole to es­
(within) surface (cm/ Period timate the SM at EBL owing to KHF. The considered input parameters for
(cm/sec2) (cm/sec2) sec2) (sec)
SM simulation have been mentioned in Table 1. The GM at the surface
BH-01 330 727 2294 0.12 2.2 has been assessed by applying the input motion with maximum PGA
BH-02 336 831 2371 0.1 2.5 varying from 268 to 361 cm/sec2 at EBL. After applying ELGRA, the
BH-03 308 636 1793 0.1 2.1
BH-04 293 778 1913 0.11 2.6
output surface motion with the maximum PGA of the order of 529–1020
BH-05 324 618 2039 0.1 1.9 cm/s2 (Fig. 16 (a)) has been estimated. The highest PGA of 1020 cm/s2
BH-06 340 734 2269 0.1 2.1 has been observed at BH-16, in the northwestern portion of the Bhuj city.
BH-07 311 528 1750 0.1 1.7 The response spectra correspond to 5% damping at the surface of each
BH-08 303 761 2448 0.17 2.5
borehole have also been estimated from the period of 0.1 s–5.0 s. These
BH-09 274 620 2123 0.12 2.3
BH-10 288 722 2049 0.15 2.5 normalized response spectra from the 28 boreholes (with Mean, SD,
BH-11 269 772 2432 0.1 2.9 Mean + SD, and Mean− SD) have been shown in Fig. 16(b). The
BH-12 268 777 2217 0.16 2.9 maximum PSA of 3404 cm/s2 at 0.11 s has been observed at BH-16.
BH-13 324 909 2267 0.12 2.8 The ground motion at the surface in the Bhuj city has been estimated
BH-14 299 738 2295 0.1 2.5
BH-15 324 793 2129 0.12 2.4
through ELGRA by applying the input motion with PGA varying between
BH-16 276 1020 3404 0.11 3.7 268 and 361 cm/s2 at EBL/Base rock. After applying ELGRA, the
BH-17 329 657 1956 0.11 2 maximum surface PGA in the range of 528 cm/s2 to 1020 cm/s2 (Fig. 17
BH-18 339 678 1643 0.1 2 & Table 7) has been estimated. The highest mean PGA of 1020 cm/s2 has
BH-19 317 637 2380 0.1 2
been observed at BH-16, in the north-western part of the Bhuj city where
BH-20 287 693 1971 0.12 2.4
BH-21 311 707 2179 0.12 2.3 Clay with high Plasticity is present. The surface level PGA dissemination
BH-22 287 743 2647 0.1 2.6 map (Fig. 17) and mean PGA amplification factor map (Fig. 18) are also
BH-23 361 677 2110 0.12 1.9 prepared. The mean PGA amplification factor has been computed in the
BH-24 281 590 1849 0.1 2.1 range of 1.7–3.7 (Fig. 18 & Table 7) with maximum amplification at
BH-25 341 775 2305 0.1 2.3
boreholes BH-16, in the north-western part of Bhuj city. The maximum
BH-26 361 920 2181 0.11 2.5
BH-27 313 816 2169 0.1 2.6 mean peak spectral acceleration (PSA) has also been computed at BH-16.
BH-28 325 821 2800 0.1 2.5 The response spectra correspond to 5% damping at the surface of
each borehole have also been estimated from the period of 0.1 s–5.0 s
and shown in Fig. 19. The mean PSA at the surface level of each borehole
(Fig. 15 (a)). The maximum PGA of 62 cm/s2 is calculated at BH-16, in
has been mentioned in Table 7. The mean spectral acceleration (Sa)
the northwestern portion of the Bhuj city area.
distribution maps for 0.1s, 0.2 s (1-2 story), 0.55 s (4-5 story), 0.67 s (6-7
The response spectra correspond to 5% damping at the surface of
story) 1s (high rise) and 1.25s period (large story building) are also
each borehole have also been estimated from the period of 0.1 s–5.0 s.
prepared at the surface level and given in Fig. 20.
These normalized response spectra from the 28 boreholes (with Mean,
Among periods of 0.1s–1.25s, the maximum mean spectral acceler­
SD, Mean + SD, and Mean− SD) has been shown inFig. 15(b). The
ation of 3034 cm/s2 has been computed at 0.1 s (Fig. 20(a)) at BH-16
maximum PSA of 206 cm/s2 at 0.13 s is observed at BH-16.

Fig. 18. Mean Amplification due to all the considered earthquake scenarios.

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K. Mohan et al. Quaternary Science Advances 13 (2024) 100138

Fig. 19. Borehole wise Spectral Acceleration plots with Mean and Standard Deviation from all earthquake scenario consideration.

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K. Mohan et al. Quaternary Science Advances 13 (2024) 100138

Fig. 19. (continued).

