,,pe of mat,,nal 11 .

,,<J o
jhO t 1
" nothing mor1: th:m a :J ,.
sound I " , ""· r
olecule hitting thr, net t ar d .~ f ,,, ,
rn "· ,, for them to pa<i', th<: ·.ri Jr ~ ,, , ~, · •
w~ o propagate throuqh ,,,11d 1 -·~
w~htlYes t · u~ v,
bonded in solids. Sim ar 1 • ta,,.. , :, ,
11g ause gaseous molecule:s c1' ':l' '•r""'d · '
b0C ,., •.• ,; ••
•• ,051 through gases. "
slo••

A tbl l!MMMMW•··············::~==~::;~~~·······-· -··-•

11
V
Wind speed and the speed
of sound are completely
Wind
......
'·
A B

.....·.,
·:.., .
,:...
.....
to Bblows out the flame
..•.•. -,:·• ,.
A

. ,.·····
..
·.·•
. •.:.•.
B

{JI tl l
different things. Wind spee~ ......
·..:,:. :,: ➔ .. .. SOLID
uauo
~
•'
is the speed of a chun~of air .. ·., .. .. GAS
moving relativeto astationary
. • ' ...
observer.
V,brauon of particles about
the same poertion A does not
affect the llame
B
A B
A

Sound The speed of sound descni)c;;

how fast a mechanical ",ia,,
➔ travels through a given maten, ·
\I
I

Wind does not travel faster than sound.The fastest recorded wind speed was registered in Australia
in 1996; a wind station registered a maximum speed of 408 km/h. Sound, however, travels at,
speed of 1234 km/h through dry air.

Therefore,
The speed of a wave is defined as the distance When the string is strummed harder, It makes a
1ravelled by a point on the wave, such as a louder sound. This is because ,ts amplitude has
), increased. The larger the amplitude of vibration. l C r,.
compression or ararefaction,per unittime. We know Speed, v = -=).v
that for atime interval equal to the period of the wave T the louder the sound produced.
T, a point travels a distance of one wavelength Ji.

FUN FACT Louder sounds travel longer distances as they

are associated with higher values of force and
energy.
w
•• LC; ur sac a

t o' r ect QI"

Re• cec• .' 0 • r,o nd
phe~om ena-a

The faster the

This Is achieved Charact er~ cs of a Se-;,1nd ,"/tr
, v1brat1on of the
The stnngs of a guitar vibrate at by varying the Ref ect on o• LJ.g •
length, density, Amplitud es source, the h19~•.
different frequencies. the frequency •

~ . ,.,.,.,11,1111111111! I and tension of the

stnngs. How the
brain interpret s the
'
S and the higher
the pitch. The

1-;:, IIJJIIJ! lllll!llllJ DI i frequenc y of an

emitted sound Is
~
~
/ differen t stnnqs
on your gu,t 1
vibrate at different
I, I called
•ts pitch frequenc ies all(l
hence you identify

l, I Res1
pos,1,on
these sounds II th
differen t Pllche,.

I, I E
"'Cl)
-
'O :,
...
'O
ll)
r-- C!l C ~
£ ~
d
.... ., 2-
C!l <II •
,.!!!. ,,, .C -
Ol O 'O
Cl

E C) i: Q) 2
Sound waves are produced by the v1brat1on Q) 'O -=0.
of ob1ects. N-
'.I: th
0
X
X
0
.c :,
E
I--a.~ =
Sound requires a medium for propagation. NC) 0 M 0
<I'
-5 E Q)
'.I: -
~ X X
- a., .c<IIQl .c:
-

o@laa
Sound waves are longitudinal in nature ~ ._ e Q)
ooo ~
o oo
<I' <I' ..,. :?: ~ 21 'O ~
II -0 C 0 C Q)
" 11 Ill Ill C!l :, .c
~ ;:,. Ill
,,,
0.
:,
CT
~ g I-
-< "C) Q) . ,
~
th
Ill II C .C Ill
>

o,mam:ci:1
:, - Q)
,.!!!. 0 .._ C
~ E 3
., .! 'O
A radio station Is transmitting its signals 0 ff) 4E 5
i5 0 .c -0 .c ., -.,
1
at a frequency of 400 MHz. II the velocity l!! 01 >m~
X

