LECTURE 2: Deformation analysis, Thermal stresses, Transient Axial

loading, Resonance

1. Deformation analysis

2. Axial loading

3. Thermal strain and thermal stress

4. Transient loading, Resonance

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1. DEFORMATION AND STRAINS

Deformation in x direction ：Solid element: original shape; Dashed element: deformed shaped

u u+du Displacement along the x direction at position x of a

body is denoted as u
Displacement along the x direction at position
x+dx of the body is u+du
x+dx The elongation of the element in the x direction is
(u+du)u=du.
y The normal strain along the x direction, denoted as εx , is

dx (dx  u  du )  (dx  u ) (u  du )  u du
x εx   
dx dx dx
O x
Note: u is the function of x. This is, u=u(x)

d: differential operator

In Fundamentals of Mechanics, only rigid bodies are considered. Under the action of the external forces, the shape of
the body remains unchanged.

In Applied Mechanics, we study the elastic (even plastic) solids. The solids will deform when there are external forces
applied to them. The deformations of the solids can be described by the displacements and strains of the solids. 2
 Deformation in y direction ：Solid element: original shape; Dashed element: deformed shaped

Displacement along the y direction at position

y of a body is denoted as v
v+dv
y+dy
Displacement along the y direction at position
y+dy of the body is v+dv

dy The elongation of the element in the y direction is

y (v+dv)v=dv.
v

y
The normal strain along the y direction, denoted as εy , is

(dy  v  dv)  (dy  v) dv

O x εy  
dy dy

Note: v is the function of y. This is, v=v(y)

3
The displacements of the solid, u and v, can also vary with x and y . In this situation, shear strain develops

Solid element: original shape; Dashed element: deformed shaped

(u  du )  u du
u+du  
dy dy

(v  dv)  v dv
 
dx dx

dy The shear strain in x-y plane,
u
y
 v+dv denoted as  xy , is
v
du dv
dx  xy      
dy dx
O x

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 Strains in three dimensional solids

If the components of the displacement vector along the x, y and z directions at point (x, y, z) of a body are
u(x, y, z), v(x, y, z) and w(x, y, z), respectively, the normal strains are:
u v w
εx  , ε y  , εz 
x y z

and the shear strains are:

u v v w u w
 xy   ,  yz   ,  xz  
y x z y z x

z,w
B F

Three are six strain components:

A E 3 normal strains and 3 shear strains.

y,v
C
G

x,u
D H
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2. AXIAL LOAD
APPLICATIONS
Structural components subjected only to tension or compression are known as axially loaded
members. Solid bars with straight longitudinal axes are the most common type, although cables and
coil springs also carry axial loads. Examples of axially loaded bars are truss members, connecting
rods in engines, spokes in bicycle wheels, columns in buildings.

Application

Most concrete columns are reinforced with steel rods; and these two materials work together in
supporting the applied load. Are both subjected to axial stress?

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Three fundamental equations:
 u is the axial displacement of the rod. It is the
P( x) du ( x) function of x. This is, u=u(x).
   Eε ε
A( x) dx
 Provided these quantities do not exceed the
dx proportional limit, we can relate them using
x
P1 P2 Hooke’s Law, i.e.  = E.

P( x)  du  du P( x)
L  E ( x)   
A( x)  dx  dx E ( x) A( x)

Can be used to determine the axial displacement

of the rod as a function of x.
du
dx
 Total elongation of the rod  is
d: differential operator  = u(L)  u(0)

The product EA is known as the cross- For constant axial force and PL
sectional axial rigidity of the bar. 
uniform cross section EA

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Example 1 (Composite Materials): A system of Composite Rods under tension. The two rods are
jointed securely at their interfaces. Cross-sectional properties are: E1, A1 and E2, A2. Determine
(a) the axial strains and stresses in each rod;
(b) the equivalent axial Young’s modulus of the composite system.

E1 A1 1 E1 A1 1
N N
E2 A2 2 E2 A2 2

Solution:

(1) Equilibrium equation: 1A1 + 2A2 = N

(2) Compatibility equation: elongations and the axial strains of the two materials are equal, 1 = 2 = 0

1 
(3) Material property (constitutive) : 1  , 2  2
E1 E2

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(4) From (1) - (3)，

N
(a) 1   2   0 
E1 A1  E2 A2

E1 N E2 N
The stresses in rods: 1  , 2 
E1 A1  E2 A2 E1 A1  E2 A2

E1 A1 1 E1 A1 1
N N
E2 A2 2 E2 A2 2

You can see:

The axial strains of the two rods (materials) are identical;
However, the stresses in the two rods (materials) are different.

