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Diseases of Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.)
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Advances
in
Agriculture Sciences
Volume - 40
Chief Editor
Dr. R.K. Naresh
Professor, Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Sardar
Vallabhbhai Patel Univ. of Agri & Tech, Meerut, Uttar Pradesh, India
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Contents
Chapters Page No.

1. Diseases of Field Pea (Pisum sativum L.) 01-15
(Dr. Subhash Chandra, Rahul Singh Raghuvanshi, Dr. Ramesh Chand and
Shyam Babu Gautam)
2. Diseases of Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) 17-31

(Dr. Ramesh Chand, Rahul Singh Raghuvanshi, Dr. Subhash Chandra and
Shyam Babu Gautam)
3. Mulching: A Technique to Increase the Production of

Groundnut and Conservation of Resources under Changing
Climatic Conditions 33-50
(Anna Joy and Vandna Chhabra)
4. Bioremediation: A Remedy for Contaminated Soil for

Sustainability and Environmental Stability 51-75
(Madhumonti Naskar, Abir Choudhury, Titas Sarkar, Samayita Basu and Dr.
Sidhu Murmu)
5. Farming for Ecosystem Services: An Ecological Approach to

Agricultural Production 77-92
(Sujan Adak, Partha Pratim Maity, Surjya Kanta Roy and Sourav Sarkar)
6. Diseases of Citrus and Their Management 93-102

(Rahul Singh Raghuvanshi, Akash Singh, Subhash Chandra, Ramesh Chand,
Vishwa Vijay Raghuvanshi and Anand Milan)
7. Climate-Smart Agriculture: A Step towards Achieving

Agricultural Sustainability 103-117
(Partha Pratim Maity, Nandita Mandal, Sujan Adak, Surjya Kanta Roy and
Sourav Sarkar)
8. Information and Communication Technology (ICT) For

Development of Veterinary Education and Livestock Farming
in India 119-134
(SK Md Sadique Anwar and Souvik Dhara)
9. Farming Systems Approach 135-144

(Vishal Yadav, RK Doharey, NR Meena, Ashutosh Kumar Yadav, Preeti Yadav
and Kulbhaskar Ashram)
Chapter - 1
Diseases of Field Pea (Pisum sativum L.)
Authors
Dr. Subhash Chandra
Department of Plant Pathology, Acharya Narendra Deva
University of Agriculture & Technology, Kumarganj,
Ayodhya, Uttar Pradesh, India
Rahul Singh Raghuvanshi
Dr. Ramesh Chand
Shyam Babu Gautam
Page | 1
Page | 2
Chapter - 1
Diseases of Field Pea (Pisum sativum L.)
Dr. Subhash Chandra, Rahul Singh Raghuvanshi, Dr. Ramesh Chand and
Shyam Babu Gautam
Abstract
Peas (Pisum sativum L.) are farmed all over the world as fresh
processing peas or as dry peas for human or animal nutrition. Peas are
frequently planted during the cold season since they are typically the first
crop sown in the spring, a feature of their agronomy that has consequences
for disease management. Numerous bacterial, fungal, viral, and nematode
diseases can harm peas. Under ideal circumstances, these diseases can
significantly reduce both yield and quality. Fungi, bacteria and nematodes
are significant categories of organisms that cause soil-borne illnesses in peas.
Included in the list of soil-borne fungi illnesses covered in this chapter are
wilts, root rots, and infections of seedlings. Nematode disease is brought on
by pea stem nematodes. Major foliar diseases in peas are caused by bacteria
and fungi. Among the foliar diseases brought on by fungi are powdery
mildew, downy mildew, and Ascochyta blight. Bacterial blight is one of the
more serious bacterial infections. Spotted wilt is one more serious virus-
related illness.
Keywords: Field pea, diseases, symptoms, disease cycle, management
Introduction
The most significant annual cool season pulse crop is the field pea
(Pisum sativum L.), a self-pollinated diploid (2n=14) annual that is prized for
its high protein content. It is commonly cultivated throughout the world's
tropical highlands and milder temperate zones. The crop may be grown in a
variety of soil conditions, from light sandy loams to deep clays, although it
cannot withstand salty or wet soil. The ideal soil pH range is 5.5-6.5. One of
the most significant pulse crops in Ethiopia is the field pea, which
smallholder farmers have long farmed in high-and mid-altitude regions. It
has a production capacity of 21406364 kg per year and a production area of
approximately 25147.69 hectares. When fully grown, the field pea is a good
food legume that is rich in nutrients. It is frequently crushed into flour and is
Page | 3
widely used in the preparation of soups. Almost everyone recognizes fresh
green peas as a healthy food.
Powdery mildew
Everywhere that this crop is produced, the illness is present. Almost
every year, an outbreak of the illness develops. The sickness peaks at pod
production and emerges around the end of the season. In contrast to other
diseases, the illness is worse in dry weather. The yield loss has been
estimated to be between 10 and 70%. Additionally, the illness causes a
decline in seed vigour, viability and pod formation.
Symptoms
The illness first manifests itself on plant leaves close to the soil and
other green sections. White floury spots that appear on the tendrils, pods, and
stems of plants as well as on both sides of the leaves are symptoms of
disease. These patches initially appeared as tiny, discoloured radials from a
powdery mass on both sides. These huge, white, powdery patches on the
host's aerial parts may appear after the assault has progressed. Mycelium and
fungal spores make up the surface bulk. The host's physiology is likewise
impacted. Transpiration is particularly heightened at night. While
photosynthesis is reduced, respiration is raised.
Causal organism
Erysiphe pisi D.C., also known as Erysiphe polygoni D.C., is the
pathogen that causes this disease. It is a member of the kingdom fungi,
phylum ascomycota, subphylum pezizomycotina, class leotiomycetes, order
erysiphales and family erysiphaceae. Mycelium of the pathogen, an obligate
parasite, is typically fine, persistent, and infrequently thick. If the whole
thallus-aside from the haustoria-is present on the host surface, the organism
Page | 4
is ectophytic. Appressorium holds mycelium on the host. Conidia are
produced at conidiophores and are used for asexual reproduction.
Conidiophores grow vertically from surface-level hyphae that carry chains of
sexual conidia. The top end matures first, falls off swiftly, and is dispersed
by the wind. Conidiophores are septate and the form of their cells is similar
to that of conidia. Conidia are elliptical, hyaline, unicellular, and barrel-
shaped. a sexual relationship occurs around the end of the season. The
cleistothecium is a small, black, sexual fruiting organism that produces 2-8
asci and has 3-8 ascospores per ascus.
Disease cycle
Ascospores, which first infect lower leaves mostly close to the soil, are
the principal inoculums that cause the illness to spread through cleistothecia
in the soil. Numerous more host plants for the infection give the crop major
inoculums as well. Conidia, which proliferate as main mycelium, cause
secondary infection. Mycelium that is dormant occasionally in pea seeds.
In dry conditions, powdery mildew thrives. Conidia germination
required temperatures as low as 7, as high as 25, and as low as 33°C. In soils
with phosphate and potassium deficits, disease incidence is higher.
Control
1) May through June is the ideal time to deep-plow.
2) Three to four years should be allowed for crop rotation.
3) Field sanitation, to eliminate the principal inoculums' source.
4) Early varieties, such as those that are mature by the time the
sickness first emerges (15 January), are immune to infection.
5) Make use of resistant cultivars including Rachana, P-185, JP-4,
AUP-2, HUP-9, DMR-9, PM-2, Pant-P, and Jawahar Matar-1.
6) Dusted sulphur at a rate of 20-30 kg per hectare, or sprayed it twice
at intervals of fifteen days with Karathane, calixin, or sulfex at a
rate of 0.1% per hectare.
7) A seed treatment that involved soaking the seeds in a bacterial
solution for eight hours, followed by the foliar application of
Pseudomonas fluorescens at the pre-flowering stage and a single
application of carbendazim at 0.1 percent during the pod
development phase, was found to be effective in lowering the
incidence of the disease.
Page | 5
Downy mildew
In the Indo-Gangetic plain, this condition is quite prevalent. As a
widespread illness, it has also been recorded from Europe and North
America. However, the crop only sustained little harm.
Symptoms
This disease can damage plants at any stage of growth, although it is

