Seismic Refraction Survey for Proposed Barrage Site Investigation

Seismic Refraction Surveyand
Geological for Site Investigation

Geophysical of Proposed Barrage at
Investigations
Jakhole District, Kathua Jammu and Kashmir (J&K)
Seismic Refraction Survey for Site Investigation of

Proposed Barrage at Jakhole District, Kathua
Jammu and Kashmir (J&K)
Birendra Pratap, Alex Varughese and Hari Dev

Central Soil and Materials Research Station
e-mail: bpcsmrs@gmail.com
ABSTRACT: Seismic refraction surveys are widely accepted for deciphering subsurface
stratigraphy including for inferring the quality of bed rock. This information is required for
designing the foundations for the civil structures economically. The geophysical seismic
refraction surveys were conducted for site investigation for the construction of proposed barrage
of Ujh Multipurpose Project at Jakhole, District; Kathua, Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) state. The
aim of the survey was to evaluate the thickness, quality of the overburden and characteristics of
the bedrock profile, along the surveyed seismic lines. These profiles may assist to decipher the
subsurface stratigraphy, bedrock quality and weak zone in bed rock with depth in the area of
interest. This paper describes the utility of seismic refraction survey techniques and presents the
results with conclusions based on present investigations. The geophysical methods employed at
the project site proved to be very useful, quick and economical for geotechnical site
investigation for the construction of barrage.
1 INTRODUCTION
There is an increasing requirement for geophysical seismic refraction surveys carried out
during site investigations to provide direct information about bed rock profile and rock quality or
other geotechnical parameters for deciding and designing the foundations of civil structures of
any project. The barrage is a diversion structure the foundation of which should be geotechnical
sound to sustain the force of water current and high stress of water pressure of the reservoir.
The Ujh multipurpose project envisages the construction of a 30 m high diversion barrage
for irrigation with nearly 7.7 km long head race tunnel (HRT). The project area is located on the
river Ujh, near Village Jakhole, District; Kathua of Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) state and the
project is accessible by National Highway No. NH-1A, from Jammu-Pathankot Highway.
Seismic refraction survey for a total length of 846 m on the left bank consisting of 6 spreads
of 138 m was conducted (CSMRS Report, 2011). The right bank was inaccessible. Three seismic
profile lines consisting of six seismic lines in which two parallel seismic profile line No. 330001,
330002 and 440001, 440002 were conducted along the proposed alignment of barrage axis and
one seismic profile line consisting seismic lines No. 550001 & 550002 are conducted across
barrage axis as shown in Figure 1.
Since the area was covered with exposed boulders, it was difficult to plant the geophones.
Hence geophones were planted in plastic bucket filled with sand and it was embedded in the
ground as shown in Figure 2. Explosive was used for generation of seismic waves. A total of
five shots were executed, two at the extreme end of the profile line, one at the middle and two at
a distance equivalent of the profile line from beginning and end of geophones.
INDOROCK 2013: 4th Indian Rock Conference 29-31 May 2013

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Fig. 1: Layout plan of seismic profile lines at Ujh Barrage Project (J&K)
Fig. 2: Arrangement to fix Geophones
2 SUBSURFACE GEOLOGY
Geologically, the surveyed area is underlain by Siwalik formation, comprising formations
from recent and sub-recent to Miocene, in age. These deposits comprise of a horizontally layered
thin sequence of pebbles, cobbles, boulders, sandstones and coarse sands intercalated with clays.
The geological succession of the area is given in table 1.
The entire area on the left bank was covered with naturally densely packed river borne
materials consisting of boulders of size varying from 0.1 to 1.00 m with its interstices filled with
coarse sand, gravels and pebbles. On the right bank, the exposed rock dipping downstream was
visible. In most of the area on the right bank, overburden was not visible as observed in the left
bank. In the right bank exposed rock was observed up to a considerable height whereas the left

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Seismic Refraction Survey for Site Investigation of Proposed Barrage at
bank was plain. Exposed sand stones, gritty sandstones with thin clay partings belonging to
Lower Siwalik group were observed along the proposed barrage (GSI Report, 2009).
Table 1: The geological succession of the area
Sub Group Stage Lithology Age
Upper Siwalik Dhok Pathan Sandstone, Shale with Lower
Stage isolated nodules Pliocene
Middle Nagri Stage Sandstone and Shale Upper
Siwalik Miocene
3 SEISMIC REFRACTION SURVEY

In seismic refraction survey, elastic waves are generated artificially by explosive source or
by mechanical hammer. By virtue of the elastic behaviour of the rock, the elastic deformation
propagates in all directions as spherical wave fronts. On critical refraction, the refracted waves
travel along the interface and sends out secondary waves to the surface. These returning waves
are recorded in the seismic refraction survey. A typical seismic profile consists of 24 number of
vertical geophones uniformly spaced at a distance of 5/6 m. Explosives/ mechanical hammer are
used for creation of waves. Usually, five or seven shots are used for recording the waves
depending upon the topography and layout of the profile.
3.1 Data Acquisition
The seismic refraction survey were conducted using the ABEM TERROLAC- 24 channel
seismograph consisting of two 12 - conductor cables, amplifiers, geophones, seismic cables,
seismic energy source, blaster and recording device. The amplifier’s function is to boost the
signal detected by the geophones to a level suitable for input to the recording device. The main
energy source used was low charge blasting. For each spread of 24 geophones, 5 shots were
executed: 3 shots within the profile to obtain the lateral velocity variation in the top layer (s) and
2 far shots on either side of the spread, to provide the true seismic velocity of the “sound” rock
surface. The seismic record from each shot was verified in the field for the accuracy of the data.
3.2 Interpretation Techniques
There are various methods of interpretation of seismic refraction field data viz. Intercept
Time method, Critical Distance method, Hale’s method, Wave Front method and Hawkins
method or Plus - Minus method or ABC method (Sjogren1984). In this case, interpretation of
seismic data was done using ABC method. This method provides information on thickness of the
various layers, depth to bed rock under each geophone and rock quality. The interpretation
procedure consists of picking up of first arrivals of P-wave from the records. The time–distance
plots are drawn for all the shot points. The interpretation of P-wave velocity and depth of various
layers of subsurface formations are then performed by plus-minus method. The bed rock depth
has been calculated at every geophone position to arrive at the bed rock profile. Different
seismic velocities seen from the field records have been interpreted by considering the variation
in seismic velocities within the different types of Sub-surface material (Varughese et al, 2011)
and taking into account the local geology.

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3.3 Representative Seismic Velocities in Various Materials

Range of compression, P- wave velocities for various Earth Materials under dry and wet
conditions varies (Keary and Brooks, 1984). The order of magnitude of the compression wave
velocities helps in classifying the subsurface layers in terms of engineering strength. From the
evaluated compression wave velocities the geological layers have been generally classified as
shown in Table 2 (CWPRS 2008). The results however, obtained are to be calibrated with
borehole logs data.
Table 2: Classification of Geological Layers based on Seismic Velocity
Sl. No. Velocity (m/sec) Classification

1. less than 1000 Overburden
2 1000-1400 Highly weathered rock
3 1400-2500 Weathered rock
4 2500-4000 Weak zone in bed rock
5 above 4000 Bed rock
3.4 Precision and Limitations

The depth of bed rock computed from seismic refraction data should be accurate within +/-
10% of the actual depth. Other phenomenon such as velocity inversion and hidden layers
diminish the procedure for interpretation. However, bouldry strata may have seismic velocity
very close/similar to the highly weathered rock/weathered rock/weak zone in bedrock, which
may lead to wrong interpretations. These cases may be avoided by correlation with borehole
information and by collecting data from different such projects by the using same equipment.
The interpretation of a line along a sloping surface tends to be erroneous. The accuracy increases
with the increase in contrast of the various layers.
4 DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS
4.1 Seismic Profile 1 (No. 330001&330002)
Two parallel seismic profile lines consisting of seismic lines No. 330001, 330002, 440001
and 440002 were conducted along the proposed alignment of barrage axis as shown in Figure 1.
On the basis of geoseismic section of profile line No. 330001 and 330002 (Fig. 3), the
geophysical model suggests two layers. The seismic velocity for first layer was found to be 600-
1300 m/sec and thickness was approximately 7 m. Geophysical interpretation as well as visual
examination, it can be confirmed that the first layer (top surface layer) consists of boulders of
size varying from 0.1 to 1.00 m with its interstices filled with sand, pebbles and gravels. It was
also observed that the materials were densely packed. The seismic velocity of the second layer
was found to be 2400 - 2600 m/sec, which is the general P-wave velocity in weathered
rock/weak rock mass. No bed rock (having a velocity more than 4000 m/sec) could be
encountered up to an approximate depth of 60 m. The interpreted results are presented in the
form of geoseismic section of profile line is given in Figure 3.

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451 Left Bank

River side Ground Level
449
447
Reduced Level (m)
445 600- 1300 m/sec Riverborne Materials
443
441
439 2400 - 2600 m/sec Weak Zone in Bed Rock
437
435
0 24 48 72 96 120 144 168 192 216 240 264
Reduced Distance (m)
Fig. 3: Geoseismic section of profile No.330001 & 330002
4.2 Seismic Profile 2 (No. 440001& 440002)
Seismic profile 2 with a total length 282 m consisting of seismic lines No. 440001& 440002 was
conducted almost parallel to seismic profile 1 as shown in Figure 1. On the basis of geoseismic
section of profile line No. 440001 and 440002 (Fig. 4), the geophysical model suggests two
layers. The seismic velocity for first layer was 600 m/sec and thickness was approximately 20 m.
Geophysical interpretation as well as visual examination, suggests that first layer (top surface
layer) as overburden consisting of boulders of size varying from 0.1 to 1.00 m with its interstices
filled with sand, pebbles and gravels. It was also observed that the materials were densely
packed. The seismic velocity of the second layer was found to be 2500 m/sec, which is the
general P-wave velocity of weathered rock. No bed rock (having a velocity more than 4000
m/sec) could be encountered up to an approximate depth of 60 m in the 2nd profile line also. The
detailed interpreted results are presented in the form of geoseismic section of profile line is given
in Figure 4.
4.3 Seismic Profile 3 (No. 550001& 550002)
Seismic profile 3 with a total length 282 m consisting of seismic lines No. 550001 & 550002
were conducted across the proposed alignment of barrage axis as shown in Figure 1. On the
basis of geoseismic section of profile line No. 550001 and 550002 (Fig. 5), the geophysical
model suggests two layers. The seismic velocity for first layer was found to be 600-1000 m/sec
with thickness varying from 6 m to 40 m. Geophysical interpretation as well as visual
examination, it can be confirmed that the first layer (top surface layer) was overburden,
consisting of boulders of size varying from 0.1 to 1.00 m with its interstices filled with sand,
pebbles and gravels. It was also observed that the materials were densely packed. The seismic
velocity of the second layer was found to be 2400 - 2600 m/sec, which is the general P-wave
velocity of weathered rock/weak zone in bed rock. No bed rock (having a velocity more than

211
4000 m/sec) could be encountered up to an approximate depth of 60 m. The detailed interpreted

results are presented in the form of geoseismic section of profile line is given in Figure 5.
500
490
480
470
Reduced Level (m)
460
450 River Bank
440 600 m/sec Overburden
430
420
410 2500 m/sec Weathered /Weak zone in Bed
400
0 24 48 72 96 120 144 168 192 216 240 264
Fig. 4: Geoseismic section of profile No.440001 & 440002
500
480
460 Near River Bank

Reduced Level (m)
Near River Bank

440 600-1000 m/sec Overburden
420
2400-2600 m/sec Weathered/Weak Zone in Bed Rock
400
0 24 48 72 96 120 144 168 192 216 240 264
Fig. 5: Geoseismic section of profile

No.550001 & 550002

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5 CONCLUSIONS
 The geophysical Seismic Refraction survey conducted at Jakhole, District; Kathua,
Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) state, helped in deciding and designing the foundation of
proposed barrage of Ujh Multipurpose Project.
 The seismic survey interpreted results are presented in P-wave velocity profiles with
reduced level (RL) in the form of geoseismic section.
 Geoseismic section of profile lines on the left bank confirmed the seismic velocity of
the first layer as 600- 1300 m/sec with thickness varying from 6 m to 40 m.
 Geophysical interpretation inferred the first layer (top surface layer) as overburden
consisting of boulders filled with sand, gravels and pebbles. It was also observed that
the materials were densely packed.
 The seismic velocity of the second layer was found to be 2400 -2600 m/sec, interpreted
as weathered rock/ weak rock mass.
 The seismic P-wave velocity 4000 m/sec or more could not be found up to 50 m depth
in any profiles. Geophysical survey can be effectively used for deciding the location of
the barrage site.
 The barrage site was shifted downstream of the proposed site in view of the geophysical
results.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are really grateful to Director and Group Head RM-I, Central Soil and Materials
Research Station (CSMRS), New Delhi for his kind cooperation and permission to publication
of this paper. The authors are also grateful to Sh. Shiv Charan for their hard work in completing
field investigation.
References
CSMRS (2011), “Report on Seismic Refraction Survey of Proposed Barrage Site of Ujh
Multipurpose Project, District, Kathua Jammu and Kashmir (J&K)”.
CWPRS (2008), “Monograph on Seismic Refraction Methods on Engineering Applications”.
GSI (2009), “A Short Note on The Feasibility Stage Geotechnical Assessment of Ujh
Multipurpose Project, Samba District, Jammu and Kashmir (J&K)”.
Keary P and Brooks M (1984), “An Introduction to Geophysical Exploration”, Blackwell
Scientific Publications, Oxford.
Sjo’gren, Bengt (1984), “Shallow Refraction Seismic” Chapman & Hall Atlas Copco, ABEM
AB (1983) Terraloc Seismic System, Bromma Sweden.
Varughese, Alex, Pratap, Birendra And Gupta, S.L. (2011), “Subsurface Investigation By
Seismic Refraction Survey On Bouldary Bed- A Case Study”, Proc. Third Indian Rock
Conference, INDOROCK-2011, 13-15 Oct. 2011, Roorkee, pp.145-149.

213
R.C. Bhandari, B.D. Jangade, Sandeep
Geological andSaini, Bharat Investigations
Geophysical Kumar Choudhary and Wesley Saleira
Geological Investigations for Tunnel Projects and their Impact

on Cost and Schedule Related to Project Construction with
Special Reference to Highway Tunnels in Himalayas
R.C. Bhandari 1, B.D Jangade2, Sandeep Saini3,
Bharat Kumar Choudhary4 and Wesley Saleira5
1
Consultant Geology, D2-ICT JV, Rohtang Highway Tunnel Project, Manali, H.P.
2
E.E (Civil) O.C Roads, BRO, Rohtang Highway Tunnel Project, Manali, H.P.
3
Geotechnical Engineer, (D2-ICT JV), Rohtang Highway Tunnel Project Manali, H.P..
4
Geologist, D2 – PEMS – ICT JV, Rohtang Highway Tunnel Project Manali, H.P..
5
Project Leader, (D2-ICT JV), Rohtang Highway Tunnel Project, Manali, H.P.
e-mail: rcbhandari1973@yahoo.co.in
ABSTRACT: The underground tunnel projects in the Himalayas continue to be unique due to
uncertainties and risks. The project design approach and construction methodology need to
address challenges such as unfavourable and rapidly changing conditions due to high insitu
stresses, tectonised and deformed rock mass, shear zones, faults, ingress of water and other
geological factors. The 8.8 km long Rohtang Highway tunnel is a single–tube, two–lane bi–
directional tunnel, located in the Himalayan region in a complex geological setting, is currently
under construction. The detailed design for construction planning and recommendations were
made with limited site investigations at the detailed design and tender document stage, due to the
inaccessibility along the proposed tunnel route because of the harsh topographical,
geomorphological and climatic conditions. The planning for tunnel excavation was developed on
the “Excavation Rock Class” basis using Barton’s “Q” –system and the anticipated length of the
respective rock classes along the proposed tunnel was estimated at the tender stage. The
excavations carried out to–date indicate around 62% deviation from the rock classes forecast at
the tender stage. In addition to the deviation of rock classes, unanticipated water bearing zones
and rock bursting under high overburden reaches are being encountered resulting in slower
progress and potential major delays to the project.
1. INTRODUCTION
Rohtang Highway tunnel project is located in the State of Himachal Pradesh in the Kullu
and Lahaul–Spiti districts (Fig. 1). The single tube, two lane, bi–directional tunnel will be 8.8km
long, and when compled will provide an all-weather link between the Kullu and Manali valleys
in the south to the Koksar valley in the north.
The south portal of the tunnel is located at an altitude of 3,055 m above mean sea level,
approximately 25 km north of Manali town on the left bank of Seri Nalla, a tributary of Beas-
Kund Nalla. The north portal of the tunnel is located across the Rohtang Pass on the left bank of
Chandra River at an altitude of 3,080 m above mean sea level, approximately 79 km from
Manali, on the Manali–Sarchu road (NH 21).

214
Geological Investigations for Tunnel Projects and their Impact on Cost and Schedule Related to
Project Construction with Special Reference to Highway Tunnels in Himalayas
Fig. 1 Location of Rohtang Tunnel Project.

