Action South African Journal of Science 96, Janlll1lY 2000 15

Aerosol Recirculation and

Experiment an
initial study on aerosol-cloud
interactions over South
Tel'blanche", M.P. Mitiermaier!
Bruintjes and R.P. Burger
C

Africa, and especial!ly its indus- and in a narrow size <tn"'C"Tl1rn

nla!hvl!h:I« 1s a sigrnificant source characteristics dt) not
sl'Il!hrllnflaenie and na11:1ral aero-
dent rain farmaHon.
This region produces
have to extrend above "'''''''''''<'-kO'
.... illl;n... l'''n.''''''
of sulfur dioxide
a year, mainly from the buming of order tor
atmospheric gas-to-particle
is transformed into hygro-

are more than

million tonnes each. South AffIca is
!i>rtuated in the be~t of the
hrrrH",<,r" where natura! and llUl'Ij,hnTn£,_
Reproduced by Sabinet Gateway under licence granted by the Publisher (dated 2010).

menls in lhe

water from90urces
centres of
need a better 1ulrl"r<:h;j",;in
between the (,Olmt"!',,·
tribute towards air
reet and indirect effects this could have on
and raiinx.dL
and Rainfall
 16 South African Journal of Science 96, January 2000 Research in Action

coast. We also investigated the hypothe- , \ ,

NeISP~uit~ .I~.
sis that industrial pollution affects rainfall
production in convective clouds. Two .-':' PRETORIA. • Wnt.ank i
MiddelburgI ---'_, i' I
case studies are discussed : . 26··---r---J-O-H-
AN-N-ES-B-U-
RG-.------~==~I----~ !~~M-
r
BA-B-A~
~~'~J~~
Belhal I ',' !
~~ I
• A data acquisition flight from the Potchefstroom Vereemgmg .Heidelberg :m.ka"E~eIO ;' Ma~zini ,J
highveld to the east coast using a Sou th / '
Piet Reti';fI SWAZI- I''-J'-' -' -'.
African Weather Bureau (SAWB) re- • "\ LAND
~" . ... .. , 1
search aircraft.
• A second flight over the highveld that ,
~ 8~~------~~~~--t ~
sampled the immediate vicinity of a
coal-fired power station, an oil-from- Ladysmith

coal utility, a biomass burning incident •

and a relatively remote site, downwind
of pollution sources.
BLOEMFONTEIN
. ,
"eMASERU
INDIAN
OCEAN

..' lESOTHO ,..

Study area, facilities and data
processing
The South African highveld is an ele-
vated plateau, approximately 1500 m
above sea level, with an annual rainfall of
600-800 mm. It is the source area for most
of South Africa's major rivers, including
the Vaal. To the east, the highveld comes
to an abrupt end at an escarpment known
as the Drakensberg. Further to the east,
the topography is characterized by steep
gradients and deep valleys of rivers flow-
ing to the Indian Ocean. The highveld is
an important agricultural area and the
abundance of coal and other minerals has
Reproduced by Sabinet Gateway under licence granted by the Publisher (dated 2010).
30' I
,~: ,--- ~ ...
,
.. ~ .. ,, o ! 100
28' 30' 32"
Fig, 1. The highveld and surrounding areas showing major towns and pollution sources. Also
indicated are the two GPS flight tracks discussed in the paper: The highveld-east coast flight of
23 January 1999 and the highveld pollution flight of 28 January 1999.
social reform strategy. This and related in- Airborne data
formation is available on the Eskom web One of the SAWB's two Aero-
page (http ://www.eskom.co.za). commander 690A research aircraft was
South Africa also operates two oil- equipped with instrumentation as listed
from-coal plants (SASOL) on the high- in Table 1 for the ARREX 1999 summer
veld to compensate for the lack of campaign.
economically exploitable oil and gas The Aerocommander 690A is a pressur-
fields. One of these plants is located at ized, twin-engine turboprop aircraft

