Bachelor of Science in

Civil Engineering
(Transportation Engineering Track)

CET-412:
TRANSPORTATION Professional Course 2
(Highway Engineering)

Dr. Emer T. Quezon, PhD, C.Eng.,

M.ASCE
CE Department, COEA, Cagayan State
University, Carig Campus, Tuguegarao City,
Philippines
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

What is Highway Engineering?

 Highway engineering is a branch of Civil
Engineering that Involves:
 Planning
 Design
 Construction
 Operation, and
 Maintenance of
roads, bridges & tunnels.

 to ensure safe and effective

transportation of people and goods.
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

THE HIGHWAY AND ITS DEVELOPMENT

1.1 Brief History of Roads
 Early roads with hard surfaces were found in
Mesopotamia about 3,500 BC.
 Another stone surface roads were also found in the
Mediterranean island of Crete.
 Similarly, constructed road found in the Western
Hemisphere by Mayans, Aztecs and the Incas of
Central South America.
What are the primary purpose of constructing road
system in early times?
1. For the movement of armies in their conquest, and for
defense against invasion.
2. For transport of food and trade of goods between
neighboring towns and cities.
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

1.2 Development & Early Types of

Pavement
 Oxford definition- Road is a “way” devoted to
public travel.
- During those times, it was useful to relate a
term “way” rather than road.
- it began as pathways.

 The 1st major transport development – use of dogs

 The 2nd major transport development - invention of
wheel
- Mesopotamia, the Assyrian birth place of
Civilization about 3,500 BC.
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

 After 3000 BC, a variety of vehicles began to

make practical use.
 The 3rd major transport development - invention
of 4-wheels.

 Pressure for CHANGE: It was estimated that by

1750, about 2000 cattles/day herd down the
London Market.

☼ The Needs for Good Roads & Good Road

Surface was reaching a crescendo. Fortunately,
“NECESSITY” had remained the MOTHER of
Inventions.
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

 In 17th Century, a number of talented people were

beginning to make Significant contributions:
 Early Types of Pavement:
1. Tresaguet pavement (Jerome Tresaguet: 1716-1796),
A French Engineer. Introduced new methods of
Construction & Maintenance of stone roads.
-Improved the crown, drainage, grade including stone
foundation by reducing the depth of broken stones. He
was accredited as the FATHER of modern road building.
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

2. Telford pavement (Thomas Telford: 1757-1834),

Scottish Engineer.
 He was the President & Founder of Institute of Civil
Engineer.
 He introduced some improvements of Tresaguet
construction methods.
 Figure below indicated the foundation course.
Telford employed flat sub-grade, slight crown
using stones.
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

3. Macadam pavement(John L. Mac Adam: 1755-

1836, Scottish), contemporary of Telford.

 In1858, Eli Blake invented 1st stone crusher, at same

period.
 Steam road roller invented in France (By: Aveling &
Porter, a 30 tons road roller)
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION
 Modern Types of Pavements
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

l-3 Early Laws that Regulates Roadway

The early Saxon Laws imposes 3 mandatory duties for
the people to perform, namely:

l. To repair the roads and bridges.

2. To repair the castles and the garrisons.
3. To aid repel invasions.

After the Norman Conquest of England, it was decreed

that:
1. The King's Highway is sacred. Anybody who
occupies any portion thereof, by exceeding the
boundaries of his land, is considered to have
encroached on the King himself.

 Therefore, Roads are for public use.

 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

2. Property owners adjoining the roads were required to:

1) Drain the road.
2) Any bordering hedges, and
3) Refrain from plowing and planting trees, shrubs, or
bushes.
All of these within the specified DISTANCE from the
CENTER of the road.

 It was made clear that the Government Concept

towards the:
1. Use of roads includes upholding the right of the
public to use them without interference.
2. Since, the road is intended for the benefit of the
people, for return, it becomes their duty to protect
and maintain the roadway.
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

1-3 Highways in the Philippines

 In the early part of 1900, transportations in the country
dependent largely on trails, waterways, railroad, earth
roads, and partially graveled roads.
 Highway in the Philippines at that time is nothing more
than a dream to most Filipinos.
 The American government initiated the development
of roadways in the Philippines.
 Macadam road type was introduced, and gained wide
acceptance because of the abundant supply of stones
and gravel.
 After the 2nd World War, the new Independent
Philippine Government continued Rehabilitation and
Construction of Roads and Bridges, through the
reparations and war damages paid by the Japanese
government & aid from US government.
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

50 years later, major highways and expressways were

constructed through:
1. Financial assistance
2. Loans from foreign banks.
 Alongside with the industrialization program of the
government.
 vehicles of various types and sizes started flooding the
roadways.