1.1 Salient Features of Rohtang Highway Tunnel Project
(i). Invert Elevation at North Portal 3,080 m asl.

(ii). Invert Elevation at South Portal 3,055 m asl.
(iii) Cross sectional Area 75.9 m2
(iv). Slope 0.5%, ascending from both Portals.
(v). Finished Dimensions Approx. 11 m wide at tunnel
walkway level.
Approx. 12 m wide (at spring line).
(vi). Shape Modified horse shoe.
(vii) Concrete Lining Cast in situ concrete.
(vii) Smoke Duct At tunnel crown, with
constant cross section through-out
(viii) Ventilation Duct (Fresh Air) In culvert section, below pavement
(ix). Drainage System Pipe to collect seepage water on side
walls.
(x). Roadway 8 m wide with two lanes.
(xi). Foot Path On both the sides, 1 m wide.
2 PROJECT GEOLOGY
The Rohtang project is located within the central crystalline group of rocks. These
lithological units are collectively named as the Vaikrita Group. The Central Crystalline – zone
represents an anticline that trends roughly along the axis of the Great Himalayan range,
extending from east to west. The rocks mainly consist of metamorphics having undergone
ductile deformations. The regional geological succession at the location of the project comprises
of Tandi Formation (Permian to Jurassic), Batal Formations (Permian to Jurassic), Salkhala
Group (Pre-Cambrian) and Rohtang Gneissic Complex (Pre-Cambrian). The Rohtang tunnel
mainly passes through the Salkhala Group, which comprises mainly of Quartz-schist, from the
south portal. From the north portal (Koksar), the gneissic rocks of Rohtang Gneissic Complex

215
R.C. Bhandari, B.D. Jangade, Sandeep Saini, Bharat Kumar Choudhary and Wesley Saleira
are being encountered. The gneissic rocks comprise mainly of migmatites with intense
schistosity and frequent mica banding.
Fig. 2 Cross Section of Tunnel.

The main structural characteristics is the foliation which dominates the rock mass over the
entire tunnel length. The folded nature of rock is disected by variation in the strike direction of
foliation. Jointing is the subsidiary structure with significant influence on tunneling.
Conspicuously three sets of joints are dominant with a fourth random set. The surface geological
mapping indicates orientation of joints with respect to the tunnel alignment as only moderately
favourable.
2.1 Major Geological Features
The field geological mapping, by surface traversing along accessible slopes and valleys
augmented by remote sensing data, indicated the presence of the following major tectonic
structures along the alignment:
a. Seri Nalla Fault
b. Chandra Koti Structure
c. Rohtang Ridge Structure
Seri Nalla Fault
This is a NE-SW trending fault. On the surface this fault has a width of 6–10 m, and is also
continuous. The fault is identified by the contact between quartzitic schist and migmatites
(gneissic rock).
Chandra Koti Structure
This NW-SW striking fracture zone that is approximately 2-4 km wide as interpreted from
satellite imagery.
Rohtang Ridge Structure
This NE-SW striking fracture zone that is approximately 1-2 km wide as interpreted from
satellite imagery.

216
Fig. 3 Regional Geological Features.

2.2 Geotechnical Investigations and Interpretations
Geotechnical investigations on the Rohtang Highway Tunnel project had been limited by
accessibility problems, due to difficult terrain conditions. Only four boreholes, three at the south
portal and one at the north portal were drilled. In addition to these four boreholes two
exploratory drifts, one at each portal were excavated (RITES 1996). In order to have more
comprehensive information satellite imagery was used for assessing the various geological
structures. Based on the geotechnical studies, an interpretive geological section was prepared
and this formed the basis for the anticipated geological conditions for preparing the tender
documents. In–situ field tests such as permeability tests, hydro–fracturing tests in boreholes, flat
jack tests in drifts, over coring stress measurement in drifts were also conducted at the time of
the geotechnical investigations. The results of these tests, which were limited to the portal sites
formed the basis for establishing the “Rock Mass Classification”, and for calculating “Rock
Mass Rating” – RMR (Bienawski 1973, 1989) and the “Rock Mass Quality” Q – system
(Barton, Lien and Lunde 1974)
During the design phase, excavation classes of rock were developed on the basis of “Q” –
Values established for each rock class. Accordingly, the anticipated rocks to be encountered
during excavation of the entire length of the tunnel were grouped in to different “Excavation
Rock Classes”, as shown on Table 1.
Table 1 Classification of Tunnel based on Overburden Depth.
Serial No. Rock Class In-situ “Q”- Values Excavation Class
1. Good >10 1
2. Fair 4-10 2
3. Poor 4-1 3
4. Very Poor 1-0.4 4
5. Very Poor 0.4-0.1 5
6. Exceptionally Poor 0.1-0.001 6

217
The geological model indicating anticipated distribution of “excavation classes” as

presented at the tender stage and in the tender documents, is shown on Fig. 4.
The “geological model” prepared at the tender stage included complete anticipated
geological conditions, including ground water conditions, rock bursting condition. It was used
for calculation of costs, design of support system and construction schedule of the project and
also the type of machinery to be deployed for construction.
3 ACTUAL CONDITIONS ENCOUNTERED DURING EXCAVATIONS
The excavation of the tunnel was started on 30.08.2010, from the south portal, by using the
drill and blast method with the NATM (New Austrian Tunneling Method) philosophy. To–date,
the total heading excavation has progressed about 3,500 m in total from both portals. From the
south portal, the tunnel has been excavated for a length of 2,100 m and from the north portal, it
is around 1,300 m.
From the south portal, the tunnel is being driven through quartzitic schist, which is highly
jointed and crossed by number of shear-zones, parallel or sub-parallel to the tunnel axis. From
the north portal the tunnel is being driven in gneissic rock. Tunneling on the project to-date has
documented that there are significant variations in rock-classes from “as tendered” to “actually
encountered”. This is shown on Fig. 5 and also summarized on Tables 2 and 3.
Table 2 Variation in Rock Classes on the South Portal Drive, As In Tender Document vs.
Actually Encountered.
Matched With Not Matched

Rock Tender Actual
Tender Rock With Tender
Class
Length % Length % Class Rock Class
1 1227 66% 75.5 4% 4% -62%
2 638 34% 944.7 51% 34% 16%
3 0 0% 592.2 32% 0% 32%
3M 0 0% 0% 0% 0%
4M 0 0% 92.4 5% 0% 5%
4S 0 0% 0% 0% 0%
5 0 0% 17.0 1% 0% 1%
6 0 0% 115.4 6% 0% 6%
7 0 0% 27.8 1% 0% 1%
Total 1865 100% 1865 100% 38% 62%
(The status of variation in rock classes indicated is for excavated length of tunnel up to
March 2013.)
The significant variation in rock-class from “as tendered” to “actually being encountered” is
mainly due to the occurrence of highly sheared rock zones at places. These were not anticipated
during investigations at the design phase of the project. The only prominent fault zone
anticipated was “Seri-Nalla Fault” zone from the south portal which forms the contact between
quartzitic schist/quartzitic phyllites and migmatic rocks. The surface geological traverse

218
undertaken during construction shows that there are a number of fracture planes along the tunnel
alignment which are sub-parallel to the tunnel axis. The magnitudes of the impact of these
geological structures during tunnel excavations were not forecast at all at the design phase.
The occurrence of shear-zones within the rock mass has affected the excavation progress.
This has led to unanticipated and sudden changes in rock-class, which require change in rock
supports as per design as well as per site conditions. Thus there is variation from the progress
rates for excavation from the Method Statement (MS) submitted by the Contractor, with actual
progress achieved, that are always much lower. The asking rate or the excavation rate for each
rock class in the Contractor’s Method Statement and the actual progress being achieved in
different rock classes by the Contractor are shown on Fig. 6.
The prominent shear-zones and fault zones, encountered to-date from the south portal in
addition to Seri Nala Fault Zone are:
Fault Zone – I: Ch 1+890 to Ch 1+930,
Fault Zone – II: Ch 2+000 to Ch 2+011,
Fault Zone – III: Ch 2+049 to Ch 2+100
The above sections of the tunnel zones as per the tendered document should have been Rock
Class I. Due to occurrence of the faults/shea red rock–zones the actual rock classes encountered
is different and is as given on Table. 4.
Table 3 Variation in Rock Classes on the North Portal Drive, As In Tender Document vs.
Actually Encountered.
Not
Tender Actual Matched
Rock Matched With Tender
With
Class Rock Class
Tender
Length % Length % Rock Class
1 550 44% 149.9 13% 12% -32%
2 140 11% 537.7 43% 11% 32%
3 150 12% 429.0 35% 12% 23%
3M 0% 0% 0%
4M 0% 82.1 7% 7%
4S 0% 0% 0%
5 398 32% 39.7 3% 3% -29%
6 0% 0% 0%
7 0% 0% 0%
Total 1238 100% 1238 100% 38% 62%

219

220
Fig. 5 Variation in Rock Classes.

Table 4 Variation of Rock Classes.
As Asking
s As per Tender Actual
Encountered Rates As
Progress in
S.No Encountered
Encountered
Rock “Q”- Rock “Q”- and (As per
From To Rock Class
Class Values Class Values Tender)
in m/day
in m/day
1. 1+887 1+904 1 20 3 3.87 6.0 (8.3) 3.40
2. 1+904 1+918 1 20 4M 1.36 5.2 (8.3) 1.75
3. 1+916 1+986 1 20 6 0.08 3.0 (8.3) 1.63
4. 1+986 2+003 1 20 5 0.12 3.8 (8.3) 2.30
5. 2+003 2+049 1 20 6 0.012 3.0 (8.3) 1.57
0.40
6. 2+049 2+100 1 20 7 <0.011 2.1 (8.3)
9
8 ASKING RATE
PERFORMANCE
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1 2 3 4M 5 6 7
Rock Class
Fig. 6 Comparison of Actual Progress and the Asking Rates as per Contractor’s Method
Statement.

221
The rock encountered are Rock Classes 3 to 6, however even as per Contractor’s MS the
asking rates of 2.1 to 6.0 m/day for the encountered rock classes are not being met by the
Contractor. The tunneling conditions beyond Ch. 2+049 are very severe requiring pipe roofs and
the lower progress rates are to some extent justifiable.
3.1 Figure Formation of Cavity at the South Portal
When the tunnel was being driven from the south portal through highly jointed rocks,
phyllites and phyllitic quartzite, heavy seepage of water occurred through a sheared rock band.
The initial discharge was 5 liters/ses, and this gradually increased to 30 liters/sec. This ultimately
resulted in the formation of a cavity at Ch. 2+049. Incidentally this tunnel section was expected
to be in Rock Class 1, as per the tender document. The revised interpretation of surface and sub-
surface geological data indicated the tunnel section at this reach as being continuously recharged
from a water bearing zone connected to the surface. The geological cross section from Ch.
2+050 onwards is shown on Fig. 7. This section has been prepared on the basis of actual field
observations recorded during heading excavatios.
Attempts were then made to advance the face by installation of pipe-roofs augmented by
grouting. The maximum rate of advance possible was only around 0.80 to 1.0 m/day. The rate of
progress is significantly lower than the asking rate, thus impacting the overall schedule
negatively. In order to reassess the geological conditions of sections to be excavated in advance
the following methods are being adopted:
i. Advance probing by Tunnel Seismic Prediction (TSP) method.
ii. Advance probing by core drilling method.
iii. Advance probing by non-coring methods with DTH machines.
Advance probing by Ground Penetration Radar (GPR)
Fig. 7 Geological Cross Section at Ch. 2+050.

222
iv. Preparation of geological model using data collected during pipe roofing such as rate of
penetration during drilling, grout intakes etc., during installation of pipe roofs, to
interpret geological conditions ahead of face in advance.
The results from the advance probing using the Tunnel Seismic Prediction (TSP)
correlated 70-75% of the time with actual rock conditions. However, the TSP Method
has its limitations, particularly when the strata are water charged. The results from the
Tunnel Seismic Prediction (TSP) are shown on Fig. 9.
Initial assessments indicate the cost of the project, due to the change in rock classes, can be
expected to increase by 40%.
Fig. 8 Pipe Roof Data Interpretation.
Fig. 9 TSP Results.

223
4 CONCLUSIONS
i. On tunnel projects located in complex geological setting such as the Himalayas, the
cost, feasibility and design parameters of the projects are largely influenced by
geological factors.
ii. The cost of the project and the time schedule along with entire construction planning
need to be based on a proper “Geotechnical Design Summary Report” (GDSR).
iii. Unanticipated geological problems missed because of limited site investigations cause
delays and cost overruns and also give rise to disputes between Contractor, Consultant
and Client.
iv. The problems faced at the Rohtang tunnel include significant variations in rock classes
from the tendered document in comparison to those actually being encountered during
heading excavation. This is also attributed to the limited geological/geotechnical data
available at the design and tender document preparation phase.
5 RECOMMENDATIONS
The experiences from the Rohtang Highway Tunnel Project must serve as an eye opener for
Clients as well as for Design Consultants and Construction planning agencies that keep limiting
the site investigations done at the tender stage. Such limiting leads to contractual problems later
in addition to delays in completion of the project. In order to avoid or minimize such problems,
it is recommended that maximum geological/ geotechnical data be obtained at an early stage.
I. Success of tunnel construction is directly related to the prior knowledge of impending
geological complexities to being prepared with pre-emptive engineering solutions, tools
and resources.
II. Site investigations for projects located in adverse geomorphological, geological and
climatic conditions such as Rohtang Highway Tunnel project require a very effective
investigation program to obtain geological and geotechnical data required for rock mass
characterization and also to identify potential hazard zones.
III. If the tunnel alignment passes through inaccessible areas due to adverse
geomorphologic and terrain features, a thorough study along a “Tunnel Route Corridor”
for identification of adverse geological features must be undertaken thoroughly with the
help of satellite imagery, and possible impact of each adverse geological feature,
whether it is a minor fault or a major sheared rock zone need to be studied thoroughly
to assess its impact for reliable planning and costing of the tunnel.
IV. Critical attention must be given to the prospective use of the state of-the-art techniques
of geological structural data collection, geophysical surveys, and exploration by
drilling, hydrogeological studies, in-situ stress measurements and laboratory studies
augmented by modeling using numerical methods.
V. Tender documents must include some non-intrusive methods that can be used during
construction should the need arise.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Authors express their gratitude to the Chief Engineer, Rohtang Tunnel Project. Border Road
Organization for the encouragement provided during the preparation of the paper.

224
References
Bhandari, R.C. (2009), “Planning and Phasing of Detailed. Geotechnical
investigations, for Underground structures”, Journal of Indian Society of
Engineering Geology, Vol XXXVI, No. 1-4.
Nawani, P.C. (2011), “Engineering Geological investigation for underground
excavation”, Journal of Engineering Geology, Vol XXXVII, No. 1-4.
RITES (1996), “Feasibility Study Highway Tunnel Across Himalayan Ranges, Manali –
H.P”.

225
Ananda Sen, Vipul
Geological Nagar and Naveyen
and Geophysical K. Pande
Investigations
Advantage of Combined Application of Refraction Seismics

and MASW in Site Characterization
Ananda Sen, Vipul Nagar and Naveen K. Pandey
Engineering Geology & Geotechnical Division, NHPC Limited, Faridabad
e-mail: geophysics.nhpc@gmail.com
ABSTRACT: Establishing safe and economic hydropower projects necessitates

formalizing a comprehensive investigation plan involving indirect technique of engineering
geophysics, in view of restricted time-frame and finance. Of the various engineering
geophysical methods, the refraction seismics is a prime exploration aid for in-situ
investigations in terms of compressional wave (P-wave) velocity, helpful in furnishing
continuous profile of the subsurface. The state-of-the-art Multichannel Analysis of Surface
Waves (MASW) is a non-destructive geophysical technique facilitating high-resolution
scanning of underground in terms of Shear wave (S-wave) velocity distribution. The paper
elaborates the advantage of application of refraction seismics in conjunction with MASW
in defining the subsurface status and rockmass condition towards site characterization. A
case study example is included herein to demonstrate the merit of combined application of
these techniques in investigation of hydropower project in the Himalayan region.
1. INTRODUCTION
Development of hydropower projects, which involve large structures and underground
works, demands a well-considered program of investigation for generating adequate
information about the underground condition and site characteristics, helpful in
establishing economic and secure projects. Besides the involvement of drilling and drifting
as well as geological and geotechnical studies, it is important to apply state-of-the-art
geophysical techniques during various stages of development of hydropower projects and
towards their safe maintenance as well.
Of the various exploration geophysical techniques, the seismic refraction method is
widely utilized in civil engineering applications for in-situ investigations in obtaining,
through surface measurements, a reliable profile of the subsurface geological condition in
terms of P-wave velocity: It furnishes subsurface information, over a large area, towards
defining overburden stratification and bedrock disposition, Sen and Bandyopadhyay
(1990).
In recent time, with the technological advancement, the development of Multichannel
Analysis of Surface Waves (MASW) technique is proving as a powerful means for detailed
subsurface exploration and site characterization based on shear wave (S-wave) velocity
distribution. The geophysical MASW is a surface wave technique based fundamentally on
the geometric dispersion of Rayleigh wave, analysis of which helps in determination of the
vertical distribution of the Vs and facilitates high resolution scanning of the underground in
terms of S-wave velocity in 1-D and 2-D forms.
For effective utilization of both Refraction Seismics and MASW techniques, an
integrated approach is helpful in better appreciation of the subsurface condition, reducing

226
Advantage of Combined Application of Refraction Seismics and MASW in Site Characterization
the risk of overlooking critical features. The paper elaborates integrated application of
Refraction Seismics and MASW techniques in hydroelectric project investigation towards
gainful utilization in defining the subsurface status and rock mass condition through case
study example.
2. SEISMIC REFRACTION TECHNIQUE
The Seismic Refraction is the most widely used geophysical technique utilized in civil
engineering applications for in-situ investigations of geotechnical problems, the
propagation of seismic compressional wave (P-wave) velocity through a subsurface strata
being controlled by the fundamental parameters of elastic strength and density. in
geotechnical investigations for the determination of depth and nature of the bedrock: It is
helpful in furnishing continuous profile of the underground, over a large area, towards
defining overburden stratification and delineating bedrock disposition as well as in
estimating of the bedrock quality in terms of P-wave velocity.
The seismic refraction technique involves initiation of seismic compressional wave on
ground by an energy source and measurement of the propagation time in terms of first
arrivals, as it is refracted from the boundaries of the underground stratum and detected at
the ground surface by an array of geophone spread, Ghosh et al. (2008). The standard
forward-reverse field technique involves laying of a linear array of receivers (vertical
geophones) along the seismic profile with mechanical/explosive as the impact source, the
data acquisition being done using multi-channel seismograph. Generally geophones of
10Hz / 14Hz are used and the impact source is placed in between the profile as well as at
the ends. A couple of off-set shots are also essential for delineating the underlying bedrock
interface. The procedure of seismic refraction data acquisition, processing and
interpretation is depicted in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1 Seismic Refraction Study Procedure

The data interpretation is accomplished aided by software which facilitates generating
of 2D/3D model for defining the subsurface conditions,Sen et al. (2010).