most prevalent right after seedling emergence. It is also more prevalent
during times of damp, chilly weather. Typically, the third and fourth leaves
are when the first symptoms start to develop. These sporadic, irregularly
shaped yellow to brown spots first form on the lower leaves before moving
up to the top ones. These patches might be little or take up a lot of the
lamina. As soon as these patches start to appear, the diseased tissues quickly
start to die and turn brown. A greyish violet downy growth has grown on the
underside of the surface just underneath them.
Causal organism
The pathogen, Peronospora pisi Syd. Emend. Campbell, is a member of
the Order Peronosporales, Family Peronosporaceae, Phylum Oomycota, and
Kingdom Chromista. The mycelium of the fungus, a biotroph, is hyaline
intercellular and heavily branching. The haustoria have several branches and
are finger-shaped. On the underside of leaves, the sporangiophores emerge
through the stomata. The top section of the hyaline, lengthy, and
dichotomously branching sporangiophores. Sporangia are hyaline, have thin
walls, and range in form from oval to elliptical. They infect pea and
germinate through germ tube. Later, diseased leaves and pod tissue produce
spherical, greenish yellow oospores of a 28–32 micron diameter. Oospores
grow through a germ tube. The stomata on the underside of the leaves are
where the conidiophores emerge in clusters straight from the interior hyphae.
Page | 6
Disease Cycle
The fungus that causes downy mildew can be seed-borne and can live in
the soil and on pea waste. A main cause of systemic or local infection may
be an infected seed. When there is high humidity above 90% for four to five
days and temperatures between five and fifteen degrees Celsius, the sickness
can spread swiftly. The tissues of wilted, aged leaves or the tissues of pods
are where the oospores are created. They are greenish yellow and radish-like.
Following a time of rest, the oospores begin to germinate by creating germ
tubes. Primary transmission of the disease occurs by oospores on the infected
plant, while secondary transmission takes place through wind-borne conidia.
Control
1) The presence of the main inoculums in the soil Therefore, lowering
the primary inoculums will benefit greatly from field cleaning and
crop rotation.
2) Seed treatment with fungicides like metalaxyl or oxadixyl lowers
seedling infection.
3) Using fungicidal sprays like Zinc manganese carbamet @ 2 kg/ha,
tridemorph @ 500 ml/ha, or dithane M-45 @ 2 kg/ha at intervals of
10 to 15 days in an effort to manage the illness.
4) If a two- to three-year crop rotation is used, oospores are inactivated
in the soil.
5) In order to minimise illness, resistant types should be seeded.
Rust
It is distributed all around the world. It is widespread in Uttar Pradesh,
Punjab, and Bihar in India. In India, there have reportedly been a number of
outages. Damage is really severe. Disease starts to develop as pods. The
severity of the disease's losses varies based on the climate and the cultivar's
level of resistance. In rust-infected pea plants, protein and phenolic acid
levels rise while chlorophyll, sugar, ascorbic acid and phosphorus content
falls.
Symptoms
The earliest signs of aecia are those that start to show in February or
later. Pycnia are common and generally undetectable. Every green portion,
including pods, supports the development of all spore stages. On leaves,
petioles, tendrils, stems, and pods, the aecial stage is generated by a little
yellowing that eventually turns brown. Aecia are elliptical, yellowish
Page | 7
branches with a delicate warty wall that are spherical or elongated and
clustered. The surfaces of the leaves as well as other areas saw the
development of uredo pustules. They are available as a light brown powder
that has a powdered consistency. Uredospores are light brown, oval, and
spiky. The teleuto pustules develops from the same mycelium and occurs in
the same sorus. They can be found on leaves, but stems and petioles are
where they are most often seen. They possess a deep brown hue. The illness
results in early defoliation.
Causal organism
The disease is caused by two causative organisms: one is the autoecious
rust Uromyces fabae (Pers.) de Bary, which is macrocyclic in form, and the
other is the heteroecious rust Uromyces pisi (Pers.) wint, which has its aerial
stage as Euphorbia cyparissias but is uncommon in India. The pathogen is a
member of the kingdom fungi, the Pucciniomycetes class, the
Pucciniomycotina subphylum, the Pucciniomycotina order, the pucciniales
order and the pucciniaceae family.
1) Aeciospores have warts and range in shape from being spherical to
angular or oval yellow in color.
2) The uredospores are light brown, circular to ovate, spiny and have a
3-4 year pore.
3) The teliospores have thick walls and range in shape from
subglobose to ovate or ellipsoidal, with a round or flattened apex
that appears papillate. Teliospores germinate to create basidia
containing basidiospores.
Disease cycle
During the active season, the aeciospores are primarily responsible for
disease transmission. While uredospores cannot live in the hot summer
months, aeciospores may subsist on dung in the off-season. Teliospores can
tolerate the hot summers in India's plains, proving that rust perennials may
Page | 8
survive in its telial stages in leftover infected plant debris, garbage, or
combined with seed as an external contaminant and spread infection the next
season. Uredospore germination is best around 16 to 22oC, while above 28oC
there is no germination. A secondary infection develops as a result of the
seasonally generated uredospores. It has been discovered that aeciospores
from other crops, such as lentil and Vicia faba, can infect peas. In soils with
a potassium shortage, disease is severe.
Control
1) Elimination of sick plants and waste following crop harvest.
2) Use resistant cultivars, such as DPMR 68, DP 2, HUP 2, Pant P 9,
Pant P 8, VL-7 and Arkel.
3) Spraying calix at 500 ml per hectare or dithen M-45 at 2 kg per
hectare every 10-15 days on standing crops.
4) Apply 2.5 grammes of diclobutazole per kilogramme of seed.
5) Seed free of diseases has to be sowed.
6) Change growing period when early maturing types are planted and
grown.
Ascochyta blight
This field-specific illness is particularly significant. When conditions are
favourable, the wet season occurs. Individual crop production losses of up to
60% have been documented; however, during the dry season, crop losses are
lower.
The disease is appears all above ground parts of the crop, as well as the
crown below.
Symptoms
Purplish-black staining and streaks of the lower stem are signs. When an
infection is severe, it can also result in stem and foot rot, which kills the
Page | 9
plant. The leaves and pods may also be seen well. Small, irregular, dark
brown symptoms that are dispersed throughout the leaf or a few big, circular
brown spots can be seen on leaves. On the pods, spots may combine to create
large, deep, purplish-black regions. It's possible for infected seed to have a
purple brown appearance. The seed coat near to sick spots on the surface of
the pod frequently exhibits more extreme discoloration. Healthy-looking
seed may have a little infection.
Causal organism
This illness is brought on by a complex of four infections that manifests
in the wild and results in a single illness with symptoms that are identical for
each pathogen. They are isolated to a single sick plant. In lab and glasshouse
research, the pathogens Didymella pinodes, Phoma medicaginis, Phoma
koolunga and Ascochyta pisi may be distinguished. The pathogen is a
member of the Phylum Ascomycota, Class Dothideomycetes, Order
Pleosporales, Kingdom Fungi, Family Didymellaceae and Order
Pleosporales.
Disease cycle
The disease can spread by seeds, through the soil, or through pea waste.
The primary infection spreads into the new crop via rain and wind,
producing early infection, and the secondary infection happens when asexual
conidia formed in pycnidia infect plants. The illness often spreads by sexual
ascospores of the fungus produced in perithecia on plant derbies. This can
happen at any point in a plant's development. During the growth season and
after harvest, infected plants and pea stubble both produce perithecia and
pycnidia. The original infection is mostly brought on by ascospores, whereas
conidia development leads to secondary infection. Because both types of
spores need dew or rainfall to be released, epidemics are more severe in
moister climates. By wind and rain splash, spores formed on diseased leaves
are spread to nearby healthy plants. Up to 90% of seed samples may be
contaminated, and spreading infected seed is another way that the illness can
spread. Seasonal circumstances, such as heavy rainfall, and soil
characteristics have an impact on the percentage of sick seedlings that result
from any contaminated seed lot. Planting contaminated seed in a dry year
might not result in a sick crop, but in a rainy year, a serious illness is more
likely.
Control
1) Elimination of diseased plant matter from prior crops.
Page | 10
2) Three to four years should be used for crop rotation.
3) Seed must be certified or disease-free.
4) Elimination of self-sown or wild plants.
5) Research the suggested planting dates in your region.
6) Apply mancozeb to the seed at a rate of 2.0 grammes per
kilogramme of seed.
7) Mancozeb should be sprayed on standing crops at a rate of 2.0 kg
per ha when the first symptoms appear and again 15 to 20 days
later.
Bacterial blight
Symptoms
Every section of the pea plant above the ground has bacterial blight. The
vines may perish without bearing fruit if the infection begins in the seed or if
the plants are less than three inches tall. The weather condition has a
significant impact on the severity of the injury. Water-soaked lesions on the
pods, stems, leaves, and occasionally sizable patches are the signs of this
disease. On the surface of the lesions, a slimy ooze with a white to cream
colour may also gather. However, if the weather becomes dry, the illness can
go. Eventually, the diseased tissue on the leaves and stipules becomes
brown.
Even advanced plants might die as a result of pre- and post-emergence
damping off. Light infection has no evident impact on seed, however heavily
infected seed may be discoloured.
Causal organism
Both Pseudomonas syringe pv. Pisi and Pseudomonas syringe pv.
syringe are responsible for the bacterial illness, but Pseudomonas syringe pv.
syringe is thought to be the primary culprit in pea harvests since it can
survive the winter in the seed. The pathogen is a member of the phyla
Page | 11
Proteobacteria, class Gammaproteobacteria, order Pseudomonadales, and
family Pseudomonadaceae within the domain Bacteria. If plant debris left in
the field after crop harvesting harbours the parasite is unknown. In the field,
the bacteria cannot survive the winter. However, the main source of infection
is seeds.
Disease cycle
Infected seed is a frequent way for bacterial blight to spread inside a
field, as does neighbouring garbage made of infected peas. Bacteria can
transfer from sick to healthy plants when it is raining or when water droplets
are carried by the wind. Any stage of a plant's growth can be affected by
infection. Early infections caused by bacteria in plant tissues may cause
epidemics, but later infections can also cause yield reductions. Bacterial
blight is particularly severe during wet seasons since the illness needs on
moist environments. The best circumstances for disease transmission within
crops are provided by significant rains and high winds.
Control
1) It is advisable to sow resistant or certified seed.
2) Three to four years should be allowed for crop rotation.
3) Stubble is a good place to find inoculums. Bury and burn the
diseased stubble to destroy.
4) Prevent early planting in places where bacterial blight is a problem.
5) Debris and rubbish are burnt after the sick crop is harvested.
6) Field pea should be treated with copper-based chemicals to prevent
bacterial blight.
Stem nematode
The soil-borne pest known as the stem nematode (Ditylenchus dipsaci)
affects various pasture crops, oats, and pulses. It is a member of the Animal
Kingdom, Nematoda Phylum, Tylenchida Class, Diplogaster Subclass,
Tylenchida Order and Anguinidae Family. South Australia and Victoria are
home to the oat, lucerne, and clover races of this nematode. The oat race
affects seedlings of canola, lentil, and chickpea in addition to oat, faba bean,
field pea and wild oat. Some nursery, ornamental and horticultural plants
may also suffer severe harm from it.
Symptoms
Plants that are infected have poor germination and deformed, stunted
patches. Frequently, peas will become yellow-green. Many times, the
Page | 12
symptoms leaves curling and displaying wet areas are mistaken for pesticide
damage. The stem may occasionally die back, however bean harvests seem
to experience this more often than pea crops.
Disease cycle
Infested hay, straw, weeds, and other plant materials as well as
contaminated seed transmit the stem nematode. Machinery, people and
livestock all transport it into the soil. The stem nematode is extremely
resistant to desiccation and can endure prolonged dehydration. It affects
plants' above-ground components and has a propensity to expand rapidly
during the growing season. Disease accumulation is worse in more humid
environments and at lower temperatures (15 °C or less).
Control
For nematode management, there are no chemical alternatives. Being
clean is crucial. Avoid introducing the nematode into pristine paddocks or
onto farms. Use a SARDI seed test to check seeds for the presence of stem
nematodes. Bring no rotten hay or straw onto the property from
contaminated regions. Rotate non-host crops like wheat and barley to cut
down on the nematode population. The SARDI PreDicta® B soil test can be
used to determine the risk of soil-borne illness.
Septoria blight
The fungus Septoria pisi is responsible for septoria blight. The pathogen
is a member of the Order Capnodiales, Class Dothideomycetes, Phylum
Ascomycota, Kingdom Fungi and Family Mycosphaerellaceae. The majority
of pea cultivars appear to be unaffected by septoria blight, a mild disease. In
South Australia and Victoria, the condition is sporadic but has received
particular attention. Late in the growth season, old leaves, pods, and stems
are frequently affected by the disease.
Symptoms
Page | 13
Field pea septoria blight mostly affects the lower, senescing portions of
the plant and the pods. Yellow patches on plant tissue that get necrotic and
are coated in many brown dots are the disease's hallmark. Lesions are
usually round, fluctuate in size, and lack a definite margin. They start off
yellow and then turn straw-colored. Such spots might merge together to
cover the entire leaf. On diseased plant components, including pods,
numerous pinpoint-sized black pycnidia (fungus fruiting bodies) may be
observed widely dispersed when the blotches dry up. Tissues with disease
may prematurely dry out.
Control
Crop rotation, stubble management, and fungicides can all be used in
conjunction to manage septoria. The Septoria blotch fungus can be found on
decaying pea plants and in soil. Once all of the pea waste has broken down,
it is okay to plant peas again in that location. Pea debris may be reduced
more quickly by grazing, burning, and cultivating pea stubble.
Spotted wilt
The illness first appeared in the state of Andhra Pradesh. The symptoms
of infected plants include bronzing and necrotic patches on the leaves as well
as necrosis of the developing apex, which results in dieback and finally
death. The first signs are pale yellow leaf yellowing, which progresses to
dark necrotic damage. The stipules and leaves have chlorotic rings that
progressively turn necrotic. On the stem and petioles, brown necrotic streaks
are visible. Apical tip is killed as a result of severe infection, which spreads
downhill gradually and kills the entire plant. Some plants manage to
withstand top necrosis, although they exhibit axillary bud multiplication and
tiny, clumped leaves. Such plants generate seeds that are wrinkly. Many
pods oxidise or have flecks of necrotic pattern or rings of colour.
Transmission
The virus cannot be spread by seeds; instead, it is spread by thrips and
mechanical sap injection.
Host range
glycine max, tomato, groundnut, urd bean, and mung bean.
Chenopodium amaranticolor rings or lesions that are chlorotic or necrotic.
Properties
Temperatures between 45 and 50 oC, 10-3 and 10-4 for dilution
endpoints or 4 hours at 27 oC for lifespan in vitro are the thermal inactivation
points.
Page | 14
Recommended readings
1. Agrios GN. Plant Pathology. 5th ed. Elsevier Academic Press, London,
2005.
2. Singh RS. Plant Diseases. 8th ed. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co., New
Delhi, 2005.
3. Singh RP. Plant Pathology. 8th ed. Kalyani Publisher, New Delhi, 2008.
4. Sharma PD. Plant Pathology. Narosa Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., New
Delhi, 2006.
5. DAC. Fourth advance estimates of production of Food grains for 2010-
11. Agricultural statistics division, Directorate of economics and
statistics, Department of agriculture and cooperation, Government of
India, New Delhi, 2011.
(http://eands.dacnet.nic.in/advance_estimate/3rd
advance_estimates_2010-11(English).
6. Common Names Diseases, The American Phytopathological Society
Retrieved
from://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=list_of_pigeonpea_disease&o
ldid=581610763.
7. Singh KS, Singh D, Kumar A. Plant Diseases and Their Management.
IInd ed. Reprint. Kalyani Publishing Co., New Delhi, 2017.
8. Duve HC. An Introduction to Fung. 4th ed. Scientific Publishers, 5 A,
New Pali road, Jodhpur, India, 2017.
Page | 15
Page | 16
Chapter - 2
Authors
Dr. Ramesh Chand
Department of Plant Pathology and A.N.D.U.A&T, Kumarganj,
Dr. Subhash Chandra
Shyam Babu Gautam
Page | 17
Page | 18
Chapter - 2
Dr. Ramesh Chand, Rahul Singh Raghuvanshi, Dr. Subhash Chandra and
Shyam Babu Gautam
Abstract
One of the most significant cool-season food crops in the world,
chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is mostly farmed in arid regions. 7.33 million
metric tonnes of chickpeas are produced in India (2018). The crop is afflicted
with severe illnesses that harm it at every stage of growth. Fungi, bacteria,
viruses, nematodes and mycoplasma are some of the diseases that harm
chickpeas, which cause significant economic losses around the globe. Fungi
are the biggest of them and maybe chickpea pods as well. The guide is
intended to help agricultural researchers and extension agents identify
chickpea illnesses, even if they have less formal experience in plant
pathology. The bulletin gives information on the disease, distribution, and
economic significance of chickpeas. It will be helpful to farmers and
extension workers.
Keywords: Chickpea, disease, symptoms, causal organism, controls, disease
cycle
Introduction
The earliest farmers to cultivate the chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) were
Neolithic farmers. Even today, field pea (Pisum sativum L.) and dry bean
(Phaseolus vulgaris L.) are the top two producers of grain legumes, with
chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) coming in third. With a little amount of
automation, chickpea was farmed in India, Iran, Bangladesh, Pakistan,
Mexico, and Ethiopia. In nations like Turkey, Canada, and Australia, output
of chickpeas has increased due to advancements in varietals, agronomy,
production technology, and new export market prospects.
Wilt
In India, Iran, Pakistan, Nepal, Spain, and Tunisia, the chickpea (Cicer
arietinum L.) is susceptible to the soil-borne illness fusarium wilt.
Production of chickpeas is severely hampered in California and the
Page | 19
Mediterranean region by the illness. India was first mentioned by Butler
from Bihar in 1918. Depending on the intensity of the disease and the stage
of infection, it reduces crop output by 20% to 100%. In dire circumstances,
losses might reach 60% to 70%. Compared to seed from healthy plants, seed
from wilted plants is lighter, rougher and duller.
Symptoms
Plant drooping in the field is the first sign of the illness, which is
followed by rapid plant death. Additionally, the leaves become yellow and
drop off too soon. The wilting plants' collar sections have necrosis and
discolouration. whether it is easier to remove the sick plants from the ground
than the healthy ones. The fungus may have invaded the majority of the
lateral roots of the wilting plant. Transverse slices of the basal stem or the
roots show masses of fungal hyphae in the vascular bundles and vascular cell
discolouration under the microscope.
Causal organism
The pathogen is a member of the kingdom fungi and the phyla
ascomycota, subphylum pezizomycotina, class sordariomycetes, order
hypocreales and family nectriaceae. The fungus is caused by Fusarium
oxysporum f. sp. Ciceri. The fungus appears infected tissue as hyphae both
intracellularly and intercellularly. In contrast to the micro-conidia, which are
one or two celled, thin walled, elliptical and hyaline, the macro-conidia are
sickle-shaped, pointy at both ends, septate and hyaline.
Disease cycle
The fungus is a facultative parasite, living saprophytically on soil
organic matter. When the crop is harvested, the diseased roots are left over in
the soil and the fungus survives on the host, root for several years. It
produced chlamydospores which are resting spores that can withstand
adverse soil condition. Optimum temperature for the fungus infection is
around 25 oC. The alkaline soil favour the incidence of wilt.
Control
1) Changing the planting dates to grow the crop between November
and February can assist to lessen the severity of the illness.
2) By boosting antagonistic microorganisms, the addition of
substantial amounts of organic matter to the soil would reduce the
pathogen's activity.
Page | 20
3) Planting resistant strains of seeds, such as Gaurav, Udai, Awrodhi,
Phule G-95007, Phule G-5, Phule G-114, BG-224, BG-212, BG-
246, BG-261, JG-315, JG-74, WR 315, CPS 1, ICC 1611, H 86-72,
H 86-18, BDNG 233, ICCC 32, AND JG-12
4) Because the fungus lives in the soil, soil applications of
Trichoderma viride and harzianum @ 1 kg + 25 kg are necessary.
FYM/ acre are spread one week before sowing is more effective
than seed treatment in reducing wilt of chickpea.
5) Trichoderma harzianum at 4 grammes per kilogramme with
carbendazim at 1 grammes were applied to the seeds.
6) Linseeds intercropped at a 2:1 ratio are successful.
7) Include sorghum in a 6-year crop rotation.
8) Spot soaking with 50 kg FYM and either 1.0 gram/lit of
carbendazim or 2.5 kg/ha of P. fluorescens/T. viride.
Botrytis grey mould
A fungus is the source of this illness. The second most significant
disease affecting chickpeas is grey mould, which can affect plants at any
stage of growth. The disease may spread extensively and completely destroy
a crop under the right circumstances. Disease is more prone to spread in
chickpea genotypes with rapid seedling development, early canopy closure,
and early flowering than in other kinds. If seed is not treated with a
fungicide, the use of seriously contaminated seed can cause a crop to fail
completely. The biggest agricultural losses occur during wet seasons,
especially when crops have extremely dense canopies.
Symptoms
The terminal branches of a crop frequently droop as one of the earliest
signs of illness. Yellow areas in the crop may indicate diseased clusters of
plants. The telltale sign is a grey fuzz that appears on flowers, stems, dead
leaves, and petioles when there is significant humidity. Although lesions can
appear anywhere along the stem, they are typically initially noticed on the
lower section of the stem, frequently beginning at the leaf axial. Typically,
infected seeds are smaller than normal and frequently have white to grey
fungal growth on them.
Causal organism
The pathogen is a member of the kingdom fungi, the ascomycota
subphylum, the pezizomycotina class, the leotiomycetes order and the
helotiales family. Botrytis cinerea Pers. Ex Fr. is the disease's primary
Page | 21
culprit. It is a serious disease that affects pulse crops, especially chickpea.
Dark brown to black sclerotia are produced. Mycelium is septate, white to
grey, with thin, branching juvenile hyphae, and hyaline conidiophores that
are lighter in colour than the hyphae. The pathogen was created on infected
dead tissues and has the ability to produce spores on the surface of those
tissues. The sclerotia often form after the stem dies and are more rounded.
When the canopy of a badly diseased tree is opened, a cloud of spores is
visible. The "fuzz" is hardly noticeable in dry weather, but it reappears when
rainy weather returns. Moderate temperatures (20–25 oC), frequent rainfall,
and high relative humidity are favourable to the pathogen. Infected seeds,
infected stubbles on other hosts, dead plant tissue, and sclerotia are all places
where it can live.
Disease cycle
In the absence of a chickpea crop, the virus can persist in nature from
season to season in a variety of ways. Infected or contaminated seeds, plants,
and other hosts allow fungi to live by feeding saprophytically or parasitically
on dead material, or by invading an inactive stage of the life cycle or a
dormant resting structure (sclerotia).
When the crop canopy is completely grown during flowering, the
disease is typically visible. Disease development is favoured by excessive
vegetative growth brought on by too much irrigation or rain, by close
spacing, and by types with a spreading propensity. Disease development is
favoured by temperatures between 20 and 250 C, high humidity around
flowers and the podding season.
Control
1) Burning and destroying agricultural residue after harvest.
2) Certified seed has to be planted.
3) Thiram-based fungicides or Thiram + Thiabendazole should be
applied at a rate of 2 grammes per kilogramme of seed.
4) Crop should be displayed in a line format to highlight the effects of
improved crop airflow and decreased canopy humidity.
5) The resistance cultivars Pant G 144, C-235, and BG-261 should be
shown.
6) Mancozeb @1.0-2.0 kg/ ha and Carbendazim 500ml/ha should be
sprayed on standing crops.
Page | 22
Ascochyta blight
In the majority of chickpea-growing regions of the world when chilly,
gloomy, and humid weather prevails during the crop season, ascochyta blight
is a very troublesome and dangerous disease. In India, states like Punjab,
Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Delhi, and portions of
Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan are affected severely by this illness. Ascochyta
blight can lower seed quality and has been known to completely limit
production.
Symptoms
The disease's early signs first develop at the tops of leaves and the tips
of budding shoots. At any stage of plant development, the fungus can
damage any above-ground plant component, including leaves, stems, and
pods, although plants are most vulnerable to disease during blooming. On
the leaves and pods, there are pale green yellow, round, depressed lesions;
on the petioles and stem, there are elongated lesions. Stem lesions frequently
encircle the plant's stem, making it weaker and more likely for it to fall off.
These lesions may develop pycnidia, which often appear in concentric rings.
Pycnidia may be found on infected seeds, and they may also be discoloured
and shrivelled.
Causal organism
Ascochyta rabiel is the culprit for ascochyta blight. The pathogen is a
member of the Pleosporales Order, Class Dothideomycetes, Order
Ascomycota, Sub Phylum Pezizomycotina, Kingdom Fungi and Family
Didymellaceae. The septate mycelium has a hyaline to brown colour. On the
afflicted tissues, the fungus produces Pycnidia in shapes ranging from
spherical to pears. Inside the Pycnidia, the conidia are carried by short
conidiophores. They are pinkish in mass, oval to oblong, one to two celled,
and hyaline. On the infected host tissues, the perithecial stage also develops.
The globose, dark-colored perithecia are home to asci that generated eight
ascospores. The ascospores are two-celled, elliptical, thin-walled and
hyaline.
Disease cycle
Both inside and externally, this illness is transmitted via seed. A source
of major inoculum for the virus is contaminated or infected seed, infected
plant residues left behind in fields, and other host plants. Additionally, it was
discovered that ascospores contribute to the start of outbreaks of illness.
Conidia and ascospores, which can be transferred by contaminated
Page | 23
machinery, wind and water movement, and rain splashes, are the primary
means of secondary disease transmission. When daytime temperatures are
around 20 oC, nighttime temperatures are around 10 oC and rain is followed
by cloudy days, the illness quickly builds up and spreads. Blight
development is also favored by excessive canopy growth.
Control
1) Plant resistant cultivars such as Pant 114, C-235, C-8, HOO-02,
HOO-126, HOO- 249, HO- 1-80, ICC 607, ICL 4475, ICL 6328,
BG 267, FLIP 97-132, FLIP 98-226, FLIP 98-231, FLIP 91-24 C,
FLIP 84-92 C, JM-595, and BG-267.
2) Adhere to crop rotation.
3) Choose seed from a crop free of illness.
4) Intercrop of wheat, barley, and mustard is seeded.
5) Apply Carbendazim + Thiram (1:1) At 3.0 gram/kg seed to the
seed.
6) Spray Carbendazim @ 0.15% twice, separated by 10 days, on
standing crops, or apply wettable sulphur @ 2.3 gram/lit of water.
Root rot
Both leguminous and non-leguminous hosts are affected, causing
serious harm. The fungus is widespread and may be found anywhere this
crop is heavily farmed.
Symptoms
The damaged leaves show signs of yellowing and may drop over the
course of the following two to three days. When the stem is closely
inspected, black lesions may be observed on the bark at the ground level.
The plant may have withered within a week. The primary roots and the base
stem may exhibit indications of dry rot. Weekend tissues are readily broken
off.
Causal organism
A fungus called Macrophomina phaseolina (Maubl.) Thirum is the
culprit behind the illness. A member of the Kingdom Fungi, Phylum
Ascomycota, Class Dothideomycetes, Order Botryosphaeriales, and Family
Botryosphaeriaceae, the fungus is classified as a fungus. Invasion by the
fungus occurs both intra- and intercellularly in the host. It quickly spreads
throughout a large portion of the host tissues before quickly destroying them.
It produces thick-walled, single-celled, hyaline Pycniospores in pycnidia.
Page | 24
Disease cycle
The fungus may live saprophytically on decomposed organic tissues as a
facultative parasite. Sclerotial bodies are produced by it. When the air
temperature is over 300 °C, pycnidia are generated and Pycniospores can
live for more than a year.
Control
1) The pathogen is carried via soil. The condition is challenging to
manage. Bordeaux combination or other powerful fungicides
applied to the damaged plants and contaminated soil may assist to
reduce the inoculums.
2) Field sanitation ought to be required. Remove weeds and
agricultural wastes before planting and after harvest.
3) Two to three years should pass between crops in a rotation.
4) Deep ploughing has to be done in the summer.
5) Prevent seeding during periods of excessive wetness.
6) Excessive wetness should be kept away from seedlings.
7) Before preparing the soil, any undecomposed materials should be
removed from the field.
8) Treatment of seeds with Pseudomonas fluorescens at 10 gram/kg of
seeds, Trichoderma viride at 4 gram/kg of seeds, or carbendazim at
2.0 gram/kg of seeds.
Rust
Wherever the gramme crop is grown, this disease is prevalent. The
Mediterranean area, Southeastern Europe, Southern Asia, including India,
eastern Africa, and Mexico are all regions where rust is common. Although
it frequently occurs in Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Bihar, and Best Bengal, it is
not considered significant because it arrives late in the growing season, when
the crop is mature.
Symptoms
Small oval, brown, powdery lesions on both sides of leaves, more so on
the bottom surface, are the first signs to show. Rust pustules may cover the
entire leaf surface. Pustules frequently develop on the floral components,
pods and stem. Telia, which are black in colour, start to emerge on the leaves
later. It might be challenging to tell the telia from the uredia. Unknown are
the pycnial and aecial stages.
Page | 25
Causal organism
Uromyces ciceris: Arietini, which belongs to the kingdom fungi,
phylum basidiomycota, subphylum pucciniomycotina, class
pucciniomycetes, order pucciniales, and family pucciniaceae, is the pathogen
that causes this illness. and created uredospores and teliospores, two
different types of spores. The brownish yellow uredospores are round,
loosely echinulated and contain 4-8 germ spores. The walls of teliospores are
rough, brown and warty. They are spherical to oval, single-celled, brown,
and have an unthickened apex. whereas uredospores sprout quickly.
Disease cycle
In order to live, the fungus replicates its uredial stage. During the
summer, the fungus is said to infect the legume weed Trigonella polycerata,
acting as the principal source of infection. Uredospores carried by the wind
cause the spread.
Control
1) Although it is hard to manage, sulphur dust may slow its spread.
2) It is advisable to seed resistant cultivars.
3) Remove the field's weed host.
4) Apply propiconazole (1 litre) or carbendazim (500 grammes per
hectare) on standing crops.
Collar rot
The illness is extremely prevalent in Bangladesh, Colombia, Egypt, and
Ethiopia-all of which are nations that farm chickpeas. Sudan, Pakistan,
Kenya, Mexico, Nepal, and India. The disease is widespread in the tropics,
subtropics, and regions with high temperatures, particularly in the southern
United States. Africa, India, Japan, the Philippines, Hawaii, Central and
South America and Africa the percentage of losses varies based on the stage
of the crop and ranges from 69 to 90%. Between 54.7 and 90 percent of
chickpea plants in India die from the collar rot disease.
Symptoms
The majority of the time, or up to six weeks after sowing, disease signs
appear, especially if the soil is moist. An symptom of the illness is dried
plants with somewhat yellowed leaves before they die and are dispersed
across the field. Plant seedlings becoming chlorotic. The stem-to-root
junction becomes mushy, somewhat shrinks, and starts to decompose.
Affected areas become brown and white. Sclerotia, or black spots that
Page | 26
resemble mustard seeds, are seen on the white affected plant portions.
Sclerotia resembling rape seeds can be visible, connected to mycelia strands
around the collar area, if afflicted seedlings are uprooted from damp soil
during earlier stages of infection. In the wild, affected seedlings often appear
in a few tiny, dispersed areas.
Causal organism
Sclerotium rolfsii (Saccardo) and Athelia rolfsii are the pathogens that
cause the illness (Curzi). The fungus belongs to the kingdom fungi, the
subphylum ascomycota, the class leotiomycetes, the order helotiales and the
family sclerotiniaceae. The mycelium is white to pale, plentiful, and grows
quickly. On oat meal agar, sclerotia are generated in 8–10 days. They are
tiny, light to dark brown, round to oval, and typically range in diameter from
0.5 to 1.0 mm.
Disease cycle
High soil moisture, a low soil pH, and high temperatures encourage it.
Undecomposed organic matter on the soil's surface as well as a lot of
moisture when seeds are sown and during the seedling stage. When a crop is
planted early or after rice, the incidence of disease is higher.
Infected soil attacks germinating seeds in the pre-emergence phase, and
seedlings and plants become infected in the collar area during the post-
emergence phase. This causes a primary infection, and a secondary infection
happens the same season through mycelium or germinating sclerotia.
Low soil pH, undecomposed organic matter at the soil surface, high soil
moisture content, and temperatures between 28 and 300 C all encourage the
development of disease. Particularly in farming systems that rely on paddy
and chickpeas, this disease is particularly severe at the seedling stage.
Control
1) Deep ploughing has to be done in the summer.
2) Prevent sowing during periods of excessive wetness.
3) Excessive wetness should be kept away from seedlings.
4) After harvest and before sowing, removed all weeds and crop
leftovers.
5) Host resistance against collar rot appears to be difficult to achieve,
however cultivars SAKI 9516 and breeding lines RSG 130, 132,
and 191 have tolerance for this disease.
Page | 27
6) Combine crops of sorghum. Exudates from the sorghum root are
proven to be efficient against S. rolfsii.
7) Before preparing the soil, any undecomposed materials should be
removed from the field.
8) Seed treatment with a carbendazim + thiram (1:1) combination at a
rate of 2 grammes per kilogramme of seed.
Alternaria blight
Alternaria blight is a both seed and soil borne disease considered serious
in parts of Bangladesh and India.
Symptoms
Older leaves show the first signs of the disease. The disease's most
noticeable signs are the podding of lower leaves and lower leaf sheathing.
Typically, leaves were the site of serious infection. Lesions on leaflets are
first water-soaked, tiny, round, and purple in colour. These lesions have
unclear edges and are surrounded by chlorotic tissues. These lesions tan to a
dark brown colour. When there is a lot of humidity, they congregate, cover
the entire leaf, and quickly wilt the individual leaflets. The elongated, dark to
black blemishes on the stems. The infections are randomly dispersed, round,
and somewhat sunken. Pods that are harmed turn nasty black. The lesions
remain as little, isolated black superficial specks on ripe pods. Shrunken
seeds indicate infection. When the weather is good, the whole foliage can
die.
Causal organism
Alternaria alternata, which causes this illness, is a member of the
Kingdom of Fungi, Phylum of Ascomycota, Class of Dothideomycetes,
Order of Pleosporales and Family of Pleosporaceae. Conidiophores grow
apart from the substrate and develop bushy heads with 4-8 long catenate
conidia chains. These range in colour from light brown to olive brown.
Obclavate to obpyriform, with a small conical beak at the tip, conidia are
pale brown to light brown in colour. Conidia create branching and lengthy
chains of more than 5 conidia and have vertical and transverse septa.
Disease cycle
When the crop has developed its full canopy, during the blooming and
podding stages, Ascochyta blight first manifests itself. This disease can grow
under favourable weather conditions along with ascochyta blight and botrytis
grey mould and all three diseases can coexist.
Page | 28
Control
1) Crops ought to be planted late.
2) Making use of greater space.
3) Linseed intercropping.
4) Refrain from overwatering and vegetative growth.
5) Use fertiliser sparingly.
6) Making use of compact variations.
7) Thiram seed treatment at 3 grammes per kilogramme of seed.
8) Foliar application of thiram, carbendazim, or vinclozolin.
Stunt disease
It is a complicated illness of the chickpea that is brought on by several
viruses. In India, chickpea stunt disease is mostly linked to luteovirus and the
chickpea chromatic dwarf virus. The illness is one of the most harmful to
chickpeas and is widespread around the world. This pathogen caused a
decrease in crop production of 58.7-89.0%. The prevalence of the condition
ranges from 15% to 90%.
Symptoms
Plants that are affected have short internodes and are bushy and stunted.
The leaflets are smaller and discoloured in shades of yellow, orange, or
brown. The stem has dark discolouration as well. The plants dry up too soon.
If they do, a very tiny number of pods are created. The most distinctive sign
of the stunt is browning of the phloem at the collar while the xylem remains
normal.
Causal organism
In India, chickpea stunt disease is mostly linked to the luteoviruses
Chickpea Stunt Disease Virus (CpSdaV) and Chickpea Chlorotic Dwarf
Virus (CCDV). In India, this illness has also been linked to other
luteoviruses such the barley yellow dwarf virus and the potato leaf roll virus
(PLRV). In Iran, the pea leaf roll virus is widespread. In the United States,
viruses like the soybean dwarf virus and the subterranean clover red leaf
virus are also frequent.
Luteoviruses have positive polarity, ssRNA, isometric, 24 nm-sized
particles and a 6 kb-sized genome. Only the phloem tissues can contain
them. 26-28 kDa, single coat protein. Geminiviruses have a 2.9 kb genome,
are geminate, and are 15 × 25 nm in size. a single 32 kDa coat protein. The
Page | 29
24.2 kDa CpSDaV viral protein is also present in BLRV-23 kDa, BWYV-56,
and 24 kDa.
Transmission
Luteovirus, Geminivirus, and BYWV are not seed-borne viruses and
cannot be spread mechanically. Aphids (Aphis craccivora) and grafts can
both spread the CpSDaV virus. Aphids (Acyrthosiphon pisum and Myzus
persicae) and graft transmission are the two main ways that BLRV and
BWYV are spread. All of the aphid vectors mentioned above persistently
transmit the viruses, but they do not spread. The leaf hopper (Orosius
orientalis) persistently spreads the CCDV but not in a proliferative way.
When insect vector populations are at their highest, the months of January
and February are when the illness manifests.
Control
1) Resistance cultivars like GG 669, ICCC 10, Pusa 244, Girnar,
Valai, and SAKI 9516 should be shown.
2) Crops ought to be planted early (Mid October).
3) Discard and eradicate the diseased crop plant.
4) In standing crops, apply Metasystox at a rate of 1.0 lit/ha two to
three times, separated by 10-15 days.
References
1. Agrios GN. Plant Pathology. 5th ed. Elsevier Academic Press, London,
2005.
2. Anonymous. Project coordinator’s report (Rabi crops). All India
Coordinated Research Project on chickpea. Indian Institute of Pulses
Research Kanpur 208 024, 2018.
3. DAC. Fourth advance estimates of production of Food grains for 2017-
18. Agricultural statistics division, Directorate of economics and
statistics, Department of agriculture and cooperation, Government of
India, New Delhi, 2018.
(http://eands.dacnet.nic.in/advance_estimate/3rd
advance_estimates_2017-18 (English.
4. Duve HC. An Introduction to Fung. 4th ed. Scientific Publishers, 5 A,
New Pali road, Jodhpur, India, 2017.
5. Haware MP, Donald D. Integrated Management of Botrytis Gray Mold.
Summary Proceedings of the BARI/ICRISAT Working Group Meeting
Page | 30
to Discuss Collaborative Research on Botrytis Gray Mold of Chickpea.
International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics
Patancheru, Andhra Pradesh 502 324, India, 1992.
6. Muehlbauer FJ, Cubero JL, Summerfield RJ. Lentil (Lens culinaris
Medik.). In Grain Legume Crops (Eds. Summerfield RJ and Roberts
EH). Collins, London, U.K., 1985, 266-311.
7. Sharma PD. Plant Pathology. Narosa Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., New
Delhi, 2006.
8. Singh KS, Singh D, Kumar A. Plant Diseases and Their Management.
IInd ed. Reprint. Kalyani Publishing Co., New Delhi, 2017.
9. Singh RP. Plant Pathology. 8th ed. Kalyani Publisher, New Delhi, 2008.
10. Singh RS. Plant Diseases. 8th ed. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co., New
Delhi, 2005.
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Page | 32
Chapter - 3
Mulching: A Technique to Increase the
Production of Groundnut and Conservation of
Resources under Changing Climatic Conditions
Authors
Anna Joy
Department of Agronomy, School of Agriculture, Lovely
Professional University, Phagwara, Jalandhar, Punjab, India
Vandna Chhabra
Department of Agronomy, School of Agriculture, Lovely
Professional University, Phagwara, Jalandhar, Punjab, India
Page | 33
Page | 34
Chapter - 3
Mulching: A Technique to Increase the Production of
Groundnut and Conservation of Resources under Changing
Climatic Conditions
Anna Joy and Vandna Chhabra
Abstract
Groundnut is a significant crop known for its diverse purposes including
oil production. It is essential to expand its production as it contributes towards
table purpose and oil production. Improving groundnut productivity by saving
valuable natural assets (water and soil), is a major concern. Climate change
has worsened the situation by making the land subject to soil disintegration,
increase in the temperature, and prolonged dry periods, along with which the
continuous expansion in population and decrease in land under groundnut
cultivation, prompted improper cultivation practices that devastated and erode
the soil. The need to increase production without adversely affecting the
environment has provoked a quest to find something that could prevent wind
and water erosion and it tends to be done through conservation farming
practices. Mulching soil with natural as well as inorganic materials better fills
this need. Mulches preserve soil moisture, control erosion, upgrade the
nutrient status of soil, weed control and eliminate the residual impacts of
chemical fertilizers and pesticides. This book chapter focuses on the various
significant impacts of mulches suitable under changing climatic conditions on
the production and establishment of groundnut.
Keywords: Groundnut, mulch, productivity, organic, inorganic
Introduction
Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea), is a legume crop native to South
America, Mexico, and Central America. It is otherwise called earthnuts,
peanuts, goobers, jack nuts, g-nuts, manila nuts and monkey nuts. Universally
Asia and Africa share around 95% of the cultivated region and 87% of
production due to their most reasonable agro-climatic condition for groundnut
development (FAO 2016). China is the largest producer and purchaser of
groundnut with 171.50 lakh tons followed by India with 91.79 lakh tons.
Page | 35
Groundnut ranks first in terms of area and second in terms of production in
India. As per the All India Rabi crop coverage report, Government of India in
December 2020, groundnut was sown in around 3.37 lakh hectares. With 1.28
lakh acres, Karnataka has the highest area coverage, followed by Telangana.
The peanut export from India surged to 1,90,000 tonnes in 2020 (PJTSAU
2020).
Groundnut is widely grown in the tropics and sub-tropics for its edible
seeds and as an oil crop due to its high oil content. It is a herbaceous plant that
grows to a height of 30 to 50 cm. The flowers are similar to flowers of a pea,
yellow colour with reddish veining after fertilization, the gynophore, a small
stalk at the base of the ovary, elongates to become a thread-like structure
known as the "peg". The peg will grow down to the soil and the fruit is
developed underground. Even at the time of pod development, the plant
continues to produce flowers.
To foster well, peanuts need a warm climate all through the developing
season. The optimal soil for growing groundnuts is light, sandy topsoil with a
pH of 5.9 to 7. It fixes nitrogen and further develops soil nutrient status.
Groundnut as a cover crop release nitrogen into the soil as the plant
decomposes. Groundnut cultivation permits around 2/3 of fixed nitrogen to be
left in the soil, which is accessible for the next year's crop. It fixes 72-77% of
nitrogen adding up to 150-200 kg N/ha. In this manner, they are important in
crop rotation. Groundnut is known as a self-preparing crop; however, it is an
exhaustive crop compared with other leguminous crops as the leftover crop
residues after its harvest are very low. (Varade and Urkude 1982) [1].
Groundnut seeds are predominant in saturated oil and protein. Its seeds
contain around 48.2% oil and 25% protein. The significance of consumable
oil in one's day-to-day diet has brought about the increased demand for
groundnut production. In addition to being used in dessert shops and the
pharmaceutical industry, the oil is used in cooking along with margarine and
vegetable ghee. As of now, the creation doesn't fulfil the interest and oil is
going imported from different countries. Hence, effort should be taken to
enhance groundnut productivity and improve the quality of the environment,
which prompted a search for materials to control wind and water erosion and
it can be done through conservation farming practices. Mulching can be
considered one of the best options.
Groundnut can be grown under different land configuration methods like
flatbed method, broad bed furrow, ridges and furrows and raised bed and
furrow and mulched with organic or plastic mulching as a better management
Page | 36
practice to enhance the growth and yield of groundnut over the conventional
method of cultivation (Li et al., 2010) [2].
Mulching
The word mulch is from the Germanic expression "mulch" and that
implies delicate to rot. Mulching is the practice of coating the land or soil with
mulch. Mulch is material that you spread over the ground as a cover, to make
better conditions for plant development and its better foundation. Mulches are
additionally utilized for weed control. Mulches have been utilized for a long
time to control weed growth with crops by covering the soil with a material
that restricts the sunlight for weed seed germination and keeps them dormant
(Morgan 1989) [3].
Although there are many other types of mulch materials, including
normal, manufactured, petroleum, ordinary, inorganic and natural mulches,
they are typically divided into two categories: organic and inorganic.
Organic mulches
Mulch material can be easily broken down by microorganisms present in
the soil through the course of decomposition. Organic mulch adds
supplements to the soil and increases soil fertility. Natural materials can
decompose normally like rural waste, for example, wheat and paddy straw,
grass clippings, bark chips, sawdust, rice hulls, etc. It rots over the long run
and increases the water-holding limit of the soil (Unger, 1974) [4]. As it
decomposes, it also releases nutrients into the soil. Indirectly, it raises water
use efficiency even further. A mulched layer prevents weed development by
preventing light from penetrating the soil surface, (Ossom et al., 2021) [5].
Some of the common organic mulches are:
a) Grass clipping
Fresh or dried grass trimming is utilized as mulch material. Fresh grass
clippings are not utilized in the rainy season since there is a chance for the
development of its underground roots which will be destructive to the growth
and development of the crop, while it has the advantage of cooling the root
zone, saving moisture, and adding back up to 25% of nutrients that the crops
remove from the soil. Lay new grass clippings in a layer of 6 mm thick. This
will permit the grass to decay before it starts to smell or spoil.
Studies conducted on cauliflower with grass-clippings as mulch material
brought about increased yield and reduced harm by root maggots (Hellqvist.,
2008) [6].
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b) Dry leaves
Dry leaves as mulch decompose rapidly and shred without any problem.
Dry leaves are easily and widely available and they make excellent mulch
when they break down into compost. We can likewise utilize leaves after the
season that has been moist and forming into leafmould as these partially
deteriorate. To limit, the blowing of dry leaves by the action of wind, branches
and wood barks are kept on top of the mulch of dried leaves. To involve it as
mulch, spread them at a rate of 3-4 inches around the crops.
c) Cardboard and Newspaper mulch
All types of cardboard and paper mulches can be used except shiny cards
that take a longer time to break down. In fields where weeds have already
sprouted from last season, paper mulch can significantly reduce the amount of
time and labour required. However, avoid it in high windy areas, so the edges
should be pasted with heavy materials like pebbles and gravel to protect them
from blowing. Also, avoid the leaching of ink from printed and glossy papers.
The research was conducted to compare two mulches, newspaper, and
black plastic, to determine the impacts of mulches on soil temperature, soil
moisture and weed growth. The result showed newspaper sheets had lower
soil temperature and higher soil moisture than black plastic (Read., 2013) [7].
What we can go for:
 Uncoloured or white plain paper.
 Newspaper.
 Cardboard that is non-shiny and coloured (especially corrugated
cardboard).
 Books, but without glossy covers or covers.
 Kitchen paper and tissue.
d) Bark
Bark mulches are best. These are excellent mulch materials because they
retain more moisture, hold it for longer periods, and help to supply growing
crops with moisture.
There are two different types of bark mulch: Hardwood and softwood.
Utilized around trees, bushes, and nursery beds where we will not be doing a
lot of digging.
1) Bark (Hardwood): It is a result of the paper and wood enterprises
that can be reused as mulch. These are one of the normal mulches
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utilized in wide-open plantings. Hardwood bark contains a greater
amount of nutrients compared with softwood bark; however, they are
not effectively accessible and have a slightly basic pH.
2) Softwood bark: Softwood barks are more difficult to decay
compared with hardwood barks. It has acidic pH. These barks are
accessible in different sizes which fit numerous countryside
necessities. It is applied at a depth of 2-4 inches.
An experiment conducted with bark as mulch in gladiolus by covering the
soil with 5 cm thickness after bulb planting resulted in increased growth of
gladiolus plant, suppress weed growth and increases the bulb crop
(Grzeszkiewicz et al., 1978) [8].
e) Straw
The primary key to involving straw as mulch is in tracking down the right
kind of straw mulch. Some straw mulches are mixed with hay containing weed
seeds that can sprout in the field. In vegetable fields, straw is utilised as
summer mulch and winter protection. These mulches offer excellent weed
control, water penetration, and insulation. Straw mulches shouldn't be used in
high-traffic areas because they tend to catch fire. The straw mulching is
roughly 6 to 8 inches thick.
Straw mulch
A field trial was performed on Kharif groundnut to investigate the effect
of mulches, land layout and nutrient management. Mulching with wheat straw
and plastic seems beneficial for growth and yield. A 16.8% increase in pod
yield and 13.8% in haulm yield were recorded in-furrow and bed method over
other land layouts. Various growth and yield attributes improved under
nutrient management with 100% recommended dose of fertilizer + IBA @
50ppm + urea 1% (Mathukia et al., 2014) [9].
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An experiment was conducted with three different mulching materials,
polythene, rice straw and chemical, to study its impact on groundnut growth
and yield and to explore the eco-friendly and economically feasible mulching
option. The results showed that polythene and straw mulch was successful in
reducing weed infestation. The effects of these three mulches on soil moisture,
soil temperature, pod yield, and weed infestation have all been carefully
monitored. Groundnut grown under these two mulches seems to be tall and
vigorous and reached early flowering (Akkinapally et al., 2006) [10].
Studies on how mulching with straw affects soil temperature and
evaporation losses, in the yield of winter wheat showed that the presence of
straw on the soil had an impact on air temperature and the dew point
temperature close to the soil surface, but had minimal effect on relative
humidity when compared to fields that were not mulched. It also showed a rise
in sensible heat flow during the summer. Chen et al. (2007) [11].
f) Water hyacinth mulch
Eichhornia crassipes, known as water hyacinth, is regarded as the worst
aquatic weed in the world with broad, thick, glossy, ovate leaves and floating
using buoyant bulb-like nodules at its base above the surface of the water. It
has significant negative impacts on the ecosystem and its services. As a
method of controlling its population, it can be used as mulch too.
Studies were conducted at Kerala Agricultural University with water
hyacinth as mulch material applied at a rate of 15 tonnes per hectare at the
time of planting and repeated after 50 days. It resulted in improved growth of
turmeric growth throughout the crop growth period, it also showed increased
height, and the number of leaves per plant and enhance nutrient uptake
capacity by the plant. (Indulekha et al., 2018) [12].
g) Sawdust
The leftovers of woodworking like sowing, sanding and milling, known
as straw have fewer nutritional benefits and contain only 50% as many
nutrients as straw. The decay occurs at a very late time because of the high C:
N ratio. Its decomposition will result in a nitrogen shortage in the soil, as it
requires nitrogen to break down, so the application of fertilizers on regular
basis is essential. It is acidic, making it a decent mulch decision for acid-loving
plants. However, it stays moist for longer periods. Sawdust is to be spread at
a depth of 1 to 1.5 inches, taking into consideration not to heap it up around
the trunks of trees, as it can encourage decay.
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A three-year field experiment to test the impact of pine sawdust on crop
growth revealed a significant increase in crop yields due to an increase in
water availability and a decrease in soil temperature when compared to the
unmulched plots. (Whiter et al., 1959) [13].
Some other types of Organic Mulch.
h) Alfalfa
Alfalfa hay is an incredible type of mulching material that is harvested
before it begins to develop seeds. Since it is durable and high in nitrogen, it is
particularly nutritive for the soil when used as a mulch. Additionally, its leaves
release nutrients when they decay.
i) Cocoa bean hulls
Cocoa bean mulch is the material abandoned after cocoa beans have been
roasted. The process of roasting makes the cocoa hull mulch more harmless to
the ecosystem. Incorporation of cocoa bean mulch in the field includes a
cautious application, as the shells can be abrasive. It works well as mulch to
improve soil fertility. It contains essential nutrients including nitrogen,
phosphate and potash, which are all necessary. At a pH of 5.8, it is acidic.
Because of its beautiful scent and pleasing appearance, it is used in
landscaping.
Studies conducted to evaluate the weed-control effect of spruce bark with
cocoa husk mulch for a duration of 3 months with various thicknesses showed
that the cocoa mulch was superior in controlling the weed population (Arentoft
et al., 2013) [14].
j) Seaweed
Seaweeds make a great mulch when it is it is newly collected from the sea
and contributes minerals to the soil. While mulching with seaweeds, it is
recommended to apply thickly, as it will diminish immediately as the moisture
evaporates. Before applying in the field seaweed should be splashed with
freshwater to limit bringing the salt to the crop field.
k) Corncobs
It is another cheap mulch material. Ground corn cobs are profoundly
impervious to compaction, so the mulch stays free regardless of whether the
field gets a lot of foot imprinted by people. Corn cob mulch is heatproof and
highly combustible mulch. It has a strong odour; therefore, it is recommended
to be used after a year.
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l) Compost (Mushroom)
It is a natural fertilizer accessible in the regions where the mushroom is
cultivated commercially. It builds soil fertility because of its nutrient value.
This sort of fertilizer expands the water-holding capacity of the soil. Peanut
hulls are a decent mulch obtained from nut processing factories. These are the
natural mulches that are used in fields as a material for mulch. Additionally,
farmers utilize the other crop leftovers accessible in the field as mulch.
Advantages of organic mulching
 Organic mulches break down over the long run and support the soil
and plants. It preserves soil and water and helps in weed control.
 Organic mulches are better compared to inorganic mulches, as over
the long run it gradually disintegrates and delivers nutrients.
 Organic mulches hold moisture in the soil and keep the soil cool.
 It works on soil's chemical, physical, and biological properties. As
the organic mulch gradually decays, it increases the organic matter
content in the soil, which prevents soil compaction.
 Organic mulches increase the organic carbon in the soil, which aids
in root development and nutrient uptake from the deep soil layers.
Additionally, it improves the soil's ability to hold water and enhances
water infiltration.
 Organic mulches suppress weed germination, as they don't get the
light that is required for its development.
Disadvantages of organic mulching
 Organic mulches like straw mulch may contain weed seeds that can
introduce new weeds to the field.
 Organic mulches prevent the soil from drying out enough, which
prevents oxygen from reaching the soil's root zone.
 If mulch is placed near the stem, the moisture that is contained creates
an environment that is favourable for the growth of pests and
diseases.
 Organic mulches are easily biodegradable which makes them unfit to
use for a longer period.
Inorganic mulches
Inorganic mulches consist of synthetic materials- plastic, stones, rocks,
fabrics, etc. These are generally used because the materials don’t decompose
after some time. Thus, replacement costs are reduced.
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Plastic mulch
Plastic mulch uses polythene film to safeguard plants. When compared
with other mulches materials plastic mulches are not permeable to water;
accordingly, keeping direct evaporation of moisture from the soil and hence
restricting the water losses and disintegration of soil over the surface.
Likewise, it plays a positive role in the conservation of water.
Summer groundnuts cultivated under acid laterite soil showed a
significant increase in the growth, yield, and other yield components under
polythene film mulching, followed by rice straw mulching. Paired-row bed
furrow planting method is observed to be the best method of planting for better
yield (Dutta 2004) [15].
Black polythene mulch