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(b) Equivalent Young’s Modulus of the composite material
E1 A1
* Average axial stress in the composite: N N
E2 A2
N
0 
A1  A2

* Equivalent axial Young’s modulus of the composite: E1 A1

0 0
E2 A2
 E A  E2 A2
E 0 E 1 1  E1 f1  E2 f 2
0 A1  A2

A1, 2 A1, 2 L V1, 2

where f1, 2   
A1  A2 A1L  A2 L V1  V2

V : volume ;
f : volume fraction. The subscripts 1 and 2 denote, respectively,
material #1 and material #2

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 If you have a composite of many
single materials. The general form:
* Average axial strain in the composite:

N
0  M

E A
i 1
i i
1
2
* Axial stresses in the rods:

Ei N N i N
i  M

E A
i 1
i i
M

* Equivalent axial Young’s modulus of the composite: Fig. a. Composite

materials made of M
M different materials
General form: E   Ei f i Rule-of-Mixture
i 1

Vi
fi 
V1  V2  ...VM

V : volume ;
f : volume fraction. The subscript i denoted the material #i
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3. Thermal strain and Thermal stress

3.1 Thermal Expansion and Contraction

A change in temperature can cause a body to change its

dimensions. Generally, if the temperature increases, the body
will expand, whereas if the temperature decreases, it will
contract. Usually this expansion or contraction is linearly
related to temperature change as:

T =  L ( T )

where L is the original length, T is the change in temperature , 

is the constant of proportionality, called the coefficient of
thermal expansion. It is a property of the material. In the unit of
( C )1.

Typical values of  are measured in 106 ( oC )1.

For structural steel,  = 12  106 ( oC )1

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3.2 Thermal Strain

What is thermal strain?

T
T   T
L

 T , L 
For a bar under axial stress  in an changing
temperature environment, what is its total
length change? What is its total strain?

  T    TL  L
E
 
  T    T   
L E

=E    E  T 

Extremely important
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 3.3 Thermal Stress

Example 2: A bar AB of length L is held between immovable supports. If the

A temperature of the bar is raised uniformly by an amount T, what thermal stress
 is developed in the bar? (Assume that the bar is made of linearly elastic
material.)
Solution:
L T
Strain due to temperature change: T =  ( T );
Strain due to the stress in the bar:  =  / E; =E
Resultant strain  = T +  =  ( T ) +  / E;
Compatibility condition:  = 0.
B
Thus, the thermal stress is: ( T ) +  / E = 0   =  E  ( T ).

Consequence of excessive thermal

stresses

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Table 1 Density ρ, modulus of elasticity E, shear modulus G, Poisson’s ratio , and thermal
expansion coefficient α for some common materials

z
Three dimensional thermal strains in isotropic materials
 xT  T ,  yT  T ,  zT  T
 x   1      x  1
  1   
 y     1    y   T 1
  E      1    1
y  z   z  
T
 yz  xz  xy
 yz  ,  xz  ,  xy 
x G G G
Temperature change does not affect the shear strains (stresses) for
isotropic materials 15
 4. Axial transient loading in a straight bar

Below is a bar. Its left end is fixed. The right end is subjected to a transient
(dynamic) load P(t). As a result, the displacement, the strain and the stress
in the bar will vary with location x as well as time t.

In order to establish the equation governing dx

the displacement of the bar, we cut a free
  
body of length dx from the bar. We then A   dx  A
 x 
investigate the equilibrium of the free body.

   
 F    x dx  A  A  x Adx

  2u
 2
x t

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Periodic applied load

Therefore, we have obtained the governing equation of the bar:

  2u u
 2 ,   E  E Applied force
x t x
Putting the second into the first. One gets the governing
equation of the bar in terms of the displacement:

 2u  2u
E 2  2 (1)
x t
Or

 2u  2u E
c2
 , c (2) c: is the so-called sound speed in the material
x 2 t 2 

The partial differential equation (2) is called a one-dimensional

wave equation, and the parameter c is called wave speed.

