UNIT 65

THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM IN THE ENGLISH-SPEAKING

COUNTRIES

0.- INTRODUCTION
1.- A HISTORY OF THE MODERN SYSTEM OF EDUCATION IN THE UNITED
KINGDOM
1.1.- Modern times
1.2.- The nineteenth century: the 1870 Educational Act
1.3.- The twentieth century: other Educational Acts
2.- EDUCATION IN THE UNITED
KINGDOM 2.1.- Organization
2.2.- How does it work?
2.3.- Public exams
2.4.- Education beyond sixteen
3.- THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM IN EIRE
3.1.- Primary Education
3.2.- Secondary Education
3.3.- Higher Education
4.- AMERICAN EDUCATION
4.1.- Pre-Primary Education
4.2.- Primary Education
4.3.- Secondary Education
4.4.- Higher Education
5.- BIBLIOGRAPHY

www.oposicionestandem.com Pg. 1
0.- INTRODUCTION

This unit aims at giving an overall overview of educational system in the English-
speaking countries.
In order to do so, the educational system in the United Kingdom will be considered
first. In chapter one the educational system in the UK will be considered from a historical
perspective in an attempt to bring light on the current educational system. Then a
comprehensive analysis of the different elements of the educational system in England,
Wales, Northern Ireland and Scotland will be analyzed. Primary, Secondary, Vocational
Training as well as Higher Education will be studied. Education in EIRE will also be considered
due to its relevance within the English Speaking countries. Finally, the educational system in
the United States will be scrutinized.
In order to offer an insightful analysis and survey on the expression of time reference
in English, we shall deal with the most relevant works in the field, both old and current, and
in particular, Bromhead, Life in Modern Britain (1962), O'driscoll, J, Britain. The country and
its people: An introduction for learners of English (1993) and Randee, F, Spotlight on the USA
(1993)

1.- A HISTORY OF THE MODERN SYSTEM OF EDUCATION IN THE UNITED KINGDOM

During the Middle Ages (15th-16th century), the early educational systems of the
nations of the Western world emanated from the Judea-Christian religious traditions, which
were combined with traditions derived from ancient Greece philosophers like Socrates,
Plato, and Aristotle.
According to Howatt (1984), Christianity in the Middle Ages became a powerful force
in the countries of the Mediterranean region and other areas in Europe. Many monastic
schools, as well as municipal and cathedral schools, were founded during the centuries of
early Christian influence.
Actually, some of these early schools built by the time formal education was already
taking shape in Britain still survive nowadays. During the Middles Ages, schools ranged from
those organized by the local parish to those connected to Cathedrals, chantries and
monasteries. These gave a very elementary education where pupils were given religious
instruction and were taught to read. From this period, we have the first grammar schools
that prepared pupils for entrance into the colleges in Oxford and another very prestigious
institution, Eton College, which was founded by Henry VI in 1440. It is worth mentioning
that both Winchester College and Eton College still exist as very exclusive institutions.
Apart from those already mentioned there are a number of other ancient schools
that still survive, such as St Paul's School founded in 1509 by John Colet (1467? -1519).

1.1.- Modern times

There were certain individuals at the beginning of the 19th century who were in
favor of widespread education, however, for a number of reasons, they did not have the
backing either of the government or of the people. Later on in the century leaders of the
Chartist Movement and the Radicals were in favor of some sort of national system of
education. However, it is safe to say that there was no widespread desire for the education
of the population as a whole. In the social legislation of this period education did not

www.oposicionestandem.com Pg. 2
become a real priority until the year of the first Education Act, 1870'" Let us examine the
steps that led to the English Modern Educational System.

1.2.- The nineteenth century: the 1870 Educational Act

"Before 1870, education was largely a private affair, with wealthy parents sending
their children to fee-paying schools. The Forster Elementary Education Act of 1870 required
partially state funded board schools to be set up to provide primary (elementary) education
in areas where existing provision was inadequate. "Under the 1880 Elementary Education
Act, education became free up to the age of 10, but was also made compulsory up until that
age as well. "Later on, "the 1893 Elementary Education (School Attendance) Act raised the
school leaving age to 11 and later to 13.

1.3.- The twentieth century: other Educational Acts.