led to the development of this region into
the heart of the South African industrial
sector. Water to support all these activities
has long been a critical factor.
Sou th Africa's coal reserves are the sixth
largest in the world and generate approxi-
mately 72 % of the country's primary
energy needs. Eskom, the national elec-
tricity utility, consumes more than half
the annual coal production. It operates 20
power-stations, 365 days a year. These
have a nominal generating capacity of 39
154 Mw, of which two-thirds is concen-
trated in just 10 base-load coal-fired sta-
tions. These installations are mostly
located on the highveld and use
low-sulfur (1 %) coal for fuel. This zone
produces about 78 % of Eskom's output.
In continental terms this area generates
about 47 % of Africa's electricity. Eskom
claims that during the last 15 years total
particulate emissions (fly ash) have been
reduced by 91 %, despite the increase in
electrical output. However, in terms of
gaseous emissions, during 1997 Eskom
still produced more than 1.382 Mt of SO!'
0.688 Mt of NO! and 169 Mt of CO 2, It has
been estimated that the retrofitting of
equipment to limit power station emis-
sions of sulfur and nitrogen oxides would
increase the cost of electricity by 20-40 %,
something thatwould have a large impact
on the South African economy and its
Secunda, approximately 30 km west- capable of operating at between 82 and
north-west of Eskom' s modern Tutuka 245 knots (at 25 000 feet above mean sea
power s.tation. The Secunda site uses level) and with a maximum endurance of
low-grade coal and produces, through 5.5 hours at 5000 feet a.m.s .l. and 150
gasification and downstream processes, knots. Both research aircraft are equipped
fuels and chemical feedstock. The main with an in-house developed Airborne
operator at this site is SASOL Synthetic Data Acquisition System (ADAS)
Fuels (SSF). More information on SASOI.:S eqUipped with custom-built cards' for
activities can be found on their web page data collection from most Particle Mea-
(http ://www.sasol.co.za) . surement Systems (PMS)-type probes
Figure 1 shows the part of South Africa and able to record up to 32 channels of
relevant to this paper, in particular the analog information in a digital format. 11
tracks of the two data collection flights. It The aircraft are equipped with global
can be seen that special attention was positioning systems (CPS), the informa-
given during the highveld flight to the tion from which is stored on ADAS or
Secunda and Tutuka sites. relayed to a ground-based station in
Table 1. Equipment used on the Weather Bureau research aircraft.
Parameter Sensor I Source
Position Trimble TNL-2000 GPS I SAWB
Static pressure Rosemount I SAWB
Dynamic pressure Rosemount I SAWB
Temperature Rosemount I SAWB
Humidity Viasala Humicap I SAWB
Liquid water content PMS* FSSP-100 I SAWB
S02 concentration API** Active Fluorescent Analyser 100AI DEA&T, Wits
CCN concentration CCNC-100A I WMI***
Aerosol-size concentration PMS' ASASP I WMI***
Cloud drop-size concentration PMS* FSSP-100 I SAWB
GGS canister sampler Model 910A I Environment Canada, University of Virginia
·Particle Measurement Systems Inc.
•• Advanced Pollution Instrumentation Inc.
~··Wealher Modification Inc., University of the Witwatersrand , Depanment of Environmental Atfairs and Tourism.
 Action South Africal') Journal 01 Science 96, 2000 17

Differences in cloud nr~"N~rlli""A (a)

between the hICllhVIi!!ICI
jodian Ocean coast
Previous South African studies on rain-
fall esrimation radar and satlellilte
data revealed substantial differences in
cloud characteristics related to rainfall
between the and coastal areas.
were on loan from A for these differ-
Weath~ Modification Incorporated the difference in the
of North Dakota the
National Center for Re-
search. Thf! ASASP measures

local time
meafl sealevel;
b, total aerosol concemration int'!umbef per
cubic centimetre; CCN concenwalilon at
0.3 % in number per cubic
measu:!'ement pnJOlerrlS centimetre afld, d; cloud eon cent ration
Reproduced by Sabinet Gateway under licence granted by the Publisher (dated 2010).