227
Ananda Sen, Vipul Nagar and Naveyen K. Pande
3. MASW TECHNIQUE
MASW is a surface wave technique based fundamentally on the geometric dispersion

of Rayleigh wave, analysis of which helps in determination of the vertical distribution of
the S-wave velocity underground which is a function of the elastic properties of the
medium and is directly related to hardness and stiffness of the materials, Park et al. (1999).
The field layout for MASW data acquisition comprises a mechanical source
(hammer/weigh drop) for generating the seismic wave and a linear array of receivers
(4Hz/10Hz vertical geophones) at short inter-spacing connected to a multi-channel
seismograph recorder. In data acquisition, the source off-set is set according to the depth of
probing while the receiver spacing is decided on the basis of the resolution desired.
The data processing involves transformation of the raw data from time domain to
frequency domain by Fourier analysis. The ‘Energy accumulation pattern recognition
technique’is employed to extract the fundamental mode Rayleigh wave for generating the
dispersion curve.
Finally, the extracted dispersion curve is used as a reference to back calculate Vs
variations with depth through least square iterative inversion process.The result of MASW
study is presented either in the form of 1-D or 2-D image for visualizing the detailed status
of the underground.
The MASW field setup procedure for generating sections in terms of Vs distribution in
1D and 2D form is depicted in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2 MASW setup and procedure for generating 1-D and 2-D sections
Generating of 2D section involves collection of data in a roll-along manner with fixed

source-receiver configuration. The processing & inversion being done in an automated

228
manner and the 2D image includes 1D observations combined through interpolation

process.
4. ADVANTAGE OF COMBINED APPROACH

In effective utilization of the engineering geophysical techniques, it is important to have
knowledge of the factors affecting the application of the geophysical techniques.
Accordingly, it would be helpful in judging the possibility of utility and deciding the
choice of the geophysical technique/techniques appropriate to the study objectives, Sharma
(2002).
It is observed that combined approach involving both refraction seismic and MASW
techniques have the advantage of application in better appreciation of the underground
condition, due to the fact that both the techniques have similarity in utility and being based
on propagation of seismic waves.
The field practice of combined application at the investigation site involves standard
forward-reverse seismic refraction profiling andpartly or fully overlapping 2D MASW
spread. While mechanical/ explosive source can be utilized for refraction seismics during
the field data acquisition, hammer source is used for 2D MASW study. The benefit of
application of refraction seismics in conjunction with MASW technique being gainful
utilization of the merits of both the techniques and overcoming their inherent limitations in
precisely defining the underground status. Advantage of combined application of the
techniques is highlighted hereunder:
In an integrated approach, while the seismic refraction technique is helpful in
estimation of the thickness of the overburden and delineates its broad stratification, the
MASW being high resolution technique helps in resolving the various thin zonations under
overburden.
In combined application, the refraction seismic profiling generates a continuous profile
of the underlying bedrock interface and MASW technique demarcates the zone of
weathering, which is important in foundation evaluation. Besides, the results of the MASW
study provides a refined illustration of any critical feature observed in the seismic section.
Joint utility of both the techniques is helpful in computation of the dynamic elastic
parameters of the media: In association with the density value, it helps in estimating
modulus of elasticity, shear modulus, bulk modulus as well as Poisson’s ratio, Sitharam
and Anbazhagan (2008).
Moreover, since MASW technique is unaffected by the phenomenon of velocity
reversals of underground, it helps in delineating blind zones which being a limiting factor
while applying seismic refraction technique individually. Additionally, the MASW
technique also provides the weighted average S-wave velocity down to 30m depth (Vs30)
towards estimation of site specific earthquake design parameters.
Although, the depth of probing of MASW technique is generally restricted down to
30/40m, integrated application of refraction seismics has the benefit of delineating any
refracting strata beyond the depth of MASW probing. Besides, the practical advantage
being that the field data acquisition system & accessories are common for both Refraction
Seismics and MASW study, only the field layout and the profile configuration are
dissimilar.

229
Accordingly, it is observed that the integrated application of the rapid and cost-effective
geophysical technique of refraction seismics and MASW is helpful in site characterization,
and provides greater reliable information of the subsurface than independent application of
any of these techniques: The combined application would facilitate in better appreciation of
the subsurface condition, reducing thereby the risk of overlooking critical features during
site investigation.
5. CASE STUDY
Seismic Refraction profiling in conjunction with 2D MASW was carried out along a
spread over the Left Bank terrace stretch in the proposed dam area of Mangdechhu
Hydroelectric Project located in Trongsa Dzong, Bhutan. The bedrock in the area
comprises granite gneisses. The purpose of the subsurface investigation was to determine
the overburden status and delineate the bedrock and assess its condition for site
characterization. During the study, the available geological information of the area has also
been taken into consideration.
The Seismic Refraction profiling involved standard forward-reverse profiling using
explosive source and 10Hz. vertical geophone receivers with inter-spacing of 5m. The 2D
MASW spread was laid between chainage 50m and 120m, partially overlapping the 120m
refraction profile. The layout of the seismic profile and the MASW spread is depicted in
Fig. 3.
Fig. 3 Plan showing Refraction Seismic profile and MASW layout
MASW data acquisition comprised a 10kg hammer source for generating the seismic
wave, the 10Hz. vertical geophones receivers being laid at short inter-spacing of 3m. The
data recording in both the applications were accomplished utilizing 24-channel Engineering
Seismograph (Terraloc, ABEM, Sweden). The acquired refraction seismic data was

230
processed using the standard refraction data interpretation methodology while Seisimager-
SW (OYO Japan) was utilized for the 2D MASW data processing.
The result of the seismic refraction profiling is given in the form of 2D section in terms
of P-wave velocity in Fig. 4 wherein the broad overburden stratification and bedrock
disposition is observed.
Fig. 4 Seismic Section depicting broad subsurface stratification
The result of the MASW study is illustrated in the form of 2D S-wave velocity section
in Fig. 5.

231
Fig. 52D MASW Section depicting subsurface stratification and zone of weathering
The combined application of Refraction Seismic & MASW techniques along the spread
between chainage 50m and 120m has been helpful in defining the overburden zonations as
well as in demarcating the zone of weathering along the bedrock interface, Sen et al.
(2012).
Furthermore, the combined application has also helped in in-situ determination of the
dynamic elastic parameters of the rock mass using the standard computational flowchart
furnished in Fig.6.
Fig.6 Computational Flowchart and the in-situ Dynamic Elastic Parameters

232
The combined application of the Refraction Seismic and MASW technique has been
helpful in site characterization towards defining the overburden status in detail as well as in
delineating the zone of weathering and in assessing the rock mass condition in terms of
dynamic elastic parameters.
6. CONCLUSIONS
The refraction seismics is a prime geophysical exploration technique for in-situ

investigation in terms of compressional wave (P-wave) velocity, helpful in generating a
continuous profile of the underground. The state-of-the-art MASW technique is a non-
destructive geophysical technique facilitating high-resolution scanning of underground in
terms of Shear wave (S-wave) velocity distribution. It is observed that the combined
application of both these techniques is helpful in providing refined definition of the
subsurface status and rockmass conditions towards site characterization. The case study has
demonstrated the advantage of the integrated approach in better appreciation of the
underground condition helpful in reducing the risk of overlooking critical features.
References
Ghosh N. et al. (2008), “Monograph on seismic refraction methods for engineering

applications”, Published by CWPRS, Pune.
Park, C.B., Miller, R.D., Xia, J. (1999), “Multichannel analysis of surface waves”,
Geophysics, 64, 800-808.
Sen A, Singh MP and Nagar V. (2010),“Application of geophysical seismic refraction
technique for delineation of palaeochannel in hydropower project”, Proceedings of
ISRM Int. Symposium 2010 New Delhi.
Sen A. and Bandyopadhyay M. R. (1990), “Subsurface exploration by seismic refraction
technique for a pumped storage scheme in northern India”, Proceedings of 6th Int.
Congress of IAEG, A. A. Balkema, Rotterdam, Netherlands.
Sen. A, Nagar V., Basu M. and Dhawan G. (2012),“Application of MASW for Foundation
Evaluation and Site Characterization of Hydropower Projects in the Himalayan
Region”, proceedings of 7th Asian Rock Mechanic Symposium, Seoul, Korea, October
2012.
Sharma P. V. (2002), “Environmental and engineering geophysics”, Cambridge University
Press, United Kingdom.
Sitharam, T. G., Anbazhagan, P. (2008), “Evaluation of low strain dynamic properties
using geophysical method: A case study”, Consulting Ahead, 2, 34-50.

233
B. Venkateswarlu
Geological and Geophysical Investigations
Mapping Subsurface and General Utilities

using Ground Penetration Radar (GPR)
B. Venkateswarlu
National Geotechnical Facility (NGF), Dehradun.
e-mail:bvenkatiitd@gmail.com
ABSTRACT: The ability to see through, below, into subsurface, solid material and utility pipe
lines using non-invasive technique has important applications in various fields where
investigations may require intrusive or destructive methods. Digging subsurface using drilling
can provide detailed information about subsurface but it is not viable all the time and also valid
only at boring point. Ground penetrating radar (GPR) is capable of providing continuous high-
resolution profiling of subsurface features and capable of locating objects and horizons at a
variety of scales. In the present study two sites were selected in and around National
Geotechnical Facility (NGF) premises in Dehradun. The Antennas of having 1500 and 100 MHz
central frequencies were being used depend on objective to be identified. Mainly two cases were
considered using different antenna in each case. In case of detection of shallow target depth,
antenna of having 1500 MHz central frequency was used. In this experiment an attempt was
made to identify the thickness of masonry brick wall and assessment of pavement layers. As a
result, the actual thickness of masonry brick wall has been found in GPR reflection profile. Since
the thickness of the masonry brick wall is certain and well known, the velocity of the EM waves
determined for the masonry brick wall by testing for the relative dielectric constant. A 100 MHz
central frequency antenna of having length of 1.2 m was being used for mapping of subsurface
stratigraphy layers. Thus results of GPR reflections are reliable and appropriate to compare. In
order to satisfy requirements for detection of subsurface objects with better resolutions the
selection of antennas makes prior concern to be considered. Therefore repeated survey was
performed on the selective site; so as to remove false phenomena resulted from bumping of GPR
antenna or interference from other surrounding objects.
1 INTRODUCTION
Geophysical methods have proven to be powerful tools in the study of subsurface. The
Ground penetrating radar (GPR) is one among geophysical methods and it has been employed
increasingly in many scientific and engineering disciplines for a variety of applications from last
two decades. GPR in its present form started to emerge from the polar ice radio echo sounding in
the late 1960s. Since that time, the technique has seen a constant and continuous growth in
variety of applications by number of practitioners as well as in instrument sophistication.
Attempts on early utilization of the method for engineering and soils applications as well as mining
are given by Cook (1973), Morey (1974), Annan and Davis (1976), Coon et al. (1981), and
Ulriksen (1982).
In Indian, the use of GPR is very limited. Moreover in the current market, pulse mode
GPR system is dominated while Continuous Wave Step Frequency (CW-SF) is mainly used in
experimental applications. In technical literature review (A.M. Thomas et al., 2007), for state of-
the-art impulse radars, penetration depth is limited of about 1m when the soil is highly

234
Mapping Subsurface and General Utilities using Ground Penetration Radar (GPR)
conductive (e.g. clay with a 50 dB/m two-way attenuation) and a detection rate of about 80%
could be expected with a confidence of 90%. In such conditions detection of smaller (less than
20mm), non-metallic objects beyond a depth of 0.5 metres is extremely difficult and GPR
application is limited. Indeed the CW-SF architecture offers reduced receiver noise, as it
operates step by step in very small instantaneous bandwidths (without affecting the possibility to
achieve an overall large bandwidth). A unique advantage of the CW-SF design is just its ability
to manage very large bandwidth. Also it is high sensitivity and dynamic range provided by
network analyzer which is the main system unit. A step frequency GPR was being used in this
study is developed by Norwegian Geotechnical Institute (NGI). Network analyzer of Agilent
technologies with series number of E5062A consist of the transmitter and the receiver having
Radio Frequency (R.F) range of 300 MHz to 3000 MHz. It is continues wave stepped frequency
system, in contrast to most of today systems that are pulsed. A more detailed description of the
system can be found in Kong and by (1995).
This paper examines the basic principles of GPR and its application to geo studies and
general purposes. Examples of applications to map metal objects behind the masonry brick wall
as an experimental work, pavement layers examination as an assessment of pavement structure
quality assurance, and subsurface profiling were carried and presented in this paper. The new
technology and techniques has significantly improved the ability to rapidly collect deep and high
resolution GPR data in a variety of environments, thereby expanding the capabilities of the GPR.
2. METHODOLOGY
2.1 GPR Principle
GPR produces a continuous cross-sectional profile or record of subsurface features
without drilling, probing or digging. GPR profiles are being used for evaluating the location and
depth of buried objects and to investigate the presence and continuity of natural subsurface
conditions and features. Ground penetrating radar operates by transmitting pulses of ultra high
frequency radio waves (microwave electromagnetic (EM) energy) down into the ground through
a transducer or antenna. The transmitted energy is reflected from various buried objects or
distinct contacts between different earth materials. The antenna then receives the reflected waves
and stores them in the digital control unit. When the transmitted signal enters the ground, it
contacts objects or subsurface strata with different electrical conductivities and dielectric
constants. A certain amount of energy is reflected and picked-up by a receiving antenna and the
remaining energy continue to pass into the ground to be further reflected, until it finally spreads
and dissipates with depth as shown in Fig. 1. The recorded waves signal is registered as
amplitude and polarity versus two-way travel time.
GPR EM waves can reach depths up to 100 feet (30 meters) in low conductivity materials
such as dry sand or granite. Clays, shale, and other high conductivity materials, may attenuate or
absorb GPR signals, greatly decreasing the depth of penetration to 3 feet (1 meter) or less. The
depth range of GPR is limited by the electrical conductivity of the ground, the transmitted
central frequency and the radiated power. As conductivity increases, the penetration depth
decreases. This is because the electromagnetic energy is more quickly dissipated into heat and
causing a loss in signal strength at depth. Higher frequencies do not penetrate as far as lower
frequencies but give better resolution. The depth of penetration is also determined by the GPR
antenna used. Antennas with low frequencies of ̴ 25 - 200 MHz obtain subsurface reflections

235
B. Venkateswarlu
from deeper depths (about 30 to 100 feet or more), but have low resolution. These low frequency
antennas are used for investigating the geology of a site, such as for locating sinkholes or
fractures, and to locate large and deep buried objects.
Fig. 1 Schematic Diagram of a Ground-Penetrating Radar System
Dielectric constant: Dielectric constant ‘Ԑ’ is a number that relates the ability of a material
to carry alternating current to that of vacuum. The relationship between dielectric constant ‘Ԑ’
and the electromagnetic (EM) wave velocityv can be expressed as (Ulbay, 2007).
c
v = --- (1)
√Ԑ
Where: ‘c’ is the velocity of the EM waves in vacuum (30 cm/ns).
The reflection coefficient of the EM waves is defined as (Ulbay, 2007)
(√Ԑi-1 - √Ԑi)
Ri = -------------- (2)
(√Ԑi-1 + √Ԑi)
Where Ri is the reflection coefficient of the EM waves propagating from medium ‘i-1’ to
medium ‘i’, and Ԑi-1 and Ԑi are the dielectric constants of media i-1 and i, respectively. The
absolute value of Ri is greater than zero, implies that there is a dielectric property difference
between the two media, reflection will then occur on the boundary. The dielectric constant (Ԑ)
not only determines the EM wave velocity ‘v’ of a certain medium, but also governs the
reflection characteristics of the boundary. Therefore, the dielectric constants of all detecting
materials are needed for a proper analysis of the GPR data. Table 1 represent dielectric constants
and propagation of some materials:

236
Table 1 Dielectric constant and velocity of geological media

[after Davis et al., 1989]
Material Dielectric constant Velocity (m/ns)
Air 1 0.3
Distilled water 80 0.033
Fresh water 80 0.033
Sea water 80 0.01
Dry sand 3-5 0.15
Saturated sand 20-30 0.06
Limestone 4-8 0.12
Shale 5-15 0.09
Silt 5-30 0.07
Clay 4-40 0.06
Granite 4-6 0.13
Salt (dry) 5-6 0.13
Ice 3-4 0.16
EM wave’s velocity analysis involves determining the velocity of subsurface materials, then
converting the reflection travel times to depths. This is most easily done using methods
described by Benson (1995). Benson’s approach determined the velocity of soils near the
subsurface by testing for the relative dielectric constant.
Next, Benson interpreted the location of the water table/targeted object reflection on a
processed GPR profile. The depth to the water table was determined from:
v.t
d= ------- (3)
2
Where:
d = Depth to the targeted object.
V = velocity of media
t = Two-way travel time to the reflector (Should take from the GPR trace).
The success and failure of GPR survey depends on selection of appropriate antenna central
frequency and it must be planned in advance. In general, greater the depth of investigation, lower
the antenna frequency which gives longer transmitted wavelength that is necessary (Smith and
Jol 1995). Lower-frequency antennas are much larger, heavier and difficult to transport within
the field than high-frequency antennas. Smaller, higher-frequency antennas are usually shielded
which allows energy propagation downward into the ground but not upward or to the sides
where it could be reflected off surface features, the antenna cables, or even the people pulling the
antennas (Lanz et al., 1994).
GPR survey is carried by pulling transducer antenna along the ground by hand or behind a
vehicle. When the transmitted signal enters into the ground, it contacts with the objects or
subsurface strata of having different electrical conductivities and dielectric constants. A part of
the ground penetrating radar waves reflect off of the object or interface; while the rest of the
waves pass through to the next interface. The reflected signals return to the receiver antenna pass
through the antenna and received by the digital control unit. The control unit registers the

237
B. Venkateswarlu
reflections against two-way travel time in nanoseconds and then amplifies the signals. GPR data
acquisition can either be used in reflection or transmission mode. In reflection mode of surveys,
there are few different techniques such as Common offset profiling, Common midpoint (CMP),
Wide-angle reflection & refraction (WARR) and is normally conducted using two antennae
(called the bi-static mode), with a separate transmitter and receiver antennas. Transmission
survey mode can be used to obtain either a more detailed tomography profile of between the
bore holes.
2.2 Common offset profiling
The acquisition technique of common offset reflection profiling mode was used to collect
data. In this technique, the radar antennas are fixed with constant offset distance and deployed
the whole configuration are moved over the ground (Fig. 2) so that a section showing time to the
radar reflectors on the vertical axis is displayed with antenna position along the horizontal axis.
This type of display is similar to that used in seismic reflection and sonar surveys.
Fig. 2 Common offset bi-static mode data acquisition configuration.