"In the 20th century Education became a sensitive social, economic and political
issue in most European countries. England was no exception. In the history of English
education, the most important piece of legislation of the twentieth century was the
Education Act of 1944, also known as the "Butler Act". It replaced all previous legislation. It
became increasingly clear that education was of vital importance to the nation and to the
individual and the legislation passed necessarily reflected this conviction. It also reflected
political tendencies, as well as the social and economic needs of the nation."
The first change occurred in April 1900 when higher elementary schools were
recognized, providing education from the age of 10 to 15. Two years later, the 1902 Balfour
Education Act created Local Education Authorities (LEAs), who took over responsibility for
board schools from the school boards. Grammar schools also became funded by the LEA."
Moreover, the Butler Education Act of1944 established the Tripartite System, and
defined the modern split between Primary and Secondary education at age 11. Finally,
education was made compulsory up to age 15 in 1947. Education was made compulsory up
to age 16 in 1972.
Then, during the Post-War period, due to the failures of the Tripartite system, the
Labour government of the time requested proposals from all the UK's regions for them to
move from the Tripartite system to Comprehensive Schools. Note that this was an optional
reform for the regions, and as of late 2003 some regions still have the Tripartite System.
Seven years later, following the 1979 General Election, the Conservative party regained
power in central government, and made two main changes in this period."
However, more important changes were just about to happen in the 1980s as for
instance the Education Reform Act of 1988, which made quite a few changes to the system
of education. These changes were aimed at creating an education 'market' so that schools
were competing against each other for 'customers' (pupils), and that bad schools would lose
pupils and close, leaving only the good schools open." The reforms include the following
changes:
 The introduction of the National Curriculum, "which forced schools to teach
certain subjects, as opposed to the choice of subjects being up to the school
as had previously been the case."
 "The Assessments of the National Curriculum at the key stages 1 to 3 (ages 7,
11, 14 respectively) through what were formerly called SATs. At key stage 4
(age 16), the assessments were done with the GCSE exam."

www.oposicionestandem.com Pg. 3
  The introduction of the so-called "League Tables, which started to be
compiled showing statistics for each school, which are published in
newspapers so parents can see which schools are doing well in each area of
the country and which aren't."
 The introduction of formula funding, "which basically meant that the more
children a school could attract to it, the more money it got."
 "Open Enrolment and choice for parents were brought back, so that parents
could (within limits) choose what school their children went to."
 The establishment of the OFSTED, an inspection committee which was set up
to inspect schools.
 Finally, the choice for schools to be able to "opt out of local government
control, becoming opt-out schools and receiving funding direct from central
government" if enough of their pupils' parents agreed. "The enticement for
schools was that the government offered more money than the school would
get from the local authority, and this was seen as a political move given that
local authorities were not run by the Conservative party as a rule, and central
government was."
The 1990s are characterized by the New Labour's Educational Policies from 1997
onward.
Actually, "following the 1997 General Election, the Labour party regained power in
central government. New Labour's political ideology meant that most of the changes
introduced by the Conservatives during their time in power stayed. Hence, the main changes
that the Labour Party stated are as follows:
o A new focus on tailoring education to each child's ability substituted the
previous Labour focus on the Comprehensive system. "Critics see this as
reminiscent of the original (and proven to have failed) intentions of the
Tripartite system."
o "Comprehensives are being turned into specialist schools (known as Centers
of Excellence), which will teach the National Curriculum subjects plus a few
specialist branches of knowledge (e.g. business studies) not found in most
other schools. These schools will be allowed to select 10% of their pupils.
o New percentages since in 1997 there were 196 of these schools, and by
August 2002 there were 1000. "By 2006 the plan is to have 2000, and the
goal is to make all secondary schools specialist eventually."
o The restructuring and renaming of vocational qualifications as follows:
GNVQs became Vocational GCSEs and AVCEs whereas NVQs scope expanded
so that a degree equivalent NVQ was possible.
o The introduction of the New Deal, "which made advisors available to long-
term unemployed (in the UK this is defined as being unemployed for
more than 6 months) to give help and money to those who want to go back
into Education."
o The setting of a maximum class size of 30 for 5-7 year olds.
o The introduction of the EMA, "which is paid to those between 16 and 18 as
an enticement to remain in full-time education and get A-Levels/ AVCEs."
o The introduction of Curriculum 2000, "which reformed the Further Education
system into the current structure of AS levels, A2 levels and Key Skills."