 In early 1960 to early part of 1980 (Marcos regime) was

considered an Automobile age. Cars were no longer
regarded as luxury item, but a necessity in transporting
people and goods.
 Government new concept of development is to get the
farmers out of the mud. It was during this decade that
road construction becomes a matter of priority of the
government under the slogan: " This nation is on Wheels.”
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

Key information about Philippines Number

of Registered Vehicles:
 Philippines Number of Registered Vehicles was
reported at 4,951,662 Unit nationwide in Dec 2021.

 This records an increase from the previous number of

4,523,076 Unit for Dec 2020.

 Philippines Number of Registered Vehicles data is

updated yearly, averaging 2,527,599 Unit from Dec
1981 to 2021, with 41 observations nationwide.

 The data reached an all-time high of 4,951,662 Unit

in 2021 (Despite of COVID-19 Pandemic), and a
record low of 819,040 Unit in 1981.
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

WHOLE-OF-LIFE OF HIGHWAY
NETWORK
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

Whole-of-life of highway network

Project Completion

Cost, Php. Billion

Operation &
Feasibility Maintenance
Study Stage
Stage
Construction
Stage

1 2

Planning & Design Life, n = years

Design ,
Programming
Stage
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

What is Highway Planning?

 Highway planning involves the estimation of
current and future traffic volumes on a road
network.
 Highway planning is also a basic need for the
Highway development.
 Highway engineers strive to predict and
analyze all possible civil impacts of highway
systems.
 Some considerations are the adverse effects on
the environment, such as:
1. Noise pollution
2. Air pollution
3. Water pollution, and
4. other ecological impacts.
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

What are the Objectives of

Highway Planning?
 Planning a highway network for safe, efficient
and fast movement of people and goods.
 Keeping the overall cost of construction and
maintenance of the roads in the network to a
minimum.
 Planning for future development and
anticipated traffic needs for a specific design
period.
 Phasing road development programs from
considerations of utility and importance as also
of financial resource.
 Evolving a financing system compatible with the
cost and benefits.
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

1-5 Planning Difficulties

 Development and maintenance of roads and
highways is a continuous process alongside with the
technological advancement.
 New equipment and management techniques
revolutionized the construction and maintenance
methods.
 Advance knowledge in the field of soils, pavement
materials, and designs were adopted for reliability
and economic considerations.
 ENGINEERS are conscious of the need for roadways to
be safe, useful, and attractive.
 This needs include improvement of the:
1. Roadside,
2. Erosion control, and
3. Noise abatement.
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

 ENGINEERS are aware of the fact that highways

are vital to the country's development.
 Unfortunately, highway planners are confronted
with problems categorized as follows:
1. Financial
2. Political, and
3. Technical.

 POLITICIANS now control DPWH projects as their

source of political funds.
 Highway District Engineer's qualification is simply
subservience (servility) to the politician. "Do what
I say or get out of my district".
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

 As a consequence, public confidence

tremendously eroded. Not only in the
government's ability to abate these problems, but
also in the proficiency of the technical men to
offer solutions.

 Planners are now operating in a world of rapid

change and uncertainty, in the political
atmosphere where decisions by magic, or
oracles, carry more weight than those based on
professional training, expertise and experiences.

 Indeed, our professionals more particularly the

technical men, seems to have lost confidence in
thyself, or even the solutions that they offer.
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

1-6 Highway Programming

There are 3- inseparable sets of inputs involved in
highway programming:

1. Economic - Deals with the questions of resources.

2. Financial - The question of who pays, and who
spends, howl much, and where?
3. Political and Administration - This involves decision
making.

 In highway programming, projects are prioritized.

Those that are most economically viable were
selected, if they fit into the financial capability and of
course political criteria.
 Projects that failed on either financial or political
criteria are abandoned, modified for substitute.
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

Highway Programming Approaches

1. Financial resources are either short or long ranged
implementation by the agencies functions like
construction, operations, and maintenance.
2. Recognition of the legislative and administrative desire
and constraint.
3. Tentative priorities based on economic analysis, critical
situations, present and future expected level of traffic.
4. Providing continuity of route system, and coordination
with other transportation mode.
5. Selection of projects based on availability of labor and
materials, including climatic conditions.
6. Scheduling the project implementation in coordination
with other agencies, acquiring Road Right-of-Way, and
making final plan and specifications.
7. Budgetary reserve to cover emergencies like floods and
other natural disasters.
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

Direct Effects of Highway Construction and

its Use
A. Quantifiable market value

1. Cost of highways as to:

a. Planning cost.
b. Right of way appropriations.
c. Construction costs.
d. Maintenance costs.
e. Operating costs.