I
of radio waves is 3 x 1o m/s, calculate the 0 M
C
Ill 0 .c -0 The sound that originate s from the c ock
wavelength of radio waves -r,~Tl:ffl':lfflffl!!,.,._
.w:un·mrns,
C -
~ ~ ~ ~f~ strtl\es the wall and gets rel e<:ted lr\l hea
C
,!,
:?: ~ CT C ~:,
~a>coo
this reflected sound whe'1 1t reaches our
2. How do frequency and amplitude affect
::, -0
Ill .,; -:,Q)., ears Thus, lrl\e hght sound \W\'l?S a so
musical sound? a CT
!!! Ill ::,
.c
~ gEo undergo reflect on of! a surface "Ito th
u.
0.
en I- ~.!: i,;,£
sameme d,um
~ N
 incident LAWS OF REFLECTION
sound
waves The angle of incidence 1s equal Incident sound waves, reflected sound
' to the angle of reflection. waves, and the normal drawn at the point of
incidence, all lie on the same plane.
incident wave A Normal
Reflected Reflected
sound Incident I wave
waves a> wave I
j

!ffii-·~
~
0 •
~ •
1~
I
i
i
p1 .. ,.,,-;; V ?
Reflected wave B
surf~~;o ~
Thus, it is evident that sound waves obey the laws of reflection just like light waves.

<fl--~-----..

Initially tube A, tube B, and the softwood liem

the same plane (the plane of the table) andlhe
sound heard is loud and clear. - --- ----- -- -- --- - ----- ---------- ------ ----- - -- ----- --- -------- ---- - --- ---- - -- --- -- --- -

When a person shouts or claps in front of a hill or tall building, he hears two distinct sounds,

1. The original sound

Reflected wave made by him which he
hears instantly.
When tube B is lifted to a certain height wilh
respect to the table, the quality of the sound
heard diminishes dramatically. When tube BJS
lifted, it isn't in the same plane astubeAandthe
softwood anymore. This means that in order to
hear the sound made by the clock clearly, the
incident sound wave reflected sound ~
and the softwood (no~mal) should all lie in the
same plane.
 R Le.i•n R ''ect on 0
...... ..
Ound
_
-..__
ss
,esatt118
d that arra\ d jhe i,e condItIons which must be satisfied
i . . . .. ... . . .. . m orderto t11•a dI5t
re11ec1eds0U"ori9111alsoun ~e of · fhe distance between the source ~f t.h • r •nct ec.hoes are,
An echo is thedela)' after theI 10 11,e d1sta~d the . a. esound
• is tile speed of sound in that medium anct t Is and the reflector shou d be at ea" tv/2 v , ,
11s1ener with a,IY pr0port1onat1,e source a Ot
delaf is d1reG surlsce 1ron1 : b The size of Ihe re fl ector or obstacle sh seconds
· ound ould be large

- :. --0 .......
111e ret1ec11n9 • the s · enough compared to the wave englh of
hstene' ;__c !~?.1~!~~-~1~-~!!h~_?n~1~~!.~-~~~~~~?uld be high enou
?" to!""'" ....,,,,.,,,, ,!te.,el '"' ,.

e 1;J@i,J:ii®11mJ1·······--··-·---
The persistence of a sound is known as reve b .
·--·····--··-········----····-··----··
produce echoes. reflected multiple times and the numerou/re~~tion. It Is created when sound
15
sound-sound that "stays" In the air for a wh ections build up to a prolonged • .,...,,.:L..,..
Not all reflected sound ::sol sound persists IIe.
We k/lOW that the sens I order to hear an A reverberation is perceived when the reflected
rn our brain for 0.1 se~on~:d ;ound must reach less than 0.1 seconds after the original sound sou~d wave reaches your ears in
echo d1stmc1ly, the re ec dsattertheoriginal combine into one prolonged sound wave. wave. he two sound waves tend to
the person at least 0.1 t~~~;tance between the
sound is heard. Thus,acle should be such that
.~=::==:=====·------==---="••-. Reverberation is most noticeable in empty rooms
10m or caves. Even a~ the sou_rce stops producing
person and the obst b tween producing the
the time drfferenche e g the reflected sound > sound: the reflections continue with decreasing
onginal sound and eann intensity as they are_ absorbed by objects in the
vicinity, such as furniture, people, or even air.
,s at least 0.1 seconds. d b
the person and the obstacle, an v e the speed of sound
Let s be the distance between re So 10 reach the person after reflection, sound has I in that
medium at a particular temperaIu · ' o cover a
total distance of 2S.
···•···•····••·•··••·••··· Distance . ; (~he speed of sound ----·----······-···--:
t= ~ : ! in air at normal O 1 34 '
1 : temperature 1s S= · x 0 m/s
Thus, ume taken
to hear the echo or t = 2; l / 340 m/s. Substituting 2
-
In auditonums or big cinema halls, reverberatron
adversely affects the listening experience. To avoid
reflected sound, : : t = 0.1 sin the given S = 17 m this, the wall of the hall Is covered With matenals
S= ~ ': : equation, , like compressed fibreboard, flannel, rough plaster,
2
.... _. ·······-·····. ····•·· ···---· ........... _______ _,,' ' ... ----
- ---- - ---- - - -- -- -- ----- ----
-- -- -------·····~·'
' and other such matenals. These soft and porous
materials absorb sound to prevent multiple
So, m order to hear an echo distinctly, the distance between the person and the reflecting surface
reflections. These materials are selected based on
should be at least 17 m. As the speed of sound is different in different media, this minimum distance their sound-absorbing properties.
differs from medium to medium.
 !>7