www.oposicionestandem.com Pg. 4
2.- EDUCATION IN THE UNITED KINGDOM

It is worth remembering that education in England may differ from the system used
elsewhere in the United Kingdom. Actually, there are two main systems: one covering
England, Wales and Northern Ireland and one covering Scotland.
Basically, the two education systems have different emphasis. For instance, on the
one hand, traditionally the English, Welsh and Northern Irish system has emphasized depth
of education whereas the Scottish system has emphasized breadth. Thus English, Welsh and
Northern Irish students tend to sit a small number of more advanced examinations and
Scottish students tend to sit a larger number of less advanced examinations. It should be
noted that local English practice can vary from this general picture although Scottish practice
is well-nigh universal. So, let us examine the both types within the United Kingdom.
The British government had attached little importance to education until quite
recently. It was one of the last governments in Europe to organize education for everybody.
This was because Britain led the word industry and commerce for many years and it was felt
that education should somehow take care of itself. Nowadays, though, education is on the
spotlight. Let us see how it is organized.

2.1.- Organization
The educational system in the United Kingdom is not centralized. This means that
education is managed not only by one but by three separate government departments: The
Department of Education and Employment in England and Wales, one particular for Scotland
and another for Northern Ireland. Formerly, none of these central authorities exercised
much control over the details of what really happened in the different educational
institutions. They did not prescribe a detailed programme for learning or determined what
books and materials should be used; they just said, broadly speaking, what schoolchildren
should learn and gave some advice on how they should learn it. All details were left up to
the Local Education Authority (LEA-branch of local government that provides money to run
the schools and colleges in the area), which was free to decide how to organize education in
its own area. However, the introduction of the National Curriculum in the 1980s meant
more governmental control over what taught in schools.
So, two major changes were introduced by the Conservative government in the
1980s:
1) A National Curriculum (fully implemented in 1990): for the first time in Britain
there are some learning objectives for each year of compulsory education and all state
schools are obliged to work towards those objectives. The aim of it is to provide a more
balanced education, covering the modern world and ensuring that schools in the whole UK
are following the same courses.
There are three National Curricula, one for England and Wales (although in Wales the
Welsh language is also part of the curriculum), one for Scotland and another for Northern
Ireland. The organization of subjects and the processes of learning vary slightly from one
another. But in all, the National Curriculum places importance on reading, writing and
Arithmetic in the primary level, and Maths, English (language and literature), Science and a
modern language in higher education.
At the same time, the new curriculum places greater emphasis on the more practical
aspects of education. Skills which students need for life and work are taught.

www.oposicionestandem.com Pg. 5
 2) Schools can 'opt out' of control of LEAs and put themselves directly under the
control of the government department. These 'grant-maintained' schools get their money
directly from central governments.
Public education is financed partly by the government and partly by local taxes.
The School Year is divided into three terms, coinciding with the main holiday periods
(Christmas, Easter and summer). There is also a small holiday of one week between terms
called 'half-term'.

2.2.- How does it work?