2. Cost benefits to highway users:

a. Vehicles operating costs (including congestion
cost).
b. Travel savings time expressed in cost.
c. Motorist's safety (economic cost accident).
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

B. Non-Quantifiable Non-Market Value

1. Cost benefits to highway user:

a. Motorists safety - Accident cost of pain suffering and
deprivation.
b. Comfort and conversion - Discomfort, inconvenience
and strain of driving.
c. Aesthetic from driving viewpoint - Benefit of pleasing
views and scenery from road.

2. Quantifiable Non-Market Value

a. Cost benefits to highway users - Traveling savings
time. (non-commercial) Minutes save per vehicle
trip.
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

1-7 The Planner

Their role is:
1. To provide technical and organizational support.
2. To receive input or information on the needs and
goals of affected persons group or agencies.
3. Incorporate the above for planning and making
decision.

The Functions of the Planners are:

1. To prepare preliminary design, scoop of study and
the initial work program.
2. To explore alternatives. Data gathering by contacting
the representatives of other agencies involved.
3. Detailed analysis (with community involvement).
4. Coordination - Secure formal ratification from the
local officials.
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

l-8 Community Involvement

Public hearing should involved the public from the start
of planning to give them a chance to participate in
the discussions and involved them to:

1. Solicit the cooperation and support of public officials.

2. Non-government organizations, influential persons
and conservative group of the community.
3. Create special staff to carry out this function.
4. Community leadership opportunity to participate
continuously on the planning stage.
5. Organize and develop skilled persons to conduct
group meeting, workshops, hearing and other
related activities.
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

1-9 Highway Economy

 A Country who will not avail of loans or grant from
foreign financing institutions will not feel the great
impact of their infrastructure projects, If domestic
income through taxes alone will be depended on.

 Financing institution such as the World Bank insists that

projects to which they make grants or loans be
“justified” primarily on the economic basis.

 There are many designs and administrative decisions

that does not involve public policy, but these should
be made by selecting the alternative that is cheapest
in the long run.

 The result from an economic study that is reasonably

interpreted must prevail.
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

The intent of expenditures for highways and public

transportations are enumerated as follows:
1. To augment the country's level of economy.
2. To provide easy access to working place.
3. To facilitate public services; police, fire protection etc.
4. To facilitate medical care, schooling and delivery of
related basic services.
5. To give landowner benefits to transportation and
increase property assessment.
6. Benefit to motor vehicle users through lower cost of
operations and maintenance.
7. Benefit in time saving.
8. Less road accident.
9. To give maximum comfort and ease of travel.

So, what are the sources of Budget? Based on the principle

of "Pay as you go” (taxation).
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

(2) Location of the Proposed Highway

 New highway locations are blended with curvature
grades and other roadway elements to offer;
comfortable easy driving, free flowing traffic arteries,
comply with the rules on safety standards.

 To improve the highways, there should be tentative

plan as to the control, and minimum design speed,
roadway cross-sections, and maximum slope with the
following considerations:

1. Reliable cost estimate.

2. Character and hourly distribution of traffic.
3. Economic and community benefit factor.
4. Availability of funds.
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

Figure: Location of the Proposed Highway

 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

Location surveys in the Rural areas are

Divided into 4 Stages.
Under stage I: Reconnaissance survey of the entire area
1. Stereoscopic examination of small scaled aerial
photographs of the area supplemented by available
maps.
2. Determination control of photography and land use.
3. Location of feasible routes based on photographs and
maps.
Under stage II: Reconnaissance survey of feasible route:
1. Stereoscopic examination of largo-scale aerial
photographs of each route.
2. Determination of the detailed control of photography
and land use.
3. Preparation of route maps by Photogrammetric
methods.
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

4. Location and comparison of feasible routes on

photographs and maps.
5. Selection of the best route.

Stage III: Preliminary Survey of the best route.

1. Preparation of large scale topographic maps by

ground survey guided by best route location made
on photographs in the second stage.

2. Design of the preliminary location.

Stage – IV: Location Survey

1. Staking of the Road
Right-of-Way (RROW),
and the highway and
structures for construction.
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

(3a) Location of Bridges

 Highways and Bridges have but one purpose - To
convey traffic. The location and position of a bridge is
subordinate to the general alignment and grade.
 The cost of a bridge and its full approach combined
before the crossing site should be determined.
 Bridge survey report should be accompanied with
accurate data on the waterway and the historical
behavior of the water.