2.3 Discussion of GPR Survey and Test Results
GPR raw data has all the original information and that have to extract desired information of
targeted object included in it. The amount of the information cannot be improved by any signal
processing but the value or the quality of the information for users can greatly be improved by
proper signal processing. Careful understand of each processing is vital to avoid serious artifact.
These artifacts can mislead the interpretation of GPR data. When the GPR recorded signal in the
function of nanoseconds (ns), it generally contains strong directly coupled component
propagating from a transmitter to a receiver in the early time and weak reflection signals from
the subsurface anomalies in the late time. Our interest is the weak reflection signal, so we need
amplify the late time signal to enhance the weak reflection.
In GPR measurements choosing the antenna length is very important. The antenna length is
normally chosen as 1/10 of the detection distance. The following are GPR survey setup settings
given in table 2 which are being used in the present study with two different antennas of having
the central frequencies of 100 MHz and 1500 MHz.

238
Table 2 GPR Survey settings used in present study

Antenna Central 1500 MHz 100 MHz
Parameter Frequency
Antenna Type Mono-
Biostatic
static
Antenna Length (m) 0.3 1.2
Frequency Range (MHz) 700-3000 20-200
Antenna Spacing (m) Nil 0.5 to 0.6
Acquisition mode - Common off-set
Antenna Orientation - Parallel
Data Collection type Continuou
Continuous
s
Cable Length (m) 2*10 2*30
2.3.1 Mapping metal discs against the masonry brick wall
An attempt was made with the GPR system by carrying survey in NGF Premises. For this
survey one masonry brick wall was selected to run GPR all along one side of the wall which is
having thickness of 15.2 cm (6’). The two metal discs were placed apart with certain distance on
other side of the as shown in Fig. 3. GPR survey was carried all along the survey line as shown
in Figure 3 by ensuring that survey line is passing across two metal discs. The monostatic
antenna of having 1500 MHz central frequency was used as depth of penetration required few
centimetres, however it may have maximum depth of penetration up to 0.6 m with better
resolution. The reflection profile of radargram is given in Fig. 3. In reflection profile, it is
observed that there is white and black strips whenever reflection coefficient changes due to
change in structure.
Velocity analysis involves determining the velocity of subsurface materials, then converting
the reflection travel times to depths. This is most easily done using methods described by
Benson (1995).
The EM wave velocity was determined using equation (3), and ranged from 13.22 to 13.80
cm/ns, with mean value of 13.51 cm/ns. The relative bulk dielectric of brick masonry wall was
determined in this case as thickness of the wall (15.2 cm) is known using equation (1), and
ranged from 4.71 to 5.15, with mean value of 4.93.
2.3.2 Mapping pavement layers
GPR has been applied tentatively in this case in and around Dehradun area for an
assessment of pavement structure. The pavement is a typical structure which mainly includes a
three layered asphalt surface layer, cement-bound granular base layers and sub-grade. The GPR
system has been used with monostatic antenna of having 1500 MHz central frequency, with
above mentioned survey setup settings as given in Table 2. The reflection profile of RADAR
against pavement structure is given in Fig. 4. It shows that there is a distinct change of
electromagnetic waves reflections as layers changes in the pavement structure as highlighted in
part b. Furthermore, using appropriate central frequency antenna, it is certain that one can assess
the uniformity of thickness and degree of compaction of newly paved asphalt concrete, the

239
B. Venkateswarlu
thickness and relative permittivity of the surface layers can be precisely estimated based on the
GPR data. Many times, traditional pavement maintenance techniques are failing to find void
spaces in the pavement structures. Henceforth the alternative mechanisms like GPR in absence
of traditional methods can provide only an unverified estimate of pavement type and thickness.
Wave travel time:
Wall
(t):
15.2
Fig. 3 GPR Reflection profile against brick masonry wall
( (
Fig. 4 GPR Reflection profile against Pavement analysis

2.3.3 Mapping subsurface stratigraphy
The objective of GPR data presentation is to provide a display of the processed data that is
closely approximates an image of the subsurface with the targeted objects such as boulders,
anomalies etc. that are associated with the objects of interest located in their proper spatial
positions. Fig. 5 shows there may be change of layers as highlighted in right side of the figure
with red lines. This may be change of soil layers which have different dielectric permittivity or
may be change in degree of saturation as the data was being collected during monsoon period in
the month of September, 2012. Also some stronger reflections were observed close to surface
level (from trace no. 200 to 280) is may be because of existence of boulders in the subsurface.

240
Fig. 5 GPR Reflection profile subsurface stratigraphy

3. CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions can be drawn from the experimental results:
1. Ground penetration radar has been used successfully to provide accurate and detailed
information in mapping subsurface, pavement layers, and identifying metal objects.
2. One of the most important variables in GPR surveys is the selection of antennas with the
correct operating frequency for the depth necessary and the resolution of the features of
interest. Because of Penetration depth and vertical resolution depends on antenna
central frequency, site conditions, characteristics of input signal and the configuration
of the transmitter–receiver assembly.
3. Modelling and further testing of the technique will no doubt enhance the effectiveness
of the application of GPR in geo-studies and general purposes. Henceforth, better
planning and appropriate remedial measures based upon GPR profile can then be
implemented.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I sincerely obliged and thankful to Project Director, National Geotechnical Facility for his
permission and guidance to publish this paper. Support from Mr. J.R.K. Govardhan Rao, (late)
Mr. Prakash Singh, and Mr. Mukesh Sharma during GPR survey sincerely acknowledged.
Acknowledge the support and help extended by my colleagues.
References
Thomas A.M., Rogers C.D.F., Metje N., Chapman D.N. (2007) “A Stakeholder Led Accuracy
Assessment System for Utility Location” Workshop on Advanced Grround Penetrating
Radar, Naples 27-29 June.
Annan A.P. and Davis J.L., 1976, Impulse Radar Soundings in Permafrost. Radio Science, Vol.
11, pp. 383-394.

241
B. Venkateswarlu
Benson A. K., 1995, “Applications of ground penetrating radar in assessing some geological
hazards: examples of groundwater contamination, faults, cavities”: Journal of Applied
Geophysics, 33(1-3).
Cook J.C., 1973, Radar Exploration Through Rock in Advance of Mining. Trans. Society
Mining Engineers, AIME, V. 254, pp. 140-146.
Coon J.B., Fowler J.C. and Schafers C.J., 1981, Experimental Uses of Short Pulse Radar in Coal
Seams. Geophysics, Vol. 46, No. 8, pp. 1163-1168.
Davis J.L. and Annan A.P., 1989, Ground penetrating radar for high-resolution mapping of soil
and rock stratigraphy. Geophysical prospecting 37: 531-551.
Derald G. Smith, Harry M. Jol. Ground penetrating radar: antenna frequencies and maximum
probable depths of penetration in Quaternary sediments; Journal of Applied Geophysics 33
(1995) 93-100.
F. T. Ulbay, Fundamentals of Applied Electromagnetics, Prentice Hall, 2007, ISBN:
0130329312.
Fan-Nian Kong, Tore Lasse By. Performance of a GPR system which uses step frequency
signals; Journal of Applied Geophysics, Vol-33, (1995), pp-15-26.
Lanz Eva, Laura Jemi, Roger Muller, Alan Green, Andre Pugin, and Peter Huggenberger. 1994,
Integrated studies of Swiss waste disposal sites: Results from georadar and other
geophysical surveys. In proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Ground
Penetrating Radar. 1261-1274. Waterloo Centre for Groundwater Research, Waterloo,
Canada.
Ulriksen C.P.F., 1982, Application of Impulse Radar to Civil Engineering. Unpublished Ph.D.
Thesis, Depaprtment of Engineering Geology, University of Technology, Lund, Sweden.

242
Integrated Geophysical Approach for Site Investigations
Integrated Geophysical Approach for

Site Investigations
Sanjay Rana
Director, PARSAN Overseas Private Limited, New Delhi, INDIA
sanjay@parsan.biz
ABSTRACT:Modern major construction is inconceivable without high-level engineering

explorations, which play a major role in increasing the economic efficiency of capital
investments. For the design of structures it is indispensable to procure comprehensive high-
quality information about the subsurface, within very short periods. The study of diverse natural
conditions predetermines a variety of methods and technical means which can be used for
carrying out exploratory work. Any major construction work like power plants, high rise
buildings, bridges etc., calls for a well-considered approach in view of the restricted timeframe
and finance. In planning and development of project adequate knowledge of the geotechnical
conditions at site is important besides the other factors that are involved. Application of tools
and techniques that are helpful in enhancing efficiency of the geotechnical evaluation study is
therefore preferable. Engineering geophysics is an efficient means of subsurface investigation.
The merit of application of this low cost aid lies in its ease of deployment and rapidity in
providing a reliable knowledge of the underground over a large area, substantiating the requisite
geotechnical evaluation studies thereby. Technological advancements and development of
portable digital data acquisition instrument systems have increased the versatility in evaluating
underground conditions and site characterization. The state-of-the-art subsurface geophysical
investigations are helpful towards minimizing involvement of the conventional direct
exploration methods, aiding in accelerated and economical development of the construction
projects. It is an established fact that a single geophysical method can not resolve all the
problems associated with subsurface investigations. As an example, seismic refraction can not
‘see’ low velocity zones under rock interface, which might be present under certain geological
conditions. There is therefore need for integrated application of various geophysical techniques
like seismic refraction, resistivity imaging, ReMi, Crosshole/ downhole/ uphole seismic and
seismic reflection, to determine various properties of subsurface like bedrock quality and depth,
low velocity zones (even under rock interface), fault/ fracture/ shear zones, water lenses, tunnel
route geology etc. Present paper discusses various geophysical techniques with emphasis on
their integration to provide unique solutions to subsurface challenges. The paper also presents
few case studies where integration of two or more geophysical techniques helped resolve
complex problems.
1. INTRODUCTION
Sub-surface imaging by means of geophysical survey is a powerful tool for site assessment
and mapping which historically has been under-utilized world-over. Continuing improvements
in survey equipment performance and automation have made large area surveys with a high data
sample density possible. Advances in processing and imaging software have made it possible to
detect, display, and interpret small geological features with great accuracy.

243
Sanjay Rana
Some of the unique advantages of geophysical survey:

 Geophysical methods are quick to apply, saving in terms of time and money.
 Light and portable equipment allows access to remotest of sites.
 Provides information on critical geological features like faults/ fractures/ weak zones/
shear zones, not visible from surface information
 Large areas mapped quickly and inexpensively
 Researchers can assess site conditions, and target specific locations for detailed
investigations by drilling, while avoiding others.
 Geophysical methods can quickly produce subsurface geology avoiding delays during
execution due to meeting the unexpected.
 Shear wave profiles can be quickly obtained for ascertaining liquefaction potential and
earthquake response.
 Buried utilities, pipes and cables, can be detected before drilling/ excavation, avoiding
damage to utilities and costly accidents.
 Concrete structures can be quickly scanned to ascertain integrity and detect defects like
voids, honeycombing etc.
A detailed survey plan is worked out in consultation with the client, to address to critical
issues. The right combination of various available tools should be chosen to resolve the problem
in unique manner.
Surveys which are both successful and cost-effective must satisfy a number of basic
requirements. They must be implemented using appropriate and properly configured survey
equipment. The data sampling strategy and density must be matched to the spatial resolution and
statistical requirements of the survey. Monitoring the quality of data while in the field is
mandatory, and post survey data processing must be both appropriate and mathematically sound.
The chosen geophysical contractor should have experienced personnel and advanced
instruments to carry out high resolution geophysical surveys for geotechnical investigations. The
survey methodology and tools to be used should be decided in consultation with the client and
depending on site conditions and objectives of survey. A technical report describing the work,
including high resolution maps with detailed interpretation, should be presented to the client
upon completion of analysis.
2. GEOPHYSICAL METHODS
The appropriate techniques for investigations should be chosen based on:
 Objective of investigations
 Resolution required
 Depth penetration required
 Physical property to be defined
 Geology of the area
 Nature of target & host material
It is a proven fact the in most of the cases, use of just a single geophysical technique will not
reveal unique results, as there is a vast overlap of any physical property for various geological
materials. It is therefore recommended to use an integrated approach to uniquely resolve the
issues. Description of various geophysical methods commonly used for geotechnical

244
investigations has been provided in following sections. Table hereunder presents capabilities and
limitations of various techniques:
3. ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY IMAGING:
2D Resistivity Imaging uses an array of electrodes (typically 64) connected by multicore
cable to provide a linear depth profile, or pseudosection, of the variation in resistivity both along
the survey line and with depth. Switching of the current and potential electrode pairs is done
automatically using a laptop computer and relay box. The computer initially keeps the spacing
between the electrodes fixed and moves the pairs along the line until the last electrode is
reached. The spacing is then increased and the process repeated in order to provide an increased
depth of investigation.
The technique is extremely useful for investigations of important sites to get information
on weak zones or buried channels, under the rock interface, which goes undetected in seismic
refraction, which terminated at rock interface. Resistivity imaging can also be effectively used to
determine rock profile along dam axis across high current shallow rivers where deployment of
hydrophones is not possible restricting use of seismic refraction. For deep penetration seismic
refraction techniques requires use of explosives, which are not always feasible to deploy
especially in sensitive areas. In such cases resistivity imaging can be effectively used to get
detailed information of deeper layers.
4. ReMi (REFRACTION MICRO-TREMOR)
ReMi (Refraction Micro-tremor) has distinct edge over MASW and SASW in terms of
logistics, execution and results. ReMi can be performed under the same layout as used for
seismic refraction, to obtain excellent shear wave velocity profiles of subsurface. ReMi is a new,
proven seismic method for measuring in-situ shear-wave (S-wave) velocity profiles. It is
economic both in terms of cost and time. Testing is performed at the surface using the same
conventional seismograph and vertical P-wave geophones used for refraction studies. Depending
on the material properties of the subsurface, ReMi can determine shear wave velocities down to
a minimum of 40 meters (130 feet) and a maximum of 100 meters (300 feet) depth. The ReMi
method offers significant advantages. In contrast to borehole measurements, ReMi tests a much
larger volume of the subsurface. The results represent the average shear wave velocity over
distances as far as 200 meters (600 feet). Because ReMi is non-invasive and nondestructive, and
uses only ambient noise as a seismic source, no permits are required for its use. ReMi seismic
lines can be deployed within road medians, at active construction sites, or along highways,
without having to disturb work or traffic flow. Unlike other seismic methods for determining
shear wave velocity, ReMi will use these ongoing activities as seismic sources. There is no need
to close a street or shut down work for the purpose of data acquisition. And a ReMi survey
usually takes less than two hours, from setup through breakdown. These advantages sum to
substantial savings in time and cost. Moreover the method provides more accurate results
compared to conventional effort of picking up shear waves from records which more often than
not lead to errors.