Compulsory education begins at the age of 5 in England, Scotland and Wales and at 4
in Northern Ireland, and ends at 16. However, some children may take classes from 2 to 5
years in Nursery Schools, which are free. Normally, families with special circumstances (i.e.
one parent only) have priority to send their children to those schools. So as LEAs do not
provide society with many nursery school places for all who would like their children to be
pre-educated there, parents in many areas have formed Play-Groups where children can go
a couple of times a week. They have been acknowledged by the Government and they are
also free.
At the age of 5, parents can choose to send their children either to State Schools
(public, free) or to Private Schools (independent, fee-paying). A remark has to be done as we
1
may hear 'public schools' when they are referring to 'private' ones.
Once they are five, they move to Primary education, in Primary Schools. Primary
schools consist mainly of infant schools, for children aged 5-7, junior schools, for those aged
7-11 and combined junior and infant schools for both age groups. Then they move onto a
Secondary School. They stay there from 11 to 16 or to 18 if they wish to*.
The terms 'primary' and 'secondary' are not usually applied to independent schools.
Instead they are called 'pre-preparatory' (4-8 years), 'preparatory' (8-11) and 'public schools'
(11-16/18). Preparatory schools prepare children for the 'public school examination'.
Over the 86% of students in Britain go to a secondary school at the age of 11. These schools
are not selective (no entrance exam).
Before the introduction of the comprehensive education (introduced by the Labour
Government in 1965), however, all children at the end of primary education, had to take an
exam to enter secondary schools. This exam was called the '11+' (assessing on Maths,
Science and English). Those who failed it (the 80% approx.) went to Secondary Modern
Schools orientated to more manual skills or clerical jobs. The left top 20%, who were
supposed to go to university, went to Academic Grammar Schools.
Many people believed that this system of selection at the age of 11 was unfair on
children as those who did not have access to Grammar Schools were treated as failures. So
Comprehensive Schools were introduced to offer suitable courses for pupils of all abilities
and with a wide range of subjects: art, craft, wood work, modern languages, computer
1
Public schools are the most famous and the backbone of the independent sector. They were formerly founded
to give free education to clever boys whose parents had no money to educate them. Paradoxically, today they
are the most expensive ones and tend to be boarding schools. Students are required an entrance exam and good
academic results. There are about 100 out of 800 fee-paying schools (some for boys and some for girls). The
most famous are called 'The Clarendon Nine' (Winchester, Eton, St. Paul's, Shrewsbury, Westminster, The
Merchant Tailors', Rugby, Harrow and Charterhouse; Anglican most of them). Their status lies in a combination
of social superiority and antiquity; this is why there are complaints against the public school system as being
socially divisive as it breads an atmosphere of elitism. They do not depend on state economically but are
financed by fees paid by parents and investments.

www.oposicionestandem.com Pg. 6
studies... All these subjects are studied by boys and girl alike. Obviously, they also prepare
students to public examinations.
Almost all LEAs have changed their former method to that of comprehensive
education, although there are some places where the old system of grammar schools is still
running (in Northern Ireland there are no comprehensive but modern and grammar
schools).

2.3.- Public Exams

All children in state schools are tested in English and Maths at the ages of 7, 11 and
14, and also in Science at 11 and 14. The test, known as SAT (Standard Assessment Task), is
intended to show whether the children have reached the National Curriculum learning
targets. They are taken in May.
Other National Curriculum Exams are:
 The GCSE (General Certificate on Secondary Education). This is the major
qualification taken by students at the end of compulsory education (16). It is
a series of exams in the individual subjects they have been studying. It is
issued in England, Wales and N. Ireland.
 The SCE (Scottish Certificate of Education) is the Scottish equivalent to GCSE.
 A' levels (Advanced levels). They are higher academic exams set by the same
examining board that set the GCSE for those students who stay in school after
16 with the aim to have a higher education (university, polytechnic or Further
Education College). They specialize in 2-3 subjects and take the A-level
examination at the age of 18. AS levels (Advanced Supplementary) were
introduced in 1989 and comprise half the content of an A-level.
2
 SCE 'Highers' are the Scottish equivalent to the A-levels.
It is important to notice that the GCSE, SCE and A-level examinations are not set by
the Government but by independent examination boards.

2.4.- Education beyond sixteen

Students at 16 can choose whether leaving or continuing in the school until 18. For
those students who decide to leave school because they want to specialize in a particular
field, Further Education Colleges provide the students with courses and exams (GNVQ -
General National Vocational Qualification) with some type of vocational training:
engineering, cooking, typing... On the contrary, those students who get sufficiently good A-
level marks can continue with higher education and join a degree course. Once admitted to
university, very few British students fail to complete their degree.
For those who leave school at 16 and cannot find work and do not want to go to a
Further Education College, the government has introduced the Training Credit Scheme.
People are given 2000 pounds to do any training leading to a National Vocational
Qualification from an organization that participates in the scheme.
There are about 100 institutions which have university status in the UK. They are
governed by Acts of Parliament and enjoy academic freedom. They make their own choices
of who to accept in their courses. Universities normally select students on the basis of A-
level results and an interview. Those with better exam grades are the most likely to be

2A third level, Advanced Higher, is sometimes taken by students intending to study at an English university and
covers the gap between the Scottish "Higher" level and the English "Advanced" level courses" (Wikipedia, 2004).