THINK & REFLECT @,'. i,: . _ -

Why do you sound~rwhell'tousin9 in the ~rtWffl?
Uke I gtrt, SOUOd waves
laws of reflecucn. a so cbe;;tJ-e
-· ... '••.. ..
.. do not absorb sound. When '/vur ,
C tiles w,,IC11 • h h 'i1r,,. The sensat on of h<>~r
Most bathrooms are lilted wrth ceram .. ~11roomqurtea brtSmcet es. owerv,a! ~ar~t. •• r,,, human bra n 'or o 1~_ng pers sts ri the
· ~-=co~ds.
absOrbed, rt bounces around the waifs ofth~ urce {foul, mese reflected sorJnd 11a ,es ,._001 1:; IP ,•., 1
fess than 17 metres away from the sound so • ,,, sound-a re-1erberat1on (and not ,m ,,. ' r,~ ,.. ,._
11 An echo 1s the s rigle ref
~
~<>te a prolong= -Cr.r -~, sound wave off a surtaceect on c' a
your original soun d waves to cr.,.. hed :;::;;;:.......;:::-... JJ tr .
gives your singing the effect of being suetc ./.. · • A reverberation 15 a sou~d
• • the arr ranger created when a sound wavpattem
out, meaning your voice hangs m multrpfe ref ect,ons e undergoes - --;-
,:;
than us-ual, making rt delightful and extra-rich-
"·0 1.-',

Thus, depend,ng on how and where reverbEratJOn •• C')

.....
(\j

:::,
occurs. rts net effect on the sound can vary. "'
N
N
0
Long reveroerafons usi.Jal~/ ma~.s tile onginal i -:-
'?;
C "'
E
,:,;
soond more chaouc. tihile shorter and coota ned 0
t,
g
revert>erauons can create a soath;ng rich sound 0 ~ ""O
.!:
1. To hear d1 t net cchoe I ti M E
between th,• rmn na , c nde me gap "'
M ~ 5 ::,
" ,JJ ::ind tt E "'>, "'
. • ound tiou O 00, at P.a!.t
reflected e
"' = .::a ~
··············$ -WiiWiWU11W11i@millii1Mi=l•,M#..····················· ~
~
-
-g
"O
2
"S
>
0
-2
-:s
2 A boy receJVeS h :. "Che,
- ..,
., ~i:on1-
<I",
""O
0
.c ,,,5 g 0
, of •rur~ - 342' C
HI:: I
Iater. If the spe"d "" "~ r :,i 'I' 0
c;
0 0 ,:; :,
~
(J
C
m/s. fmd the distance cf th<> r<-i , 'll
._,, cC, 'O
0
C
§
H'! O surface from the boy. T:1 · - e,:;ting ~
~
1 > "' "'
i 6i':'itl1'iO 0
..:
6
c,j
C.
(/) c5 □

Re,1e rberallon
Echo 1. The trme gap between the ongmal soun
1. The time gap between the ong naf sour.d being produced and the reflected so dd
being produced and the reflected sound reaching the listener is less than o· 1 sun
econds
reaching the listener 1s o. t seconds or more
2. A reverberation occurs when a sound ·
2. An echo 1s a srngfe ref'ect1on of s-ou d undergoes muftiple reflections. wave
waves off a reflector.
3 A reverberat on cannot be easily
3. An echo can easily be d1stmgu1shed from d stmgu,shed from the original sound.
the or,gmaf sound
I I I I I I I I I I I I I
I I i i JI i 11 I I J Ji l i I I I I I ; f I I I I

DIIWICI! (m) 1=7 A reverberation 1s heard at

AA echo hEanl a mo,e
lhan 17 metres. less than 17 me\[es
 HISTORYTIHE
JOIWi',ES 11.EPt:ER .