In the experiment conducted on groundnut, higher growth and yield
attributes are observed under, raised bed and furrow system with polythene
mulch. An increase in height of the plant and a greater number of branches per
plant are the main growth attributes, it also resulted in more pods per plant and
shelling percentage. Polythene sheet of 7-micron thickness is used which helps
in preventing direct evaporation and remains completely impermeable to
water. It also created favourable micro-climate conditions for groundnut and
it reduced the crop weed competition due to the complete coverage of the field.
A higher benefit-cost ratio of 2.25 over other combinations was also obtained
(Hussainy, 2020) [16].
Type of plastic mulches
A wide range of polymers is utilized for mulching. Low-Density Poly
Ethylene (LDPE), High-Density Poly Ethylene (HDPE) and flexible PVC
have been utilized. By taking into consideration its permeability to longwave
Page | 43
radiation which can build the temperature around plants, polyethene is
preferred over other plastic mulches during the nighttime. Today most plastic
mulch is based on Linear Low-Density Polyethylene (LLDPE) because it is
more economic and affordable.
Important characteristics of plastic film
a) Thickness
Normally the film thickness doesn't influence the effect of mulch, unless
when it is utilized for solarisation. Earlier the mulch film used for mulching
was of thickness 60-75-micron (240-300 check) thickness, it is feasible to
have 15-micron thick film these days because of the appearance of film
extrusion technology.
b) Width
The mulching width depends on the row-row spacing of crops. Usually,
the width of the film which can be used for mulching under different
conditions is size 1-1.5-meter.
c) Perforations
Perforations are important as they prevent the stagnation of water around
plants. At the same time, its disadvantage is it encourages weed growth.
d) Colour of mulch
Researchers suggest that mulch in different colours is used to achieve
different results. Among all the other coloured mulches black polythene mulch
is widely used and the least expensive. Other coloured plastic mulches are the
colours blue, green, red, brown, etc.
The colour of mulches affects various factors of soil including the
temperature of the soil, acidity, basicity of soil and temperature of the air
around the plants.
A field experiment conducted to evaluate the effect of coloured plastic
films on the control of weeds, soil moisture, temperature and pod yield of
groundnut showed the coloured PE(Polyethylene) films showed effective
weed control compared with Clear Film (CF), while Black Film (BF) had
better weed control effect than compared with Clear Film, the pod yields with
black-clear-black colour-matching film (BCF), silver-grey film (SF) and black
film (BF), were significantly increased (Sun et al., 2015) [17].
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Silver grey mulch
Mulch laying techniques
 Mulch should be laid in condition with low wind velocity.
 The mulch material should be held tight on the ground.
 The mulch borders, which are about 10 cm on both sides, should be
anchored at a 45° angle and 7-10 cm deep in little furrows in the soil.
Advantages of plastic mulches
 Plastic mulches are not permeable to water.
 It can prevent the loss of plant nutrients through leaching.
 It hinders direct evaporation from the surface of the soil, thus
conserving moisture and giving a cooling effect.
 Plastic mulches act as a barrier to pathogens and certain insects.
 Opaque mulches prevent weed germination and its establishment.
 It has a major role in the soil solarization process, by covering the
soil with polythene mulch.
 Mulches create a microclimatic with a higher concentration of
carbon-di-oxide underside of the sheet, because of the greater level
of microbial activity.
Disadvantages of plastic mulches
 Plastic mulches are costly, compared to organic mulches.
 Plastic mulches cover the soil around the crop, making it difficult to
apply top-dressed fertilizer.
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 Runoff loss is more under plastic mulching.
 Machinery operations are difficult under plastic mulch.
 It causes environmental pollution.
 Toxic to livestock, as they may feed on it along with fodder.
 Chance of weed penetration with thin films.
Mulching for resource conservation
Change in climate like increasing temperature and prolonged dry spells
has a negative impact on natural resources as it causes soil degradation and
loss of fertile topsoil. Mulching is an important and reliable agricultural
practice for natural resource conservation, which can be adopted by
commercial and even small farmers. Farmers started to adopt various
mulching techniques to improve the quality of soil and to protect the soil,
which is deteriorated by the effect of climate change.
Studies were conducted to analyse the impact of mulch on soil properties
and the groundnut yield by taking the temperature and mulches as factors,
which showed that using sawdust and straw as mulch maintained higher pH
values than others. The highest Electric Conductivity and water retention
capacity were reported with coir mulch. The yield of groundnut is obtained
without a significant reduction by the application of adequate water without
water stress along with coir dust mulch (Aiome et al., 2014) [18].
A field experiment conducted to study, mulching, in the wake of climate
change, as a mitigating agricultural technology against soil degradation with
different organic mulch materials. The runoff and sediments from the
controlled and treated plot were collected and analysed for total sediments,
total runoff, and nutrient content, the result showed that all the mulches
contributed to lowering soil nutrient and nutrient losses, especially coconut
leaves followed by banana leaves. It also acts as a mechanical barrier to
raindrops on soil aggregates, increases water infiltration, enhances soil
microbial activity, etc. (Lalljee., 2013) [19].
Mulching in groundnut
Groundnut as a cover crop can protect soil, increase organic matter,
improves soil structure, and increases the nutrient holding capacity of the soil
and moisture content, although the application of mulch in groundnut resulted
in increased growth, yield attributes and yield of groundnut eventually
increasing monetary return from the system.
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Case study-1
An experiment was conducted on mulching with plastic film in groundnut
at Aliyarnagar Research Station. The film was LLDPE black with a thickness
of 15 microns (T1), 20 microns (T2), 25 microns (T3), coir pith at the rate of
20 t/ha (T4), and the fifth plot as control (T5). Each plot is of the size 2m x
1m and experiments were replicated four times. For sampling, 5 plants in each
of the experimental plots were considered for root length on the 60th day. The
crop was harvested on the 110th day of sowing. Parameters like soil moisture,
soil temperature, germination; weed, root, and yield were observed.
Higher pod yield is observed at mulching with 15-micron LLDPE film
due to better moisture conservation, and weed control compared to coir pith
mulch and control. The result also concludes that the thickness of the film did
not matter much in moisture conservation.
Case study-2
An experiment was conducted at the research and experimental farm,
Department of Soil and Water Engineering, Junagadh Agricultural University,
on mulching in groundnut with different types of mulches like plastic,
biodegradable, and wheat straw mulch. All these mulches contributed
differently to the growth and yield attributes of groundnut. The height of plants
grown under normal plastic mulch was maximum, the number of pods per
plant and weight of pod per plant was highest in biodegradable plastic mulch
and the yield of pods recorded highest for both normal and biodegradable
plastic mulch. The soil surface temperature was recorded highest for plastic
mulch (Trivedi et al., 2016) [20].
Case study-3
A field trial was conducted for three consecutive Kharif seasons from
2011-to 2013 at the Agricultural Research farm of the Directorate of
Groundnut Research on mulching and fertigation treatments carried out during
Kharif groundnut showed mulching with polythene as best over other
treatments. Enhanced kernel and pod yield, higher water productivity, partial
factor productivity, soil moisture content, net return, and higher N, P, and K
uptake are observed under polythene mulch. Drip fertigation with 75% RDF
(Recommended Dose of Fertilizer) showed enhancement in Phosphorus
uptake, productivity and profitability of groundnut (Jain et al., 2018) [21].
Conclusion
From all of the above information collected and analysed, the application
of mulch in groundnut resulted in increased growth, yield attributes and yield
Page | 47
of groundnut eventually increasing monetary return from the system. Types
of mulches and how these mulches increase the yield of groundnut and how it
helps in natural resource conservation under changing climatic conditions are
well discussed in this book chapter. Organic and inorganic materials such as
mulch materials have contributed to groundnut growth and yield. In the light
of various research papers studied inorganic (polythene) mulching resulted in
remarkably higher yield compared with organic mulch.
References
1. Varade PA, Urkude DK. Response of groundnut to sources and levels of
potassium. Indian Potash J. 1982;7(1):2-5.
2. Li QQ, Zhou XB, Chen YH, Yu SL. Seed yield and quality of winter
wheat in different planting patterns under deficit irrigation regimes. Plant,
Soil and Environ. 2010;56:482-87.
3. Morgan WC. Alternatives to herbicides. Plant Prot. Quart. 1989;4:33-37.
4. Unger P. Crop residue management. Proceedings. 1974;15:45-56.
5. Ossom EM, Pace PF, Rhykerd RL, Rhykerd CL. Effect of mulch on weed
infestation, soil temperature, nutrient concentration and tuber yield in
Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam. In Papua New Guinea. Trop. Agric.
(Trinidad). 2001;78:144-151.
6. Hellqvist S. Mulching with grass‐clippings in cauliflower: Effects on
yield and brassica root flies (Delia spp.). International Journal of Pest
Management, 2008, 42.
7. Read NA. Plant Residues and Newspaper Mulch Effects on Weed
Emergence and Collard Performance [Master's thesis, Ohio State
University]. Ohio LINK Electronic Theses and Dissertations Centre,
2013.
8. Grzeszkiewicz H. The Effect of Using Composted Pine Bark for
Mulching on Growth Flowering and Crops of Gladiolus/Gladiolus x
Hybridus grandifloras. Acta Hortic. 1978;82:37-42.
9. Mthukia RK, Panara DM, Patel KC, Mathukia PR. Response of Kharif
Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) to land layouts, mulches and nutrient
management. Innoriginal International Journal of Sciences, 2014, I(1).
10. Ramakrishna A, Tam MH, Wani SP, Long TD. Effect of mulch on Soil
temperature, moisture, weed infestation and yield of groundnut in
Northern Vietnam. Field Crops Research. 2006;95:115-125.
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11. Chen SY, Zhang XY, Pei D, Sun HY, Chen SLZ, Pei Sun. Effects of straw
mulching on soil temperature, evaporation and yield of winter wheat:
field experiments on the North China Plain. Annls. Appl. Biol., 2007,
150(3).
12. Indulekha VP, Thomas CG. Utilization of water hyacinth as mulch in
turmeric. Journal of Tropical Agriculture. 2018;56(1):27-33.
13. Whiter AW, Giddens JE, Morris HD. The Effect of Sawdust on crop
growth and Physical and Biological Properties of Cecil Soil. Soil Science
Society Soil, 1959, 23(5).
14. Arentoft BW, Ali A, Streibig JC, Andreasen C. A new method to evaluate
the weed-suppressing effect of mulches: a comparison between spruce
bark and cocoa husk mulches. Weed Research, 2013, 53(3).
15. Dutta D. Studies on the effect of planting methods and mulch on summer
groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L). Internat. J Agric. Sci., 2006, 2(2).
16. Hussainy S. Effect of land configuration and mulching on growth, yield
and Economics of groundnut (Arachis hypogaea). Res. on Crops.
2020;21(2):226-230.
17. Sun T, Zhang Z, Ning T, Mi Q, Zhang X, Zhang S, et al. Coloured
polythene film mulches on weed control, soil conditions and peanut yield.
Plant Soil Environ. 2015;61(2):79-85.
18. Aiome GVN, De Silva CS. Effect of mulch on soil properties and yield
of groundnut plants exposed to temperature stress. Conference: Annual
Academic Sessions, 2014, 1-4. ISBN 2012-9912.
19. Lalljee B. Mulching as a mitigation agricultural technology against land
degradation in wake of climate change. International Soil and Water
Conservation Research. 2013;1(3):68-74.
20. Trivedi KR, Gupta RA. Study on the use of mulches in summer
Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) production. AGRES-An International e-
Journal. 2016;5(4):398-405.
21. Jain NK, Jat RA, Yadav RS, Bhaduri, Meena HN. Polythene mulching
and fertigation in peanut (Arachis hypogaea): Effect on crop productivity,
quality, water productivity and economic profitability. Indian Journal of
Agricultural Sciences. 2018;88(8):1168-78.
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23. https://www.familyfoodgarden.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/Using-
weeds-as-free-garden-mulch.jpg.
24. https://tse1.mm.bing.net/th?id=OIP.Bx2PihK8cxUSwmcuCAJObAHaE
K&pid=Api&P=0&w=276&h=155.
25. https://www.agrifarming.in/
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Chapter - 4
Bioremediation: A Remedy for Contaminated
Soil for Sustainability and Environmental
Stability
Authors
Madhumonti Naskar
Ph.D. Research Scholar, Department of Agricultural Chemistry
and Soil Science, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya,
Mohanpur, Nadia, West Bengal, India
Abir Choudhury
Titas Sarkar
Samayita Basu
Dr. Sidhu Murmu
Assistant Professor, Department of Agricultural Chemistry and
Soil Science, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya,
Page | 51
Page | 52
Chapter - 4
Bioremediation: A Remedy for Contaminated Soil for
Sustainability and Environmental Stability
Madhumonti Naskar, Abir Choudhury, Titas Sarkar, Samayita Basu and
Dr. Sidhu Murmu
Abstract
The life on earth is inevitably related with the quality of environment.
Population growth and development of high-density urban populations
parallel with global industrialization have become a major threat to
environmental sustainability. Environmental pollution with heavy metals
causes several hazards in human health. As an alternative to or in conjunction
with physical or chemical treatment approaches, the use of bioremediation as
a biotechnological technique for soil remediation has gained popularity.
Several distinct engineering configurations can be used to perform soil
bioremediation processes, from in situ subsurface (unexcavated) processes to
application of fully mixed soil slurry reactor systems for treatment of
excavated soils. Ex situ bioremediation methods are often evaluated based on
the following factors: cost of treatment, depth of contamination, kind of
contamination, degree of contamination, location, and geology of the
contaminated site. Ex-situ bioremediation can be classified into several
categories like biopiles, windrows, bioreactor, landfarming etc. whereas in situ
bioremediation can be divided into two broad classes i.e. enhanced
bioremediation and intrinsic bioremediation. Enhanced bioremediation
involves the introduction of particular microbes to a contaminated area. It
contains different methods like Bioslurping, Bioventing, Biosparing,
Phytoremediation. Intrinsic Bioremediation is an in-situ bioremediation
process that includes passive remediation of contaminated places without the
need of any outside force (human intervention). Bioremediation is a very
profitable and alluring alternative for the purpose of cleaning up, maintaining,
and recovering a contaminated environment through microbial activity. It
takes very little work and can be periodically performed on site without
interfering with normal microbial activities. Additionally, this eliminates any
potential risks to the environment and human health by transporting garbage
Page | 53
off-site. Due to their organic place in the ecosystem, they are easy, less labour-
intensive and inexpensive. On the other hand, some of the novel
biodegradation products may be more harmful than the original chemicals and
remain in the environment. Contaminants can exist in the form of solids,
liquids, or gases. It frequently requires more time than other treatment options
including excavation, soil removal, or cremation. Hence proper investigation
must be made before successful implementation of this technology in any
environmental niche.
Keywords: Phytoremediation, bio-remediation, bio-venting, bio-piling, land-
farming, bio-sparing, phyto-volatilization, phytoextraction
1. Introduction
The life on earth is inevitably related with the quality of environment.
Population growth and development of high-density urban populations
parallel with global industrialization become a major threat to environmental
sustainability. This causes the increase of chemical and biological
contaminants throughout the biosphere especially in soil and sediments.
Environmental contamination is one of the most important factors for
environmental degradation. Heavy metals play an important role in
environmental degradation. Environmental pollution with heavy metals
causes several hazards in human health. Excessive use of chemicals and
synthetic fertilizers causes serious issues in environment and also adverse
effect on human health. Direct exposure to numerous environmental
contaminants cause serious health problems like: inhalation of particulate
matter, ingestion, direct contact, ingestion through food chain.
There are a number of techniques now in use to rid the environment of
these types of toxins, but the majority of them are expensive and fall short of
their potential. Chemical and thermal procedures are expensive and
technically challenging and they all have the potential to destroy soils'
valuable components. Chemical technologies also produce enormous volumes
of sludge and raise expenses. If at all possible, entirely destroying the
pollutants or at the very least turning them into harmless chemicals is a better
strategy than these conventional procedures.
According to a general definition, sustainable remediation is any
remediation method or set of remediation methods whose net benefit to human
health and the environment is increased via the prudent use of finite resources.
It becomes instinctual to adopt environmentally beneficial remediation
strategies that are sustainable in order to achieve this. To the greatest extent
possible, approaches include reducing or stopping the use of energy or other
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natural resources, minimising or stopping releases into the environment,
especially into the air, simulating or harnessing a natural process, reusing or
recycling unwanted materials and/or promoting the use of technologies that
permanently destroy contaminants.
As an alternative to or in conjunction with physical or chemical treatment
approaches, the use of bioremediation as a biotechnological technique for soil
remediation has gained popularity. The use of microbial metabolic potential
(bioremediation) is recognised as an effective and cost-effective method for
cleaning up polluted environment. Several distinct engineering configurations
can be used to perform soil bioremediation processes, from in situ subsurface
(unexcavated) processes to application of fully mixed soil slurry reactor
systems for treatment of excavated soils. In order to effectively remove
pollutants from the environment, a rapidly expanding and promising
collection of remediation procedures called bioremediation is being explored
and put to use.
2. Major environmental contaminants
Chemical and biological wastes, which can build up in soil or spread
through it as a result of population growth and industrial activity, are the two
main categories of environmental toxins. Since most environmental issues can
be linked to one or more of the following, either directly or indirectly, the
following subheadings can be used to group environmental issues: Production
of garbage (sewage, wastewater, kitchen waste, industrial waste, effluents,
agricultural waste, and food waste) and usage of chemicals (insecticides,
pesticides, chemical fertilisers, toxic goods, and by-products from chemical
industries) for a variety of objectives. The production of waste is a by-product
of both consumption and production, and it tends to rise with economic
development.
2.1 Chemical contaminants
Heavy metals, which are frequently hazardous to human and animal
health, have unintentionally contaminated soil and other media as a result of
industrial activity. Traditionally, heavy metals are described as having an
atomic number >20 and possessing metallic characteristics. Metals are typical
soil constituents by nature. Metals can, however, be hazardous to plants,
animals, and bacteria in high concentrations. The eight heavy metals that are
most prevalent and significant environmental contaminants are As, Sr, Cs, U,
Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Pb and Zn. Heavy metal contamination in the food chain needs
special consideration since heavy metals have negative impacts on human
health. Even at very low concentrations, many heavy metals and metalloids
are poisonous and can have unfavourable impacts and serious issues.
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A further environmental risk is the contamination of soil and solid wastes
with high activity radionuclides including 235U, 99Tc and 241pU, which have
the potential to be radiotoxic to all life forms [1]. Cancer is the condition most
frequently associated to radiation exposure. It has developed over time and
now represents a serious threat to world health. Leukaemia, anaemia,
haemorrhage, a shortening of life expectancy that causes premature ageing
and mortality, as well as other consequences including cardiovascular disease,
are some others. For instance, radiation damages the bone marrow and results
in leukaemia. Radioactive contamination can have a number of effects on cell
modification. The bodies of living things are special because they include
millions of cells, each of which has a specific job to do.
The high quantities of inorganic fertilizer-related chemicals that have
been added to the soil, such as ammonia, nitrates, phosphates, and
phosphonates, should also be mentioned because they can build up and
contaminate our waterways through runoff or our airways through
volatilization. Though chemical fertilisers boost agricultural output, their
excessive usage has hardened the soil, lowered fertility, enhanced insecticides,
polluted the air and water, generated greenhouse gases, and caused other
environmental and health risks. The vital soil nutrients and minerals that are
naturally present in productive soil are depleted over time by the constant use
of these chemical fertilisers. Chemical fertilisers will eventually leak into our
water bodies, including ponds, streams, and ground water, contaminating our
water supply and creating a greater harm to the environment, wildlife, and
people's health. As a result, both people and animals may experience
numerous hazardous chemical effects on their body and health over the short
and long terms.
2.2 Biological contaminants
Biological wastes, which include raw and digested sewage (bio-solids),
raw and digested animal manures, and vegetable wastes, are a second type of
waste that poses a harm to the environment. Although these biological wastes
have historically been recycled into soil for agricultural benefits, growing
urbanisation and the ongoing growth of cities necessitate that these materials
be transported across ever-greater distances for application to farmland.
The possibility of infectious disease transmission when diseased
materials are applied to soil is another issue connected to biological wastes.
The recent appearance of well-known infectious disorders, like the prion,
BSE, viruses like foot-and-mouth or West Nile, and intestinal bacterial
pathogens has increased the prominence of this dimension. Through direct or
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indirect contact with watercourses, plants, animals or people, infected soils
can help diseases spread. Through direct or indirect contact with watercourses,
plants, animal or people, infected soils can help diseases spread.
3. Concept of bioremediation
Bioremediation has been defined as “Use of living organisms to clean up
or remove pollutants from soil, water, or wastewater; use of organisms such
as non-harmful insects to remove agricultural pests or counteract diseases of
trees, plants, and garden soil”, as reported by US EPA, United States
Environmental Protection Agency [2]. Green plants with the ability to absorb
contaminants from the soil or water and then accumulate them in their leaves
can perform this function. Microorganisms can also be used to purify or
eliminate inorganic contaminants from the environment [3]. The removal of
heavy metals, metalloids, and other inorganic contaminants from soil or water
can be accomplished using this method [4, 5]. Compared to engineering
processes including excavation, soil incineration, soil washing, flushing, and
solidification, it is demonstrated to be a cost-effective, efficient, unique, eco-
friendly and solar-driven technology with high public acceptance [4, 6]. The
ability of living organisms to ingest, collect, sequester, translocate, and
detoxify contaminants, as well as the physicochemical characteristics of the
soil and water, are all important elements that affect how effectively
bioremediation removes inorganic pollutants [3].
The method of pollutant removal largely relies on the type of pollutant,
which can include agrochemicals, dyes, heavy metals, hydrocarbons,
radioactive waste, plastics, sewage and chlorinated compounds. Apparently,
depending on where they are used, bioremediation procedures can be used as
in-situ and ex-situ. When selecting a bioremediation technique, factors such
as the type of pollutant, the depth and severity of the contamination, the type
of environment, the location, the cost, and environmental policies are taken
into account [7, 8].
4. Types of bioremediation technologies
Technologies used in bioremediation can be roughly categorised into two
methods:
i) Ex situ bioremediation.
ii) In situ bioremediation.
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Different bioremediation techniques [9]
4.1 Ex situ bioremediation
With these methods, contaminants are removed from polluted areas and
then moved to another location for treatment.
4.1.1 Types of ex situ bioremediation
A. Bio-piles
Biopile is one type of ex situ bioremediation where composting and land
cultivation are combined together. Engineered cells are basically made of
ventilated compost piles. They are a more sophisticated form of land farming
that aim to control physical losses of the contaminants through leaching and
volatilization. They are typically employed for treatment of surface pollution
with petroleum hydrocarbons. An ideal environment for local aerobic and
anaerobic bacteria is provided by biopiles. Composting is also a component of
the soil biopiles system, which increases the effectiveness of remediation. This
technology includes a treatment bed, irrigation, nutrient and leachate
collecting systems, and aeration. Due to its beneficial qualities, such as cost
effectiveness, which enables effective biodegradation under the condition that
nutrient, temperature, and aeration are sufficiently managed, the application
of this specific ex situ technique is being studied more frequently [10]. Using
response surface methodology (RSM) based on factorial design of experiment
(DoE) tone, Gomez and Sartaj (2014) [11] examined the effects of different
application rates (3 and 6 ml/m3) of microbial consortia and mature compost
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(5 and 10%) on total petroleum hydrocarbon (TPH) reduction in field-scale
biopiles at low temperature conditions. By the end of the 94-day trial period,
the bioaugmented and biostimulated setups had reduced TPH by 90.7% on
average, while the control setups had removed 48% of TPH on average. This
shows the adaptability of biopiles for bioremediation. The significant
percentage of TPH decrease was due to the synergistic interaction between
bioaugmentation and biostimulation.
Although Biopile systems take up less space than other ex situ field
bioremediation techniques, such as land farming, they have some drawbacks.
These include robust engineering, high maintenance and operating costs, and
a lack of power supply, particularly at remote sites, which would allow for the
uniform distribution of air in contaminated piled soil via air pump.
Furthermore, overheating the air might cause soil that is undergoing
bioremediation to dry up, which will hinder microbial activity and encourage
volatilization rather than biodegradation.
B. Windrows
In order to improve bioremediation, windrow is another ex-situ
bioremediation technique that rotates the heaped polluted soil on a regular
basis. This increases the microbial decomposition of native and transitory
hydrocarbonoclastic found in polluted soil. The consistent distribution of
nutrients, pollutants and microbial activities, along with periodic turning of
polluted soil, enhance aeration with the addition of water, as well as the rate
of bioremediation, which is accomplished by acclimatisation,
biotransformation and mineralization [12].
Although the efficacy of the windrow for removing hydrocarbons from
the soil was lower than that of the Biopile treatment, windrow treatment
demonstrated a faster rate of hydrocarbon removal [13]. The ideal selection
strategy to use in the bioremediation of soil contaminated with harmful
volatile chemicals, however, is not the periodic turning associated with
windrow treatment. Windrow treatment has a history of use in greenhouses
[14]
.
C. Bioreactor
Another ex situ bioremediation technology is bioreactor. A bioreactor is
a container in which raw materials are transformed into particular products as
a result of a chain of biological events. There are various operating
systems among the several bioreactor configurations are batch, fed-
batch, batch, continuous, and multistage sequencing. The decision functioning
mode is mostly dependent on the market economy and expenditure on capital.
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The environment of a bioreactor mimics and preserves the natural
environment of cells to provide the best circumstances for growth. In either
instance, using a bioreactor to clean polluted soil has various benefits over
alternative ex situ bioremediation methods. Polluted samples can be put into
a bioreactor as dry matter or slurry. One of the main benefits of bioreactor-
based bioremediation is its excellent control of the bioprocess parameters
(temperature, pH, agitation and aeration rates, substrate and inoculum
concentrations).
The ability to regulate and alter a bioreactor’s process parameters
suggests that the biological reactions taking place inside can be improved to
significantly speed up bioremediation. Importantly, bioreactor-based
bioremediation is more effective because it can efficiently establish mass
transfer (contact between pollutant and bacteria), regulated bioaugmentation,
nutrient addition, enhanced pollutant bioavailability and other limiting
variables of the bioremediation process. Additionally, it can be used to clean
up soil and water that have been contaminated by volatile organic compounds
(VOCs), such as benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylenes (BTEX).
Applications of various bioreactors for the bioremediation process have
removed a variety of contaminants.
Additionally, for a variety of reasons, bioreactor-based bioremediation is
not a widely used full-scale method. First off, because a bioreactor is an ex
situ technique, the amount of polluted soil or other substances that must be
treated may be too large, necessitating more labour, money, and safety
precautions to transport the pollutant to the treatment site [15]. As a result, this
particular technique is expensive. Second, because a bioreactor has many
different bioprocess parameters or variables, any parameter that is not properly
controlled and/or maintained at an optimal level may become a limiting factor,
which will lower microbial activity and reduce the efficacy of a bioreactor-
based bioremediation process. Finally, as different bioreactor designs are
likely to have varying reactions to contaminants, finding the best design is
crucial. This technology is capital demanding mostly due to the cost of a
bioreactor appropriate for laboratory or pilot-scale bioremediation.
D. Land farming
Due to its low cost and little equipment needs, land farming is one of the
simplest bioremediation processes. Ex situ bioremediation is what it is
generally referred to as, however in other circumstances, in situ
bioremediation technology is what it is referred to. The treatment site is at the
centre of this argument. The depth of the pollution has a significant impact on
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whether land farming can be done in situ or ex situ. In land farming, toxic soils
are typically dug up and/or tilled, however the method of bioremediation
appears to depend on the treatment site. In situ bioremediation refers to on-
site treatment of excavated toxic soil; ex situ bioremediation refers to
treatment that is more similar to other ex situ bioremediation.
According to reports, bioremediation can occur without excavation when
a pollutant is less than one metre below ground level, but it must be brought
to the surface for bioremediation to be increased when it is more than one and
a half metres below ground level [16]. Excavated polluted soils are often
carefully placed on a fixed layer support above the ground surface to promote
aerobic biodegradation of pollutant by autochthonous microorganisms [15, 17,
18, 19]
. The land-based agricultural system complies with government rules and
works in any environment [20]. During a bioremediation operation,
contaminant leaking into nearby areas is minimised by building a proper land
farming design with an impermeable liner [21]. Overall, the land farming
bioremediation technology is relatively easy to develop and apply, requires
little investment, and can be utilised to clean huge amounts of dirty soil with
little negative environmental impact and energy consumption [22].
Land farming is the easiest ex situ bioremediation method, although it has
significant drawbacks, such as a vast operating area, decreased microbial
activity owing to unfavourable environmental conditions, higher costs
associated with excavation, and less effective inorganic pollutant removal [23,
22]
.
4.2 In situ bioremediation
These methods entail handling contaminated materials right where the
pollution occurred. Since there is no excavation necessary, the soil structure
is not significantly disturbed. Due to the absence of additional costs for
excavation processes, these techniques should ideally be less expensive than
ex situ bioremediation techniques. However, the cost of designing and
installing sophisticated equipment on-site to enhance microbial activities
during bioremediation is a major concern.
In situ bioremediation procedures like bioventing, biosparging, and
phytoremediation may be improved, although intrinsic bioremediation and
spontaneous attenuation may not require any augmentation at all. Heavy
metals, hydrocarbons, dyes and chlorinated solvents have all been successfully
removed from polluted locations using in situ bioremediation techniques [24,
25, 26, 27]
. Contrary to ex situ bioremediation methods, soil porosity has a
significant impact on the use of in situ bioremediation at each polluted site.
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4.2.1 Types of in situ bioremediation
In situ bioremediation can be broadly divided into two categories:
1) Enhanced/Engineered Bioremediation.
2) Intrinsic Bioremediation.
4.2.1.1 Enhanced/Engineered bioremediation
These methods involve the introduction of particular microbes to a
contaminated area. By improving the physicochemical conditions to promote
microorganism development, genetically engineered microorganisms utilised
in in situ bioremediation speed up the degradation process.
A. Bioslurping
This method combines vacuum-enhanced pumping, soil vapour
extraction and bioventing to remediate soil and groundwater by indirectly
supplying oxygen and encouraging pollutant biodegradation [28]. The method
is made to recover free products such light non-aqueous phase liquids
(LNAPLs), which may be used to remediate saturated, unsaturated, and
capillary zones. Additionally, it may be used to clean up soils that have been
polluted by volatile and semi-volatile organic substances. Similar to how a
straw draws liquid from any container, the system uses a "slurp" that extends
into the free product layer to suck up liquids (free products and soil gas) from
this layer. LNAPLs are propelled upward to the surface by the pumping
mechanism, where they are cut off from water and air. After all free products
have been removed, the system may simply be configured to function as a
standard bioventing system to finish the remediation process [25].
In this method, too much soil moisture restricts air permeability and slows
the pace at which oxygen is transferred, which in turn lowers microbial
activity. The approach saves money because it produces less groundwater as
a result of the operation, which reduces the expenses associated with storage,
treatment and disposal even if it is not ideal for remediating soil with poor
permeability [15]. One of the main issues with this specific in situ approach is
creating a vacuum on a deep, very permeable site. Another is the fluctuating
water table, which might lead to saturated soil lenses that are challenging to
aerate.
B. Bioventing
By supplying oxygen to the subsurface, bioventing encourages the
aerobic biodegradation of soil contamination. This is performed by passively
infusing or withdrawing air via unsaturated soil. The main purpose of this
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technique is to clean up soil that has been contaminated by pesticides,
herbicides, non-halogenated volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and fuels.
Halogenated organics can be subjected to the procedure, although the results
are less favourable. The method necessitates the presence of native organisms
capable of decomposing the problematic pollutants as well as the growth-
promoting nutrients. The pollutants must also be accessible to the organisms
and not strongly bound to soil particles. The elimination of diesel from clayey
soil was not significantly affected by airflow intensities or airflow intervals,
suggesting that longer air injection intervals and low air injection rates may be
more cost-effective for bioventing in diesel-polluted clayey soil [29]. Frutos et
al. [30] reported on the efficiency of the bioventing treatment in the remediation
of phenanthrene-contaminated soil and recorded [93% contaminant
elimination after 7 months].
Treatment with bioventing is less successful in locations with high water
tables and in soils with very low moisture contents. Last but not least, the
approach cannot be used in areas with high concentrations of inorganic salts,
heavy metals, or organic compounds since these substances prevent microbial
growth In order to determine the effects of soil water content, nitrogen content,
nitrogen form, and the composition of the microbial population on the gasoline
biodegradation rate, Shewfelt et al. [31] have conducted experiments with
small-scale respirometers containing gasoline-contaminated soil from an
active remediation site.
C. Biosparing
The technique called “biosparging” is used to improve the bioremediation
of previously contaminated areas by changing anaerobic reaction
circumstances to aerobic reaction conditions by injecting air to the polluted
site under the zone of pollution of the aquifer. In this method, which is very
similar to bioventing, air is pumped beneath the soil’s surface to encourage
microbial activity and aid in the removal of pollutants from contaminated
regions. Contrary to bioventing, air is pumped at the saturated zone, which
might transfer volatile organic molecules upward to the unsaturated zone to
encourage biodegradation.
According to Philp and Atlas [15], the efficiency of biosparging is
dependent on two key variables: soil permeability, which affects the
pollutant’s bioavailability to microorganisms, and pollutant biodegradability.
In aerobic conditions, bioremediation proceeds more quickly than in anaerobic
conditions. Thus, biosparging raises the dissolved CO2 and O2, as well as the
redox potential of nitrate and sulphate, in the plume. Anaerobe reduction is
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observed to be accompanied by an increase in the number of aerobes at the
contaminated site, as well as a drop in pH, dissolved ferrous iron, sulphide,
and methane. On the other side, the Biosparging process results in an increase
in the overall number of cultivable heterotrophs in the plume [32].
D. Phytoremediation
Phytoremediation is the process of using plants to clean up contaminated
areas by removing pollutants such as pesticides, herbicides, chemical and
petrochemical waste from industry, explosives, and other organic solvents.
With the aid of photosynthesis, plants have the innate ability to draw
chemicals from the air, soil, and water. This results in the mineralization of
organic pollutants into non-toxic inorganic components like CO2, nitrate,
chlorine, and ammonia by degradation of the pollutants after being absorbed
by the roots, then subsequent volatilization of the pollutants to the atmosphere.
Different approaches of phytoremediation
I. Phytoextraction
The process of removing contaminants from soil or water by plant roots
and translocating them to and accumulating in aboveground biomass, or
shoots, which are then harvested, is known as phytoextraction. It is also
referred to as phytoaccumulation, photoabsorption, or phytosequestration [33,
34]
. Because harvesting root biomass is typically impractical, pollutant transfer
to shoots is a vital biochemical activity desired for a good phytoextraction [35].
Pollutant mobilisation in the rhizosphere, pollutant absorption by plant roots,
translocation toward aerial plant parts, and pollutant sequestration in plant
tissues are the five main phases that make up the phytoextraction process [36,
4]
. A hyperaccumulator plant should ideally have the following features: High
growth rates, more aboveground biomass, tolerance to high inorganic
pollutant concentrations, widely dispersed and highly branched roots,
adaptation to local environmental conditions, translocation of accumulated
pollutants from roots to shoots, resistance to pathogens and pests, ease of
cultivation and harvest, and increased accumulation of the target pollutant are
all characteristics of these plants [4, 37, 3, 6].
Seasonal weather, climatic variables, and plant root development depth
are frequently linked to phytoextraction efficacy [38]. Utilizing mobilising
agents such citric acid, ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, nitrilotriacetic acid,
aminopolycarboxylic acids and ethylenediamine disuccinic acid might
increase the efficacy of phytoextraction [37]. Currently, phytoextraction is
primarily used to remove inorganic pollutants from polluted media because it
is highly cost-effective, less disruptive to the soil and environment, doesn't
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require disposal sites, enjoys high public acceptance, and doesn't require the
excavation or transport of contaminated media, among other benefits [39, 37]. It
is not without flaws, though. For instance, it depends on the environmental
factors that affect how well plants can tolerate pollution and how long it takes
to thoroughly clean up a site [3]. Therefore, how it is applied should be
determined by the particular case study.
II. Phytofiltration
Phytofiltration, another name Rhizofiltration, is the process of absorbing
contaminants into the root zone or adsorbing them onto plant roots from a
solution [39]. Because certain plants may include many phytochelatins to boost
the binding capacity of pollutants like metal ions, its mechanism is connected
to the creation of specific compounds inside the roots, which result in the
adsorption of pollutants [41]. An ideal plant for rhizofiltration would have
quickly expanding roots and be able to continuously remove pollutants from
solutions [42]. As a result, the use of terrestrial plants is frequently favoured
because of their vast root systems and fibrous roots, which enable them to
remove pollutants from the rhizosphere and ground water [4, 39].
III. Phytostabilization
The process of using plants that can reduce the mobility or/and
bioavailability of pollutants to either stop their leaching into ground water or
their entry into the food chain through a variety of mechanisms, including
adsorption by roots or the formation of insoluble compounds in the root zone,
is known as phytostabilization or phytoimmobilization [6, 39]. The ultimate goal
of phytostabilization is the stability of pollutants rather than their removal,
which reduces their risk to human health and the environment. This is done
with the hope that the plants would perform a similar function to soil
amendments [43].
Unfortunately, phytostabilization does not provide a lasting fix for
pollution since it only works to lessen contamination of neighbouring
media/areas rather than lowering pollutant concentrations [44, 3]. The benefit of
phytostabilization over other phytoremediation methods is that it reduces the
need to treat the aerial portions since the procedure mostly keeps toxins in the
roots with little transfer to the shoots. Consequently, one of the most
experimental forms of phytoremediation has been considered to be
phytostabilization. It has potential application for many metals, especially
lead, chromium, and mercury that are stabilised in the soil and reduces
interactions between these contaminants and associated biota [45, 37].
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IV. Phytovolatilization
Phytovolatilization is a different type of phytoremediation that uses plants
to absorb pollutants, convert them into volatile molecules and then release
those compounds-either unchanged or in a different form-into the atmosphere
as a result of the plant's metabolic and transpiration forces [46, 39]. Water vapour
from leaf surfaces is evaporated into the atmosphere through stomata during
the process of transpiration. Numerous types of plants with deep roots have
the capacity to absorb and breakdown pollutants by producing certain
enzymes or genes [47, 34]. Pollutants are absorbed from the soil or water during
phytovolatilization and transformed into less harmful vapours that are later
discharged into the atmosphere by plant transpiration [3]. The method may be
used to remove various heavy metals, such as As, Se, and Hg, which are
present in the environment as gaseous species [48]. Very few naturally existing
plants have the ability to change metals into forms that are volatile. Therefore,
the phytovolatilization technology often takes use of genetically altered plants
to increase their capacity to volatilize metals [3].
However, its use is constrained by the fact that the process merely
transfers the contaminant from one environmental compartment (soil/water)
to another (atmosphere), from which it is likely to precipitate with rainfall and
then return to the ecosystem. As a result, the pollutants are not completely
removed from the environment [4]. Additionally, with minimal site
disturbance, phytovolatilization requires less erosion and doesn't dispose of
polluted plant material [49, 3]. Consequently, phytovolatilization is the
phytoremediation technique that has generated the greatest debate [50, 51].
V. Phytodegradation
The process of capturing pollutants and nutrients from the air, water, or
soil and then chemically modifying them as a direct result of plant metabolism
is known as phytodegradation, also known as phytotransformation. This
process frequently leads to contaminant inactivation, degradation or
immobilisation in both plant roots and/or shoots [52, 51]. Some plants have the
ability to use their metabolic processes or enzymes to convert the ingested
toxins into less hazardous molecules [34]. Accordingly, phytodegradation is a
metabolic process used by plants to detoxify and break down pollutants inside
of plant tissues [48, 37].
4.2.1.2 Intrinsic bioremediation
Natural reduction, another name for intrinsic bioremediation, is an in situ
bioremediation process that includes passive remediation of contaminated
places without the need of any outside force (human intervention). The
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stimulation of the local or naturally occurring microbial population is the focus
of this approach. The method for degrading resistant contaminating elements
that uses both aerobic and anaerobic microbial activities. Since there is no
external force, the process must be less costly than other in-situ procedures.
One of the main disadvantages of intrinsic bioremediation is that it could
take longer to reach the goal level of pollutant concentration, given that no
outside force is used to speed up the remediation process. Therefore, risk
assessment must be done before the application of intrinsic bioremediation to
make sure that the remediation period is less than the time allotted for the
pollutant to reach the exposure point relative to the closest human and animal
populations. Additionally, it was shown that intrinsic bioremediation does not
adequately remove polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and hence does not
reduce the eco-toxicity of polluted soil [53].
4.3 Permeable reactive barrier (PRB)
This approach is primarily thought of as a physical method for treating
polluted groundwater due to its design and pollutant removal process.
However, scientists have found that biological response is one of the several
processes (degradation, precipitation, and sorption) of pollutant removal in
PRB approach [54, 55]. Although several names for the approach, including
biological PRB, passive Bioreactive barrier and bio-enhanced PRB, have
been suggested, the role of microorganisms has reportedly been mostly
augmentation rather than an independent biotechnology [15].
In this method, the path of contaminated groundwater is covered with a
permanent or semi-permanent reactive barrier (medium), which is mostly
composed of zero-valent iron [56, 57]. Pollutants become trapped and undergo a
sequence of processes when contaminated water passes through the barrier
against its natural gradient, producing clean water in the flow through [54, 55].
Formation of carbonate precipitate in the iron zone was discovered not to be
the primary limiting factor to the observed performance during performance
evaluation of PBR for remediation of dissolved chlorinated solvents in
groundwater; instead, accurate measurement of groundwater velocity through
a PRB was implicated [58]. Although sustaining barrier reactivity is important
for PRB method performance, retaining barrier permeability is equally
important for PRB success and may be accomplished by preserving the proper
particle size distribution [59].
5. Advantages of bioremediation
Each bioremediation process has a distinct benefit. There are several
advantages:
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1) As a suitable waste treatment method for polluted material like soil,
it is a natural process that takes some time. Reduced numbers of
microbes that can biodegrade the pollutant result from this process.
Cell biomass, water, and carbon dioxide are some of the typically
safe treatment products.
2) It takes very little work and can be periodically performed on site
without interfering with normal microbial activities. Additionally,
this eliminates any potential risks to the environment and human
health by transporting garbage off-site.
3) It is a practical and affordable technology compared to other
conventional techniques that are frequently used for the clean-up of
toxic hazardous waste for the remediation of oil-contaminated sites.
Additionally, it aids in the total breakdown of pollutants; many toxic
dangerous substances can be converted into less harmful products
and contaminated material can be disposed of.
4) It doesn't employ any potentially harmful substances. Fertilizers, in
particular, are provided as nutrients to promote active and quick
microbiological development. The dangerous compounds are
entirely removed as a result of bioremediation, which transforms
toxic chemicals into water and innocuous gases.
5) Due to their organic place in the ecosystem, they are easy, less
labour-intensive, and inexpensive.
6) Contaminants are eliminated, not only moved to another
environment.
7) Non-intrusive, maybe allowing site usage to continue.
8) The current approach to cleaning up the environment from significant
contaminants offers environmentally viable opportunities.
Disadvantages of bioremediation
Because each bioremediation technology has a different set of uses, it has
pros and cons of its own. There are a number of drawbacks to bioremediation.
1) It is only allowed for biodegradable substances. Not all chemicals
undergo an immediate and thorough breakdown process.
2) Some of the novel biodegradation products may be more harmful
than the original chemicals and remain in the environment.
3) The presence of metabolically active microbial populations,
favourable environmental growth circumstances, and accessibility to
nutrients and pollutants are all essential components of biological
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processes, which are highly specialised and environmentally
friendly.
4) Promoting the process from bench and pilot-scale work to extensive
field work is difficult. Contaminants can exist in the form of solids,
liquids, or gases. It frequently requires more time than other
treatment options including excavation, soil removal, or cremation.
5) For sites with complex combinations of pollutants that are not evenly
diffused in the environment, bioremediation solutions need to be
developed and engineered.
6. Conclusion
For the purpose of cleaning up, maintaining, and recovering a
contaminated environment through microbial activity, bioremediation is a
very profitable and alluring alternative. The rivalry with biological agents like
fungus, bacteria and algae as well as unfavourable external abiotic
circumstances (aeration, moisture, pH and temperature), limited
bioavailability, and an inadequate supply of vital nutrients all affect how
quickly undesired waste compounds degrade. Cost, site features, type, and
concentration of contaminants are only a few of the variables that affect
bioremediation. Site description is the first step in a successful bioremediation
since it helps in the development of the best and most efficient bioremediation
technology (ex situ or in situ). The expense of excavation and transfer from
the archaeological site makes ex-situ bioremediation methods more
expensive. A larger spectrum of contaminants may be treated using them,
though. Contrarily, in-situ procedures do not incur additional costs for
excavation; yet, certain inefficient in-situ bioremediation approaches can be
reduced by the on-site installation cost of equipment, coupled with
successfully, and controlling the subsurface of a polluted site. When choosing
the most effective bioremediation method to successfully remediate
contaminated sites, geological features of polluted sites, including soil,
pollutant kind and depth, human habitation site, and performance of each
bioremediation approach, should be taken into account.
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Chapter - 5
Farming for Ecosystem Services: An Ecological
Approach to Agricultural Production
Authors
Sujan Adak
Division of Agricultural Physics, ICAR-Indian Agricultural
Research Institute, New Delhi, India
Partha Pratim Maity
Division of Environmental Science, ICAR-Indian Agricultural
Surjya Kanta Roy
Division of Agricultural Extension, ICAR-Indian Agricultural
Sourav Sarkar
Division of Agricultural Entomology, ICAR-Indian
Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India
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Chapter - 5
Farming for Ecosystem Services: An Ecological Approach
to Agricultural Production
Sujan Adak, Partha Pratim Maity, Surjya Kanta Roy and Sourav Sarkar
Abstract
The entire planet is made up of interconnected ecosystems. The
purification of water, air, carbon sequestration, climate regulation, garbage
breakdown, and detoxification are some of the advantages that ecosystems
offer to the society. Ecosystem services come in four categories: supporting,
supplying, regulating, and cultural. Agricultural ecosystems provide humans
with food, forage, bioenergy and pharmaceuticals and are essential to human
wellbeing. These systems depend on the ecosystem services offered by natural
ecosystems, such as pollination, biological pest control, conservation of soil
fertility and structure, nutrient cycling, and hydrological functions.
Preliminary evaluations revel that these ecological services’ importance to
agriculture is significant and frequently undervalued. Agroecosystems also
generate several of ecosystem services, including cultural, carbon-
sequestering, soil and water quality control, support for biodiversity, and soil
and water quality management. Depending on management techniques,
agriculture may also result in several of disservices, such as the destruction of
wildlife habitat, fertilizer runoff, sedimentation of streams, emissions of
greenhouse gases, and human and non-target species poisoning from
pesticides. It is crucial to be aware of the ecosystem services that agriculture
provides to and for ecosystems for value addition, quantification, and policy
making.
Keywords: Ecosystem services and its types, evaluation of ES, services and
disservices of agro-ecosystem
Introduction
A complex of living things (including animals, plants, and
microorganisms), their physical surroundings, and how they interact as a
system make up an ecosystem (MEA, 2005). It symbolizes a location where
both living and non-living elements of the environment interact to create a
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living system. The whole earth is a series of connected ecosystems. This offers
a variety of advantages, including the production of food, fibre, fuel,
purification of water and air, sequestration of carbon dioxide, control of the
climate, waste breakdown and detoxification, among others (Roy et al., 2020).
Following a study by MEA (2005), the ecosystem and its relationship to
human welfare have drawn more attention. Ecosystem services are the benefits
that humans derive from a healthy natural environment and ecosystems.
Agricultural farming methods make up the biggest manmade ecosystem and
occupy one-third of the world's landmass, although they rely on natural
ecosystem services (FAOSTAT, 1999). In addition to producing high yields,
farms may easily be managed to provide advantages to biodiversity, climate
stability, clean water, biocontrol, and long-term soil fertility, meeting society's
requirement for agriculture that is both economically and environmentally
sustainable. But the question of sustainability has become more pressing due
to the careless exploitation of natural resources, soil erosion, and biodiversity
loss. Therefore, it is now vital to comprehend the relationship between the
natural ecosystem, environmental system, and social system to lessen
agricultural production’s environmental footprint.
Types of ecosystem services
Ecosystem services are the benefits that humans derive from a healthy
natural environment and ecosystems. These products either directly or
indirectly aid in people's survival and welfare. Ecosystem services can be
divided into four groups (MEA, 2005).
1) Provisioning services: Biofuels, food, genetic variety, natural
medications from plants and ornamental materials etc.
2) Regulating services: Pollination, climate control, water purification,
river control, and erosion avoidance etc.
3) Supporting services: Cycles of water and nutrients, primary
production and photosynthesis and soil formation (pedogenesis) etc.
4) Cultural services: Aesthetic values, recreation, and tourism, as well
as spiritual and theological enrichment etc.
The value of ecosystem services is expressed in money, which can be
used to convey user preferences and estimate the amount of resources needed
to maintain or restore an ecosystem. (De Groot et al., 2012). Keeping
ecosystems intact helps people be more resilient to the negative consequences
of climate change (Muradian and Rival, 2012). The diversity of life, or
biodiversity, preserves and restores services. Ecosystems are resilient in some
ways but damaging human actions are making them less able to serve
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humanity. This results from a lack of awareness of environmental services or
an underestimation of their significance in political decisions (Constanza et
al., 1997). People view their existence as obvious because they are so vital to
life, thus it is impossible to think that mankind might also kill them (Daily et
al., 1997). Ecosystem services interact with one another and are intricately
connected, and when humans utilize one of the services, they also impact the
others (Braat and de Groot, 1997). For instance, intensive agriculture harms
on the area's water and nutrient cycling if the goal is to get the maximum
output. The most significant changes in ecosystem services over the past few
decades have been brought about by a consistent decline in the area of intact
ecosystems (Tengberg et al., 2012). The area of intact, functional ecosystems
was shrinking between 1997 and 2011, and they were being replaced by
artificial ecosystems, causing damage to the world economy of 4.3-20.2
trillion USD (Constanza et al., 2014). More and more people around the world
are moving into cities to live. Plants, animals, and ecosystems may appear
where the soil is not covered by asphalt and concrete. These include the lanes
that line the roadways, parks, man-made creeks and lakes, and gardens. These
ecosystem services are also existent and have a positive impact on people's
lives. For instance, clearing the air of dust, regulating the microclimate, and
enhancing the quality of life for residents (Bolund and Hunhammer, 1999).
Evaluation methods of ecosystem services
There are two methods for estimating the worth of natural ecosystems in
academic literature: the anthropocentric method and the biocentric method.
The first holds that everything in nature has value equal to its contribution to
humankind. However, the second method contends that everything in nature
has intrinsic value, separate from its value to humankind (Daily, 1997). The
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment categorizes the goods that nature provides
into four groups: provisioning services (such as fishing and timber harvesting),
regulating services (such as controlling climate and floods), supporting
services (such as pollination and pest control), and cultural services (e.g.,
tranquility, inspiration) (Chan et al., 2006). Ecosystems provide a wide range
of goods and services to mankind, which are essential for the people’s well-
being (Nelson et al., 2009). Some believe it is impossible or makes no sense
because economics shouldn't value things that are difficult to understand,
including aesthetics and long-term ecological advantages (Costanza, 2000).
As a result, there may be stark contrasts and inconsistencies between
economic and ecological judgments (Farber et al., 2002). Giving natural
ecosystems value is especially crucial in western nations because economic
decisions place a high priority on productivity (Gómez-Baggethun et al.,
2010).
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Additionally, just because ecosystem services are expressed in money
does not necessarily entail that they should be regarded as commodities or
private property (Costanza et al., 2014). Pollination and water management,
for instance, cannot be on private property because they are both necessary for
everyone's benefit (Wilson and Howarth, 2002). However, due to the
supervision of the services, an economic evaluation of the services and their
advantages is crucial (Kumar and Kumar, 2008). The water-diamond paradox
is the greatest way to describe people's attitudes regarding service evaluation.
Diamonds are not necessary to sustain our quality of life at all, but they have
a high monetary worth even though water is necessary for life but have little
value linked to water (Heal, 1999)
Even while natural ecosystems provide significant services to people,
human activity is altering them, making it crucial to regularly monitor changes
in their condition since human activity affects how well natural ecosystems
function (Howarth and Farber, 2002). Human actions jeopardise ecological
processes, and habitat destruction, alteration, and pollution cause the global
extinction of natural ecosystems (Barbier, 2007). Assessment of ecosystem
services is also a tool for decision-makers, which assists them in selecting the
best management strategy to achieve various objectives (Liu et al., 2010).
Economical approaches should be employed to evaluate ecological system
components because it is a system that connects ecology and economy (Chan
et al., 2012).
There are several assessment methods which help to determine the
monetary value of the services:
1. Direct market valuation methods
1.1 Revealed preference methods
1.1.1 Market price method
In some circumstances, the market value of the items, which may be
directly marketed, can be used to measure the value of the services. The price
paid for them during the transaction establishes their value in these situations.
Consequently, there is no need for sophisticated techniques. These products
include, for instance, sawn wood, firewood, fish, and other edibles. The value
of the ecosystem service is reflected in the price of the items. The advantage
of this method is that it is simple to use since it considers available price,
quantity and cost information, and basic assumptions are required. However,
it has the drawback that some services cannot be directly sold, and information
acquired may be inaccurate and skewed; as a result, the service's value is also
inaccurate. Additionally, it is difficult to apply in situations where significant
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changes affect both the supply and demand for the service (Koetse et al.,
2015).
1.1.2 Production function method
This strategy is applied if a given good or service is produced in part by
human labour and in part by an ecosystem. For instance, several agricultural
plants rely on insect pollination, and the importance of pollination can be
gauged based on the quantity and quality of the products. To calculate indirect
use values, this method was created. The drawback of this approach is that it
is challenging to gauge how closely ecological services and human
contribution are related. As a result, this technique is rarely employed.
However, it is used to assess changes in water quality, for instance, by
considering cheaper water purification costs, improved agricultural
production statistics as a result of greater pollination or better soil quality.
Another issue with this approach is that it forces the researcher to consider
both human and machine input, which could result in an overestimation of the
ecosystem service's worth. However, as it is built on the premise that the
benefit and the economic advantage are intimately intertwined, it can
potentially be very good for evaluating ecosystem services (Pascual et al.,
2009).
1.1.3 Cost-based methods
This method calculates the value of ecosystem services to calculate the
harm that would result from the loss of the service and prospective
replacement prices. It is employed to assess the cost and quality of water
filtration, prevent soil erosion, storms, and other natural calamities and save
natural habitats. These are not products that can be sold; the technique only
accounts for the costs of producing the benefit rather than the benefit itself.
The technique has the benefit of supporting how the economy views about
value and value production. However, it has the drawback that the cost of
fixing the damages occasionally does not correspond to the benefits realized
(Daly, 2016).
1.2 Random utility and travel cost methods
The random utility approach and the travel cost method are predicated on
the empirical presumption that people are aware of their preferences, even
though this is not always the case for researchers. However, some preference-
related elements can be obtained by statistical techniques. This method is
mostly employed to assess recreational fishing in lakes, rivers, and oceans. It
bases its assessment of the worth of intangible ecosystem services on the
money and time required to reach the best fishing or swimming spots. Time,
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money and the number of visits express the value of a site, fish and swimming
(NRC, 2005).
1.3 Hedonic pricing method
Using the observed value of a good, this method calculates the indirect
value of ecosystem services, which cannot be sold but may be calculated. Two
items that are similar from most points of view but differ in particular
environmental conditions are required to calculate the value. For example,
traffic noise or distance from a park. A desire to pay for an ecosystem service
can be inferred from the difference between the items’ monetary values. This
approach is frequently used to calculate the costs and benefits of
environmental quality (air pollution, water pollution, noise) (Bouma and van
Beukering, 2015).
2. Stated preference methods
2.1 Contingent valuation
This method measures the value of ecosystem services with surveys.
Survey responses and submissions reveal the prices people are ready to pay
for various ecosystem services. In other words, it investigates how people
would act in particular circumstances. Since these services cannot be
marketed, survey questions ask participants how much they would be willing
to pay in various scenarios (Carson and Bergstorm, 2003).
2.2 Conjoint analysis
This approach, based on surveys, is very popular and frequently
employed. The respondent is required to provide information on the attributes
of a good or service. For instance, he must pick between two alternatives that
detail potential park attributes (distance from the house, size, vegetation and
accessibility) (Bergkamp and Goldsmith, 2013).
3. Biodiversity as a nonmonetary evaluation approach
Individual plants or animals, which collectively make up the biota, may
possess qualities that directly meet any need of humanity. Indirect benefits to
mankind are also derived from biota and its function in maintaining the
biophysical cycles in the ecosystem (Perrings et al., 1995). The integrity of
ecosystem services must be preserved or restored for them to continue and
continue to benefit mankind (Díaz et al., 2006). Changing biodiversity and its
impact on the ecosystem's ability to operate has been a significant area of
ecological research in recent decades (Duffy, 2003). Human activities that
alter the landscape can cause habitats to become isolated and fragmented,
affecting a species' capacity to disperse. As a result, the link between
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populations and a species' viability declines, which could result in extension
(Mora and Sale, 2011). If the global average temperature rises by 2–3°C by
the end of the century, 20-30% of all species will be endangered by extinction
(Warren et al., 2013). Physical habitats may change due to the extinction of
some species, and biogeochemical cycles, productivity, ecosystem structure,
and ecosystem function may all shift (Cardinale et al., 2012). Reduction of the
number of plant species results in decreasing primary production and rate of
decomposition (Hooper et al., 2012).
Ecosystem services to agro-ecosystem
Agricultural practices are the main means of subsistence and the main
engine of India's economy. It is entirely reliant on the ecosystem and the
services it offers. Agriculture is both a producer and a consumer of ecosystem
services, collectively called the "Agro-ecosystem" (Jarvis et al., 2007). Due to
the extensive diversity of the agro-ecosystem and its varied interactions, this
interaction is complicated and bidirectional. Humanity can benefit from
various benefits provided by the agro-ecosystem for a sustainable way of life.
Most of the ecosystem services provided towards agriculture are through
soil. Whether farming is possible or not, as well as the caliber of the output, is
significantly influenced by the characteristics, type, and fertility of the soil. It
also reflects the productivity of a certain crop. The soil fauna (earthworms,
microorganisms, microinvertebrates, etc.) also contributes to improving soil
characteristics like structure, organic matter content, fertility, and crop yield.
By promoting the breakdown of organic matter and nutrient recycling, soil
microorganisms (bacteria, fungus, and actinomycetes) contribute to soil
fertility. For instance, some free living and symbiotic soil microorganisms can
fix atmospheric nitrogen (Vitousek et al., 2002). Soil retention is the key for
keeping soil nutrients and making it available to plants (Powlson et al., 2011).
Cover crops and crop leftovers aid the retention of soil moisture and fertility.
Crop rotation and cycle prevent soil erosion and runoff from the field;
however, some farming techniques can impair soil fertility and microbial
fauna.
Crop pollination is one of the ecosystem services that insects provide to
the agricultural ecosystem (Losey and Vaughan, 2006). Bees are the most
crucial crop pollinators, but birds, butterflies, and moths are all crucial. The
habitat of birds and other wild insects can enhance the pollination services
provided to agriculture, increasing crop output and income (Wood et al.,
2015). Insects are helpful not just in pollination but also in the decomposition
of garbage.
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The local weather and climatic conditions are the main factors that affect
agricultural methods. Climate conditions control crop production, from seed
germination to crop harvest (Sivakumar and Motha, 2008). Many annual
agricultural losses worldwide are directly related to weather and climatic
factors like drought, flash floods, errant rain, hail, and storms. Contrarily,
favourable weather conditions have an impact on farming. The natural
ecosystem's genetic diversity is the basis for choosing desirable traits. High
yielding and high-quality varieties are created by genetically modifying
naturally occurring local traits, which indirectly addresses the concerns
associated to food security (de Groot et al., 2002). Genetic variety is crucial
for enhancing or maintaining productivity and protecting against loss. In
addition, many cultivars (genotypes) are necessary for seed or fruit set in many
crop systems, particularly orchard crops and the hybrid seed production (Free,
1993). Agriculture depends on a wide range of ecosystem services regulated
by the operation of different ecosystems, from soil-based ecosystems to insect,
genetic material, and atmospheric management.
Ecosystem services from Agro-ecosystem
Without question, agriculture contributes to human life on earth.
Agriculture has been the foundation of society from its inception. Agriculture
provides everything a person needs to sustainably, including food, fuel, and
fibre (Bommarco et al., 2018). However, agriculture also offers a vast array
of additional services. The maintenance of soil fertility and sustained
productivity is the most significant service offered by agriculture. A few
agronomic management techniques preserve or raise soil fertility. Organic
matter in the soil gives the crop vital nutrients. Worms, soil microorganism,
and crop leftovers all contribute to the formation of the food web. Most of the
ecosystem's energy is transferred from aboveground grazers to soil
decomposers. Soil carbon sequestration, which occurs due to photosynthesis-
based food production, is one of the most significant environmental services
supplied by agriculture. Additionally, growing pulse crops, green manuring,
and cover crops can store carbon that would otherwise be released into the
atmosphere as CO2, thus helping to control climate change (Caldeira et al.,
2004). Soil loss can also be checked by land management. The top soil is
protected from erosion and contains top soil fertility as well as soil
biodiversity through tillage techniques like zero tillage and conservation
tillage. Residue retention and cover crops protect soil by reducing runoff and
promoting infiltration, which raises plant water availability and enhances
ground water quality. Farms that preserve or restore a portion of the original
vegetation produced by forestry and agriculture help to preserve some natural
ecosystems and provide a haven for several species. The other significant ES
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supplied by agriculture includes detoxification and waste breakdown, as well
as air and water purification (Heal et al., 2002). In contrast, pest and insect life
feeds, mates and builds homes on agricultural soil.
Ecosystem disservices from agro-ecosystem
Agricultural activities are estimated to be responsible for 12-14% of
global anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases, not including emissions
that arise from land clearing (IPCC 2007). Crop pests and diseases brought on
by different pathogens reduce productivity and, in extreme cases, could ruin
the entire field. Plant disease can occasionally cause enormous socioeconomic
catastrophes as well. Overusing pesticides and chemicals to control disease
and pests, results in genetic resistance in some species (Duru et al., 2015).
Additionally, as this chemical can combine with water bodies and leak through
groundwater, it may destroy aquatic life and the environment of ponds life
(Roy et al., 2020). Weed in fields can inhibit crop growth by competing with
it for sunlight, water, and soil nutrients (Welbank, 1963). One of the main
drawbacks of agriculture is the loss of soil biota and soil erosion as a result of
intensive farming (Pal, 2018). In addition, some plants' poisonous effects
(allelopathy) limit the growth of other plants (Weston and Duke, 2003).
Agriculture output is further hampered by competition for resources like water
and pollination agents, bad weather and water scarcity, which also results in a
significant loss of ecosystem services.
Fig 1: Ecosystem services and disservices of Agro-ecosystem
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Conclusion
The provision of ecosystem services by agricultural systems is crucial for
human well-being. They also produce and use a variety of other ecosystem
services, including those that enable provisioning and regulation. The
provisioning services provided by agroecosystems can be maximised at the
expense of other ecosystem services, but careful management can greatly
minimize or even completely remove these tradeoffs. Agricultural
management techniques are essential for maximising environmental services
and minimising agricultural activities' negative effects.
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Chapter - 6
Diseases of Citrus and Their Management
Authors
Ph.D. Research Scholar, Department of Plant Pathology,
College of Agriculture, A.N.D.U.A&T, Kumarganj, Ayodhya,
Uttar Pradesh, India
Akash Singh
Subhash Chandra
Assistant Professor, Department of Plant Pathology, College of
Agriculture, A.N.D.U.A&T, Kumarganj, Ayodhya,
Ramesh Chand
Assistant Professor, Department of Plant Pathology, College of
Agriculture, A.N.D.U.A&T, Kumarganj, Ayodhya,
Vishwa Vijay Raghuvanshi
Anand Milan
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Chapter - 6
Diseases of Citrus and Their Management
Rahul Singh Raghuvanshi, Akash Singh, Subhash Chandra, Ramesh Chand,
Vishwa Vijay Raghuvanshi and Anand Milan
Abstract
The biggest contributor to citrus gradual decline is the citrus root
nematode Tylenchulus semipenetrans, which attacks citrus plants. Root
systems that have been severely affected have an encrusted appearance,
which lowers fruit yield and quality. The foliage is weak, and gum is
frequently seen leaking from gummosis-infected tree portions. The infected
bark is still solid and has tiny fractures where the gum exudes. Twigs and
branches that have citrus wither-tip disease have a burnt-looking appearance.
Citrus canker-affected plants had raised, wet patches on their leaves that over
time thickened, became brown, and became corky. Premature defoliation is
brought on by midrib and petiole infection. Citrus greening causes the veins
and surrounding tissues to turn yellow, which is followed by the skin turning
yellow or mottled. By using nematode-free seedlings, resistant rootstocks,
and the use of Furadan, citrus nematode damage can be minimised.
Streptomycin Sulphate at a concentration of 100 to 1000 ppm can be sprayed
on citrus to treat the bacterial illness known as citrus canker. The incidence
of the illness was observed to be significantly reduced by the application of
Bordeaux paste and Bordeaux combination (copper sulphate lime and water:
4:4:50) at the diseased plant portions via gummosis. Pruning is necessary for
citrus die-back afflicted branches. It has been discovered that the disease can
be controlled by spraying copper plants with fungicides such carbendazim
(Bavistin) at 0.1%. We'll go over the prevalence, severity and treatment of
nematode, fungal, bacterial and viral diseases.
Keywords: Citrus diseases, losses, management, production
Introduction
With more than 52 nations worldwide growing citrus, it is one of the
most significant fruits and has one of the largest fruit industries. With a
combined production of over 45 million tonnes (MT) of citrus fruit, Brazil
and China are the world's two largest citrus producers. The USA, India,
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Mexico and Spain come next with respective productions of 10.7, 8.6, 7.2,
and 5.5 MT. In terms of citrus fruit output, India comes in fourth place
globally. The tropical and subtropical regions of South East Asia,
particularly India and China, are where citrus fruits first appeared. Citrus is
mostly farmed in Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, Karnataka,
Uttaranchal, Bihar, Orissa, Assam, and Gujarat on an estimated 10.42 lakh
ha with an annual yield of 100.90 lakh tonnes and a productivity of 9.7 t/ha
(NHB, 2013). Orange (mandarin or santra), sweet orange (mosambi), and
lime/lemon are of commercial importance among the numerous types of
citrus fruits grown in India. It is of particular relevance because of its high
amount of Vitamin C and refreshing juice. Moving diseased citrus planting
material or plant material containing huang long bing-infected psyllids might
cause the long-distance transmission of the disease. The main causes of low
citrus fruit output include physiological disorders, insect and disease
damage, and nutritional inadequacies, but disease also has an adverse effect
on fruit quality and citrus fruit marketing. One of the most significant and
dangerous diseases of the citrus tree is citrus greening, also known as huang
long bing. Wherever citrus grows in Asia, from China and the Philippines to
the Arabian Peninsula and Africa, it has decreased citrus fruit production and
quality in all varieties. Seasonal bacterial cells in canker sores on fruit, twigs,
and leaves. They leak out of lesions in warm, rainy weather, and if raindrops
splash onto developing tissues, bacteria can enter those tissues through
stomata or wounds.
Gummosis: Phytophthora parasitica, P. palmivora, P. citrophthora.
Symptoms
Yellowing of the foliage is the first sign, followed by bark splitting and
heavy surface gumming. Infected planting material is the major cause of the
illness. Because of the girdling effect, extreme gumming causes the bark to
entirely decay and causes the tree to dry out. The plant typically blooms
profusely before dying, and the fruits typically do not fully develop. In these
situations, the illness is known as collar-rot or foot rot.
Pathogen
Hypha that is aseptate, intercellular, and intracellular. Sporangia are
ellipsoid or ovoid shaped. When the sporangium is connected at an angle, the
sporangia germinate and release zoospores.
Favorable conditions
Prolonged saturation of the trunk with water, such as during flood
irrigation; wet locations and dense soil.
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Mode of spread and survival
Sporangia, a soil-dwelling organism, is dispersed by wind, irrigation
water and rain.
Management
Effective preventive treatments include choosing a suitable location with
good drainage, using resistant rootstocks, and preventing water contact with
the tree trunk by using the ring technique of irrigation. Alternately, the
diseased areas can be removed with a sharp knife, and the cut surface can
then be cleaned with a solution of mercuric chloride (0.1%) or potassium
permanganate (1%) with a cotton swab. Bordeaux is painted onto the portion
of the stem that is 1 m above the ground to help suppress the disease.
Ridomil MZ 72@ 2.75 g/l or Aliette (2.5 g/l) are other effective treatments
for treating the illness.
Scab/Verrucosis: Elsinoe fawcetti