www.oposicionestandem.com Pg. 7
accepted. But in principle there is nothing to stop a university accepting a student who has
no A-levels at all and conversely, a student with top grades is not guaranteed a place.
Students from other countries must show a knowledge of English and the most common
test for this purpose in the TOEFL (test of English as a foreign language).
UK universities fall into four broad categories:
a) The Ancient English and Scottish Universities were founded in medieval times
and they are Oxford and Cambridge in England, and St. Andrew's, Edinburgh,
Aberdeen and Glasgow in Scotland.
th
b) The Redbrick Universities sprang up during the early 19 century in the new
industrial towns and cities: Manchester, Birmingham, Newcastle or Leeds.
c) The Campus or Plate Glass Universities of the mid 1960s were located in the
countryside: East Anglia, Lancaster, Sussex and Warwick.
d) The New Civic Universities were originally technical colleges which were
given the status of universities in the 1990s. Nowadays, most of them are
polytechnics that are allowed to teach their former courses as well as
degrees: Aston in Birmingham, Salford near Manchester or Strathclyde in
Glasgow.
There is also a successful Open University which stated in 1969 and provides people
who cannot attend classes with the opportunity to study for a degree without leaving his
home.
Students work with tutors to whom they send written work. Discussions are carried
out through meetings or via mail. BBC2 also broadcasts Open University programmes.
After 4 years at University, students take a Bachelor Degree (first degree): Bachelor
of Arts (BA), Bachelor of Science (BSc), Bachelor of Engineering (BEng), Bachelor of
Education (BEd)... Further education at university can be achieved by taking a Master Degree
(postgraduate degree, one or two-year course involving some research): Master of Arts
(MA) or Master of Sciences (MSc). Some students continue researching for three more years
for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD). This is the highest academic qualification.

3.- THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM IN EIRE

Ireland enjoys one of the highest educational participation rates in the world - 81%
Irish students complete second level and approximately 50% go on to higher education.
Responsibility for education lies within the Department of Education and Science. It
administers all aspects of education policy including curricula, syllabi and national
examinations. Attendance at full time education is compulsory in Ireland from 6 to 15, and is
free in the majority of schools (only a small number charges tuition fees).
Education and training in Ireland function at a number of levels including primary,
secondary, higher education, and vocational training. Adult Education and a wide range of
training programmes aimed at school leavers, the unemployed. Those in employment
complete the picture.

3.1.- Primary Education

Ireland does not have an organized official pre-school education system. However,
primary schools usually accept 4-year-old children depending on the slots available. These

www.oposicionestandem.com Pg. 8
children are distributed into two groups: The Junior Infants (4 and 5 year-old children), and
Senior Infants (5 and 6 year-old children).
Primary education starts at 6 and finishes at the age of 12. These primary-national
schools, apart from receiving money from the State, are also dependent on parish churches
and are usually managed by a corresponding diocese. Private schools that charge for their
services do not receive any help from the State, but this is almost an exceptional situation in
Ireland.
The primary curriculum (recently completely revised), emphasizes a child-centered
approach and provides for an extensive learning experience with a rich variety of
approaches to teaching and learning. It is divided into the following key areas: Languages,
Maths, Social and Scientific education, Arts, Physical education and Health education.
There are no formal examinations at the end of the primary-school cycle and
students go directly to secondary education junior cycle. Instead, the teachers write an
evaluation report for the secondary school where the pupil is going to spend the last three
years of compulsory schooling (from 12 to 15).

3.2.- Secondary Education

Secondary education is divided into Junior and Senior cycles. It is provided in four
kinds of school: Secondary, Vocational, Comprehensive and Community. The same state
examinations are taken in all types of school. Education is free of charge in all but 5% of
Secondary schools.
During the last year of the lower secondary school (12-15= Junior Cycle), students
3
prepare for the Junior Certificate Examinations . They do not take into account the previous
results during the school year.
Upon attaining the Junior Certificate, students finish with their schooling obligations.
However, 74% continue their education at the Senior Cycle to get the Leaving Certificate
(18), which is the key to enter the university or a kind of selection tool for certain jobs. 13%
choose different vocational programmes. In any case, students take a Transition Year,
usually coinciding with their last year of compulsory education (15) to prepare for the Senior
Cycle, the vocational programmes or to change smoothly into part-time study or working
life.