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Sanjay Rana
5. CROSSHOLE/ DOWNHOLE/ UPHOLE SURVEYS:

The primary purpose of obtaining crosshole data is to obtain the most detailed in situ
seismic wave velocity profile for site-specific investigations and material Characterization.
Crosshole velocity data are valuable for assessing man-made materials, soil deposits, or rock
formations. The seismic technique determines the compressional (P-) and/or shear (S-) wave
velocity of materials at depths of engineering and environmental concern where the data can be
used in problems related to soil mechanics, rock mechanics, foundation studies, and earthquake
engineering.
6. CROSSHOLE/ DOWNHOLE/ UPHOLE SURVEYS:
The primary purpose of obtaining crosshole data is to obtain the most detailed in situ
seismic wave velocity profile for site-specific investigations and material Characterization.
Crosshole velocity data are valuable for assessing man-made materials, soil deposits, or rock
formations. The seismic technique determines the compressional (P-) and/or shear (S-) wave
velocity of materials at depths of engineering and environmental concern where the data can be
used in problems related to soil mechanics, rock mechanics, foundation studies, and earthquake
engineering.
Fig. 1 Example velocity model

246

247
Sanjay Rana
Features: Applications:
 Precise determination of soil  Bedrock profile, rock quality and depth.
thickness.  Thickness of overburden
 Precise determination of seismic  Fractures and weak zones
velocities.  Topography of ground water
 Precise determination of water  Rippability assessment in mines
table in overburden.  Slope stability studies
 Localization and identification  Pipeline route studies
of geological units.
 Detailed analysis of soil.
 Great accessibility to rough
terrain and remote regions.
Advantages: Limitations:
 Rapid ground coverage.  Velocity increase with depth a pre-requisite
 Only option in rough remote  Hidden layer & Blind Zone anomalies
terrains.
 Provides continuous profile of
subsurface, critical for
engineering projects.
 Estimation of Dynamic Elastic
Moduli like Poisson’s Ration,
Young’s Modulus, Shear
Modulus.
Applications: Advantages:
 Determine the underground water  Excellent 2-dimensional display of
resources ground resistivity.
 Bedrock quality and depth measurements  Delineation of small features like
 Mineral prospecting cavity, contamination plumes, weak
 Dam structure analysis zones in structures like dams etc.
 Landfill
 Contamination source detection
Fig. 2 Electrical resistivity imaging result

248
Fig. 3 Shear wave profile
Fig. 4 Schematic diagram for crosshole test

7. GROUND PENETRATING RADAR
Ground Penetrating Radar, also known as GPR, Georadar, Subsurface Interface Radar,
Geoprobing Radar, is a totally non-destructive technique to produce a cross section profile of
subsurface without any drilling, trenching or ground disturbances. Ground penetrating radar
(GPR) profiles are used for evaluating the location and depth of buried objects and to investigate
the presence and continuity of natural subsurface conditions and features.
Application Areas:
 Geological and hydro-geological investigations including mapping of bedrock
topography, water levels, solution features, glacial structures, soils and aggregates.

249
Sanjay Rana
 Engineering investigations to evaluate dams, sea walls, tunnels, pavements, roadbeds,

railway embankments, piles, bridge decks, river scour, buildings and monuments.
 Location and evaluation of buried structures including utilities, foundations, reinforcing
bars, cavities, tombs, archaeological artifacts, and animal burrows.
 Site investigations: location of buried engineering structures and underground storage
tanks.
 Subsurface mapping for cables, pipes and other buried structures prior to trench-less
operations.
Advantages:
 Rapid ground coverage- Antenna towed either by hand or from a vehicle.
 High-resolution coverage of the survey area, detecting even small objects.
 On-site interpretation possible due to instant graphic display.
Limitations:
 Data acquisition may be slow over difficult terrain.
 Depth of penetration is limited in materials with high electrical conductivities, clays.
 Energy may be reflected and recorded from aboveground features, walls, canopies,
unless antennae are well shielded.
 Artifacts in the near surface (reinforcing bars, boulders, components of made ground)
may scatter the transmitted energy and complicate the received signal and/or reduce
depth of penetration.
 Working on principle of reflection, GPR detects the utilities and provides information
on depth and location. Classification of utility any further can be done only with
availability of background data and is not a deliverable of GPR survey.
8. MICRO GRAVITY SURVEYS
Gravimetry is a potential field technique which measures variations in the Earth's
gravitational field. These variations are caused by density contrasts in the near surface rock and
sediment. Gravimetric surveys are carried out using extremely sensitive instruments capable of
measuring tiny variations in the gravitational field. These surveys are always carried out in
conjunction with a precise topographic survey, to enable terrain corrections to be carried out.
The technique is extensively used for cavity detection, along with other techniques of electrical
imaging, GPR etc.
Gravity measurements define anomalous density within the Earth; in most cases, ground-
based gravimeters are used to precisely measure variations in the gravity field at different points.
Gravity anomalies are computed by subtracting a regional field from the measured field, which
result in gravitational anomalies that correlate with source body density variations. Positive
gravity anomalies are associated with shallow high density bodies, whereas gravity lows are
associated with shallow low density bodies. Thus, cavities and voids can be readily detected
using micro-gravity surveys.

250
9. CASE STUDY
Following example shows the importance of integrating geophysical techniques for
unambiguous site investigation. Seismic refraction at this site determined a shallow bedrock.
Electrical Resistivity Imaging, however, picked up a low velocity zone (soft zone under rock),
which would have been missed if only seismic refraction was deployed for investigations.
Fig. 5 Soft rock (Blue) under hard rock

10. CONCLUSIONS
Engineering geophysics is an efficient means of subsurface investigation. The merit of
application of this low cost aid lies in its ease of deployment and rapidity in providing a reliable
knowledge of the underground over a large area, substantiating the requisite geotechnical
evaluation studies thereby. The state-of-the-art subsurface geophysical investigations are helpful
towards minimizing involvement of the conventional direct exploration methods, aiding in
accelerated and economical development of the construction projects.
It is an established fact that a single geophysical method cannot resolve all the problems
associated with subsurface investigations. There is therefore need for integrated application of
various geophysical techniques like seismic refraction, resistivity imaging, Microgravity, GPR,
ReMi, Crosshole/ downhole/ uphole seismic and seismic reflection, to determine various
properties of subsurface like bedrock quality and depth, low velocity zones (even under rock
interface), fault/ fracture/ shear zones, water lenses, tunnel route geology, voids etc.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I express my gratitude to staff of PARSAN Overseas Pvt. Ltd., who have carried out all the work
presented in this paper in extremely difficult and hostile conditions.
References
Castagna, J.P., Batzle, M.L. and Eastwood, R.L., 1985, Relationships between compressional
wave and shear-wave velocities in clastic silicate rocks: Geophysics, 50, 571-581.
Henning, A. and Powers, G., 2000, Shear-wave velocity estimation in the deepwater Gulf of
Mexico: 70th Annual Internat. Mtg., Soc. Expl. Geophys., Expanded Abstracts, 1723-1726.

251
U.V.
Geological Hegde
and and B. Ghosh
Geophysical Investigations
Significance of Lithology in the selection of Major Components

of 330 MW Hydroelectric Project in Karnali Valley, Nepal
U.V. Hegde1 and B. Ghosh2

1
ED- Geology, Lanco Infratech limited, Gurgaon, Haryana, India
2
Sr.Geologist, Lanco Infratech Limited, Gurgaon, Haryana, India
(E-mail of corresponding author: uvhegde@gmail.com)
ABSTRACT: Karnali-7 Hydroelectric Project is developed as one of the cascading schemes in

Karnali valley in the Lower Himalayan region of Nepal. Locating high concrete gravity dam and
deep set semi-underground power house involving a high cut slope in a lithological set up of
varying physical competency was a challenging task. This paper mainly deals with
investigations done in a remote terrain and role of geological features in finalizing the location
of major components of this scheme, during feasibility stage of the project.
1 INTRODUCTION
Karnali- 7 Hydroelectric Project having installed capacity of 330 MW is being developed by
M/S Lanco Infratech Limited, as one of the cascade schemes along River Karnali in the
Briendranagar / Surkhet and Achham district of Karnali Zone in Mid and Far Western
Development region of Nepal. Location of the project is shown in Figure 1.
Fig. 1 Location of the project area.

252
Significance of Lithology in the selection of Major Components of 330 MW Hydroelectric
Project in Karnali Valley, Nepal
Several layouts involving dam and powerhouse with short and long water conductor system
were studied earlier. Because of gentler gradient of the river and heavy discharge, layout having
dam and powerhouse with short water conductor system was finally considered during feasibility
stage of the project. The present layout comprises 93m high concrete gravity dam from its
deepest foundation level, 456m long diversion tunnel, three penstocks having cumulative length
of 577m, deep set semi - underground power house of 120m (L) X 57.5m (W) X 46m (H) along
with three numbers 9.5m dia horse shoe-shaped tail race tunnel (TRT), on the right bank.
Approach is difficult as the rough motarable road is available only up to 25km short of the
project site. The area being mountainous and rugged terrain, carrying out geological and
geotechnical investigations were challenging task. This paper describes the geological
complexity faced while locating the dam and powerhouse complex in a varying lithology having
different competencies.
2 GEOLOGICAL SET UP OF THE PROJECT AREA
The project area lies within Lesser Himalayas of Nepal morhpho tectonic zone and falls in
Zone-II of Seismic Zoning in Nepal. The major rock types in the area belong to Midland Group
(Lakharpata Formation), Surkhet Group (Swat Formation and Suntar Formation) and Siwalik
Group. These Formations mainly consist of shale along with intermediate bands of sandstone,
dolomite, limestone and quartzite. The Siwalik Formation occupies the southern side of project
area and the Higher Himalaya in the northern side which are separated by Main Boundary Thrust
(MBT) and Main Central Thrust (MCT) at 10-12km and 80km away respectively.
Shale is the dominating bed rock along with intermediate bands of dolomite, limestone,
quartzite in this part of Karnali valley. The dolomite, limestone & quartzite bands are relatively
stronger rocks where as shales are flaky and weak in nature. The widths of the individual rock
bands generally vary from 15-30m in case of shale and 1 to 5m in limestone/dolomite/quartzite.
There are a few thick horizons (60m to 200m) of strong dolomite, limestone and quartzite bands
at some places in the valley.
Shale being weak, thinly bedded and jointed rock, it is generally prone to intense weathering
and surface erosion. Most of the streams/nalas in this area are developed along the contact of
shale and strong dolomite / limestone or quartzite rock. Thick bands of dolomite and quartzite
are manifested with ridges or bold topography. Solution action leading to surface encrustation or
partially open joints are also noted in the dolomite & limestone at many places in the area.
Karnali River in the project area mainly flows from south to north direction. The
bedding/foliation planes are broadly trending east- west direction, slightly oblique to river course
and dipping upstream. The rocks are generally dissected by three or more set of joints.
3 INVESTIGATIONS DONE FOR FIRMING UP THE LAYOUT
The geological & geotechnical investigations carried out during feasibility stage involved
detailed topographical survey and geological mapping in 1: 1,000 scale for major components of
the project and 1:10,000 scale for reservoir area. Sub-surface investigation by exploration
drilling, permeability tests and SPT have also been carried out. The laboratory testings like
porosity, specific gravity, triaxial shear strength, modules of elasticity, slake durability,
petrography study etc. done on intact core samples (refer Table 1). In case of Construction
Material Survey, identification of barrow areas, collections of coarse and fine aggregate samples

253
U.V. Hegde and B. Ghosh
and other related laboratory testing’s have been carried out to confirm the suitability of the
required material.
Table 1 Rock mass properties
Uniaxial Compressive Shear Strength
True Slake strength (UCS) (MPa) parameters *E
Rock
Specific Porosity Durability (GPa *v
Type Ø
Gravity Test Saturated Unsaturated C )
(degree
condition condition (MPa)
)
26.79
Dolo 0.82%- 0.08-
2.77-2.78 ……. 27-50 31-116 7 40 -
mite 0.86% 0.14
34.20
0.68%- …….
Shale 2.65-2.66 98.44 …….. 17-41 6 38 ……..
0.70% .
Lime …… …….
2.71-2.72 …….. 99.50 …….. 23-52 …….. ……..
stone .. .
Quar …… …….
2.66-2.68 …….. …….. …….. 40-106 …….. ……..
tzite .. .
*E = Modules of Elasticity, *v = Poisson’s Ratio
At this stage of investigations, exploration through drifts could not be taken up due to
security restriction in use of explosives required for blasting in the area. However, it is proposed
to probe the dam abutments & powerhouse area through drifts prior to detail designing.
In view of thick vegetation & soil cover, geological assessment of the area was a difficult
task. The rock outcrops could be mainly observed along river banks, the trace cutting, nala
sections etc. During the geological mapping, apart from delineating lithological boundaries, the
rock mass data were also collected for rock mass characterization including details on the
discontinuities/weak/shear zones.
The sub-surface exploration was carried out by using a LONG YEAR drilling rigs using
double tube core barrels, diamond bits. Various locations of the project components have been
covered like proposed dam axis, dam toe, power house area, tail race tunnel (TRT) outlet and
diversion outlet area. The river bed holes were done by mounting the machine on the Pontoons
(refer Figure 2).
In the absence of road & bridges, Helicopters were used for transporting drilling machines
and pontoons for shifting the machines from one river bank to other. About 740m cumulative
length of drilling was carried out including 157m length in river bed portion through 16 drill
holes
3.1 Studies of alternate dam axes
The Karnali valley is carved out mainly through relatively weak shale rock for major length
of river course in the licence area of this scheme. The choices were very limited for locating the
components of the project since the layout was to be worked out well within allocated length of
the river. Two thick dolomite & limestone horizons in the valley were identified as alternatives I
& II for dam site at about 2.5 km apart (refer Figure 3) during the present feasibility study.

254
Table 2 Rock Mass Rating (RMR) , after Bieniawski 1989 of

rock types in the project area
Rock *Rock
Strength of Groundwat
Rock Quality Mass Rock
intact rock Spacing er
Type Designation Rating Class
mass Condition
RQD (%) (RMR)
Strong to very
very
strong, Class-III
Dolomite 66- 82 closely to Dry 52-72
extremely to II
moderate
strong at places
Weak to
very
medium Dry to Class -IV
Shale 43-52 closely to 37-48
strong, strong damp to III
closely
rock at places
Very
Medium strong Dry to Class -
Limestone 52-62 closely to 48-54
to strong damp III
closely
Very
Strong to Very Dry to Class-III
Quartzite 56-70 closely to 51-68
Strong damp to II
closely
Conditions of Discontinuities
Persistence Aperture Roughness Infilling Weathering
Low to Tight to Rough to Slightly
Nil/Clay
high partly open slightly rough weathered
Nil/Clay/ Slightly
Low to Partly open slightly rough
Iron Weathered
medium to Tight to to smooth
staining to fresh
Slightly
Low to Tight to Slightly
smooth to Nil/Clay
medium partly open weathered
rough
Low to Tight to Nil/Iron Slightly
Rough
high partly open strained weathered
*Calculation of RMR done for general assessment and rating adjustment not considered.

255
Fig. 2 Drilling in middle of river using Pontoons.
The Alternative-I is located more towards downstream of the allocated area near Kolimara
Suspension foot bridge. The valley width at this location is moderately wide mainly having
strong and thick dolomite rock along with sequence of shale & limestone bands.
The Alternative-II is located in the upstream reach is exposed with thick horizon of
limestone and intercalation of shale, having vertical cliff on its right abutment. The valley being
narrows at this location, it was considered initially suitable for the concrete dam. From further
topographical, preliminary geological mapping and engineering studies, it was found that
spillway width available would be insufficient at this alternative for passing the flood. Huge
cutting of the abutment slope would have been required to create space for spillway. Hence,
further investigation of Alt-II was not pursued.
In case of Alt-I, as the valley width was found to be sufficient to take care of passing the
flood, this site was taken for further detailed surface & sub-surface investigations.
4. GEOLOGICAL CHALLANGES IN LOCATING THE DAM AXIS
In an alternate sequence of strong & weak bands, locating a high concrete gravity dam with
strong bed rock at its abutments and at the foundation level was a challenging task. The problem
was more compounded at this site because of obliquely tending bedding planes to the river
course. In view of this, the dolomite bands were disposed on opposite banks oblique to each

256
other. Initially, based on the strong dolomite bands on both the banks/abutment, dam axis was
considered (old dam axis) at about 300m upstream of Kolimara suspension Foot Bridge.
Accordingly three holes were drilled in the river bed portions. After detailed geological mapping
(refer Figure 4) and development of geological sections, it was noted that dam axis having strong
dolomite on both the abutment portion would be seated partly on the dolomite rock in its
upstream portion but the major downstream portion towards dam toe would be seated on
relatively weak shale rock. In this set up, problems of unequal settlement of dam and toe erosion
were apprehended.
Fig. 3 Alternative location of dam axes
Fig. 4 Geological Plan of the Project area.

Normally, under such geotechnical conditions, rock fill dam could have been better option.
But in this case, as the requirement of spillway width was quite large due to high discharge of
the river, concrete gravity dam was inevitable choice. To avoid such unstable situation, the dam

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axis was moved further upstream by about 115m, so that majority of dam base is located on the
strong dolomite rock (refer Figure 5). Even though this exercise helped in securing stronger base
for the dam foundation, but resulted in abutting the left bank on shale rock intercalated with
quartzite bands. However, it was considered acceptable in comparison to weak shale rock at the
dam base in the river bed portion were the height of dam blocks would have been maximum.
Fig. 5 Geological Section along the river at dam site

At this site, thickness of alluvial deposits was ascertained to be 28-31m from the river bed
drill holes which also confirmed availability of strong dolomite below major portion of the dam
base.
At the finally selected dam axis, the right abutment portion is comprised of strong dolomite
rock exposed in an escarpment slope. Left bank is relatively gentler, comprising of slope wash
material of varying thickness ranging from 5-25m overlying the shale, limestone, quartzite and
dolomite bands (refer Figure 6).
In spite of all these adjustment, some portion of the dam toe especially towards the right side
expected to be partly sitting on shale rock. The shale at this location is relatively thick and
medium strong band and considered to be relatively strong rock. This also could have been
avoided or minimized had the dam axis was shifted further upstream. This could not be done as
the valley width was increasing due to receding rock line on the right bank.
4.1 Bearing Capacity of dolomite at dam site
Brief details of bearing capacity worked out based on the geo-mechanical data for the dam
site is given below.
Kulhawy and Carter (1992) suggest the following equations for calculating bearing capacity of
rock mass:

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Fig. 6 Geological Section along Proposed Dam Axis Alt-I Location
qu = δci (sa + (mbsa + s)a) (1)
Where,
qu = Ultimate bearing capacity of rock mass
δci = Uniaxial compressive strength of the intact rock (MPa)
s, a = Hoek-Brown constant of the rock mass and
mb = Hoek-Brown constant of the intact rock.
Hoek et al. (2002) suggested the following equations for calculating rock mass constants (i.e. mb,
s and a):
GSI – 100
mb = mi exp (2)
28 - 14D
s = exp GSI – 100
9 – 3D (3)
a= 1 + 1 e-GSI/15 – e-20/3 (4)
2 6
For determine the GSI proposed by Hoek et al. (1995):

GSI = RMR89 – 5 (5)
Where,
RMR89 is the latest version of the RMR classification system.
D = Factor that depends upon the degree of disturbance to which the rock mass.
Considered values for determining the bearing capacity of dam foundation:
GSI = 55, average value δci = 75 MPa, D = 0.7 (for mechanical slope cutting), mi = 20 for good
rock as considered strong dolomite.