-'3~.~_;c-..c ~~ :e:-,,,;-e-. t:'. . .

c:: e=--1.S SC ~
=--==-~
=:t~-="':..~-a :.= r-.e =·t-"9- .,. -;,ass.E:S a.-.c J
.-,~-a.. ;;rocc--:-..,a -:,:.re&:ua--e~tr:e~ s-:a-.....
; ~ s ~ - ... ~ -"!

-ne o-b o' a panet s 2. - ne o"

an e pse (an ova ,:e
5.-,ape Y :11 r.·..o foe)
"'tn u-e Sen at O"ec'
mefOCt
--:1c . nc tr.e p!a.,c·. "d
treSu" . - _,.,
s ••-ge;:,s eq~a areas
nequa r:eNasof"'tT'e. -~e
sraded a~s 1 and 2 a•e
CO'Jered by tne p a •ie, ~ equa
"'e"Ja's o' nme.
3 7'lesqc.a:e~thet-r.eta,ce"
'J'/ a 0/a'let .o orti t Lie Str
IS c rect/y ;:iro:,or..ona .o .re
c..ibe cf tne average d s-.a"Ce
bet',•,een •r-em.

Kepler's la•NS provided an explanation for how

T 2 oc r3
planets moved around the Sun. However he co Id
not explain WHY such paths existed. ' u

-o anst~r th s q1,1es! on we nave to first eam about Isaac

Newton was troubled by this lack of explanation
Ne r..o a".d "'s e-,tperiments vnU, gravity. When 'Je111ton for the planet's orbits. He felt that there must be
sa,v an app e 'a 'rorr a tree, he wondered if a connection some cause for such elliptical motion. Kepler's
e.cist..."'d berlieen a fa ing body on Earth and the way celestial first law states that planets revolve around This component of
t>oc~s rr,:.:,,e " orbits. Could the force with which the Earth the sun in elliptical orbits. Similar to a circular . . the gravitational force
pu ed ar acp e •.omrds it also reach :lie Sun? path, a planet moving around the Sun in an Gravitational force changes the
elliptical orbit constantly changes its velocity on the planet planet's d1rectJon
Newton wasn t the onl</ one studying celestial bodies to and direction. This means that it constantly
1,nderstand their motion. By the 1 Er century, astronomers undergoes acceleration and hence, according
had co ected lots of data about planetary positions and to Newton's second law of motion, has a force
how planets moved. Based on this data, Johannes Kepler acting on it at every point on the orbit. He termed Thrs component of Planet s vetocrty
concluded that planetary motion follows certain laws. He this force gravity. the gravitational force
defined three laws that described planetary motion. changes the planet's speed
 I
0 C;@;~f!ili,P'------------------------------------------------------------ ---
. _ • ..A was in answenng owever, ,t wasn t 1ust the distan e It>
pso1>1em t.e ~ n•JyV.lth different _••---·- Moon Hsµonsible for the force pull,ng ltie ap 1
™n 'd oer.aved d ffere 'ulled 111e Moon
w tl':S fOfC1? •t'-~t the Earth p • but pulled
!-ie Jene"' I IO oor2 m $' ••
••
.-· I
~ ;e Earth According 10 the second ,a:of :~. rd
11e force causing an obiect to acce1£rate ,s d o
1

~s.. .-re erit.!Ofl of o. 'of 9 8 m/sz. When • t _ portronal to ,ts mass ir c• y

'°' :.!l lea-.v _,.,..,,e,ation -
"--th .an ;,,..v- , s. t,e round that
the pro
ar> W red the iwo va ue rds it with a torce
,11, 5 rneant that the mass of the apple also pla
he ~,,!;Jed the Moon to1varorce with which it
role 1n the grav1ta11onal force causing ,/ed
Eartl' r 600 umes the 8
tt,31 \\'35 1 3 elerate. The th,rd law stares that every to
p:tUed the apP e. aCc d action
11as an equa I an opposite reaction, and hence this
sarne force should cause Earth to also acee1erate
'
1'3,'ds me centre of Eann : _ 1_ towards the apple.
10<1 3600
rdS tne cemre of Ear.h
~ eased on his observations, he concluded that the
gravitational force acting on two objects ,s direct!
=~t of gravity somehow Earth proportional to the product of their masses. Y
•hat the eu= .
He reaI1sed ' _ between the two obiects
. thed1stance .
rec1uceoas nt tha· there was an inverse
eased. This mea ' . ( F~Mxm)
mer b rween force and distance.
reta11onsh1p e