3.3.- Higher Education

The third level-education in Ireland in broad in scope and includes Universities,
Colleges of Education, Colleges of Technology and Independent (private) Colleges, which
provide any type of education and training. All of them are autonomous and self-governing.
Entry to third-level education for Irish students is based upon performance in the
Leaving Certificate.
There are seven Universities in Ireland, being the University of Dublin (Trinity
College) the oldest and most renowned (others are in Cork, Galway or Limerick). Universities
and University Colleges studies award diplomas of Bachelor, Master and Doctorate in the
human, social, natural and technical sciences and medicine. The first cycle of Higher
Education leads to a Bachelor's Degree. These degrees usually take three or four years to
finish (18-21, 22), although certain studies such as architecture or medicine might take a bit
longer. The Master's Degree, the second cycle diploma, requires about one to three extra

3
This is a new, unified system of assessment and certification, first undertaken in 1992.

www.oposicionestandem.com Pg. 9
years of study (22-24), often combined with some research work. In the third cycle of
studies, the Doctorate candidates must present a research work (+24).
 Technological sector: The Colleges of Technology offer education on the
fields of commerce and industry for a wide range of professional positions.
Three possible recognitions: Certificate (18-20), Diploma (20-21) and Degree
(21-22).
 Colleges of Education focus their educational offer in the preparation of the
future primary school teachers, which obtain the Bachelor of Education
Degree at the age of 22. Secondary school teachers usually have a Bachelor's
Degree and then they take one extra year to obtain the Higher Diploma in
Education.
In addition to courses provided in higher education institutions, a wide range of
vocational and technical training programmes are also available in Ireland. Adult education
is taken to mean all education and training taken by people after a break in their initial
education. It is a route by which adults acquire new skills and rediscover old ones. There are
also elements of provision, which facilitate initial vocational education and training for
people who have been socially or economically disadvantaged and unable to avail of early
educational opportunities. These programmes are run by a wide range of private and public
colleges and institutions and leas to awards validated by the Irish government.

4.- AMERICAN EDUCATION

The first thing to stand out in American educational system is that no national
curriculum exists. The Federal Government does not manage the schools as it has no power
to make laws in the field of education. Each of the 50 states has its own Department of
Education, which sets guidelines for the centers of that state. Public colleges and
universities receive funding from student tuition and the state in which they are located.
Each state legislature decides how much money will be given to educational institutions.
Most of the control of American schools is in the hands of each local school district.
Each school district is governed by a school board, which is a small committee of people
elected by the local community. The schools board sets general policies for the school
district. The standard of education is by no means uniform in all the states. The amount of
money devoted to education varies considerably from state to state and so do the subjects
of study).
st
Compulsory education begins at the age of 6 with the 1 grade, and ends at 16/18
depending on the state. School terms are usually from September to June.
Obviously, parents can choose between sending their children to public schools in
the area or to private schools whose organization and study plans are similar to public
schools but have a different administrative system. Nowadays, about 90% of all children
attend to public schools which are free. The rest go to private schools which are often
associated with a religion (about half of private schools are Catholic).

4.1.- Pre-primary Education

It is imparted in Nursery Schools for children up to 5 years. It is not compulsory and
its objectives are to help children to be self-sufficient, learn to live with other people and
develop good habits in group work.

www.oposicionestandem.com Pg. 10
 4.2.- Primary Education
st
Primary education in the USA begins at the age of 6 with the 1 grade in Elementary
Schools. They also contain students from kindergarten (5).
th
Students will complete up to the 6 grade (12) in these schools. Education at this
stage emphasizes cooperation rather than competition. The aim of elementary schools is the
development of children's intellectuality and sociability. The specific skills evaluated are
Reading, Writing, Spelling, Arithmetic, History, Geography, Music and Art.