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Ultimate Bearing Capacity qu = δci (sa + (mbsa + s)a) = 75(0.00150.504048 + (1.6874 X

0.00150.504048)0.504048) = 21.64 MPa
Allowable Bearing Capacity = Ultimate Bearing Capacity/ Factor of Safety = 21.64/3 ~ 7 MPa.
5. POWERHOUSE LOCATIONS
Due to gentler river gradient and other engineering constraints, it was proposed to locate
power house in the immediate downstream of the dam structure. Alternatives studies where done
for surface as well as underground powerhouse locations before arriving at deep-set & semi-
underground powerhouse on the right bank of the river.
5.1 Underground Powerhouse Option
In the absence of sufficient open space for the surface power house in the downstream of a
dam, an underground powerhouse was initially thought within strong dolomite rock available in
this area. Accordingly thick dolomite horizons exposed on both the banks were considered.
However the underground option could not be pursued further because of the following reasons-
 Mainly being discharged based project, the machine size worked out was relatively
bigger, requiring 27-28m wide machine hall cavern. From the stability point of view,
this magnitude of underground opening was considered difficult in Himalayan rocks.
 In view of upstream dipping nature of the bedding planes, weak shale rock at the
bottom portion of the underground cavern was also anticipated which could have posed
added stability problems.
 Big underground powerhouse complex generally required to be housed well within the
mountain slope- having adequate lateral & top rock cover by considering various
surface depressions/drainages. This required locating the entire powerhouse complex,
much inside or quite away from the valley side leading to long water conductor system,
surge shafts etc, increasing the project cost.
5.2 Surface Powerhouse Option
The left bank adjacent to wide dolomite exposure available near the dam toe was considered
suitable location for surface powerhouse to take advantage of stable cut slope in strong dolomite
rock. On detailed study, it was noted that locating surface powerhouse at this location would
involve deep excavation in thick slope wash/talus deposits along river bank and also high cut
slope in bed rock. Even the deep excavation for tail race arrangement would have posed lots of
stability problems. Apart from this, a coffer dam was required for protection of the power house
complex due to high water levels in the river. In view of bed rock available at greater depth in
this area/ along river bank, a protection wall would have been about 30m high which itself
would have been massive structure.
Hence, the right bank was considered relatively suitable due to availability of bed rock along
the river bank exposed at shallow depth on valley slope. Moreover the penstock/pressure shaft
from the dam body continues through underground opening within a strong dolomite rock
without involving high cuts. Similarly even the tail race arrangement was also envisaged through
tunnels within available bed rock in the area.

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5.3 Surface Powerhouse on the right bank

On the right bank, at about 150m downstream the dam axis, powerhouse complex was
considered. This area is mainly comprised of medium strong shale rock with intercalated bands
of limestone. The bedding planes are trending oblique to river course. As the slope cut was
becoming more than 150m or so for creating open space, it was proposed to have combination of
underground portion for service bay area and open pit for three generating units to minimize the
cut height. With this arrangement, the maximum cut height was curtailed to about 100-110m
from the deepest foundation level (refer Figure 7), in limited portion.
The longer axis of the powerhouse complex is broadly aligned East-West direction that is
almost perpendicular to river flow. This alignment was chosen in order to minimize the length of
the cut slope and also for facilitating simple and relatively straight pressure shaft / penstock
alignment. Moreover, this adjustment helped in aligning major length of the cut slope
perpendicular or at greater angle with the trend bedding plan. This is an advantageous factor
from overall stability point of view.
Intermediate benches, rock bolt, shotcrete, deep cable anchors and drainage holes have been
envisaged in the stability measures of cut slope.
Fig. 7 Geological section along centre line of Power House

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6 CONCLUSIONS
 Working out a hydro project layout in complex geological conditions is challenging
task. Detailed understanding of the geological set-up prior to finalizing type & location
of project components is essential.
 In case of Karnali-7 H. E. Project, delineation of different lithological bands along with
structural details was quite useful in locating the dam and powerhouse complex. This
enabled in locating major portion of dam on competent dolomite rock by minimizing
the effect of weak shale rock.
 Locating deep set power house in the vicinity of dam where discharge is high in the
river is challenging especially when the space is to be created by cutting the hill slope.
Geological complexities have been addressed while finalizing the power house location
in this case.
 With limitations to carry out in-situ rock mechanics testing, collection and analysis of
geo-mechanical data serve as useful tool in providing basic design input to firm up the
feasibility stage layout of the project.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are thankful to Lanco Management for publishing this paper and also to all who
helped in site investigations and preparing text, figures, tables of this paper.
References
Alemdag S., Gurocak Z., Solanki P. and Zaman M. (2007), “Estimation of bearing capacity of
basalt at the Atasu dam site, Turkey”, Bull Eng Geol environ, Springer, Verlag, 79-85 pp.
Bieniawski Z. T. (1984), “Rock Mechanics Design in Mining and Tunnelling”, A. A. Balkema,
Rotterdam, 97-133.
Bieniawski Z. T. (1989), “Engineering Rock Mass Classifications”, John Wiley & Sons, 251.
Geological Map of Mid Western Nepal (Scale- 1:250000)
Hashimoto S. (1973), “Geology of the Nepal Himalayas”.
Hoek E. (1994), “Strength of rock and rock masses”, ISRM News Journal, 2, 4-16.
Sharma C K. “Geology of Nepal Himalaya and Adjacent Countries”, (A.I.S.M, PhD)
Singh B. and Geol R.K (2006), “Tunnelling in Weak Rocks”, Vol.5, pp.37-49.
Unpublished Feasibility Report (2012) of “Karnali-7 Hydroelectric Project” Prepared by Lanco
Infratech Limited, Vol-IV, pp.1-72.

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Tunnel Seismic Prediction: A Versatile Tool to Characterise Rock Mass Conditions Ahead
of the Tunnel Face
Tunnel Seismic Prediction: A Versatile Tool to Characterise

Rock Mass Conditions Ahead of the
Tunnel Face
T. Dickmann
Amberg Technologies A.G, Regensdorf, Switzerland
e-mail: tdickmann@amberg.ch
ABSTRACT: Unknown geological boundaries can cause serious problems and risks during
tunnel advancement. Common exploration methods like probe drillings or surface geophysical
surveys can lead to insufficient results due to frequent changes of geological conditions and high
overburden. Besides probe drilling, non-destructive geophysical methods can detect lithological
heterogeneities within sufficient distances ahead of the tunnel face. To perform reliable seismic
measurements and thus mitigating risks for tunnel construction in hard rock conditions, it is
strongly recommended to integrate the process of geological forecast methodology into the
overall management of risk and cost control. The Tunnel Seismic Prediction (TSP) proved its
efficiency in hard rock tunnel projects worldwide. It provides an important impact on logistic
optimization also by deducting information about the mechanical properties of the ground such
as elastic moduli that the contractor himself can manage and implement in the tunnelling
workflow.
1 INTRODUCTION
High costs and the demand for safety, influence the adoption of high excavation rates and
the application of the best possible technology for the optimum construction program. This
demanding characteristic of underground projects requires a thorough investigation of the
ground.
Driving a tunnel still represents a high risk that particularly lies in the uncertainty of the
geology. Significant geological boundaries, which especially cut the tunnel axis very suddenly,
can cause serious problems. Their timely prediction are of great importance.
Common exploration methods like exploratory drillings or geophysical predictions from the
surface can lead to insufficient results due to frequent changes of geological conditions, high
overburden, dense infrastructures above the tunnel track etc. Besides exploratory drilling from
the tunnel face, non-destructive geophysical methods can detect lithological heterogeneities
within sufficient distances ahead of the tunnel face. These methods need to be robust and reliable
and shall not disrupt the tunnelling process while yielding results quickly and at moderate costs.
2 THE UNCERTAINTY OF ROCK MASS CONDITIONS AND THEIR
IMPLICATIONS
2.1 General
Underground work generally poses intimidating, but not impossible challenges to the
geotechnical and tunnel design teams. Tunnelling means construction carried out in an uncertain

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T. Dickmann
and often aggressive environment. Geology determines the cost, overall feasibility, and even the
application of the completed structure. The relationship between geology and cost is so dominant
that all parties involved in the planning and design of tunnels must give serious consideration to
the geology of the site. The spatial uncertainties in geotechnical properties are greater in
tunnelling projects compared to most other engineering projects. It essentially requires expert
engineering judgement and experience. In many cases, experience in similar ground conditions
may not be available and one has to deal with unique uncertainties in ground conditions. For this
reason the regional geology and hydrogeology has to be understood. Typically, groundwater
condition is the most difficult parameter to predict and also the most troublesome during
construction. Any information about location, depth of the water table and aquifer thickness is an
important precondition for the design of the tunnel lining.
Currently, there is no accepted standard for the number of probing boreholes, their spacing,
depths, etc. Each project must be evaluated on its own merits. A closer spacing between
boreholes may not necessarily result in a more accurate inferred subsurface profile. It is clearly
not practical to have extremely closely spaced boreholes along the tunnel alignment in order to
have an accurate subsurface profile. However, even comprehensive exploratory drilling
programs recover a relatively tiny drill core volume that is only a fractional amount of the future
excavated volume of the tunnel.
A comprehensive and thoroughly conducted geotechnical prediction will enable the most
appropriate construction methods along the tunnel alignment. It is absolutely necessary that the
actual stratigraphy and groundwater flow observed during tunnel excavation works should be
compared to the predictions, so that a knowledge-based experience can be established and
contributed for future tunnelling methods.
2.2 Site investigations
The identification of the potential risks at the planning stage is important because it gives
time for planners and decision makers to understand the uncertainties associated with the project.
A first step of the risk assessment involves identifying all the factors and parameters that could
affect the tunnel in order to determine the likelihood of a failure or an unsatisfactory
performance in a qualitative manner. Geology establishes one of the major risk categories.
It is possible to quantify the uncertainty of geotechnical parameters and estimate the risk of
those uncertainties to the project cost and timing. The quantification of this uncertainty can then
be included in a framework of a geotechnical investigation and then into the geotechnical
baseline report (GBR). The framework suggests that the quantification of uncertainty can be
undertaken in the following manner. There are four Geotechnical investigation stages
comprising a Desktop study, Preliminary investigation, Detailed investigation and the
Construction stage review.
The level of risk in a project is directly related to this uncertainty and this in turn has a
relation to the amount of site investigation carried out prior to letting the contract. There is
however a limit to the benefit that further site investigation from the surface can bring to a
project. Ideally the amount spent on overall site investigation should not be lower than 3% of the
total project value.

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of the Tunnel Face
2.3 Contractual issues

Within tunnelling projects a significant cause of cost overrun has historically been
associated with the contractor claims for ground conditions significantly different from those
expected at the time of tender. It has been difficult to assess these claims without a well-defined
benchmark conditions agreed at the outset between all the interested parties. The GBR is the tool
designed to address this problem.
However the nature of the tunnelling contract greatly effects how the site investigation data
is interpreted and further investigation stages are pursued. In adversarial contracts, some post
contract site investigation work is done retrospectively to prove and disprove claims against the
findings from the original site investigations. In constructive and shared risk contracts, further
site investigation work is done to achieve more positive goals including safety, optimisation of
techniques and tunnelling processes and even research for future projects. In the later, those site
investigations such as Tunnel Seismic Prediction are specified already in the tender documents
including corresponding list entries in the Bill of Quantities.
Fig. 1 Necessary provisions of risk management during tunnelling in terms of Tunnel

Seismic Prediction
3 TUNNEL SEISMIC PREDICTION
3.1 General
Seismic reflection imaging is the most effective prediction method because of its large
prediction range, high resolution and ease of application on a tunnel construction site. It is based
on evaluating elastic body waves, which are being excited by detonation charges providing the
best signal to noise ratio and the least restrictive conditions for recording and processing. The
body waves travel as compression or shear waves through the ground and are being reflected at

265
T. Dickmann
interfaces with different mechanical properties like density or elasticity (Fig. 2). Thus, by
separation of the different wave types using three-component-sensors it is possible to deduct
information about the mechanical properties of the ground such as elastic modules. Even in
rather complex geological hard rock condition, pediction ranges of over 150 m can be achieved.
To perform reliable seismic measurements and thus mitigating risks for tunnel construction
in hard rock conditions, the Tunnel Seismic Prediction (TSP) proved its efficiency in hard rock
tunnel projects worldwide (Dickmann & Sander 1996, Dickmann 2008). It provides an
important impact on logistic optimization that the contractor himself can manage and implement
in the tunneling workflow. Hardware, as well as processing algorithms and user interface have
been constantly developed and further refined since the early 1990’s.
Fig. 2 Standard Tunnel Seismic Prediction layout in TBM tunnelling. The acoustic
waves released by small explosive charges (only wave rays shown) hit a geological
discontinuity (e.g. fault zone) and are being reflected and then picked up by the 3-
component receivers. .
3.2 Tunnel operation’s aspects
The necessary operations to perform a tunnel seismic measurement in a typical TSP setup
can be integrated into the construction operations without any interference with the excavation
work. Boreholes for receivers and explosive charges can be prepared continuously together with
ordinary support measures, such as utilizing the anchor boring rigs. Installation of seismic
receivers as well as loading and shooting of explosive charges may take place during
maintenance intervals or short excavation breaks of about one hour. Thanks to the fast
installation procedure and functionality of all system components, placing more sensors implies
no complications or delay of total measurement duration. This operation time can be further
reduced by splitting the campaign into two parts carried out on consecutive days (Fig. 3).
Furthermore, in case of poor geological knowledge ahead of the tunnel face, it is advised to
performing campaigns continuously. The TSP method is compatible with all excavation
methods. No access to the face or exposed rock is necessary

266
of the Tunnel Face
Next to the question regarding the tunnelling method, the question about the type of TBM
best suitable for the geology is quickly raised. If a significant proportion of the tunnel geology is
unsuitable for the use of an open TBM, because of fractured or running ground, then a shielded
machine may be necessary, which has two basic purposes. Firstly to provide temporary support
in unstable ground, maintaining the integrity of the bore and protecting the operators, and
secondly, in conjunction with other sealing devices, to prevent the ingress of water. In situations
where large amounts of water can be expected, and grouting would either be ineffective or
consume excessive time, a fully shielded and sealed machine is necessary.
R4
R3
day n day n+1
face n+1
face n
ref n
S2
S3
S13
S24
R2
S1
S12
R1
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
5m 15 m 17 m 17.5 m
R: Receiver S: Shot
Fig. 3 Normal or split TSP-layout for sporadic TSP-operation at one single day or
two days, respectively
Fig. 4 Layout of seismic holes through grouting and lifting inserts of precast
segments.
Still, there may be a tendency to specify a shielded machine when in fact an open machine
may be better. This would be in cases where limited stretches of bad ground are predicted, but
which can be adequately dealt with by erection of temporary support such as ring beams, rock
bolting, and shotcrete. Still, an open machine is simpler, cheaper, easier to steer, and in all
except the worst conditions less likely to become trapped.

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T. Dickmann
However, if the decision has been made for a shielded TBM, the use of precast segments
will constitute a crucial point because it shall limit seismic surveys since the rock mass isn’t
accessible at all. In order to avoid large-scale drilling measures through the precast segments, it
would be very helpful to use the grouting and lifting inserts of the segments.
For example, the hexagonal or honeycomb segmental lining provides a quick and easy
layout of the seismic bore line. Regular grouting inserts every 1.5 meters fit perfectly to the
regular spacing of the seismic layout (Fig. 4).
The stability safety and the serviceability of segmental elements are guaranteed using
explosives for TSP measurements. In case of full backfilling of the segments the blasts could
activate settlements with a maximum of 3 mm in worse rock strengths like weathered mudstone.
The settlements become less with increasing rock strength. Damage-free blasts can be performed
if the blow outs are canalized by installed tubes, while the blow out plane behind the segments is
concurrently eliminated. It can be stated that TSP is applicable for TBM advance with segmental
lining where any damage to lining elements due to the required explosive charges can be
excluded.
4 CASE STUDY
The Olmos Trans-Andean tunnel, more than 19 km long in total, is part of a larger scheme
to transfer water from the Huancabamba River on the Eastern side of the Andes to drought
western areas on the Pacific Ocean to irrigate land in Lambayeque district (Fig. 5). The scheme
will transfer two billion cubic meters of water per year and allow for the subsequent construction
of a 600 MW power station and irrigation of 150,000 hectares of land. Odebrecht Perú
Ingeniería y Construcción, the Peruvian branch office of the Brazilian contractor Norberto
Odebrecht S.A., was in charge of the construction, operation and maintenance under concession
of the trans-Andean tunnel and the first stage of the Limon dam, both part of the Olmos project.
Fig. 5 Location site of the Olmos Tunnel Project in the Lambayeque district of Peru.