ali the instrumentation and del(erc>Oirlo coovectlve In number per

available in the nteratur.e.
Hons, the of which is afield on its
own, should be in mind when inter-
airborne measurements. In this
the is on the relative
in measurements between
different locations and these is!>ues are

track from Bethlehem

decreased over KwaZulu-
n";>';:''',r;> de~er­
A weak surface over the is shown
western tnterior stretched from a coastal of
low on the southeastern coostto
onera·tes an acoustic sounder at Jhe conditions welte domi-
power station on PAe to natedbya overfhe marked contrast
determine wind conditions in lower central and western of t!outhern continental aJ:rmass and
of and made avail- Africa with subsidence. The and the con-
remnant of a 200h1'8 the Natal coast On the
evidence over the extreme eastern aerosol concentrations are
of the subconfinent. Wiljes,bn~aa above 1000 with a local
£11 the
the coast the aerosol
to less than 500
1l3%
 18 South African Journal of Science 96, January 2000 Research in Action

(a) 3000 23 January 1999

microphysical characteristics can explain
/' 50
25 00

2000
I

/
/ c:
0
40 1\4 TC = 400, L'I'VC:= 0 ..
differences in the observed rainfall pro-
duction efficiency between clouds in the
two areas.

) \ ""'~'"
Z
U [500 . ~ 30
Sulfur dioxide is converted into hygro-
£
[000 V E
~ 20 scopic sulfate particles in the atmosphere
500 V I:v:
..
i
at a rate of -10 % per hour.2J These parti-
~ ~.~~ 10
'

'. cles can be active as CCN in convective

~
o "

a 500 [000 1500 2000 2500 3000 0 clouds and potentially have an important
[ASASP] 0 10 IS "0 25 30 35 influence on the initial droplet formation
Size (micron) process. Their sizes and concentrations
- - Continental ~ Maritime are crucial elements that determine how
Fig. 4. Highveld (continental) and east coast they affect cloud-drop formation in con-
(b) [200
(maritime) cloud droplet size spectra. Total vective clouds and whether this effect will
1000 /' concentration (TC) is in number per cubic be beneficial or detrimental for rainfall
~ 800
/' centimetre and liquid water content (LWC) is in
grams per cubic centimetre .
formation.
(f)
V
!:!::.. 600
""ro
~ 400
./ .-s-.

tinental) and maritime clouds. Although

Highveld-pollution source flight,
28 January 1999 - meteorological
200
1/.. the difference in liquid water content conditions
o
V· between the two cloud penetrations is not On 28 January 1999, a surface trough
o 200 400 bOO 800 1000 1200 that marked (0.40 g m-3 in the highveld was situated over the western part of the
[CCN] cloud and 0.33 g m-1 in the coastal cloud), country, extending into Namibia. A
Fig. 3. a, Relationship between aerosol and the total droplet concentrations and their coastal low was situated on the southeast-
CCN concentration for the entire flight on 23 size distributions are markedly different. ern coast with the Atlantic Ocean High
January 1999 and, b, relationship between The coastal cloud has a much broader ridging in behind a cold front just to the
CCN and cloud droplet concentration. On both droplet size distribution with a peak con- west of Cape Town. Humid tropical air,
figures the 1:1 line is drawn in as reference.
Units are in number per cubic centimetre. centration at 25,um diameter compared to evident on the Irene and Pietersburg
the narrow higlweld distribution, which upper-air soundings, was advected from
peaked at 12 ,urn. The distributions also the Mozambique Channel over the north-
of CCN. 17 In more recent times it has been show that in the continental clouds, no eastern parts of the country due to the
Reproduced by Sabinet Gateway under licence granted by the Publisher (dated 2010).