4.3.- Secondary Education

Secondary education comprises two stages. The first one is coursed in Junior High
th th
Schools from 12 to 15 years, 7 to 10 grade; the second one is in Senior High Schools from
th th
16 to 18 years, 11 and 12 grades. For the whole period, the term High School is generally
used.
Students do not specialize in any particular subject but take a wide range of courses.
All students are required to take English, Maths, Science and Social Studies courses. They
also might be required to take a foreign language and/or physical education. Each course
can be one semester or two semesters long.
Most high schools in the United States are for students between the 9th and 12th
grades, or approximately 14 to 18 years old. In the USA, most grade levels are referred to
with pet names, instead of by number. These are generally: freshman for 9th grade (though
some schools are changing this for more gender-neutral alternatives), sophomore for 10th
grade, junior for 11th grade and senior for 12th grade.
Public education encourages an acceptance of diversity less common in privately
funded schools, because no one can be denied education in public schools (although
challenges to this have been made in the past, the most famous being that of segregation).
Curriculum guidelines are determined by the state and county government, though each
school determines their own curriculum based on these guidelines.
The stated purpose of public high schools is to prepare students for post-secondary
education (i.e. vocational school or technical school, community college or junior college,
and university). Schools also provide open forums for communication between students,
teachers, administration, and parents. The format of these schools can provide for
interaction between students and teachers, thus teaching adolescents how to deal with
adults beyond their immediate family.
Public schools also allow for variation in programs, including magnet programs
(which allow students to study the basics of a given career or career field) or International
Baccalaureate Diploma Program (a rigorous academic program). There are several levels of
coursework, as well, including regular or average coursework (taught on the high school
level), advanced or honors coursework (taught on an advanced high school level), Advanced
Placement (college-level work taught in a high school-level setting. Tests are administered
over the course of two weeks at the end of the academic year that give high school students
the opportunity to earn college credit), dual enrollment (college courses available to high
school students for free; a passing grade ensures both college and high school credit), and
remedial classes (for students that need extra attention to meet benchmarks).
Public high schools also provide many extra-curricular activities for students to participate
in. These allow students to form friendships with people they might not otherwise meet,
and to pursue or further develop interests

www.oposicionestandem.com Pg. 11
 A student graduates after s/he has successfully passed all of the required courses
and gets a Certificate on Intermediate Education (Graduation).

4.4.- Higher Education

Nowadays, nearly three out of four American high school graduates go to college.
Although admission policies vary from one college to another, most of them determine
admission based on several factors such as student's high schools course of study, high
4
school GPA (grade point average), SAT (Scholastic Aptitude Test) scores, written essays and
possibly a personal interview.
Colleges and universities often require applicants to write an essay. The length and
content of the essay is determined by each admission office. Depending on the college,
applicant might also have a personal interview with a representative from the admission
office.
In all, the college or university admission office considers whether a student has
prepared him/her enough to enter the university.
Most students receive federal loans to cover part of the cost of their studies.
Virtually all pay part of their cost themselves. Some non-academic students get scholarships
to the universities if they show promise in sports like football, baseball or basketball (we can
see this in the film Educating Forrester).
There are four types of degrees:
 Associate's: completion of a programme in a specific career field (18-20).
These two-year programmes are imparted in Community Colleges, which are
public schools with low cost tuition (AA, AAS).
 Bachelor's: conferred after the completion of an undergraduate programme
(18-22 years). These four-year programmes are imparted in colleges and
universities and they may be state or private (the latter cost a lot more) (BA,
BSc).
 Master's: first graduate degree (MA, MSc...).
 Doctorate: second graduate degree and final degree (PhD).
Selection for admission to a graduate programme is similar to the factors used to
determine admission to an undergraduate programme, but instead of considering high
school courses and GPA, an admission office examines the student's undergraduate courses
and GPA at college. Most Master's programmes require students to have a minimum score
on the GRE (Graduate Record Examination, similar to the SAT).
The oldest colleges are private and usually quite small. Some of the best known
private universities are Harvard, Yale and Princeton. However, in terms of research output
and of Nobel Prizes won by academic staff, the most prestigious is the University of
California, at Berkeley.
Besides, vocational training in Vocational Technical Institutes, as well as education
for adults also forms part of most North-American programs.

5.- BIBLIOGRAPHY


BROMHEAD, P. Life in Modern Britain. London: Longman, 1962.
4
Standardized quantitative examination taken by high school students throughout the United States. Each
college and university set a minimum SAT score that a student must achieve in order to gain admission.

www.oposicionestandem.com Pg. 12
  A.P.R. HOWATT with H.G. WIDDOWSON. History of English Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2004.
 O'DRISCOLL, J. Britain. The country and its people: An introduction for learners of English. Oxford:
OUP, 1993.
 RANDEE, F. Spotlight on the USA. Oxford: OUP, 1993.
 SHEERING, et al. Spotlight on Britain. Oxford: OUP, 1995.
 Other Sources:
o Britannica Encyclopaedia Premium.
o www.historylearningsite.co.uk
o http://en.wikipedia.org
o http://www.know-britain.com

www.oposicionestandem.com Pg. 13