O 11/t11',iiM-iffl·ltmfM1@•t iti----------------------------------------•
1

:ided
to find the nature of thi~ relationship, he
to compare the exact distances between
the Moon and the Earth and the apple and the
Moon
so far, Newtond'had tiestablished
•
that gravity acted between every ob1ec1 n tne un verse a-d • a
this for~e was ,rec Y proport1ona1to the product of the masses of the two ob1ects a~a _rse
Earth. proportional to the square of the distance between them.
To hrs amazement, he found that the centre to
centre distance between the Earth and the Moon
Thus,
was 60 umes the distance of the apple from the
centre of the Earth.
R,,,:R
OIS!ance between Ille cenues of Moon and Earth = ~ 60:1
0tstance atapple from the centre of Earth 1

where G is the constant of proportionality, called the universal gravttat,onal cons:am rts value was
Interestingly, 3600 is the square of 60. This meant found to be 6.673 x 1 O 11 Nm2/kg 2 by Henry Cavendish
Earth
that not only is the force inversely proportional to
the distance between the two objects, but that This law is known as the universal law of gravitation, and ,s apphcable between eveiy ob ect m the
the force is inversely proportional to the SQUARE universe that has mass, be it an apple and the Earth or even the Moon and the Earth.
of the distance between the two objects. Using
this data, he formulated the inverse square law.
The inverse square law states that the force
GutliileiOtUli3 }-----------------------------------------------------------------------· -----
experienced byan object is inversely proportional
to the square of the distance between their
centres.
(_F°'-~) A geologist is a person who studies the Earth. Geologists study the structure of the Earth, ,ts
composition, origin, and history.
 TIME!
~HISTORY
NOISH .
HENRY CAV[ English scientist and philosopher, tho dIutonc.1 l11 tw1 011 twoobJ1 r I doiihl ,
cavendisl_1, an f experiments from 17~7 to 1798 to inoas I. 11
tliull 1110 orovI1n1I011aI fem o 111I g b, tw,
11
Hen,Y d a series o between masses in the laborat l!r0 t111m1 (douhl<' /t,, ,.om, ori f11u11h
perforn1e of gravity acting ation led others to accurate va1~ry, li1s of its oriulnnl v11lw ).
the fore~ constant obse~(G) and Earth's mass. cs for
work an al constan
thegrav1tat1on ---------- 2. 11 1110ro oxisw .i qrovI1 111011r1I lorco 1,r tw n
ull objects, thon why don't w1 fl r I 11i, pull
N wton established that there is a 10 towards the l>u1ldings 1n ow vIcInIty?
:e
le and the Earth, t an equal and opposite force that tee that w
the case of the ap~ Then, there rnus ove towards the apple? attracts . Sun Is 42 x 1O kg and that
3. The mass of the
Let's go back to .....rds the Eart . n't the Earth rn
apple tOvw hy does
of the Earth Is 6 x 10 kg. If 1ho avr.raq
attracts theds the apple. Then. w two objects. The average mass of a distance between the Sun and tho Eurth bo
in the mass of th~24 kg. Thus, the Earth weighs around ~ apple
8
Earth towar 1.5 x 10 km, calculate tho force of gravI1a11on
answer to this quest10:;i~:e Earth is_s.972 ~ 1proportional to acceleration (Newton's sex 1Ql1 between them. (Take G 6.7 x 1OI Nm /kg )
: :02 g, whereas the rn~:~ Since rnass 1s inve~~xtimes less than the apple as well. Corid
t1rnes rnore than th:a~:accelerates about 6 x . C: Ql
law of motion), the b t since the value of this acceleration is so ~
te towards the apple, u sma11, ~ .!2
So.the
Earth does accelera
. t .8 C:
0
we don t even notice , . 8C:
0
1/l 1/l

-
1/l 1/l m
<ti <ti iii LI!
~ ~ 0 C)
c,;

~······························ ·············} Ql "C

Fea = Fae
:Ca,-c:
0
ro:::, mu,
a. "C Ql Cl) Ql
~ ~ ~ :0 ~
Ql 0 - 0
u, .C - Cl-
;: o ~ "E, m
""':,c§Ql.C
Q)
:::, ~ (.J;:; C: 0
C F = G x Me xm. 1iij ogjs!:'.!"C
ae r2 -u,~(l)C:
.¥"0 ~(!l
M xm
F = GX __L_.!.
!:
0)
m:oci~a
s;S:a>,o;::
"" r2 ;:
0 ~g-s~g
a, u, _;' ('l ...
~ > Ql :::, C: 0)