268
of the Tunnel Face
The project includes the excavation with a 5.3 m diameter TBM of 13.8 km of a trans-
Andean tunnel through the Andes Mountains beneath up to 2,000 m of hard, potentially
squeezing rock. The geology consisted of quartz porphyry, andesite, and tuff from 60 to 225
MPa UCS. Several hundred fault lines were present along the tunnel route, including two major
fault lines approximately 50 m wide, which haven’t been foreseen according to the geologic
prognosis (Fig. 6).
The part of the Olmos Tunnel, where the TSP measurement has been carried out, is
characterised mainly by hard rock of andesite and dacite (quartz andesite). At the moment of
measurement the tunnel face was at chainage 13+983. In this area the excavation was at a
standstill, also due to occurrences of rock bursts, which led to rock collapses at and beside the
tunnel face.
Fig. 6 Geologic prognosis of the Olmos Tunnel. Tunnel face location at moment of
TSP survey is indicated at TM 13+983.
Due to the bad geologic ground, only 6 months later the forecasted tunnel section was being
excavated. The reason for the delay in schedule becomes clear when looking to geologic
findings in Fig. 7. The forthcoming 100 meters of excavation revealed very poor to poor rock
mass conditions according to the Q-system, the used rock tunneling quality index (Barton et al.
1974). The rock behaviour in these headings is interpreted as a combination of squeezing and
bulking which led to generally slower advance rates. However, the geology encountered differs
significantly from the original geologic forecast.
When comparing the geological findings with the results of the TSP measurements, seven
geologic areas are being described as follows (Fig. 7.):
1. Gabbro-diorite rock, grey dark, abundant presence of micro fissures and small veins of
calcite

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T. Dickmann
2. Gabbro-diorite rock, grey dark, micro crystalline to medium-grained texture, from km

13+960 to 13+940 presence of calcite filled fissures and micro fissures.
3. Dioritic porphyry rock, porphyritic medium-grained texture, presence of small veins of
calcite.
4. Dioritic porphyry and rhyolitic dike, whitely, with crystals of quartz < 1 mm.
5. Dioritic porphyry, grey mesotype, porphyritic medium-grained texture and whitish
rhyolitic dike.
6. Dark grey andesite, visible texture, presence of small veins of calcite, the left contact
dacitic dike.
7. Dioritic porphyry, grey mesotype, dacitic dike, grey greenish, fractures filled by calcite
of up to 1,5 cm of thickness.
In comparison with the TSP prognosis that forecasted a range of 160 meters ahead of the
tunnel face, particularly the derived dynamic Young’s modulus values of TSP show an
impressive match with values of the Q-system derived from the geologic findings as illustrated
in Fig. 7.
Fig. 7 Comparison of TSP prognosis (bottom) with observed geology (top) and derived
values of the used Q-system to characterise the rock mass (middle).
5 CONCLUSIONS
Geophysical methods are an essential part of modern tunnelling. They can be applied
throughout both the design and the construction stages and enables continuous risk assessment
and management during construction. It should be borne in mind that geophysical methods
contribute to the overall project cost effectiveness. In spite they do not eliminate uncertainties
they do contribute to a reduction of them. The comprehension of that is one of the major
preconditions for the right communication and validation of the results of geophysical data. The
tunnel contractor who finally needs the result of a geophysical investigation as a basis of
decision-making may understand and assess the result in a different way than the geophysicist or

270
of the Tunnel Face
geotechnical engineer. A common language should be found where the contractor understands
the facts about the detectable phenomena partly restricted by survey layout limitations and
secondly where he judges the result with regard to constructional relevance.
We have learnt from the past 10 years how rapidly geophysical methods and their
improvement in terms of accuracy have been advanced. Further developments regarding data
quality, optimal integration into the tunnelling works flow and sophisticated interpretation
methods are still going on and progress has been made in goal-directed cooperation between the
tunnelling industry and geophysical research institutes. Geophysical investigations are
meaningful and necessary tools in modern tunnelling and it is well noted that the tunnelling
community continuously overcomes its scepticism and doubts about the potential of these
methods. When exactly realising the optimal use of them, tunnelling will become more
predictable in both costs and risks.
In conclusion, from the moment a tunnel is envisioned, geology strongly affects almost
every major decision that must be made in the planning, design, and through into the
construction of a tunnel and all available tools should be employed to reduce the levels of
uncertainty encountered.
6 Rferences
Barton, N.R., Lien, R. and Lunde, J. (1974), “Engineering classification of rock masses for the
design of tunnel support”. Rock Mech. Vol. 6, No. 4, pp. 189 – 239.
Dickmann, T. (2008), “Theoretical and applied case studies of seismic imaging in tunnelling”.
Geomechanik und Tunnelbau Vol. 1, No. 5, pp. 436 – 441.
Dickmann, T. and Sander, B.K. (1996), “Drivage concurrent Tunnel Seismic Prediction (TSP)”.
Felsbau Vol. 14, No. 6, pp. 406 – 411.

271
Rajesh
Geological Khanna
and and R.Investigations
Geophysical Chitra
Applications of Geophysical Investigations

for Site Investigations and Site Characterization of
River Valley Projects
Rajesh Khanna and R. Chitra
Central Soil and Materials Research Station, New Delhi
e-mail: rajesh12khanna@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT: Geophysical Investigation is ideal technique for site investigations to detect
geological, engineering and hydraulic features for river valley projects. Ground Penetrating
Radar (GPR), Seismic Refraction Survey and Electrical Resistively Survey are the main
geophysical non- invasive techniques for site characterization. These non- invasive techniques
can be used for site investigation of major river valley projects and also in congested urban areas
for foundation investigations. These non- invasive techniques are quick and large area can be
surveyed in short time. GPR survey was conducted at Aseana quarry site near Tehri Hydro
Electric Project, Uttaranchal to find out the depth of over burden and also at other major thickly
populated areas in Delhi to detect the underground utilities like water supply line, sewer line and
live electrical cables present at the construction site to have advance knowledge so that it may
not present hindrance during excavation and construction. Electrical Resistively Survey was
conducted at earth and rockfill, Kol Dam site (HP) to estimate the quantity of core, filter material
present at the site. Seismic Refraction Survey was conducted at the Purulia Pumped storage
scheme (W.B) to know the underground profile at different locations of the project. The primary
objective of this paper is to provide information about the different applications of Geophysical
investigations for site investigation and site characterization.
1 INTRODUCTION
Investigation of sites for geotechnical purposes is usually carried out by drilling together
with sampling and determination of rock properties. These results generally give a satisfactory
amount of information and are important for planning and design purpose. The problem with this
type of information is that it refers to a particular place, but geological conditions generally
change to a considerable extent between two nearby bore holes. Among the various geophysical
methods for subsurface investigations, seismic refraction survey, electrical resistivity survey and
GPR survey are convenient methods for solving geotechnical problems and large area can be
investigated in minimum time.
2 GROUND PENETRATING RADAR (GPR)
GPR uses the principal of the reflection of electromagnetic waves to locate buried objects.
The basic principal and theory of GPR are same as those used to detect the aircraft overhead but
GPR uses a much broader band width and with transmitting and receiving antennas that are
pointing downward towards the ground. Transmitting antenna transmits electromagnetic waves
(25 MHz to 1GHz) into the ground.
The wave spreads out and travels downwards until it hits an object that has different
electrical properties from the surrounding ground. If the wave hits a buried object then part of
the wave energy is reflected to the surface, while part of the energy continues to travels

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Applications of Geophysical Investigations for Site Investigations and Site
Characterization of River Valley Projects
downwards. The waves that are reflected back to the surface is captured and recorded on a
digital storage device for interpretation. In practice, GPR measurements are made by towing the
antennas continuously over the ground. The antennas can be towed manually, or with a vehicle.
A radar wave is transmitted and received each time that the antenna has been moved a fixed
distance across the ground surface. The information that is recorded while the receiver is turned
on is called trace. A trace contains the reflections that have bounced back from the buried
objects. It takes a specific amount of time for electromagnetic waves to make the round trip from
the surface down to the reflector, and back to the surface. Travel time for the electromagnetic
waves is measured in nanoseconds. Two ways travel time is greater for deep objects than for
shallow objects. If the velocity of the wave in the subsurface is known, the time of arrival for the
reflected wave recorded on each trace can be used to determine the depth of buried objects. It
can locate any object that has electrical properties in contrast with the surrounding ground and is
within the detection range of the radar waves.
2.1 Estimation of overburden at Asena quarry of Tehri dam project
Tehri Dam is a multipurpose river valley project proposed to tap the vast potential of the
river Bhagirathi, a tributary to river Ganges. The project envisages the construction of 260.5 m
high earth and rockfill dam. The dam creates a reservoir area of 42 sq. km. and with gross and
live storage capacity of 3540 million cubic metres respectively.GPR survey was carried out in
additional area of Asena quarry of Tehri Dam for the determination of thickness of overburden.
The rip – rap material is to be collected from the quarry site to be placed at the dam. The
approximate area of the ground with overburden is 22000 Sq. m (200 m × 110 m) between RL
950 and 1100 The rock formation at the quarry site are thinly quartzite and massive quartzite
with varying overburden and matrix material
2.2 Field procedure
The profile lines at different elevation of the quarry area were marked in consultation with
the project authorities and GSI. The profile line lengths were restricted as per the site conditions.
The antenna was pulled manually at a constant speed on profile lines with markings on
predetermined distances of 5 m. GPR survey was carried out using 80 MHz antenna to
investigate the geological variation up to a depth of 30 m.. Five number of profile lines covering
a total length of 130 m were surveyed. The signals were recorded on 8 mm exbyte tape. GPR
records for the above mentioned profiles were interpreted using RADAN/RADPRINT software.
2.3 Interpretation of data
Total of five profile lines numbered F 5, F 3, F 15, F 19 and F 20 of length 15 m, 15 m, 20
m, 15 m and 40 m respectively were surveyed. From the interpretation of the data, as shown in
figure 1, it is inferred that in case of profile F 15, the overburden consisted of boulders mixes
with silty clay soil (matrix material) for a profile length of 0 to 3 m and is fractured rock for the
remaining length up to a depth of 18 m. Similarly as shown in figure 2, of profile line numbered
F 5, the overburden consists of rock fragments, the big boulders mixes with soil from 7 to 32 m
along the profile length and is soil mixed with gravels for the remaining length up to a depth of
18 m. For a profile line

273
Fig. 1 GPR profile for F 15 at RL 1058 of Asena querry of Tehri H. E. Project
Fig. 2 GPR profile for F 20 at RL 1058 of Asena quarry of Tehri H. E. Project

3 SEISMIC REFRACTION SURVEY
by mechanical hammer. The source should ideally provide a pulse of duration of not more than a
few milliseconds with high amplitude. In an elastic homogeneous ground the source inducts
instantaneous deformation, which causes deformation in the vicinity of the source point. By
virtue of elastic behaviour of the rock, the elastic deformation propagates in all direction in
spherical wave fronts. On critical refraction the refracted wave travels along the interface and
sends out secondary waves to the surface. These returning waves are recorded in the seismic
refraction survey. A typical seismic profile consists of 24 numbers of vertical geophones
uniformly spaced at a distance of 5 m. Explosive source/ mechanical hammer is used for creation
of waves. Five shots are used for recording the waves depending upon the topography and layout
of the profile. The quantity of the charge range from 0.6 kg to 6 kg depending upon the site
conditions. The shots are fired with zero delay detonators. The seismic equipment is actuated
automatically by make and break circuit or by a trigger geophone planted a distance of less than
0.5 m from the shot point.

274
3.1 Seismic Refraction Survey at Purulia Pumped Storage Scheme (WB)

Seismic refraction survey has been conducted at Upper dam spillway area, four profile
lines 110001 to 110004 each of length 55.0 m length were surveyed.
3.2 Interpretation of Data
The data was interpreted using plus minus method and the results of the seismic refractions
survey are shown in table 1. Geoseismic section of the profile is shown in figure 3
Table 1 Results at Upper dam spillway (PPSS, WB)
Range of velocity
Depth of 1st (m/sec)
Depth of
S.No Profile No. layer 2nd layer
(m) (m)
Bed
1st layer
rock
1 110001 11.10to14.75 - 600 4500
2 110002 10.10to11.30 - 650 5700
3 110003 11.30to13.40 - 550 5500
4 110004 11.30to13.40 - 550 5500
Fig.3 Geoseismic section of profile 110001 to 110004

275
4 ELECTRICAL RESITIVITY SURVEY

Electrical resistivity survey measures the apparent resistivity of the subsurface, including
effects of any or all of the following: soil type, bedrock fractures, contaminants and ground
water. Variation of electrical resistivity may indicate change in composition, layer thickness or
contaminant levels. The resistivity method is useful for simultaneously detecting lateral and
vertical changes in subsurface electrical properties. It consists of injection of known amount of
current in the subsurface and finding out the potential difference between the electrodes. This
method of subsurface investigation based on the fact that the different materials offer different
resistance to the flow of current through them. Thus by determining the vertical and lateral
variation resistance it is possible with certain limitations to infer stratification and lateral extent
of subsurface deposits. The common unit of apparent resistivity is ohm-meter. Electrical
traversing is normally employed when a rapid survey of an area is desired. It is particularly
suited for prospecting for sand, gravel and old deposit and also for locating fault zones or contact
between steeply dipping layers of earth material. Electrical sounding is designed to provide
information on the variation in subsurface conditions with depth. Sounding is typically used to
help to determine the depth to water table, thickness of sand, gravel and rock layers.
4.1 Electrical Resistivity Survey at Kian Terrace, Kol Dam ( HP)
Measurement of apparent resistivity is made in single location with systematically varying
spacing of electrodes along the geoelectric line. This procedure is called Vertical Electrical
Sounding (VES). Three profile lines were surveyed and 28 VES points were taken at the Kian
terrace. The layout plan is shown in figure 4.1Vertical Electrical Sounding of 28 points were
carried out using Schlumberger array at Kian Terrace. The VES points were taken at every 120
m intervals along the profile lines due to the site conditions. The measurements were taken along
the lines by keeping current electrodes separation from 1.50m to 60m.
4.2 Interpretation of Data
It was seen from the resistivity values that there was variation in resistivity with depth
reflecting horizontal stratification of each material. The data was interpreted using software
Super VES. The weighted average apparent resistivity and thickness of each layer for Kian
Terrace is shown in table 2. From the resistivity curve and model interpretation it was inferred
that soil strata consists of three layers consisting of matrix materials in the second layer which
could be used as a filter material in earth and rockfill dam.
Fig. 4: Layout of Profile EP-01-01 to EP-02-03 at Kian Terrace (Kol Dam)

276
Table 2 Apparent resistivity for Kian Terrace (Kol dam)

layer Apparent Resistivity Thickness
Profile No.
(m) (Ohm-meter) (m)
1 126.95 0.43
1 EP-01-01 2 431.26 15.13
3 8610.56
1 63.39 0.77
2 EP-01-02 2 875.28 20.43
3 54100.39
1 88.03 1.60
3 EP-01-03 2 236.81 23.95
3 18325.81
5 CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions are deduced from the above study:
 Geophysical investigations are quick and large area can be surveyed in less
time.
 These are non-destructive techniques and therefore can be used effectively.
 It is necessary to use at least two geophysical methods to validation of results
 The results of geophysical methods should be verified by log of drill hole.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author is really grateful to Director CSMRS for his cooperation and allowing using the
data for publication. The author is also grateful to S/Sh. N N Singh, K S Bhandri and K C Dass
for their hard work in completing field investigations.
References
Atlas Copco, ABEM (1983) Terrolac Seismic System, Bromme Sweden.
CSMRS report on Geotechnical Investigation on the core materials from Kian Terrace for the
proposed Kol damprolect, Himachal Pradesh, (Report no. SIII/2001-2002/ 3), June 2001
Kalinski, R.J, W.E. Kelly (1994). Electrical resistivity measurement for evaluating compacted
soil. Journal ofGeotechnical Engineering,120(2) , 451-457
Das, Bajara M (1994) Principles of Gectechnical Engineering, third edition, PWS Publishing
Company

277
Pankaj Kumar, Alex Varughese,
Geological D.V. Sarwade
and Geophysical and Nripendra Numar
Investigations
Delineation of Bedrock Using Seismic Refraction Survey

for Sher Project, Madhya Pradesh
Pankaj Kumar, Alex Varughese,
D.V. Sarwade and Nripendra Numar
Central Soil and Materials Research Station, New Delhi
e-mail: msinha72@gmail.com
ABSTRACT: Geophysical techniques play a very important role in site investigation of river
valley projects as they help in detecting subsurface geological and engineering features. Among
the many geophysical exploration methods, Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR), Seismic
Refraction Survey and Electrical Resistively Survey are frequently used to know the subsurface
site characteristics. In the present paper the experiences gained during the seismic refraction
survey at Sher Dam Project, Madhya Pradesh has been presented. The aim of the survey was to
evaluate the thickness, quality of the overburden and characteristics of the bedrock. The survey
results were presented in the form of P-wave velocity profiles and the material velocities were
correlated with the standard classification of geologic materials. It is appropriate to mention that
there is no unique value of longitudinal wave velocity for any material in the substrata on
account of inherent variations therein from place to place and even in the same place, at best
range of longitudinal wave velocities may be given.
1. INTRODUCTION
The seismic refraction technique has been used for many years for the determination of
depth to bedrock. The method is normally used to locate refracting interfaces (refractors)
separating layers of different seismic velocity, but the method is also applicable in cases where
velocity varies smoothly as a function of depth or laterally. The method is used for layer cake
and dipping multi-layer earth having lateral as well as vertical variation in velocity. Seismic
refraction method is normally carried out using compressional waves, only in special situations
the survey is carried out using shear waves (Haupt et al, 1983; Keary and Brooks, 1984; A.
Varughese, 2012).
The seismic refraction method makes use of ability of layered subsurface materials to bend
or refract seismic waves passing through them in such a way that some of them are returned to
the earth surface after penetrating various strata. The refraction method is extensively used in
surveys of subsurface materials and condition. The method however assumes that the velocities
of the different layers are increasing with depth. Seismic method uses the physical property of
elasticity of the earth materials and measures the velocities (compressional as well as shear) of
artificially induced seismic waves. The artificial seismic waves are induced in the ground by a
seismic source such as a dynamite shot or a hammer stroke on a steel plate placed on the ground
and the velocity of the shock waves that return to the ground are calculated from data recorded
on a seismograph (CSMRS, 2012). As the velocity of propagation of seismic waves is directly
related to the elasticity of the soils and rocks. The variation in velocities of shock waves as
calculated are utilized to assess the depth of various sub-surface materials, location of faults and
shear zones.