found that 25-100 % of the aerosols pro-
duced by biomass burning are active as
CCN at the supersaturations commonly
found in convective clouds.'8-211 Along the
coast the CCN concentrations dropped to
about 100 cm-' . The cloud droplet concen-
trations, measured a few hundred metres
above cloud base, follow the same trend;
over the highveld peak droplet concen-
tration was about 500 cm- 3, compared to
about 100 cm-3 in the coastal clouds. In
summary, Fig. 2 shows a systematic
lowering in aerosol, CCN and cloud drop-
let concentrations between the interior
plateau and the coast.
Eigure 3a shows the relationship be-
tween CCN (at 0.3 % supersaturation)
and aerosol concentration for the entire
flight. As reference the 1:1 line is drawn
in. Despite the large scatter, it can be seen
that about half the aerosols are active
CCN at this supersaturation. Figure 3b
highlights the relationship between CCN
concentration at 0.3 % and maximum
cloud droplet concentration for the cloud
penetrations on this specific flight. In this
case the data points are scattered along
the 1:1 line, especially at concentrations
below 600 cm-J . A supersaturation of 0.3 %
seems to be relevant when studying con-
vective clouds.
Figure 4 shows the contrast between the
droplet size distribution of highveld (con-
drops with diameters exceeding the criti-
cal coalescence threshold diameter of
28-30 ,urn were identified. 2 1. 22 In the
coastal clouds, drops exceeding this
threshold were already in evidence just
above cloud base. These differences are
the precursors to the onset of quite differ-
ent rainfall production mechanisms, most
likely being dominated by ice-phase
processes on the highveld H and by an
efficient collision-coalescence process
along the coast.
Data collected during this flight pro-
vided an almost textbook example of the
interaction between aerosol, CCN and
cloud droplet particles for continental
and maritime conditions.'
The effect of industrial pollution on
cloud properties over the highveld
The emphasis in this part of the study is
on determining whether it is possible to
find any indication that the quantities of
S02 being released into the atmosphere
over the highveld are linked to anomalies
in aerosol and CCN occurrence and in
characteristics of newly formed drops in
clouds in the area. In the previous section,
it was established that the major micro-
physical differences between continental
clouds and those along the coast can be
linked to differences in aerosol and CCN
I characteristics and concentrations. These
Indian Ocean high-pressure system to the
east. The weak pressure gradients and
moist air in circulation was conducive to
the overnight formation of radiation fog,
as reported by the Ermelo weather station
on both 27 and 28 January at 08:00 LT
At 500 hPa, an upper-air low-pressure
system was situated over the northern
parts of the country and cyclonic circula-
tion was observed at 200 hPa . This upper-
air disturbance was the first such system
after the upper air had been dominated
by an anticyclone for the previous four
days, restricting the passage of westerly
waves to the southern fringes of the
country. The remnant of this high was still
in evidence over Namibia and also to the
south of Madagascar. The synoptic situa-
tion caused scattered cumulus develop-
ment with showers over the northern
parts of the country. Storms were ob-
served from the aircraft over the eastern
Free State and also to the south of Bethle-
hem in the afternoon . The Bethlehem
radiosonde data indicated instability,
showing a relatively dry layer in the
mid-troposphere . Only 1 mm of rain was
measured at the station during the day.
The top of the mixing layer sloped down-
wards to the north with cloud bases at
10500 feet a.m.s.!. at Bethlehem and 9600
feet at Secunda. At noon the boundary
layer winds over th e highveld were
 Research in ACtlOrt South Aviesn JO!J!l'nsl 01 Sctenee 96, 2000 19

winds

Eskornln

c
deci"ease in total at!fOsol and
cenwa:t!ons
minima
between
Reproduced by Sabinet Gateway under licence granted by the Publisher (dated 2010).