0 1t1 ii en -o !:
.c !:'.!,8aioE
t::
:::,
~>,~c:8
:-cu,a,._
.2 ~(l)(l)QlQl
Q) o,~E~€)
C:
0 ol ~.2lo
The gravitational force between two obJects is directly proportional to the product of their Ill Qlo,_EC:~
Q) ~c._Q.o
masses and inversely proportional to the distance between their centres of mass. E
0
o =- -
m
....3a>oa.
0
Ql a>a.-5~~
..c:.-o~c
• Newtons 9ravrtatl0nal forte Is universal because it is applicable to all objects in the universe D I- 0 - <ti·-
whether tenestrial or celestial N
 l• rn fr
II - 65

~
S
istance refers to
"Ir re
,.. forces that oppose the 11 you drop both in a vacuum ,.e take
The velocity of an object falling Und the ment of an obJect as 11 ( Air
rc•11stanco air resiat ance out of the ~quat,on
gravity increases with time. er the ette 111~~:s through air. The stone thrm both tho stone and the feathe;
Claf pa ts these forces much will reach the ground at the same
A body falling only under the influ re;~~r due to its large m~ss. time
is said to be in a state of free fall ence of 9 b feather, being very light,
. ra..,,t~ 11
: :ery sensitive to even small
15 es This 1s why the stone
fore ·
rea C
.
hes the ground first.
1 Grav,tat10na1
force
!!
~ -illlfflfHfill!OOW!
'-!:
ube
!Ja)
vacuated Now, let's look at an obiect falling

(O
Acceleration tube only under the effect of gravity
• Gravity
!l
tJ ---~,--

••. . ,
.:..i;.;;,;;;,;;,!l!i-A.-...-i!.io'ilme from Ii 8
. egrou imt? e
t ... 4 s

t- 5 s

6
t=6s

Galileo Galilei was an Italian

astronomer who conducted a
similar experiment. He dropped
two stones of different masses
fro~ the top of the Leaning Tower
of Pisa.
From the given image, it is clear that the
'I spacing between the positions of the stone
~#/ increases as it falls. In order for it to cover
~
I r II more distance for a given time interval, its
velocity must increase. Since its velocity

Contrary to what everyone .1~ff is increasing, it must be undergoing an

•
acceleration.
expected, both stones ~;l,J
I.[, //
■iijiffl@--------··-···················-·············-··························-·-······
reache_d the ground at the
~
!@J_~ff
samet1me.
Let us assume that the mass of the stone is significant enough to overcome any air resistance. Then,
Thismeansthat,inthe I the only force acting on it is gravity. If an object falls towards the surface of the Earth only under the
absence of an external : J1 // • influence of the gravitational force, it is said to be in a state of free fall, i.e. the object experiences no
force, the mass of the .;; other force besides the force of gravity.
object doesn't play a rofe ~~ ~ ~~
in how fast it falls to the r -
8 •Mii1i@1 •1. U l·· · · · ·--·----------------------·-----·---•
•
ground.
Thus, gravity pulls the stone towards the Earth, and hence, causes it to accelerate. The acceleration
Howeve_r, m
· t he case of the stone and the feather, the caused by gravity is known as acceleration due to gravity. Since the gravitational force is directed
towards the centre of the Earth, the direction of acceleration due to gravity is also vertically
tone will reach the ground first. This is because of a factor
nown as air resistance. downwards. It is represented by the letter 'g'.
 f he accelereuon
......... __
Lot's try to (lni t~t~ri!~oe6bJ~ct of rnass n,, .......... ---- -.............................. -----. ---- ..
e1<perlenced Y w of rnotion, eleration due to gravity experienced b
n's second fa p..cc
Frol11 NeWto Yall the obi·ect
son the surt ace of the Earth .1s given by,
F ma r Acceleration d
tlonal force • , ue to gravit d

~
ihus, grav11a due to gravity , Th Y epends on two factors
bject x accaJeratlon e mass of the Earth ,
n,AS$ of an O

~
The radius of the Earth
F - mg I law of gravitation,
R
Frorn Nowton's universe •< Acceleration due t
u
.
o gravity var' f

r:--;§
Pon the location of the ob· ies rom place to place depending
M understand the variat' . Ject. Consider the following cases to
ion in acceleration due to gravity.

l~•-=-
- - - -~- ~i~-~;~-,i~♦
i~--~------------------------_--_--_--_--_--_--_j·-·1
r2 - I the distance between
ss of Earth, r S E rth
where M is the rna f the object and the a .
the centres of rnass o f'_--_--_-._--_--,_-i_l _--_--_--_--------,-- ----------_--_--_--1=-:;;:;:i;;;~.:-----_--_-

Equatlng the two forces, the surface of the Earth, the

iL
If the object Is very ~~:rcentres of mass of the object and The value of g is
distance r between ed to be equal to the radius of the greater at the poles Variation along the surface of the
the Earth can be assum than at the equator. Earth
Earth, I.e. R. This is because, Radius The Earth is not a perfect sphere. The
. d to gravity at the surface of the Earth is given by,
Thus, the value of accelaration _ ue_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _........, g oc 1/R 2 radius of the Earth at the equator is
greater than at the poles.