Symptoms
Initially appearing as tiny semi-translucent spots on the underside of the
leaves, the lesions eventually develop into sharply defined pustular
elevations. Later phases frequently result in leaves that are twisted, wrinkled,
stunted, and malformed. On the fruit, lesions appear as corky protrusion that
frequently scab over. There is a circular depression with a pink to crimson
centre on the surface opposite the warty growth.
Pathogen
Simple, innate, intra- or subepidermal, tiny, pulvinate to crustose and
partially erumpent at maturity are the characteristics of Elsinoe fawcetti.
Ovoid asci are asci. Acervuli generate hyaline to yellowing conidia, which
are produced by the ascospores, which are 1-3 septate, oblong to elliptical.
Hyaline, ablong, elliptical conidia with two tiny droplets at their extremities.
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Mode of Spread and Survival
The infection spreads through Conidia and survives in the off-season as
ascospores.
Management
The fruit, leaves, and twigs that are infected should be gathered and
disposed of.
Carbendazim 0.1% spraying is very efficient.
Canker: Xanthomonas campestris pv citri
Symptoms
Acid grapefruit, lime, and lemon are impacted. On mandarins and sweet
oranges, rare. affects fruits, twigs, and leaves. Leaves are not deformed with
canker. On both sides of the leaf, lesions are often circular with a yellow
halo and become severe in acid lime (difference from scab) Twigs become
girdled and perish when lesions form on them. Canker lesions on fruit lower
their market value.
Pathogen
It is an aerobic, Gram-negative, non-spore-forming bacteria. It has a
rod-like shape, produces chains and capsules, and has a single polar
flagellum for movement.
Favourable conditions
20 minutes of free moisture at 20 to 30 °C.
Mode of survival and spread
Splashes of rain and wind. survives for six months in diseased leaves.
Leaf miner damage facilitates the bacterium's ingress.
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Disease cycle
Management
500-1000 ppm of streptomycin sulphate, or 2500 ppm of phytomycin, or
0.2% of copper oxychloride every two weeks. When the young flush is
formed, control leaf miners. Before the start of the monsoon season, prune
seriously affected twigs.
Tristeza or quick decline: Citrus tristeza virus (CTV)
Symptoms
Lime is vulnerable as a seedling and as a budding plant on any root