18
K. Mohan et al.
Fig. 19. (continued).
which is located Clay with high plasticity dominated north-western
segment of the Bhuj city. At a period 0.2 s (for 1-2 story buildings),
1830 cm/s2 (~40% less than at 0.1 s) of maximum mean spectral ac­
celeration has been observed at the BH-08 (Fig. 20(b)). However, at the
period of 0.55 s corresponding to the natural period of 5–6 story
buildings, the maximum mean PSA of 703 cm/s2 (~77% less than at 0.1
s and ~60% less than at 0.2 s) has been observed in the central part of
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Quaternary Science Advances 13 (2024) 100138
the Bhuj city, at BH-23 (Fig. 20(c)). The maximum PSA of 458 cm/s2
(~85% less than at 0.1 s and ~75% less than at 0.2 s and 35% less than
0.55 s) has been computed at BH-01 in the SW part of the Bhuj City at the
period of 1.0 s (match up with the natural period of 10 story buildings)
(Fig. 20(e)). The maximum PSA of 363 cm/s2 has been computed at BH-
20 in the central part of the Bhuj City at a period of 1.25 s (match up to
the NP of 12–15 story buildings) (Fig. 20(f)). The mean PGA
K. Mohan et al. Quaternary Science Advances 13 (2024) 100138

Fig. 20. The spectral acceleration distribution maps of the Bhuj City for all considered earthquake scenarios at periods 0.1 s, 0.2 s, 0.55 s, 0.67 s, 1.0 s and 1.25 s.

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K. Mohan et al. Quaternary Science Advances 13 (2024) 100138

Table 8 incorporated and therefore, the effect of soil on ground accelerations

The estimated PGA values PSA and amplification due to all the scenario was underestimated. In the current study, the maximum PGA of the
earthquakes. order of ~1 g (1020 cm/s2) has been estimated in the NW part of Bhuj
Reference PGA (in g) Reference 10% P.E. in 50 2% P.E. in city. This may be due to the fact that Bhuj city is located very close to
(DSHA) (PSHA) yrs. 50 yrs. KHF, on its footwall.
Mohan 0.8 g at Vs GSHAP 0.2 g at rock The 2001 Bhuj earthquake occurred about ~70 km NE of Bhuj City
(2014) 500 m/s site that faced very high devastation. Similar observations were also seen in
Chopra et al. 0.64 g at Petersen et al. 0.6 g at hard >1 g at hard the past during Ms 7.1, Loma Prieta earthquake on October 17, 1989,
(2013) surface (2004) rock rock
where the maximum devastation occurred at Treasure Island which was
Kolathayar 0.4 g at NDMA 0.12 g at A- 0.25 g at A-
et al. Bedrock type site (Vs > type site (Vs located 50 miles away from the epicenter. Similarly, the effects of 2011
(2012) 1.5 km/s) > 1.5 km/s) Sikkim earthquake was reported far from the epicentral location (Joshi,
Parvez et al. 0.6–1.2 g Nath and 0.42 g at rock 0.9 g at rock 2022; Barfal et al., 2022). The ELGRA of Treasure Island Naval Base has
(2003) at 2.2 m/s Thingbaijam site site suggested ground motion amplification due to the presence of clay with
(2012)
Magrin et al. 0.6–1.2 g Bashir and 0.28 g at 0.49 g at
high plasticity. Similar results were also proposed during 2001 Bhuj
(2016) at Dhiman (2018) Bedrock Bedrock earthquake in Ahmedabad City by Mohan et al. (2021). The ELGRA of
Bedrock Bhuj City has also suggested the maximum ground motion amplification
Parvez et al. 0.6–1.2 g Jaiswal and 0.25 g at hard at BH-16 (in the northwestern area of Bhuj City) where the clay is pre­
(2017) at 1.5 m/s Sinha (2007) rock
sent with high plasticity. The study, therefore, suggests the presence of
Petersen 1 g at soft Khattri et al. 0.2 g at rock
et al. rock (1984) clay with high plasticity as a cause of high ground motion amplification
(2004) in Bhuj City during the 2001 Bhuj earthquake. Ferritto (1993) conducted
Sitharam et al. 0.25 g at VS > 0.45 g at VS the GRA of Treasure Island, which is a Naval base. The soil of Treasure
(2015) 3600 m/s and > 3600 m/s Island comprises bay mud deposits, a high plasticity silty clay. It was
0.4 to 0.5 at
concluded from that study that the deposit of clay with high plasticity
surface
Sitharam and 0.35 g at 1500 0.75 g at can be a potential source of ground motion amplification. The clay with
Kolathayar m/s 1500 m/s high plasticity found at BH-16 (in the northwestern area of Bhuj city)
(2013) might be one of the causes of high PGA in the vicinity.
Ashish Lindholm 0.25 g Vs ≥ 0.85 g at
and Parvez 1100 m/s VS30 ≥
(2016) 1100 m/s 5. Conclusion