mean diameter
constant with
al'ld the total concentration
below cloud base. Com-

Wf"J::e
the recent forest fire events in Indonesia.
In the Bethiehem area the convective
cloud base was at 10 500
feet a.m.s.1. About
Hplrh~,?h~'m_ veld fires were observed to
the track. route to
I","""",,,",,.,. of the cloud

in the Secunda area,

tn x, a distinctlocal
concentrations can be seen
the areas.
The same data cotlectron
were followed at the Tutub power de convef!:lion in unsaturated atr. As
measurements were There was lillie d~fference between the was observed in the source that
made to the east of en route to ba(;kgrmmd and Tutuka below doud the cortditiOilS
advected towards base in terms of aerosol and total
l'Iortheast this an indication of the
 20
28 January 1999
I
...... 2.5
"Z
CD 1\
"" -?
t)
~1.5
\ I~
1\
'0
.,o I
J 1\
til
a:
V
OJ
OJ I 1.5
Size (micron)
Fig. 7. Ratio of relative concentration of aero-
sols below cloud base at Bethlehem aerosols
and background aerosols.
and non-precipitating convective clouds
were probably generating larger particles,
which led to the other peak in the size
ratio distribution curve (Fig. 7). Fly ash,
especially from Secunda, could have
assisted in producing mixed particles
after droplet evaporation.
Measurements illustrate the distinct
difference in particle emissions between
Secunda and Tutuka. The latter power
station was remarkably clean in terms of
its particulate emissions, although the
S02 concentration in its plumes was
almost twice that encountered in the
Secunda plumes. We speculate that
Reproduced by Sabinet Gateway under licence granted by the Publisher (dated 2010).
downwind clouds were modified more
by the Secunda and Tutuka pollution
sources than clouds immediately above
them and that the modification was
mainly due to S02 emissions. As the wind
speed in the mixing layer was about 10
knots, from the northeast towards Bethle-
hem, a large portion of emitted S02 would
have been converted to sulfuric acid
(H 2S0 4 ) or ammonium sulfate (NH.)2S0.
before it reached the Bethlehem area.
The measurements reported in this case
study indicate that effects of industrial
pollution over the highveld on cloud
droplet properties (and subsequent rain-
fall production processes) cannot be ruled
out. The complex nature of these links is
also highlighted. The strength of these
links and the geographical area affected
are likely to depend on the synoptic circu-
lation pattern.
Conclusions
The data collected during the flying
campaign, some of which are presented
in this paper, are unique for southern Af-
rica. The airborne measurements promise
to improve understanding of the links
between aerosols, CCN and cloud prop-
erties at various locations in South Africa
under a range of atmospheric conditions.
This preliminary study has also raised
questions which should be addressed as
South African Journal of Science 96, January 2000
,,
/
,
/
/
~
/
/ ""
r-----~~
Fig. 8. Conceptual model of aerosol sinks and sources with the shaded sections indicating the
areas investigated as part of this paper.
ARREX progresses.
Three issues have been clarified:
• There are clear quantitative differences
between highveld and east coast
clouds in terms of their initial droplet
properties. These properties are func-
tionally related to the aerosol and CCN
concentrations in the immediate vicin-
ity of the clouds. Differences are such
that they may be responsible for ob-
served differences in rainfall produc-
tion efficiency.
• Industrial pollution over the highveld
(in particular S02) modifies CCN
characteristics and cloud properties in
a manner that could also influence
rainfall production efficiency.
• The potential links between industrial
pollution and rainfall production are
complex, variable in space and time, af-
fected by synoptic weather conditions
and influenced by the physical and
chemical characteristics of the aerosols
involved. This requires good planning
of data collection flights and integrated
use of relevant data sources.
Figure 8 shows a conceptual model of
aerosol sinks and sources in the atmo-
sphere as well as the various feedback
loops. The shaded areas in the figure
show the aspects investigated as part of