278
Delineation of Bedrock Using Seismic Refraction Survey for Sher Project,
Madhya Pradesh
2. ABOUTPROJECT AREA
In the present paper an attempt has been made to delineate bedrock using seismic refraction
method for Sher Project, Madhya Pradesh. Sher-Machhrewa-Shakkar (SMS) complex Project is
one of the important project being developed in Narmada basin in Central India, having one dam
each on Sher River (tributary of Narmada River), Machhrewa River (tributary of Sher River) and
Shakkar River (tributary of Narmada River). The Sher dam is proposed to be gravity concrete
dam with earthen dam on either flank. The main construction materials are therefore rubble
stone, aggregates, sand, earth, cement and steel. Sher, a tributary of Narmada river originates
from near village Khamaria in Lakhnadon tehsil of Seoni district at an elevation of 655.93 m and
drains an area of 2903 sq Km (including that of tributary Machhrewa) and joins Narmada from
left at an elevation of 314.86 m. Upto village Mungwani, the river flows in S-E to N-W direction
through the hilly area draining the water from the rivers like Gurda, Kunair etc. In the reach d/s
of the dam site, the hills open out and run away from the river. The total length of river from the
source to its confluence with Narmada is 129 km. Sher dam site is approachable from village
Mungawani, 29.77 km from Narsinghpur on Narsinghpur Lakhnadon road and then by a 4.5 km
long fair-weather road. Nearest railhead is at Narsinghpur on Bombay Howrah via Allahabad
broad gauge railway line. Nearest domestic airport is at Jabalpur and international airport is at
Nagpur.
3. GEOLOGY
Deccan Basalt rock is exposed in the river section. This suggests that the river has reached
almost a maturity stage of its cutting power. The exposed bedrock in the river section is
apparently dense and compact and its bedrock permeability is likely to be low. Hence the need
for extensive foundation treatment through grouting may be minimum and it is likely to
economise the cost. However, suitably spaced drill-holes would be needed to establish the sound
bed-rock profile for excavation and placement of the clay core. Geological literature indicates
presence of two major; Narmada North and Narmada South Faults; in its vicinity with
sympathetic faults parallel to it.
4. TESTS CONDUCTED
A seismic refraction survey was carried out for 525m length, along the dam axis (i.e., across
the river) covered in three profiles each of 175m long with geophone spacing of 5m. Of the three
profiles two were carried out at left bank (RD 580-755m & RD1025-1200m), and one profiles
was carried out at right bank (RD1860-2035m). (CSMRS Report, 2010) The layout plan of the
seismic profile lines along Sher dam axis is shown in Figure1.
5. METHODOLOGY
by mechanical hammer. By the virtue of the elastic behaviour of the rock, the elastic
deformation propagates in all direction as spherical wave fronts. On critical refraction the
refracted waves travels along the interface and sends out secondary waves to the surface. These
returning waves are recorded in the seismic refraction survey. A typical seismic profile consists
of 24 number of vertical geophones uniformly spaced at a distance of 5 m. Explosives/
mechanical hammer is used for creation of waves. Usually five or seven shots are used for

279
Pankaj Kumar, Alex Varughese, D.V. Sarwade and Nripendra Numar
recording the waves depending upon the topography and lay out of the profile. Some of the
photographs of investigation team conducting seismic refraction survey at dam site are
shown in Figure 2.
Left bank Right bank
GP-01 GP-36 GP-01 GP-36 GP-01 GP-36
Profile No. 1 Profile No. 2 Profile No. 3

RD 580-775m RD 1025-1200m RD 1860-2035m
Sher River
GP = Geophone Not to the Scale
Figure 1: Layout plan of the seismic profile linesalong Sherdam axis

6.1 Data Acquisition and Interpretation method
A seismic spread usually consists of 24 – geophones connected to the recording system
(ABEM TERRALOC), by two 12 – conductor cables. A seismic unit basically consists of
geophones, seismic cables, seismic energy source, blaster, amplifiers and recording device. The
amplifier’s function is to boost the signal detected by the geophones to a level suitable for input
to the recording device. For the seismic refraction survey work, hammers were used as the
energy source. For each spread of 24 geophones, 5 shots were executed: 3 shots within the
profile to obtain the lateral velocity variation in the top layer(s) and 2 far shots on either side of
the spread, to provide the true seismic velocity of the “sound” rock surface. The seismic record
from each shot was verified in the field for the accuracy of the data.
There are various methods of interpretation of seismic refraction field data viz. Intercept
Time method, Critical Distance method, Hale’s method, Wave Front method and Hawkins
method or Plus - Minus method or ABC method(Sjogren1984). In this case, interpretation of
seismic data was done using ABC method. This method provides information on thickness of the
various layers, depth to bed rock under each geophone and rock quality. The interpretation
procedure consist of picking up of first arrivals of P-wave from the records. The time–distance
plots are drawn for all the shot points. The interpretation of P-wave velocity and depth of various
layers of subsurface formations are then performed by plus-minus method. The bed rock
depthhas been calculated at every geophone position to arrive at the bed rock profile.
Range of compressional (P-) wave velocities for various Earth Materials under dry and wet
conditions varies (Keary and Brooks, 1984). The order of magnitude of the compressional wave
velocities helps in classifying the subsurface layers in terms of engineering strength. From the
evaluated compressional wave velocities the geological layers have been generally classified as
shown below in Table 1 (CWPRS Monogram, 2008). The results however, obtained are to be
calibrated with borehole logs data.

280
Madhya Pradesh
Figure 2: Investigation Team conducting seismic refraction survey at dam site

Table 1: Classification of Geological Layers based on Seismic Velocity
Sl. No. Velocity (m/sec) Classification
1 less than 1000 overburden
2 1000-1400 highly weathered rock
3 1400-2500 weathered rock
4 2500-4000 weak zone in bed rock
5 above 4000 bed rock
The depth of bed rock computed from seismic refraction data should be accurate within +/-
10% of the actual depth. Other phenomenon such as velocity inversion and hidden layers
diminish the procedure for interpretation. However, bouldary strata may have velocity very close
to the highly weathered rock/weathered rock/weak zone in bedrock, which may lead to wrong
interpretations. These cases may be avoided by correlation with borehole information and by
collecting data from different such projects by using same equipment. The interpretation of a
line along a sloping surface tends to be erroneous. The accuracy increases with the increase in
contrast of the various layers.
6. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Seismic refraction survey was carried out to evaluate the quality & thickness of the
overburden and characteristic of the bed rock along the surveyed seismic lines. The survey was
completed in three profiles along the dam axis in left and right banks. The details of all the
profiles are given as under.
Profile No. 1 was spread for 175m long with geophone spacing of 5m from RD580m to
RD775m for conducting seismic refraction survey on the left bank along the dam axis. The geo-
seismic section of Profile No. 1 is shown in Figure 3, which shows a two layer case, where the
velocity of first and second layers varies from 650-850 m/s and 4000 to 4600 m/sec respectively.
As per the velocity ranges (Table 1) it can be interpreted that first layer consists of overburden
materials i.e. silt-clay- sands. Second layer consist of fresh bed rock and the depth varies from 7
to 8 m.
RD1200m for conducting seismic refraction survey on the left bank along the dam axis. The
geo-seismic section of Profile No. 2 is shown in Figure 4. It also shows a two layer case, where
the velocity of first and second layers varies from 500-700 m/s and 3000 to 4000 m/sec
respectively. As per the velocity ranges (Table 1) it can be interpreted that first layer consists of

281
overburden materials i.e. silt-clay- sands. Second layer consist of weak zone in bed rock, depth
of which varies from 14 to 18 m. The fresh rock boundary couldn’t be established.
RD Along dam axis

500 550 600 650 700 750 800
415
RL of Geological layer (m)
410
405
400
395
390
Natura ground level i.e. Top of first layerl
Top of rock layer i.e. Top of second layer
Figure 3:Geo-seismic section of Profile No. 1 (RD 582-775m)
RD along dam axis (m)
1000 1050 1100 1150 1200 1250

410
405
400
395
390
385
380
Natural ground level i. e. Top of first layer

282
Madhya Pradesh

1850 1900 1950 2000 2050
430
428
426
424
422
420
Natural grond level i.e. Top of first layer
RD2035m for conducting seismic refraction survey on the right bank along the dam axis. The
geo-seismic section of Profile No. 3 is shown in Figure 5, which shows a two layer case, where
the velocity of first and second layers varies from 550-1250 m/s and 3100 to 3800 m/sec
respectively. As per the velocity ranges (Table 1) it can be interpreted that first layer consists of
overburden materials i.e. silt-clay- sands / highly weather rock. Second layer consist of weak
zone in bed rock, depth of which varies from 2 to 8 m. The fresh rock boundary couldn’t be
established.
The different layer characteristics i.e., layer thickness, layer velocity and type of formations
for Profile No. 1, 2 and 3 are summarized as given in Table 2.
Table 2: Summary of seismic profile lines

Profil First layer Second layer
RD
e
Thicknes Velocit Formation Thickness Velocit Formatio
No. (m) s y (m) y n
(m) (m/sec) (m/sec)
1 580- 7-8 650-850
Silt/Clay/San undetermine FR Bed 4000-
775m d d rock 4600
2 1025- 14-18 500-700 Silt/Clay/San undetermine WZ bed 3000-
1200 d d rock 4000
m
1860- Silt/Clay/San
550- undetermine 3100- WZ bed
3 2035 2-8 d
1250 d 3800 rock
m HWR
Note 1: HWR= Highly weathered rock, FR = Fresh, WZ = Weak Zone
Note 2: Formation as per the classification of geological layers based on seismic velocity

283

500 1000 1500 2000 2500
440
RL of geological layer (m)
430
420
410
400 1
390 Exposed rock on river
2
380
Natural ground level i.e., Top of first layer
Top of rock layer i.e., top of second layer of …
Figure 6(A): Geo-seismic sections of Profile No. 1, 2 and 3 Vs Natural ground level

500 1000 1500 2000 2500
440
RL of geological layer (m)
430
420
410
400
390
380
Natural ground level i.e., top of first layer
Top of rock layer i.e., top of second layer
Figure6 (B): Combined Geo-seismic sections of Profile No. 1, 2 and 3Vs Natural
ground level
7. CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions are deduced from the above study.
 The depth and quality of bed rock obtained from the seismic survey results would help
in deciding/fixing the alignment of the dams. From the present study it is demonstrated
that seismic refraction survey can be effectively used for delineation of the subsurface
strata.
 In the present seismic refraction survey work, hammers were used as the energy
sources, instead of blasting which proved to be very successful and economical at this

284
Madhya Pradesh
site. Sometimes using blasting as energy source for producing the seismic waves is not
possible due to several reasons viz; environmental issues, availability and security of
gelatin, safety issues etc which results in the hindrance in the completing the project
investigations.
 Based on the seismic wave velocity the geological stratas of the Sher dam site, were
identified as below;
500 to 1250m/sec Overburden consisting of highly weathered rock
3000 to 3800 m/sec Weak zone in bed rock
4000 to 4600m/sec Fresh bed rock (The high velocities of the bed rock do
not nullify the possibility of structural discontinuities
in the bedrock)
 It is suggested that the results of seismic refraction tests discussed above may be
calibrated by drilling holes at suitable locations.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Authors gratefully acknowledge the motivation and encouragement of Sh. MurariRatnam,
Director, CSMRS, Dr.Rajbal Singh, Group Head (Rock Mechanics), and Sh. Hari Dev, Scientist
during the preparation of manuscript. Sincere thanks to Sh. Shambhu Azad, Chief Engineer,
WAPCOS Ltd. for overall support during the investigation work. Further, authors also want to
acknowledge the help and cooperation extended from Shri. Shivcharan, Laboratory Attendant,
during the field survey.
References
A. Varughese, Pankaj Kumar and Nripendra Kumar (2012): Seismic Refreaction Survey – A
reliable tool for subsurface characterization for hydropower projects, IGC-2012, Vol. No.1,
pp. 137-140
CSMRS (2012): “Application of Engineering Geophysics in River Valley projects”,Proceedings
of the Training Course on “Testing of Rocks and Rockmass for River Valley Projects and its
Importance”, 2nd and 3rd February, 2012
CSMRS Report (2010): Report on seismic refraction survey of Sher dam site of Sher-
Machharew-Shakkar Complex projects in Narmada basin of Madhya Pradesh.
CWPRS (2008): Monograph on Seismic Refraction Methods on Engineering Applications.
Hauft, W.A., Dr-ing (1983): Seismic refraction survey at a dam construction site, Bulletin of the
international association of engineering geology, No. 26-27
Keary, P and Brooks, M (1984): An Introduction to Geophysical Exploration, Blackwell
Scientific Publications, Oxford.

285

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Seismic Refraction Surveyand

Geological for Site Investigation

Seismic Refraction Survey for Site Investigation of

Birendra Pratap, Alex Varughese and Hari Dev

INDOROCK 2013: 4th Indian Rock Conference 29-31 May 2013

Fig. 2: Arrangement to fix Geophones

INDOROCK 2013: 4th Indian Rock Conference 29-31 May 2013

3 SEISMIC REFRACTION SURVEY

INDOROCK 2013: 4th Indian Rock Conference 29-31 May 2013

3.3 Representative Seismic Velocities in Various Materials

Sl. No. Velocity (m/sec) Classification

3.4 Precision and Limitations

INDOROCK 2013: 4th Indian Rock Conference 29-31 May 2013

451 Left Bank

445 600- 1300 m/sec Riverborne Materials

INDOROCK 2013: 4th Indian Rock Conference 29-31 May 2013

4000 m/sec) could be encountered up to an approximate depth of 60 m. The detailed interpreted

460 Near River Bank

Near River Bank

Fig. 5: Geoseismic section of profile

INDOROCK 2013: 4th Indian Rock Conference 29-31 May 2013

INDOROCK 2013: 4th Indian Rock Conference 29-31 May 2013

Geological Investigations for Tunnel Projects and their Impact

INDOROCK 2013: 4th Indian Rock Conference 29-31 May 2013

Fig. 1 Location of Rohtang Tunnel Project.

(i). Invert Elevation at North Portal 3,080 m asl.

INDOROCK 2013: 4th Indian Rock Conference 29-31 May 2013

Fig. 2 Cross Section of Tunnel.

INDOROCK 2013: 4th Indian Rock Conference 29-31 May 2013

Fig. 3 Regional Geological Features.

INDOROCK 2013: 4th Indian Rock Conference 29-31 May 2013

The geological model indicating anticipated distribution of “excavation classes” as

Matched With Not Matched

INDOROCK 2013: 4th Indian Rock Conference 29-31 May 2013

INDOROCK 2013: 4th Indian Rock Conference 29-31 May 2013

INDOROCK 2013: 4th Indian Rock Conference 29-31 May 2013

Fig. 5 Variation in Rock Classes.

INDOROCK 2013: 4th Indian Rock Conference 29-31 May 2013

Fig. 7 Geological Cross Section at Ch. 2+050.

INDOROCK 2013: 4th Indian Rock Conference 29-31 May 2013

Fig. 8 Pipe Roof Data Interpretation.

Fig. 9 TSP Results.

INDOROCK 2013: 4th Indian Rock Conference 29-31 May 2013

INDOROCK 2013: 4th Indian Rock Conference 29-31 May 2013

INDOROCK 2013: 4th Indian Rock Conference 29-31 May 2013

Advantage of Combined Application of Refraction Seismics

ABSTRACT: Establishing safe and economic hydropower projects necessitates

INDOROCK 2013: 4th Indian Rock Conference 29-31 May 2013

2. SEISMIC REFRACTION TECHNIQUE

Fig. 1 Seismic Refraction Study Procedure

INDOROCK 2013: 4th Indian Rock Conference 29-31 May 2013

MASW is a surface wave technique based fundamentally on the geometric dispersion

Generating of 2D section involves collection of data in a roll-along manner with fixed

INDOROCK 2013: 4th Indian Rock Conference 29-31 May 2013

manner and the 2D image includes 1D observations combined through interpolation

4. ADVANTAGE OF COMBINED APPROACH

INDOROCK 2013: 4th Indian Rock Conference 29-31 May 2013

Fig. 3 Plan showing Refraction Seismic profile and MASW layout

INDOROCK 2013: 4th Indian Rock Conference 29-31 May 2013

Fig. 4 Seismic Section depicting broad subsurface stratification

INDOROCK 2013: 4th Indian Rock Conference 29-31 May 2013

Fig.6 Computational Flowchart and the in-situ Dynamic Elastic Parameters