Where, ravitational constant= 6.673 x 10 , , N m2 / kg2

24
.'
'
Mass of the.Earth= 6 x 10 kg
6
The value of g
reduces with
Variation with height .:'
R adius of the Earth = 6.4 x 10 m increase in height. As an object moves above the surface :'
This is because, of the Earth, the distance between its :
centre of mass and that of the Earth
. . lues in the previous equation the numerical value of acceleration due to g oc 1 /r 2
increases.
!:::

On subst1tut1ng t11ese va •
2
gravity 1s calculated to be 9.8 m/ s .
.
!'
lH!NKiR(/~, @P:. Variation with depth
As an object goes under the :
""· - I';
The value of g surtace of the Earth, r decreases, !
ih~_sa~i~~g;;1~_r;at1on~due ·9900t•H1~ reduces with ' so the value of g must increase. :
!
\
Do we experience
increase in depth d. ' However, the part of the Earth's
the Earth? "' · ' ,:1 '(: --. 1

mass M which contributes towards :

This is because,
•··

·1 · ·.:,

. the gravitational force felt by the :

. ~

••.. ••••••••••.. •.. •-•.o.-.~-•~,,.:.!""i.••~~.._ . g oc M/ r2 ' ', M-m ,, object also decreases. Therefore. :
.;; .• - - Iii '
as a combined result of the change :
····· ···-- '··- -~,.~···'!~~,.,~t_l:~;~- '. m in rand M, the value of g decreases :
j
•·• ... . .......
.. •.•·····...,.........._......;~~-'-!.;*:~~:·.~!"~~-- ..- :.· .. -~--~.
•• ........... . I 1- _·
.
..
.....
'--
· • • . • • ••
..
~

•-~P--,
"',
.
.... _......
the deeper you go inside the Earth.
----------- ----------... .. ........ -.. ----- -------------------- .. ------- .. ----- ------------ -- -------------- __,

Wo htlVfl l~nml'<I 1ho1 tlio
000Ion1tlon 0~1~ 1oncod W
11
~ ~(l\/11\Q bod\' ngnlosl 1ho
ct1roo11011otmollonlolo1n1odns -¥-Ii-¥
rolnrtlltllon.
So.even11 All objeO\ IS thrown
ven1c.111)1 upwards, the
gmv\tetlonnl loreewtll net In lhe
downwnrd dlrec11on, 1mpmtlng
0 downward acceleration 10 the
ob!OOI.
\( 8111 If'
Gravity acts towards the centre of the Earth.
Acceleration due to gravity is independent of
the mass of the object.
An object ,n a state of free fall always
experiences an acceleration due to gravity in
the downward direction.
znro vcltoolty
so, ror fin object mov1110 vonlOfJII
,;"'"'"'1 1 'i•---..,, upwardu, 1ho nccoloratlon cluo ;
1
,
,, ~~+ ', ' will slow down tho oblno1, ulttrn Oniv,1y
bringing It to rost. ntoly
I \
I \
I I
I \
I \ The acceleration due to gravity acting on
"- Rod\lOCri wloolly \
a body (increases/decreases) as
r ~ the height of the object from the surface
\
1 of the Earth increases.
I I I 1
:
l 1
But, grovill\t1onol pull Is 91111 acun 2. A man's weight wher, E,;i s ;
dow11watds. So, tho object Will 0 taken at poles is 600 N. -
start rnovlng verUoally dnw...,_0 e>.v Will his weight remain
-·...wards
towar ds the contra ol the Eanh
't\
101\lal IIOIOOl\y
tl under the pull of gravhy.
the same when measured at the equator?
Will there be an increase or decrease in
his weight? Explain.
'rI
'
iii I
I
I
I
3. As you go under the surface of the Earth,
the acceleration due to gravity acting
"'
Ql
"'"'~
"'
Ql
CD
"'~
I
I
I 'Ir PITSTOPI on a body _ _ __ _ (increases/
()
Ql
-0
()
Ql
-0
I
I I
I
decreases).
I
I The Moon and artificial N M
I
I I
I I satellites are in motion only
I because of the influence of
Earth's gravitational field.
Grav,tatt0fl8I pull Thus, they are in a state of
free fall.
0 ~ discussed earlier, the gravita\lonal
pull &l<penenced b-f an object is always
towards the cen1re of the Earth Thus,
accelera110n due to gf8\lr\y ,s always
directed ,n 1he dotmward direction,
 0
• of ttw for , 11 1111y

p
,,
01

\ s
• Pres uro o nit;O:<lllC of the thrust acting
8c11119
per unit orCil illfSI 9p O
\ ,e force ,s parollel ,,, 11 n
1 f•Cf! perpend1c11l..r to
5lll " '
udnce or ot an nngl
111£' S
t
ho surf,1co
10