stock. However, mandarin and sweet orange seedlings can be grown on
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bitter lemon, trifoliate orange, or citrange; Rangpur lime root stocks are
tolerant; grapefruit and sour orange are vulnerable root stocks. On sensitive
root stocks, sweet orange or mandarin leaves exhibit deficiency symptoms
and wither. Twigs die back, roots deteriorate. Fruit set declines, leaving only
the skeleton. The inner face of the sour orange stock's bark has fine pitting.
Regardless of the root stock, grapefruit and acid lime are susceptible. Large
numbers of vein specks can be seen on acid lime leaves (elongated
translucent area). Tree that is stunted and dies produces far less fruit. Fruits
are tiny things. The main vector is the use of infected bud wood and
Toxoptera citricida (aphid).
Pathogen
The 2000 x 12 nm citrus tristeza virus is a long, flexuous rod. There
have been reports of three strains: moderate, severe, and seedling yellow.
Mode of spread
Utilization of diseased bud wood the significant vector is the aphid,
Toxoptera citricida.
Management
Avoid using root stocks that are vulnerable for delicious orange and
mandarin. Use seedlings that have been immunised with a weak strain of
tristeza for acid lime.
Exocortis of scaly butt: Viroid
Symptoms
Only has an impact on the root stocks of citrange, trifoliate orange, and
rangpur lime. scaling and vertical cracking of the bark along the entire root
stock. extreme plant stunting
Pathogen
Without a protein covering, viroids are free RTVA.
Mode of Spread and Survival
Usually, contaminated tools, wood, and infected buds serve as the
means of transmission. not using seed and vector.
Management
To manage the aphid vector, spray with any one of the systemic
insecticides. Utilize certified virus-free bud wood and tolerant stocks, such
as rough lemon Wash the budding knife with a disodium phosphate solution
every so often.
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Greening: Liberobacter asiaticum (Phloem limited bacteria)
Symptoms
Regardless of the root stock, this disease affects practically all citrus
types. Leaf stunting, low foliation, twig dieback and a meagre harvest of
mostly worthless, green fruits are all symptoms. Sometimes a tree's damage
is limited to a certain area. foliar chlorosis in a variety of forms. Frequently,
a kind of mottling that resembles a zinc shortage predominates. Young
leaves start out looking normal but quickly acquire an upright position, turn
leathery, get prominent veins, and turn a dull, olive-green colour. circles of
green colour on the leaves. Many twigs become upright and generate smaller
leaves. Small, asymmetrical fruits with a concave columella. The side that
receives direct sunlight turns completely orange, whereas the other side stays
a dull olive green. High in acid, low in juice and soluble solids. Both as fresh
fruit and for processing, useless. Dark-colored, poorly formed and abortive
seeds.
Pathogen
Rickettsia like organisam.
Mode of spread
Infected budwood; psyllid vector-Diaphorina citri.
Management
Utilize pesticides to manage psyllids. Use bud wood free of pathogens
for propagation. Tetracycline spray, 500 ppm, is to be used every two weeks.
References
1. Atikinson JD. Diseases of tree Fruits. Government Printer Wellington,
New Zealand, 1971.
2. Duggar BM. Fungous Diseases of Plants. Agrobios (India). Agri House
Behind Nasrani Cinema Jodhpur, 2002.
Page | 101
3. Agrios GN. Plant Patholgy. Academic Press Inc London and New York,
2005.
4. Mehrotra RS, Aggarawal A. Plant Pathology 2nd Edition. Tata McGraw
Hill Publishing Company Ltd New Delhi, 2006.
5. Singh RS. Diseases of Fruit Crops. Oxford and IBH Pub. Co. Ltd New
Delhi, 2000.
6. Singh S. Plant Diseases. Oxford and IBH Pub. Co. Ltd New Delhi,
1993.
7. Chand G, Akhtar N, Kumar S. (Eds.). Diseases of Fruits and Vegetable
Crops: Recent Management Approaches (1st ed.). Apple Academic
Press, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1201/9780429322181
8. Babu KJ, Laxminarayana P, Reddy SM. Evaluation of different volatile
compounds in the control of fruit-rot of lemon. Pesticides. 1983;17:35-
38.
9. Bhargava SN. Aspergillus rot on Citrus aurantifolia fruits in the market.
Plant Disease Reporter. 1972;56:64.
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Chapter - 7
Climate-Smart Agriculture: A Step towards
Achieving Agricultural Sustainability
Authors
Partha Pratim Maity
Division of Environment Science, ICAR-Indian Agricultural
Nandita Mandal
Sujan Adak
Surjya Kanta Roy
Division of Agricultural Extension, ICAR-Indian Agricultural
Sourav Sarkar
Division of Agricultural Entomology, ICAR-Indian
Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India
Page | 103
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Chapter - 7
Climate-Smart Agriculture: A Step towards Achieving
Agricultural Sustainability
Partha Pratim Maity, Nandita Mandal, Sujan Adak, Surjya Kanta Roy and
Sourav Sarkar
Abstract
The Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reports that
due to a rise in greenhouse gas concentration, the global mean annual
temperature was found to be 0.40°-0.76 °C higher at the end of the 20th century
than it was at the end of the 19th century (IPCC, 2007). In its Fifth Assessment
Report (AR5), the IPCC forewarns us of climate change's disastrous effects
on several agricultural sectors. As a result, an increase in the frequency of
catastrophic weather events have all become routine occurrences in recent
years. The idea of climate smart agriculture (CSA) has emerged as a response
to the changing climate as a strategy that can help enhance agricultural
production and income for low-income households. It explores the
connections between the all three CSA pillars (i.e. productivity, adaptation,
and mitigation) and their role in order to achieve the sustainable agricultural
development goals. For instance, CSA helps to develop climate-resilient
agricultural systems through improving soil properties, water and nutrient use
efficiency, yield stability, and reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.
Despite CSA's promise to accomplish sustainable agriculture, there are weak
connections between its field-level components. More prominently, there is
still limited assessment of the adaptation and mitigation potential of CSA
techniques.
Keywords: Climate change, climate change adaptation and mitigation,
sustainable agricultural, climate-smart agricultural practices
1. Introduction
In past few decades, greenhouse gases (GHGs) concentration in the air
have increased due to anthropogenic actions. Carbon dioxide (CO2) levels in
the atmosphere have raised from 280 ppm during pre-industrial era to 400 ppm
(Dlugokencky and Pieter 2015). The contribution of greenhouse gas emissions
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varies across different sectors such as 57.8% from energy, 21.7% from
industry, 17.6% from agriculture and 3% from waste management. The main
sources of greenhouse gases emission are rice farming (20.9%), soil (13%),
and crop residue burning (2%), accounting for 35.9% of the total agricultural
emission (INCCA, 2010). Increased GHG concentrations will lead to
increased surface temperatures and changes in precipitation patterns. Climate
change will undoubtedly have an impact on agricultural productivity.
Agriculture must play a significant role in efforts to reduce GHG emissions
on a worldwide scale because the negative relationship between agriculture
and climate change is widely documented (FAO, 2010; Lipper et al., 2014).
A strategy for implementing innovative agricultural techniques to assist
productivity, adaptation, and mitigation in the context of climate change is
known as "climate smart agriculture", a term first used in 2009 (Lipper et al.,
2014). The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations
defines CSA as agricultural practices that boost production, enhance resilience
(adaptation), reduce emissions of greenhouse gases (mitigation) when
necessary, and support the achievement of development and food security
goals (FAO, 2013a). Agricultural practises that increase agricultural
productivity, develop resilience (adaptation), and minimise GHGs emission
(mitigation), thus help to attain food security and sustainable development
goals (FAO, 2010). CSA is a method for achieving sustainable agricultural
development that makes use of scientific ideas and financial resources (FAO,
2013b). Ability to adapt might be able to solve the most important issues
caused by global warming for a price that would likely be less than the costs
of the consequence of not developing. By ensuring improved farming practises
and lowering greenhouse gas emissions, CSA is a relatively new strategy that
aids in raising agricultural productivity and household revenue for the poor.
CSA is a successful strategy to increase agricultural productivity and feed
everyone on the planet in the face of changing climate. It was devised as a
framework to capture the notion that agricultural systems can be developed
and put to use simultaneously to improve food security and rural livelihoods,
make it simpler to adjust to climate change, and provide other advantages. The
idea of CSA is still being developed, and little study has been done to examine
how it relates to sustainable agriculture and how CSA practises could be
promoted to achieve food security goals. The field level connections between
the CSA components are inadequate, despite the potential for successful
application of CSA to accomplish the sustainable agricultural development
goals. More notably, concepts may not be well understood by different levels
of stakeholders. In order to achieve the objectives of food security and
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sustainable development, it will be possible to respond to climate change more
comprehensively and to expand the use of CSA practises. Scaling up and
spreading CSA practises at the field level are therefore crucial to achieving a
sustainable and better future.
2. The concept of Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA)
In order to characterise the relationship between raising global
agricultural output, enhancing agricultural systems' adaptability to climate
change, and lowering greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from agriculture, the
word "CSA" was developed in 2009. (FAO, 2013b). The concept of CSA was
established and defined at the first Global Conference on Agriculture, Food
Security, and Climate Change in 2012 at the Hague. According to IPCC, CSA
is a set of activities that enhance the accomplishment of food security and
growth, boost resilience, reduce GHG emissions, and promote productivity in
a sustainable manner (IPCC, 2012). The development and growth of
agriculture is regarded as being essential to eradicating hunger and poverty.
CSA is not a standardized, specialized method or practice in agriculture. This
system requires on site assessments to identify the ideal approaches and
procedures for cultivating agricultural crops.
3. Pillars of “Climate-Smart Agriculture”:
The CSA concept is based on three pillars as described below:
3.1 Productivity
The first pillar focuses on improving agricultural productivity and
livelihood in a sustainable manner. CSA enhances agricultural practises to
boost output and income from fisheries, livestock, and crops while minimising
environmental damage. Additionally, it enhances the security of food and
nutrients (Branca et al., 2011). Productivity can be increased through using
green energy sources, managing resources well, using technology to conserve
resources, managing land use, etc.
3.2 Adaptation
The second pillar focuses on building resilience in the future changing
climate. Adaptation aims to “reduce the vulnerability of human or natural
systems to the impacts of climate change and climate-related risks by
maintaining or enhancing the adaptive capacity and resilience of the system”
(OECD-DAC 2011). Initiatives that promote adaptation lessen the
vulnerability of natural and human system to the effects of climate change.
The agricultural industry can adjust to climate change by taking specific
actions like developing better crop varieties or by making systemic
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modifications like diversifying sources of income, improving resource
management through institutional reforms, etc.
3.3 Mitigation
By addressing the sources of the emissions, mitigation aims to lower the
concentration of GHGs in the atmosphere. Technologies that lower GHGs
emission are incorporated into mitigation plans for climate change. A
significant amount (30%) of the world's GHG emissions are caused by
agricultural and deforestation operations, which offers enough room for
mitigation. Following are the three approaches for reducing the impact of
climate change in agriculture:
i) Reducing GHG emissions: By effectively managing nitrogen and
carbon flows in agricultural ecosystems, emissions of CO2, CH4, or
N2O can be reduced.
ii) Avoiding or replacing emissions: The agricultural industry has a lot
of room to improve energy efficiency. For example, switching to
biofuels from fossil fuels in agricultural activities can prevent or
replace a sizable portion of GHG emissions.
iii) Emissions removal: CSA operations can remove and sequester
GHGs or their precursors from the atmosphere.
4. The relationship among “CSA” and “sustainable agriculture”:
Environment, society, and economy are the three main aspects of
sustainable agriculture (Figure 1), which work together to promote social
equity, a prosperous economy and a healthy environment (FAO, 2014). CSA
promotes agricultural productivity and sustainability, just like other
sustainable agriculture approaches. IFAD defines "climate smart agriculture"
as sustainable agriculture that incorporates a resilience-based approach to
reducing emissions of greenhouse gases in 2012.
CSA Sustainable = Agriculture + Resilience - Emissions
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Fig 1: “Sustainable agriculture” emphasizes ecological, societal and economic
factors
Source: Modified from Brodt et al. (2011)
The foundation of agricultural sustainability is the idea that we must
satisfy our needs while not jeopardising the ability of future generations to
satisfy their own needs. Natural and human resources must be preserved,
together with social capacities such rural society's needs, worker living and
working circumstances, and people's safety and well-being by giving these
things value for present and the future. By taking sustainability into account,
CSA also places a focus on the treatment of animals in agricultural operations,
agro-ecosystems, and food systems.
5. CSA methods for “sustainable agriculture”
5.1 Managing resources effectively
An important element of the climate-smart agriculture and the
environment of the future is resource management. Ineffective resource
management could result in the loss of about one-third of the available food
supply (Hartter et al., 2017). All facets of the food supply chain, such as
cultivation, shipping, preservation, handling, food preparation, and
consumption, are projected to need to be improved in order to manage
resources more effectively (FAO, 2010). The creation of domestic goods and
food preparation uses about 90% of the wood that is discarded.
5.2 Improving land-use management
The risks connected with global warming's impact on agriculture can be
reduced by altering the concentration at which plant feeds and insecticides are
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applied as well as the location of plant and animal production (Basche, 2015;
Ahmad et al., 2014). Farm operations can be changed to help the soil, such as
changing the watering schedule or using additional materials like plant
nutrients (Braimoh and Osaki, 2010).
5.3 Encouraging green energy technology for agricultural systems
To minimize greenhouse gas emissions, agriculture must adopt the right
technical innovations. The environment is greatly impacted by a number of
recent inventions, including wind turbines, home solar panels, photovoltaics,
biogas abatement units, bio-oil exploration, advances in information and
communication technology, and other practices (Basche, 2015; Bochtis et al.,
2014).
5.4 Crops genetic modification of crops
This CSA strategy aids to raise crop variety productivity is genetic
editing. Crop genetic modification causes a significant revolution in crop
research every 25 years, which nearly doubles the output to feed a vast world
population (Basche, 2015). By reducing the risks of environmental conditions,
new plant kinds that are resistant to heat, famine, and salt stress can be
provided, which will improve genetic modification processes. A vital
component of defence against insect pest attack and environmental threats has
been an inherited variety of seeds. Similarly, to balance plant growth risks
with other conditions of the working environment, there is a need to develop
resistant plant cultivars (Basche, 2015)
5.5 Bringing changes in cropping season
Cultivating high yielding varieties, intensifying agriculture, and adapting
to diverse hydrological circumstances are all examples of modified agriculture
systems (Pathak et al., 2012). By reducing the sterility brought on by the high
temperatures, adjusting the growing season may assist the flowering interval
match the most recent time (Arslan et al., 2015). It is possible to alter planting
or planting time in dry and semi-arid tropical locations to prevent harsh
weather, which can help mitigate the effects of climate change (Basche, 2015).
5.6 Relocation of crops
Plants and varieties are sorted according to their susceptibility to climatic
conditions when crops are relocated. For it to grow vegetatively and
reproduce, a certain amount of daylight, humidity, and temperature are
required. Therefore, the sowing and transplanting times should be favourable
for the crop in order to promote a steady growth of the plant. Similar to that,
harvesting timing should be considered in order to ensure proper harvesting
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and minimise harvesting loss (Baba et al., 2017). Additionally, few plants,
such as tea, apple, pear, and others, are tightly linked to prolonged periods of
heavy rain or hot, dry weather.
5.7 Efficient pest management
Traditional agricultural pest control practises are quite bad for the
environment. Chemical pest control is hazardous to both humans and those
creatures already living in the ecosystem. There aren't many natural or
environmentally friendly pesticides, despite the fact that few chemicals such
as insecticides, herbicides, and medications for crop diseases have been
outlawed by the governments in several nations. CSA provides the opportunity
to implement ecologically beneficial pest control methods, such as integrated
pest management (IPM). The employment of several bio-agents and plant-
based bio-controls, such as light traps, nets, and polythene, is one example of
an integrated pest management (IPM) strategy that combines biological and
physical measures. The CSA encourages the creation of numerous pest-
resistant cultivars.
5.8 Forecasting system development
Forecasting is the term for the early warning system for weather, pest
attacks, harvesting times, and yield. Early warning and weather forecasting
technologies help to lower the likelihood of environmental problems. Policy
makers and scientists can efficiently use information and communication
technology (ICT) to plan concurrent projects (Alam et al., 2018a).
5.9 Crop modelling approach
Crop simulation modelling is a newly created novel tool that works to
lessen the risks in farming. Models can offer a chance to discover impending
environmental concerns that could affect crop development in the future
(Neufeldt et al., 2013). For field tests to create novel crop control technology,
crop simulation design is a crucial resource. According to this viewpoint, two
of his crop protection systems, such as the Decision Support Program for
Agricultural Technology Transfer (DSSAT) and the Agricultural
Manufacturing Program Simulator (APSIM), are primarily used on a global
scale (Ahmad et al., 2014).
5.10 Integrating forecasting and simulation modelling
If they are properly modified and validated in field tests, crop simulation
model can effectively compute and assess the influence of a particular stress
situation on plants' efficiency. The designs of the plants allow for variations
in ecological elements like temperature and simulate the responses of the
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plants. Due to the complexity of the problem, research and development are
needed to forecast the requirements of a crop (Sabarina and Priya, 2015).
5.11 Implementing technical knowledge of farmers
The majority of farmers, especially from Africa and Asia, have vast
experience in the many techniques used to manage environmental problems.
To satisfy the needs of the current world, this kind of competence is needed.
People's traditional ecological knowledge could offer several
recommendations and potential solutions to environmental challenges
(Andrieu et al., 2017). Traditional farmers were fairly knowledgeable about
famine, landslides, and earthquakes, and they had developed superior
strategies to mitigate their effects (Branca et al., 2011). For example, the use
of forests adjacent to agricultural areas strengthens and increases pollination
(Bryan et al., 2016).
5.12 Encouraging institutions' contribution to CSA improvement
The CSA strategy must have institutional support in order to be
implemented. The transfer of new technologies and technical innovation both
depend heavily on institutions. Climate-smart technologies can be adopted
with the help of institutions like agricultural field schools (Alam et al., 2018b).
As the goal of CSA is to increase people's and ecosystems' ability to withstand
natural disasters on a local and global scale, it needs organization backup in
the form of knowledge, innovation, investment, and insurance to fully realise
the potential of this strategy (Arslan et al., 2018).
6. Policy instrumentation
Government policies, in conjunction with a solid legal and regulatory
framework, should be in alignment with and supportive of CSA interventions.
Each CSA component is significantly influenced by laws and policies, which
may make it easier or harder for stakeholders to embrace them. The NAPCC
(National Action Plan on Climate Change) launched by government of India
in 2008, primarily aims at enhancing our ability to conserve natural resources
and increase our energy efficiency in order to combat changing climate. The
Indian government launched a number of other programmes in addition to
NAPCC to promote CSA. These programmes include the National Food
Security Mission (NFSM), Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Program (AIBP),
and National Project on Promotion of Balanced Use of Fertilizers (NPPBUF).
The PMFBY (Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana) is a crop insurance program
that was established to give farmers financial protection in the event that their
crops were destroyed by pest and disease infestations as well as by natural
disasters like hailstorms, cyclones, floods, and drought. In the 151 districts of
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India, climate-resilient villages are being created as part of NICRA (National
Initiative on Climate Resilient Agriculture) program. The Indian government
has introduced numerous programmes to carry out CSA's goals. For these
policies to be implemented successfully, all stakeholders, including
government agencies, businesses, farmers, and bureaucrats, must actively
participate.
To determine how effective these policies are, it is necessary to monitor
them and undertake regular evaluations of their effects. Through extension
employees and awareness campaigns, it is important to educate the farming
community about these policies, CSA practises, and their implications. To
improve current policies or develop new ones, researchers, farmers, and other
stakeholders should collaborate to construct an effective feedback mechanism.
Increased funding is required to upgrade the on-the-ground facilities for
agricultural produce storage, transportation, processing, and marketing. Small
or marginal farms should receive incentives or subsidies in order to embrace
CSA techniques. In the context of climate change, a robust and successful plan
for the promotion and successful implementation of CSA by all stakeholders
is required to ensure sustainability in agricultural production and food and
nutritional security.
7. Constraints
Identifying barriers to adoption of CSA practices by various stakeholders
and taking advantage of opportunities already available are necessary for
successful implementation. Below are the main barriers to adopting his CSA
technology by Indian farmers (Deepika and Saravanan 2018).
i) Farmers in rainfed areas, especially those with small landholdings,
lack space to install water harvesting infrastructure.
ii) There are fewer workers available to carry out CSA operations.
iii) Local dealers or traders don't provide the farmers with high-quality
inputs.
iv) Farmers are unaware of and unwilling to accept CSA practices.
v) Shortage of appropriate market infrastructures.
vi) Farmers' difficulties to obtain financial options for crop insurance.
vii) Farmer disputes that arise while doing extension activities like
training sessions and demonstrations, etc.
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8. Conclusions
Climate change and its consequences are the primary problems affecting
agriculture, livelihoods, and food security in this century. By implementing
early warning and climatic condition forecasting systems are useful in
lowering the risks of climate losses. Using crop simulation models for high
crop yield, the potential dangers of climate variance can be avoided. Without
the knowledge, technical proficiency, and skilled labour required to maintain
agroecosystems successfully, they cannot be sustained over the long term.
Sustainability necessitates a diversified and adaptable knowledge base that
draws on both formal, experimental science and farmers' own in-depth local
knowledge because agriculture is a dynamic and location-specific industry.
Social structures that support farmer-scientist collaborations, foster
innovation, and support farmer-scientist education can boost agricultural
productivity and long-term sustainability. A truly sustainable agriculture
requires the interdependence of social, economic, and environmental
sustainability. For instance, in order to survive, poor farmers are frequently
forced to mine natural resources like soil fertility, even though doing so may
eventually harm their ability to make a living. Societies may only encourage
more sustainable farming systems by establishing policies that integrate
social, environmental and economic concerns.
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Chapter - 8
Information and Communication Technology
(ICT) for Development of Veterinary Education
and Livestock Farming in India
Authors
SK Md Sadique Anwar
Department of Livestock Products Technology, West Bengal
University of Animal and Fishery Sciences, Kolkata,
West Bengal, India
Souvik Dhara
Department of Animal Reproduction, Gynaecology and
Obstetrics, Assam Agricultural University, Guwahati, Assam,
India
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Chapter - 8
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) For
Development of Veterinary Education and Livestock
Farming in India
SK Md Sadique Anwar and Souvik Dhara
Abstract
The use of information and communication technologies can help the
traditional Indian farmer to learn important information about livestock
management and processing technology, animal husbandry practises,
veterinary health care and treatment, animal insurance, customer assistance,
and livestock economics and management. ICT tools are also plays crucial
role for transferring knowledge in veterinary teaching and learning
procedure. In India in current scenario the status of ICT tools in livestock
sector is still in an increasing trend. The successful implementation of ICT
projects by state, corporate, cooperative and non-governmental organisations
revolutionised livestock services, improving the quality of life for the
population engaged in livestock farming through social and economic gains
and enabling the Indian livestock industry to share in the profits.
Keywords: Information and communication technology, veterinary teaching
learning, livestock sector
Introduction
Livestock plays an important part of the Indian production system for
agriculture, as well as the national economy and the socioeconomic growth
of millions of rural peoples. The demand for knowledge-intensive work
performance has increased across all economic sectors as a result of
globalization and intensifying competition. Rapid dissemination of technical
information from the Agricultural Research System to local farmers and the
reporting of farmers' feedback to the research system are two of the most
crucial inputs in agricultural technology transfer. The development of society
has been significantly influenced by information and communication
technologies (ICTs). For many decades, India has been experimenting with
introducing information and communication technologies to remote regions
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in an attempt to spur economic and social development therein. Indigenous
knowledge can be retained and transmitted utilizing ICT tools, that can also
enrich public views and act as a critical resource of empowerment, especially
for the socially and economically underprivileged segment of society.
Access to electronic media, along with the growth of knowledge and
technology, has created new opportunities for the production and
dissemination of information. It is universally acknowledged that ICT plays
a crucial role in the advancement of livestock science, quality education, and
extension in order to enhance the standard of living for underprivileged
livestock farmers in remote areas. ICT can help an orthodox Indian farmer
to obtain relevant information about livestock management and processing
technologies, systems for caring for and treating animals, animal insurance,
consumer assistance, and livestock economics and management, along with
many other matters. ICT is largely being used by livestock extension
programmes to equip farmers with relevant and site-specific technologies so
they can give quick and accurate guidance. The infrastructure for livestock
research and education can also be expanded using ICT, in addition to being
utilized to construct cyber livestock extension.
All information and communication technologies (ICTs) are referred to
as ICTs, which covers not only digital formats like the internet or World
Wide Web (WWW), but also links with radio, cables, satellite broadcasts,
multimedia, mobile devices, and print advertisements. Information and
communication technology (ICT) is a wide range of technologies that are
used to improve the quality, quantity, and delivery of information to students
in educational systems. In order to project the contemporary and complex
concepts with high comprehension and alluring vision among the students,
agricultural education likewise needs more of these advances. ICT gives
education a lot of flexibility so that students can access information
regardless of their location or time. ICT gave the widely used distance
education programs-which are now highly popular-a boost. Therefore, the
globalization of education will finally be brought about by the ICT-enabled
educational system, primarily in developing nations like India. The nation's
current digital gap can be closed with the effective use of ICTs for
educational purposes. With this context, the goal of the current project was
to evaluate the ICT resources in terms of student usage patterns, personal
ICT tool usage, and tool use for specific purposes.
Application of information and communication technology to veterinary
education
ICT has the potential to be useful for veterinary students, as well as for
the teaching of courses, evaluations, research, systemic reforms, and most
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importantly, teacher education, by overcoming the traditional issues of scope
and accessibility through digital, whenever, anytime accessibility (Short,
2002). ICT offers new tools to improve the accessibility, knowledge
management, and communicating, which is a big possibility for skilled
learning such as veterinary and animal science. ICT also has the potential to
enhance the quality of life (Short, 2002). The word "ICT" now refers to all
technological tools used to manage information and facilitate
communication, including required desktop and networking software and
hardware (Bindu, 2016; Srinivas et al., 2018). In many ways, the veterinary
education has been at the forefront of the application of these technologies,
starting with early work in 1992 on the use of videodiscs to store and
broadcast digital veterinary images.
For undergraduate and post graduate teaching and learning
A growing trend in undergraduate and graduate education is the use of
computer-aided educational aids in academic institutions, teaching
programmes, computer-based learning (CBL), using artificial intelligence
software, animal experiment simulation software, and computer-assisted
clinical diagnosis software across all educational systems, including
veterinary education, globally. Distance and online education are required
for field veterinarians and faculty in veterinary institutions to enhance their
skills and knowledge. Higher standards of veterinary education can be
achieved through the adoption of e-learning, tele-veterinary medicines,
online laboratories, digital classes, and virtual seminars. It is possible to
improve the quality of veterinary education in the nation through using video
conferencing more extensively to broadcast and distribute whole
coursework, simulated exams, workshops, and short discussions. Animal
experimentation laws and other associated challenges, as well as the current
century's restricted resources, pose a serious danger to veterinary education.
In this situation, alternating teaching is a requirement. Therefore, it is
necessary to incorporate computer-based learning (CBL) that makes use of
artificial intelligence software, software for simulating animal experiments,
and software for computer-assisted clinical diagnostics. Modern computers'
speed and interaction not only make learning self-paced and self-motivated,
but they also lighten the load on teachers. The undergraduate veterinary
program requires a significant renovation in order to incorporate the
numerous information technology aspects and improve the effectiveness and
interest of the learners' academic opportunity. Computer assisted instruction
(CAI) inclusion and the utilization of CD ROMs for classroom instruction
will be important instruments. The use of IT resources in teaching more
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complex medical procedures and surgical techniques can help students
develop their abilities.
The most popular ICT devices among veterinary students are the
television, computer and cell phone. The majority of students felt that using
ICT was essential for studying since it speeds up the learning process, boosts
OGPA, and provides better information retrieval than a library (Chakravarthi
et al., 2017). E-learning has paved the way to share the knowledge across the
country through educational satellite such as EDUSAT.
Srinivas et al. (2018) conducted an experiment to observe the usage
pattern of ICT tools in Indian farm universities. The study was reported that
the white boards, televisions and projectors are used on daily basis by most
of the students. Whereas, e-library and university website are used
occasionally. Daily use of ICT tools are more in Bihar followed by
Telangana, Jharkhand and Andhra Pradesh. The study also reported that the
availability of mobile and tablet were same in all the selected sates but the
availability of PC or laptop was higher in Jharkhand.
Similarly Rajeev and Hosure (2020) reported that the personal use of
ICT tools in Cvas, Mannuthy is more without any training on ICT and
majority of the professionals has an deficiency about the use of ICT tools in
their academic purpose.
During post covid scenario veterinary practical education became in a
challenging battle. Face-to-face interactions were not possible due to the
pandemic, so a variety of virtual learning techniques were developed on
internet platforms to continue the teaching and learning process in a practical
way at students' doorsteps. Academic staff actively participated in the
reconstruction and renovation of assets, enhanced their online capacities to
develop new ways to shift from one-on-one to distant virtual learning, and
practical teaching was implemented. Adopting virtual reality (VR) tools like
3D animations, software programmes, virtual dissections, and E-museums is
a terrific way to continue the learning connection during this unusual crisis
in a socially remote society. (Kapoor and Singh, 2021; Routh et al., 2021).
The impact of information and communication technologies on
veterinary education is already having a significant influence. This influence
is most likely to continue to intensify in the near future and will
fundamentally change how we instruct and learn. Longer term, these
advances offer significant chances to improve education and offer fresh
examples of lifetime learning and ongoing professional development (CPD).
Thought must be given to how to manage the adjustments necessary to use
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these new tools within the veterinary profession as they can initially
constitute a threat to conventional learning models.
Learning programme for field veterinarians
The distribution of CD-ROMs and distance learning over the connecting
of institutions and libraries utilising a digital platform make it simple to
maintain the technical knowledge of veterinary professionals. Higher
standards of veterinary education can be ensured through the introduction of
e-learning, tele-veterinary medicine, digital labs, online classes and
elearning. If developed and successfully implemented, tele veterinary
medicine can address the shortage of veterinarians, particularly in rural
areas. The inclusion of PG diploma programmes in a variety of areas in an e-
learning module has the potential to be useful and successful for working
veterinarians.
Distance and e-learning
Distance learning is an approach of imparting knowledge, skills, and
perceptions that is vindicated by the use of leadership theories, like the split
of workforce, in addition to the substantial utilisation multi-media, especially
for the purpose of facilitating superior comprehension of high-quality
teaching materials that enable guidance of vast figures of learners at a given
time, regardless of their location. Table 1 represents the different distance
mode courses offered by various veterinary institutions in India.
Characteristics of distance educations are as follows-
 Disconnection between the teacher and the student in space, time,
or both.
 This sort of education is separate from self-education that is not
officially recognised by a learning institution.
 Utilizing a variety of learning tools, such as computer-based
learning, telecommunications, printed broadcast, and television
broadcasts. Typically, software is pre-evaluated and authenticated
before use.
 Two-way synchronous or asynchronous communication enables
interaction between students and teachers.
 The ability to conduct tutorials, peer-to-peer learning activities,
library research and exercises in person.
 The use of mechanized methods, which divide manpower and give
responsibilities to different staff members who collaborate in
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curriculum design team in massive outdoor and virtual learning
programs.
Table 1: Different distance mode offered by various Indian veterinary institutions
Sl. Institute Duration