For steel with  = 0.3, E = 210 GPa, and ρ = 7.83  103 kg/m3,
we find c = 5179 m/s.
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 Boundary conditions are:
u  0 at x  0
u P sin t
E  at x  L
x A
In this situation, we see the displacement everywhere A is the cross-sectional area of the bar
in bar also varies with time according to sin t. We
also see that the displacement is proportional to the To use the other (the stress) boundary condition at
load P. Thus, we assume the displacement is x=L, the stress associated with Eq. (3) is written as
u( x, t )  PU sin t (3) u ( x, t )  x
( x, t )  E  EPB cos sin t (7)
where U is an unknown function of x. It does not vary x c c
with time. Substituting Eq. (3) into Eq. (2) gives:
Compare Eq. (7) with the boundary condition at x=L,
2
dU we see that
c2 2
U2  0 (4)
dx
 L P sin t
This second order differential equation has the EPB cos sin t  (8)
following general solution: c c A
x x or
U  B sin  D cos (5)
c c c 1
B
Where B and D are constants to be determined from  A cos L
the boundary conditions of the problem. The
complete solution of the displacement is:
c
Finally, the exact solution of the displacement of this
 x x 
u ( x, t )  P B sin  D cos  sin t (6)
problem is
 c c  x
sin
P c c sin t
u ( x, t )  (10)
Since u=0 when x=0, we see D=0. EA  cos L
c 18
 Boundary conditions are:
u  0 at x  0
u
E  P sin t at x  L
x
Once the solution of the displacement has been established,
the strain and stress can be found:

x
cos
P c sin t
 ( x, t )  (11)
EA cos L
c

x
cos
P c sin t
( x , t )  (12)
A cos L
c

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 Resonance

If you observe Eqs. (10)-(12), you can see that large (infinite)
displacement, strain and stresses develop in the bar if:

L L  1
cos 0   n   , n  integer : 1, 2, 3, ...
c c  2

This means that elastic field (displacement, strain and stress) are infinite and structural failure
occurs if the frequency of the applied load is such that :

 1 c
ω  ωn   n  π 
2n  1π E
(4)
 2 L 2L ρ

n: Natural frequencies of vibration of the fixed-free bar.

Resonance of a structure occurs when the frequency of applied force matches a natural
frequency of the structure, i.e.,   n

In most situations, resonance must be avoided. However, there are situations that resonance can be used.
For example: shattering of glass at certain high pitch; ultrasonic destruction of kidney stone; etc.
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 Natural frequencies

ωn
fn 
2

n : the angular frequencies of the oscillation, measured in radians/second.

f n : the cyclic frequencies, number of oscillation per second

For the oscillation in the left figure:

f 1 = 0.5;
1
3 f 2 = 1.0;
2
f 3 = 2.0

(s)

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 Example 3: A bar of length L = 2 m along its axial direction that is fixed at its left end. Determine the first 3
natural frequencies of the bar for the longitudinal vibration. Assume the bar has Young’s Modulus E = 68.95 GPa
and density  = 2700 kg /m 3.

In this example, we studied the natural frequencies

of a fixed-free bar. For other types of bar (e.g., fixed-
2m fixed), its natural frequencies are different. You will
see this in the Practical Class.

E
Solution: c  5053.42 m/s


ω  ωn 
2n  1π c
2 L

ω1 
2 1  1π c
 3968.95 rad/s f1 
1
 631.68 Hz
2 L 2

2
ω2 
2  2  1π c f2   1895.03 Hz
2
2 L

ω3 
2  3  1π c f3 
3
 3158.39 Hz
2 L 2

• 1 Hz means the system would oscillate one time per second.

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Example 4: Finite element analysis of Example 3 by using only
one element. A is the cross-sectional area of the bar.

Solution: (the Ansys Finite Element Software gets the

frequency by solving the below equation – derivation of this
equation is beyond the scope of this subject )
E, 
AL 2 1 u1  EA  1  1 u1  0
L     
6 1 2 u2  L  1 1  u2  0

Since Node #1 is fixed, u1=0. Therefore

AL EA d 2u
u2  u2  0 u  2
3 L dt
1 2

Assuming u2  sin t

AL 2 EA
   0
3 L

1 E
 3
L 

1 E
f  3  696.52 Hz
2L  23
Example 5: Find the natural frequencies of the bar if its Boundary conditions are:
both ends are fixed.
u  0 at x  0
u  0 at x  L

L
It can be seen from Eq. (B) that:

Solution:
n n E
We need to find a solution of Eq. (2) – slide #17 :  c
L L 
 2u  2u E
c2
 , c (2)
x 2 t 2  Thus
n E
Since both ends of the bar are fixed, we can assume n  , n  1,2,3....
a solution as L 

nx
u ( x, t )  B sin sin t , n  1,2,3... (A) are natural frequencies of the fixed-fixed bar.
L

You can see the boundary conditions are identically

satisfied. The coefficient B is to determined from
the external loading conditions.
Putting (A) into Eq. (2) yields:

 n  nx nx
2

 c   B sin
2
sin t  2 B sin sin t (B)
 L L L
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