this paper.
We suggest that data collection cam-
paigns of the type described here should
continue to include a wider variety of me-
teorological conditions. It is also crucial
that South African researchers have ready
access to aerosol and CCN measurement
equipment so that the design and timing
of measurement campaigns are not dic-
tated by the availability of loaned instru-
ments. The high veld has good weather
radar coverage and it is possible to study
differences in the radar-derived storm
Research in Action
.. ..... . .. ..... .. ...
/
/
/
""
characteristics in the upwind and down-
wind areas of pollution sources using the
analysis tools used as part of the convec-
tive storm rainfall enhancement seeding
experiments conducted in South Africa"
These facilities should be used in future to
improve our understanding of the often
ignored potential effect of our consump-
tion of natural resources.
ARREX is funded by the Water Research Commis-
sion and the South African Weather Bureau. The field
programmes are made possible by the close coopera-
tion of pilots from OoudQuest, scientificand techni~
cal personnel from University of the Witwatersrand
and the Bethlehem Precipitation Research Project. We
thank C. Held of Eskom for making the acoustic soun-
der data at Majuba available.
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SIR - Sts 5, nicknamed 'Mrs Pies', discov-
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Reproduced by Sabinet Gateway under licence granted by the Publisher (dated 2010).
at Sterkfontein (Member 4), is the most
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Fig. 1. Australopithecines Sts 5 (MrPles) on the left and 'Mrs' SIw 53 on the right. Although there is
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South African Joumal of Science 96, January 2000
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21
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Modificotion, Chiang Mai, Thailand, 3J-36.
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W, Sudhikoses r , Tantipubthong N. and Ka'rmini
M. (1999). The effects of the smoke and haze from
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s.e.", value from this comparison of the
two crania falls within the range of vari-
ability of s.e.", statistics obtained from
comparisons of cranial measurements of
conspecific modem mamma.ls.!
We do not claim that Sts 5 and Stw 53 are
necessarily conspecific. However, this
morphometric analysis, using Sts 5 as a
reference specimen, is consistent with
Clarke's' observation that Stw 53 has
dental and cranial features 'typical of
Austmlopithecus'. Differences between the
two specimens may be attributable in part
to sexual dimorphism, with Stw 53 being
female, and Sts 5 being male, as recog-
nized from the shape of the posterior root
of the zygomatic arches.
Hughes A.R. and Tobias ry. (1977). A tossil skull
1.
probably of the genus Homo from Sterkiontein,
Transvaal. Nalure 265, 310-312.
2. Thackeray J.F, Bellamy CL., BeUars D., Bronner
G., Bronner L., Chirnirnba C, Fourie H., Kemp A.,
Kruger M., Plug I., Prinsloo 5., Toms R., Van Zyl
A.J. and Whiting M.J. (1997). Probabilities of
conspecificity: application of a morphome,tric
ted1nique to modern taxa and fossil specimens
attTibuted 1'0 Australopitizecus and Ramo. S. Afr. j.
Sci. 93, 195-196.
3. Thackeray J.F, HelbigJ. and Moss S, (1995). Quan-
tifying morphological variability within extant
mammalian species. Paweo"t. afro 31, 23-25.
4, Clarke R,J. (1998). Sterkiontein and its several
australopithecine species. In Abstracts ofContribu-
tiol1S to the Dual Congress, 281111,"-4 July 1998, SUIl
City, Soulh AfriC11, eds M.A. Raath, H. SoodyaU, D.
Darkban, KK Kuykendall, and ry. Tobias, p. 69.
Organising Committee, Dual Congress, Johan-
nesburg.
b
J.F. Thackeray', S.R. Loth , M. Laing',
E. Swanepoel b, M.R. Dayalb and
K. Lubbeb
'Department of Palaeontology and Palaeo environ-
menIal Studies. Transvaal Museum, PO. Box 413, Pre-
toria, 0001 South Africa. E-mail: mrsples@global.co.za
"Department of Anatomy. University of Pretoria. PO.
Box 2034. Pretoria, 0001 South Africa,
"Department of Chemistry, University of Natal, Durban ,
4041 South Africa.