The micro-SHA of Bhuj City is conducted considering multiple

amplification factor at all boreholes found between 1.7 and 3.7 (Fig. 18),
with maximum amplification at BH-16 in the NW part of the Bhuj city.
Bhatia et al. (1999) under the Global Seismic Hazard Assessment
(GSHAP) program generated the PSHA map of India at the rock site
conditions for a 10% probability of exceedance (PE) in 50 years
(Table 8). The map has suggested the PGA values of 0.2 for the Bhuj and
surrounding regions.
Petersen et al. (2004) have suggested the PGA of 0.6 g in the Bhuj and
surroundings for 10% PE in 50 years at rock site conditions considering
only three faults (KMF, KHF, and ABF). Jaiswal and Sinha (2007) have
suggested a PGA of 0.25 g for 10% PE in 50 years on hard rock site. The
National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) has proposed the
PSHA map of India. The map was prepared for the A-type soil class with
a Vs30 of 1500 m/s (NDMA, 2010). The map with a 2% PE in 50 years
has suggested a PGA value of 0.25 g in Bhuj city. Nath and Thingbaijam
(2012) have suggested the PGA of 0.42 g and 0.9 g for the 10% and 2%
PE at rock site conditions, respectively. Bashir and Dhiman (2018) have
estimated the PGA of 0.6 g at hard rock conditions for 2% PE in 50 years
and suggested the Maximum credible earthquake (MCE) (2% PE in 50
years to Design Basis Earthquake (DBE) (10 % PE in 50 years) ratio of
1.62 at Bhuj. Parvez et al. (2003) conducted the DSHA of India based on
the Modal Summation technique of Costa et al. (1993) and suggested the
design ground acceleration (DGA) of 0.3–0.6 g for the city at the surface
(Table 8). Petersen et al. (2004) have prepared the DSHA map of
Kachchh and suggested a value of ~1 g for the Bhuj and surroundings
considering only three faults (KMF, KHF, and ABF). Chopra et al. (2013)
have computed the PGA of the order of 0.64 g at the surface through
DSHA by considering the 2001 Bhuj earthquake scenario. Mohan (2014)
has estimated the PGA of 0.80 g in the Bhuj city at Vs 500 m/s using
DSHA by simulating scenario earthquakes along major faults in
Kachchh. The PGAs estimated through PSHA and DSHA estimated at the
Macro level in Bhuj city have been given in Table 8. Choudhury et al.
(2018) reviewed the seismic hazard of the Gujarat region (from PSHA
and DSHA both) and concluded that the maximum accelerations near
major faults in the Kachchh region (from all the studies) will be around
1.0–1.1 g. In all past studies, the geotechnical investigation was not
seismic scenarios and incorporating geophysical and geotechnical in­
vestigations. The ELGRA has been conducted to compute surface strong
ground motion at 28 drilled boreholes. The study highlighted the
following points.
• In Bhuj City, the soil thickness of 1.5 m–21 m (1.5–4 m at 25 bore­
holes and 18–21 m at 3 boreholes) has been found.
• The Bhuj city is mostly covered by fine to coarse-grained sandstone.
The soil thickness is found high (18–21 m) in the NW part of Bhuj
city.
• All major faults are considered (KMF, KHF, ABF, NWF, SWF, GF, IBF,
and ABF) to estimate the surface SM and the surface PGA in the range
of 528 cm/s2 to 1020 cm/s2 (maximum 2.8 times more than the
national code) is estimated.
• The maximum PGA of the order of ~1 g (1020 cm/s2) has been
predicted in the NW part of Bhuj city (where sediment thickness was
found to be the maximum (18–21 m) and clay with high plasticity is
present).
• The amplification factor of 1.7–3.7 has been calculated in Bhuj city.
The maximum ground motion amplification is in the NW part of Bhuj
City.
Funding
The research was supported by the Ministry of Earth Sciences
(MoES), New Delhi under grant MoES/P.O. (Seismo)/1 (239)/2014.
Author contributions
KM conceptualized the study, conducted soil modeling, ground
response analysis, and wrote the first draft of the manuscript. SD has
carried out strong motion simulations. VP and VKD have carried out
geotechnical data acquisition and processing. NK has provided the
geological inputs. BS has conducted the MASW survey. SC has reviewed
the manuscript critically. All authors read and approved the final
manuscript.

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K. Mohan et al.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgments
Authors are thankful to the Director General, Institute of Seismo­
logical Research for approving to publish this research work; KM is also
thankful to the Director, National Center for Seismology, Ministry of
Earth Sciences, New Delhi for his kind approval for the publication of the
manuscript. The authors also acknowledge the Ministry of Earth Sci­
ences (MoES), New Delhi to provide funds for the Seismic Microzonation
of Bhuj City (Kachchh), Gujarat (India) under grant MoES/P.O.
(Seismo)/1(239)/2014.
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