Course Name Type
No. name (Months)
1. Regenerative Medicine (PGDRM) PG Diploma TANUVAS 12
Small animal diagnostic ultrasound
2. PG Diploma TANUVAS 12
(PGDDUS)
Bovine infertility and its management
(PGDBIM)
Wild animal disease management
(PGDWADM)
5. Zoonoses (PGDZ) PG Diploma TANUVAS 12
Veterinary clinical laboratory diagnosis
(PGDVCLD)
7. Animal health economics (PGDAHE) PG Diploma TANUVAS 12
8. Ethno veterinary practice (PGDEVP) PG Diploma TANUVAS 12
Advanced reproductive biotechnology in
animal model (PGDARB)
Meat technology and quality assurance of
meat and meat products (PGDQAMP)
11. Participatory rural appraisal (PGDPRA) PG Diploma TANUVAS 12
12. Farm waste management (PGDFWM) PG Diploma TANUVAS 12
13. Veterinary endoscopy (PGDVEN) PG Diploma TANUVAS 12
Dairy processing and quality assurance
(PGDDPQA)
Commercial poultry production and
management (PGDCPPM)
Feed manufacturing technology
(PGDFMT)
17. Acaro-entomology (PGDAENT) PG Diploma TANUVAS 12
Post Graduate diploma in animal welfare
18. PG Diploma IGNOU 12
(PGDAW)
19. Animal reproductive biotechnology PG Diploma GADVASU 12
20. Small animal clinical practice PG Diploma GADVASU 12
Extension and entrepreneurship
21. PG Diploma GADVASU 12
management
22. Feed and fodder technology PG Diploma GADVASU 12
23. Laboratory diagnosis PG Diploma GADVASU 12
24. Poultry science PG Diploma GADVASU 12
25. One health PG Diploma GADVASU 12
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26. Short course in vet diagnostic imaging Certificate GADVASU 6
27. Short course in small animal anaesthesia Certificate GADVASU 6
28. CC in embryo transfer in farm animal Certificate GADVASU 6
Roles of ICT in teaching and learning in Agriculture and allied