 The bridge survey data

shall include the:
1. Foundation conditions.
2. Stream characteristics.
3. Adjacent structure on the
stream more particularly,
their waterway opening.
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

When the location of the bridge is

approximately determined?

 The following requirements must be

considered:
1. A complete data report and special survey of the
site.
2. Prepare sketches and full scale map and profiles.
3. The survey report must contain accurate data of
the waterway for all behavior of water.
4. There must be a complete report on the foundation
condition and the stream characteristics.
5. A complete data of the adjacent structures
particularly the waterway opening.
6. If possible, skewed bridge should be avoided.
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

Figure: Typical Example of Small Bridge Location Problem

 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

(3) Highway Plans and Specifications

 Plans and specifications are set of documents of
instructions and conditions under which highways and
bridges are built.
 The plan contains engineering drawings of the project,
whereas, the specifications is a written instructions and
conditions considered as integral part of the contract
between the contractor and DPWH classified as legal
documents.

The complete detailed scheme for the road which are

incorporated in the geometric designs are:
1. Traffic
2. Drainage & Erosion control
3. Roadside development & Structure
4. Soils
5. Pavement
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

BRAINSTORMING

What are the Reasons Why

Highway Construction Project
Fails?
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

1. What are the Reasons Why Construction

Projects Failed?

Contents of Discussions:

1. Possible Causes of Project Failures

2. Causes of Project Delay
a. Within the Control of Contractor
b. Beyond the Control of Contractor
3. Duties & Responsibilities of Project Manager/
Materials Engineer
4. Calibrated Sanctions for Erring Contractors
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

A Project Manager or a Project Engineer should

not only be fully equipped of procedures and
guidelines for effective management but he should
also be aware of the possible adverse effects
which contributes to project FAILURE ; such as:
1. Ineffective planning/preparation
2. Defective project design
3. Failure to anticipate obstacles
4. Wrong choice of project manager
5. Lack of support from top management
6. Funds do not come as promise
7. Inadequate staff support
8. Conflict between project and functional managers
9. Inadequate execution and supervision
10. Inexperience project engineers
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

2. What are the Factors that Causes

Delay of a Construction Projects?
A. “Within” the Control of Contractor
1. Unable to maintain continuity or momentum because
laborers are reassigned to different work locations.
2. Stockpile or storage are poorly organized & not
adjacent to work.
3. Sequencing/scheduling and control of the work are
poor.
4. Deliveries of construction materials are untimely.

B. “Beyond” the control of contractor

1. Bad or Unfavorable weather condition
2. Changes made by client/owner
3. Defective contract documents
4. Delayed payment of progress billings
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

A BRIEF REVIEW of CONTRACT

IMPLEMENTATION
GUIDE FOR INFRASTRUCTURE
PROJECTS (IRR of RA 9184)
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

I - VARIATION ORDERS :
Types:
1) CHANGE ORDER
2) EXTRA WORK ORDER
3) SUPPLEMENTAL AGREEMENT

This Variation Order is applied to suit actual field

conditions resulting in disparity between the difference
between the 3-Technical Terms:

1) Preconstruction plan is used for purposes of public

bidding.
2) Construction plan is prepared after a joint survey
within the construction progress of activities.
3) As-Built plan is prepared to indicate all actual
accomplishments just after completion of the project.
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION
Variation Orders
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION

SAMPLE VARIATION ORDER

Diff.
300K
 Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION
Brief Specific Conditions:
 Any cumulative Variation Order beyond 10% shall be
subject of another contract to be bid out if the works are
separable from the original contract.
 In exceptional cases where it is urgently necessary to
complete the original scope of work, variation order
beyond 10% but not more than 20% is allowed, subject
to the IRR or guidelines.
 In claiming for any Variation Order, the contractor shall,
within seven (7) calendar days after such work has been
commenced, and within twenty-eight (28) calendar
days will deliver a written communication giving full and
detailed particulars of any extra cost.
 Failure to provide either of such notices in the time
stipulated shall constitute a waiver by the contractor for
any claim.
 Administrative Action on
Contracts
with Negative Slippage in
Accordance with the Revised IRR
of R.A. 9184
(DPWH D.O 193 s2016)
BASED on PHYSICAL ACCOMPLISHMENT
I) EARLY WARNING STAGE
TO CONTRACTOR
 5% Negative Slippage (based
on Cumulative Accomplishment)

II) ICU STAGE (FINAL WARNING WILL BE ISSUED)

 10% Negative Slippage (based on Cumulative
Accomplishment)

III) TERMINAL STAGE

 15% Negative Slippage or more (based on
Cumulative Accomplishment)
ANY QUESTIONS
PLEASE ??