education system (Salubi, 2019)
1. Students learn things permanently because ICT improves how
knowledge is presented to learners.
2. Students can acquire at their personal schedule and suited to their
capacities in respect of absorption time and rate.
3. Differentiated learning opportunities provided by multimedia are
used to meet the needs of individual learners, including those who
learn slowly or quickly and have varied learning styles.
4. The individual needs of each learner are satisfied.
5. The use of Information and communication prevents the vacuum
from being formed when learners (especially urban learners) are
unable to complete relevant practical activities in agricultural
science learning due to a lack of space.
6. Learners are liberated from impatient instructors since they possess
accessibility to other learning modalities obtained through ICT.
7. Learners are free from the vacuum caused by a lack of teachers in
the classroom. Schools near rivers or in rural areas are particularly
affected by this. ICT facilities can be used to improve this issue.
Application of information and communication technologies (ICT) to
livestock farming
In most developing nations, including India, agricultural extension
activities are typically focused on crop husbandry, whereas public domain
activities for livestock farming are frequently centered primarily livestock
breeding and healthcare facilities (Mehta et al., 2006). The measures for
giving continuous information on many areas of livestock farming, including
processing and marketing connectivity for animal-originated goods, are now
necessary due to developments in Indian animal husbandry. In the current
market high value food economy, the relevance of information for livestock-
based processing, product prices, and marketing has substantially expanded,
necessitating a change in how both public and commercial entities supply
livestock information (Ibrahimkhail, 2017). The dissemination of knowledge
to many stakeholders and farmers is facilitated in largely through veterinary
and animal husbandry extension.
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Ghosh (2001) reported that the use of information and communication
technology has begun in the dissemination of information in rural India,
including milk collection by national dairy development board (NDDB), the
M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation's Information Village Awareness
Project, and the IIM Ahmedabad Honey Bee Knowledge Network
(Ibrahimkhail, 2017). However, the use of ICT in Indian animal husbandry
sector neither is nor at desire level, but in a increasing trend. The principle
reasons for the underdeveloped ICT in the livestock sector are poor
economic status of farmers, lack of extension activities, irregular use of
technology, difficulties in collection of accurate information and the
imperfect network system etc. (Chakrabarti, 2017).
The most potent tool among the driving forces of globalisation is the
new information and communication technology (ICT). ICT has developed
into a potent tool to assistance in development due to the internet, CDs, and
mobile phones. In a similar manner, telemedicine is a growing sector where
ICT has efficiently brought urban medical resources to isolated rural
locations (Raja et al., 2017). The government uses ICT in a variety of ways
for managing animal health, preventing disease, feeding cattle, managing
herds and marketing milk (Meena and Singh, 2013).
Animal health management
Information and communication technologies are plays crucial role for
spreading awareness among farm households. Information can be
disseminated at different scales using the current information kiosks and
Messaging service of the cell cellphone infrastructure. Similarly, farmers can
be aided for a preliminary diagnosis of livestock diseases at their own point
with the aid of computer networks and computational modeling like "Animal
Health Information System" (AHIS) and "Poultry Expert System" (PES),
allowing them to comprehend the severity of the condition and seek
veterinarian assistance as soon as possible (Tiwari et al., 2010). Through the
use of these applications, they can also attempt the proper first aid services.
The network of computerised milk collecting centres may be
plays crucial role for these livestock owners to quick access of computers.
These software programmes can be readily accessible to these centres as
currently they are developed in India. The Indian Veterinary Research
Institute, Izatnagar, has created two participatory software packages for
animal health management, specifically for animal disease diagnosis
called "Animal Health Information System" (AHIS) in English for Para
veterinarians and farmhands, and "Health Information System for Dairy
Animals" in Marathi for Maharashtrian farmers. Employing Visual Basic 6.0
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and MS Windows, an information systems "Poultry Expert System" (PES)
was created to cover a few aspects of poultry husbandry. The ICT has
previously demonstrated its importance for livestock health care systems and
for effectively getting its information to livestock owners. The requirements
of different customers and locations could be used to construct a variety of
additional information management software packages and knowledge -
based systems. To further better serve the clientele, these might be translated
into their native tongue. In several sections of the country, research is being
done on how to construct such systems.
Feeding management through ICT
A windows-based programme called "MakeFeed" was created by
scientists at the Central Avian Research Institute to assist in formulating
balanced rations for optimum production results. In addition to the optimum
recommended dosage for each component, it provides information on the
nutritional values for a variety of feed ingredients.
Farm management using ICT tools
For better management of feeding, breeding, and milking of dairy
animals, commercial dairy farmers have recently started using computerized
dairy management systems.
 Farm animals are identified using an electronic chip tag and a
muzzle print. The orange tag is a straightforward system for
numbering the buffaloes to keep count of their number.
Additionally, the computer-stored number is electronically linked to
the computer-generated unique identification number. The smart
card has been securely locked underneath the blue tag, which is a
metallic cover. The blue metallic cover protects the card inside from
damage because buffaloes cannot be counted on to keep any type of
order. A connection is made with the physical ID at the time the
electronic ID is assigned. The card contains a wealth of data about
the buffalo, mostly on the following three counts (Misra, 2022).
 Using free software called "majordoma," which is accessible on
www.greatcircle.com on a public Linux operating system. The
Central Institute for Research on Goats (CIRG) has established an
email conference system for goat marketing on its goat-nic.in
server. The institute has created three email conferencing systems,
including goat-net@cirg.nic.in, livestock-net@cirg.nic.in and
fishnet@cirg.nic.in, to facilitate information exchange between
technicians, farmers, development administrators and organizers.
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 The Maharashtra "Warana Wired Village" project uses the current
digital system for milk procurement by dairy cooperatives
(http://www.generation5.org).
Farm management software
A programme for monitoring agricultural activities is called farm
management software, often known as livestock management software is
popularized. The supply chain activities of a farm are facilitated, managed,
and enhanced using these farm management software. The best strategy for
doing this is to keep computerized records of each animal for easy
management. Many farmers would rather utilize livestock management
software than struggle to maintain complicated conventional charts, graphs,
and records maintained.
The objectives of this farm management software are:
 Complete livestock details such as breed, species, sex, ear tag, color
and number, progeny and ideally a photograph of the animals.
 Techniques and drugs used in the care of livestock.
 Information on animal mating and pregnancy.
 Monitoring the progress of their body weight.
 Monitoring the milking process.
 Pregnancy screening.
 The capacity to send an SMS or email when your cattle requires
medical attention.
The benefits of the farm management software are -
 Improved Planning and Controlling
 Save Funds on Materials and Labour
 Better Risk Management
 Observe all Regulatory Obligations
 Improved pasture management
 Better growth
 Tracking of events
 Elaborate livestock records
 Improved management of feed
 Better tracking of dates
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ICTs as a tool of extension facilities
Mobile apps as a tool
 To provide extension services to the farming community, the
Department of Agriculture and Cooperation, Ministry of
Agriculture, Government of India, opened Farmer Call Centers
across the nation on January 21, 2004.
 In August 2011, the BSNL and IIT, Kanpur collaborated to launch
"Digital Mandi." The "Digital Mandi" implementation helps spread
the mandi (market) prices of various crops in an efficient manner
(Belakeri et al., 2017).
 The Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC),
Hyderabad, and the Tamil Nadu Agricultural University (TNAU)
collaborated to provide regular price information on 161 perishable
goods from 13 markets throughout South India.
 Pasuvani (AHVS helpline)-The Department of Animal Husbandry
and Veterinary Services (GOK) has constructed a "Toll free
number" to get information from veterinarians and other topic
experts as part of the Rashtriya Krishi Vikasa Yojana (RKVY)
programme, "Strengthening of Animal Disease Surveillance
Network".
You tube as a tool
Various you tube channels also acts as a tool of dissemination of
information to the farmers in local as well as English languages (Thakur and
Chander, 2018). Such as-
Indian Dairy farming, News 18 Hindi, Shramajeevi, IGNOU, Digital
Green, Dudhsagar Dairy Cooperative, PTC News, BAU Sabour,
Shramajeevi Agri Films, DD National, ABP Sanjha Pradesh News 18, Indian
Council of Agricultural Research.
Facebook groups
Some popular facebook groups are Pulse Crops Promotion group, Krishi
Jagran Kisan Club, Turmeric Farmers Association of India, Nalla Keerai
(Good Greens), How to do profitable poultry, Emu & Cattle farming?
Labhkari Pashupalan or Murgi Palan Kaise Karen, Vivasayam Karkalam
etc. are working throughout the nation.
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WhastApp groups
Some popular WhastApp groups are-
 Krishi Jagran Group (Farmers of the states of Rajasthan, Uttar
Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra).
 Pashu Palan group (Farmers of the states of Rajasthan,
Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh Haryana and Gujarat).
 Goat Owners group (Farmers of Pune and Mumbai).
Innovative ITC tools developed by various Indian institutes
Table 2 represents the tools developed by various Indian institutes for
livestock extension.
Table 2: ICT tools developed by various institutes in India and their target groups
(Source-Rai et al., 2017)
Sl. Name of the ICT

Name of the developer Target groups
No. tool
Front line extension
ILRI-ICRISAT-Available as
agents of public sector,
1. Dairy tool box free download from
NGO workers and
www.dairytoolbox.net
progressive farmers
Front line extension
Available on cost basis from
2. Drastic agents of public sector,
http://www.stirlingthorne.com
NGO workers
Available as a part of dairy Front line extension
3. Talking pictures toolbox on cost basis from agents of public sector,
http://www.stirlingthorne.com NGO workers
4. Information kiosk RAGACOVAS, Pondicherry Farmers
Poultry expert College of Veterinary
5. Organized poultry farmers
system Sciences, Hyderabad
Dairy information Operates across the dairy
6. NDDB-Amul-IIMA
system kiosk (DISK) chain
Various stakeholders
7. AHPC CABI International ranging from
professionals to farmers
Conclusion
Veterinary education, the livestock sector and farming practises in India
have all benefited from expanded information and communication
technology (ICT) programmes in the production of animals. State, corporate,
cooperative and non-governmental organisations successfully implemented
information and communication technology projects, revolutionizing
livestock production and animal health, improving the overall quality of life
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for the population engaged in livestock farming through social and economic
gains, and enabling the Indian livestock industry to share in the profits. In
terms of terms of intensity of use, the upsurge for latest information facilities
was observed to be more for agriculture, accompanied by livestock
information. In recent era the ICT technologies becoming widespread in
veterinary teaching learning system as well to field workers and farmers to
boost the livestock sector and productivity.
References
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Chapter - 9
Farming Systems Approach
Authors
Vishal Yadav
Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Extension Education, ANDUA &
T Kumarganj, Ayodhya, Uttar Pradesh, India
RK Doharey
Professor, Department of Extension Education, ANDUA &T
Kumarganj, Ayodhya, Uttar Pradesh, India
NR Meena
Assistant Professor, Department of Extension Education,
ANDUA & T Kumarganj, Ayodhya, Uttar Pradesh, India
Ashutosh Kumar Yadav
Ph.D. Scholar, Shree Durga Ji PG College, Chandeshwar,
Azamgarh, Uttar Pradesh, India
Preeti Yada
PG Scholar, Kulbhaskar Ashram PG College, Prayagraj,
Rama Shankar Yadav
PG Scholar, ANDUA & T Kumarganj, Ayodhya,
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Chapter - 9
Farming Systems Approach
Vishal Yadav, RK Doharey, NR Meena, Ashutosh Kumar Yadav, Preeti Yadav and
Kulbhaskar Ashram
Abstract
In India, there is minimal space for horizontal growth of land for food,
feed, fuel, and fibre production because of the country's constantly growing
population and declining per capita land availability. Integration of diverse
agricultural businesses is the only means of vertical expansion. Needing less
time and area while guaranteeing the farmer a regular income. Therefore, the
farming system approach assumes great importance for sound management
of farm resources to increase farm productivity, decrease the degradation of
environmental quality, improve the quality of life of farmers, and above all
to maintain sustainability in farm production and productivity.
Keywords: Farming, raised system, diversification, intensification,
supplementary and extension strategy
Introduction
India's public sector expansion has seen a number of changes since
gaining independence in 1947. The initial emphasis of extension was on
community and human development; but, for the rest of the 20th century,
there was a continuous shift toward technology transfer within the context of
food security policy.
The implementation of the Training and Visit (T&V) Extension
management system was the most important advancement throughout the
middle of the 1970s.
The Indian Extension system had reached a turning point by the 1990s.
Extension efforts were mostly carried out by state Departments of
Agriculture since for the last 20 years, Extension had concentrated on
propagating Green Revolution technologies for the primary grain crops
(DOA). Other line departments, such as Fisheries (DOF), Animal Husbandry
(DAH) and Horticulture (DOH), had very little capability for extension and
were primarily concerned with providing farmers with subsidised goods and
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services. These line departments also worked mostly independently, with
minimal interaction between them and their field personnel.
Under the National Agricultural Technology Project, the Government of
India (GOI) and the World Bank pilot-tested a new, decentralised, market-
driven extension strategy in the late 1990s (NATP). This innovative strategy
was created to support farmers in diversifying their operations into high-
value crops and livestock enterprises in an effort to boost farm incomes and
rural jobs (i.e. poverty alleviation). The Agricultural Technology
Management Agency (ATMA), which was responsible for facilitating and
coordinating "farmer-led" extension operations within each district, was the
essential organisation in putting this new strategy into practise.
The ATMA model's main components were:
1) Forming farmer interest groups (FIGs) out of small-scale farmers,
including women.
2) Connecting these groups to markets.
3) Delegating extension decision-making to the district and block
levels.
4) Adopting a more "farming systems" approach, which necessitated
the integration of extension activities across the various line
departments.
Now let us grasp the farming system approach (FSA) through concept
and terminology.
Concept
A farming system is a coordinated collection of tasks that farmers carry
out on their properties according to the resources at their disposal and the
conditions they find themselves in in order to optimise production and net
farm revenue in the long run. The farm family is at the centre of the
agricultural system, which includes the management of agriculture and
related activities as well as the elements of soil, water, crops, animals,
labour, money, energy and other resources.
The notion of the agricultural system is a collection of interconnected,
interacting features or components. The interaction's focal point is the
Farmer exercising control and choice over the interactions' forms of
outcomes. Small and marginal farms' crop-only revenue is now insufficient
to support the farmers' families. A careful blending of one or more of these
businesses with agronomic crops. Should increase agricultural revenue and
aid in recycling farm wastes and leftovers. The fundamental principles of
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limiting competition and enhancing complementarity between organizations
must guide the selection of businesses. In recent years, researchers using a
multidisciplinary approach have become increasingly aware of and have
begun to build several agricultural systems models in line with the agro-eco
systems zones. Since 1978, several studies on FSRE have been published in
various journals by scientists as well as extensionists, anthropologists, social
workers, and administrators.
Simmonds offers the following explanation of the farming system
approach in 1984: It involves theory, concepts, principles, techniques, and
other academic notions. It opens up the possibility of building diverse
models for various categories and types of farmers. On-farm research and
extension might be used to create new farming system approach models. It
results in a complicated shift that necessitates government interventions for
the growth of farming systems.
According to BIGGS (1985), the FSA idea is a strategy for farmers to
solve problems. A farming system method needs farmers who are typically
of the same sort. It is a multidisciplinary strategy. It is a participatory and
bottom up planning. It requires on farm trials. It depends on the concept
learning by doing and farming system approach needs socially desirable
technologies.
As a result, the idea of the farming system approach can be summed up
as being an all-encompassing strategy that is complex in nature, interrelated
of components, and made up of a matrix of soils, plants, animals, power,
implements, labour, capital and other inputs that are influenced by political,
economic, institutional and social forces.
Definitions
A farming systems approach considers the entire farm rather than just
individual components; it is motivated as much by objectives for output and
profitability as it is by the general welfare of farming households. Because
agriculture continues to be the main source of income for the majority of
people living in rural regions and because it also has a significant impact on
the lives of many people living in semi-urban areas, farming systems and
livelihoods are closely related.
Farming systems feature a complicated mix of inputs that are handled by
farming families but are also impacted by institutional, institutional,
political, economic and social issues.
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Research and extension organizations are becoming more and more
conscious that to effectively address poverty and sustainability, they need to
use a comprehensive strategy that incorporates both local and outside
expertise.
According to one definition, a farming system is "a complex interrelated
matrix of soil, plants, animals, implements, power, labour capital, and other
inputs controlled in part by farming families and influenced to varying
degrees by political, economic, institutional, and social forces that operate at
many levels. As a result, the farm is referred to in the farming system as an
organisation of interdependent farming operations that are conducted on the
farm.
The property is seen from all angles. Numerous socioeconomic,
ecological, institutional, administrative, and technical restrictions are placed
on farmers.
Need for farming system approach
The high cost of farm inputs, fluctuations in the market price of farm
output, risk in crop harvest owing to climatic vagaries, and biotic variables
are the key reasons for the need for farming systems approach in the current
situation. The situation is made worse by environmental deterioration, a
decline in soil fertility and production, unpredictable farmer income,
fragmented holdings, and a low quality of life.
What it is and what it does
It is a strategy for creating farm-household systems that is based on the
ideas of production, profitability, stability, and sustainability. Each element
is a complement and a supplement to the others. Rural communities also
participate in the development process. The agricultural system method
places an emphasis on knowing how farm households and communities
interact, analyses limits, and evaluates potentials. Additionally, it integrates
enhancements wished for by greater technology. Better policies are
necessary, as well as effective support services. Based on analysis, planning,
testing, monitoring, and evaluation, it is a continuous, dynamic and
interactive learning process.
Why Farming Systems Approach:
To develop farm-house hold systems and rural communities on a
sustainable basis.
To improve efficiency in farm production.
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To raise farm and family income.
To increase welfare of farm families and satisfy basic needs.
Two challenges are addressed by an intense integrated farming system:
reducing risk associated with monoculture operations and fostering
enterprise diversification, value addition and the development of other
revenue streams while making optimal use of farm resources.
Additionally, it improves the management of crucial farm resources like
land, labour and money, among others and encourages company
diversification for sustainability and added advantages.
Offers the chance for efficient product and by-product recycling,
contributes to the year-round flow of revenue to farmers through the disposal
of milk, fruits, fuel, manure, etc., together with other agricultural output.
Farming systems strategy
The only remaining option, given the severe restrictions on horizontal
land and agricultural expansion, is vertical expansion through various farm
enterprises, which require less space and time but produce high yields and
guarantee recurring income, especially for small and marginal farmers in
rainfed areas, dry lands, arid zones, hilly areas, tribal belts and problem soils.
The following farm enterprises could be combined:
Agriculture alone with different crop combinations
Agriculture + Livestock.
Agriculture + Livestock + poultry.
Agriculture + Horticulture + Sericulture.
Agro-forestry + Silvipasture.
Agriculture (Rice) + Fish culture.
Agriculture (Rice) + Fish + Mushroom cultivation.
Floriculture + Apiary (beekeeping).
Fishery + Duckery + poultry.
The following tasks should be carried out by a multidisciplinary team of
extension specialists with farmer input and involvement at all stages in order
to effectively implement integrated farm-enterprises.
 Thorough understanding of existing farming systems and their
components.
Page | 141
 Assessment of resource availability in the farm environment and
identification of bio-physical, socio-economic, institutional,
administrative and technological constraints.
 Creation of economically sound and effective integrated farming
systems that are suitable for various fields.
 Dissemination of new technology and gathering "feedback" to
improve the system as a whole.
 Continuous improvement in components technology to fit into a
given farming system.
 Improvement in quality of farming system.
 Linkage between research and extension through "On Farm
Adaptive Research".
 Development of National and International linkages.
Methodology adopted for grounding the concept of FSA
I. Identification of major socio-economic situations.
 Understanding dominant enterprises and most common existing
farming system.
 Analysis of economic viability of existing farming systems.
 Understanding relationship between different enterprises.
 Analysis of linkages between different farming systems.
II. Understanding the modifications made in existing farming system
by innovative farmers.
 Understanding the changing scenario in rural areas and its impact
on existing farming system.
 Identification of new market opportunities and its impact and
relevance to socioeconomic situation.
 Innovative farm families have made appropriate modifications to
the current agricultural system.
 Type of modification made (diversification or intensification of the
enterprises).
III. New options recommended by the Researchers/Extensionists.
 Identification of new suggested options by researchers/extensionists
around each dominant enterprise.
Page | 142
 Understanding the technological details about new options.
IV. Economic analysis of recommended options and working out
alternatives.
 Analysis of relative profitability of recommended options as
compared to existing farming system.
 Comprehension of the resource reallocation consequences of each
choice.
V. In the absence of any recommendations, work out an alternate
model by fine tuning the existing model (without major changes)
considering the resources, market, profitability and sustainability
 Propose an alternate model by fine-tuning the existing farming
system by working out the possibilities of diversification or
intensification of an enterprise.
 Determine knowledge and skill shortages so that the new model
may be implemented by comparing the economic analyses and
advantages of an alternative model to the existing one.
 Develop strategies and activities to overcome the gaps in
knowledge and skills.
 Testing the effectiveness of recommended options over a period of
time.
Carryout SWOT analysis in respect of different Farming Systems.
SWOT analysis is very useful tool in developing strategies as it helps in
identification of-
 Current strengths within existing farming systems and success
stories.
 Weaknesses within the existing farming systems.
 Opportunities, which are advantageous for optimal exploitation of
the existing farming systems in terms of providing, scope for new
market opportunities, new technologies, services etc.
 Real potential threats to the natural resource base, existing farming
systems and markets etc.
The identified issues and also the findings of SWOT analysis are to be
shared with the farmers to prioritize the issues with commonality of
understanding.
Page | 143
References
1. Agarwal A, Narain S. Towards Green Villages: A strategy for
Environmentally, Sound and Participatory Rural Development, Center
for Science and Environment, New Delhi, India, 1989.
2. Anderson JR. Agricultural Technology: Policy Issues for the
International Community. CAB International in Association with the
World Bank, Wallingford, U.K., 1994.
3. Batello C. Farming Systems in Arid Rangelands of Sriya and Jordan.
Case Study for Dixon J, Guliver A & Gibbon D. Global Farming
System Study: Challenges and Priorities to 2030, consultation
documents, World Bank/FAO, 2001.
4. Bazza M. Improved On-Farm Participatory Water Management to
Reduce Mining of Groundwater in Yemen’, Case Study for. Dixon J,
Gulliver A & Gallon D. Global Farming System, Study Challenges and
Priorities to 2030. Consultation Documents, World Bank/FAO, Route,
Italy, 2001.
5. World Bank Rural Development-From vision to Action. Study and
monograph Series 12, Environmental and Socially Sustainable
Development Department, World Bank, Washington, D.C., USA, 1997.
6. Carloni A Global Farming Systems Study: Challenges and Priorities to
2030-Regional Analysis: Sub-Saharan Africa, Consultation Document,
FAO, Rome, Italy, 2001.
7. Evenson RE. Agricultural Productivity and Production in Developing
Countries’. In FAO, the State of Food and Agriculture, FAO, Rome,
Italy, 2000.
8. Greenland DJ. The Sustainability of Rice Farming, IRRI and CAB
International, Oxfordshire, U.K., 1997.
Page | 144
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Diseases of Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.)

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