0 C[~i;10--·-----·--·---··-·--·--- ··------· ____

A tank werghs upwards of 50 tons! If rt had regular whee , r ore rus acung per uni are w
like those on a car. 1t would srnk into loose surfaces Let defined by the term. presauro, 1.e. the force octang • :a • ~ •

area
look at the physics at work behrnd this
We ve already discussed that thrust 1s defined as the fore Pressure
acting perpendicular to the surface of an obJect And so
 1
_ If the areo on wl11r;h a {I , n lhr 1
axertorl on 11
(
WhY IS the tip of the p,n harp bU1
2 1

A bOX we1gh1ng 30 N havmg cl

3 •men"ons u .
the pressure exerted by the bo ""'
table has the d1mens1ons x on the ta

•J;;,omi,too, tMtt~1:1~········-···~·············:·············:.····~ (a) 40 cm x 30 cm

The weight of an obJect can be distributed
h pressure exe rted
• its in order to reduce the amount of pressure
Wf'C n Increase t c
by an ob1ect by red ucing generated.
surtacearea -- - - - _ _ ;
n, ,s w'rly the edges of cutting tools are Camels have broad feet to prevent them from
5 the reduced surface area translates sinking into loose sand.
nar:~ pressure exerted for a given force.
10 _ - -:::..- - -- -=::;:;;=:::;;:::::------------.

~ [!]11•···1/,00
........ : . -. ,a\
[!] ,~
/

0
e
C\J 8!. e "' 0..
(/)

;; "'
'
Cl) 0 0 0

j
• .c Cl> l()
0 0
• 0~ C\J
• "'•

B
Cl) -
~

~ -g E E
II
E
= ~
(/)"' (/)

iz
l
ST
~ .c 0
M
o.~o z 0
~ £ ~ -gt:: X
0 )(
0

\
Less surlace area 0 0 0 E l()
C\J E 0
l()
E <1> o <1> M C\J
.!!? £ 0 ~ 0 0

Can you think of other examples where the pressure vanes without any change 1n the value of
*6 ~~
.c: >, m co "'
I!!
E
0
"i:
C\J
;;
E
0
1=
<D
0

~~~~ ~ ~
..... .....
0 0
thrust? M
.0 )( z X z
"'2 6:gn
- Q) -
<0 (I) 0 C Ezg EZO
l!! Cl) (/) ~ uo"'
"' e -o .c
~GiSMiWk:6 (/)
Cl)
(/)

"'
(/)Cl)"'
m·a e
-;;; .t
(0 Q> · -
~
I!!
:::,
(/)
(/)

I!!
I- M n ~
II
Cl)
:5 e .c f
..
"':::, .,
II - :,
(/)
0
N
I
M I
I !!?

«>
~ .c ~
-
~ ~
:::,

Thrust 1s defined as the force acting perpendicular to the surface of an object. I!! .coi::,a. (/)
(/) < I- 0.. < I- 0..
The thrust exerted by a body on a surface is equal to its weight.
0
Cl)
-0 ~~
.c
m~
.c -
l!!
0.. ~ 8
Pressure 1s the effect of thrust acting on an area. .,.; C\i M
, 2 a: f:r',

, d<> rt,'~:, tr, 'lt>f ~~ r

P'':i~1;,~re n 11 .
depth i;nd ,.w,-:.rty.

_ e 1,-, pressure at arr/ pc nl Ii a

A c~~nglf'n'ffill!edequa ythro;gh(;i.11
1qu1,, IS ;;,, ·~
tMfluid,

0,, , i=rnt 1nat forc'f: act1r.n ::-,,:,,~...,,. , ,,.

, Pre&sure
,,,e ·1~
A
t,U • ~ ,_ '""..i-:: ':,a
,.,__,, ..,

r<> ·s ca fed tnrus1 ar.d tr ni:.t act•,.., 1 ,

ThM,t s.urfa v.... c:- ., ~ J -::: ... ar.
area ,s ca ted pressure. .,0, 111:, can UfJ'•a, v.-.,.. ..,
nressure Of' the 11a!fs of tI''i: ccr u, , ,., -
eier1S ,, -··
o,d ;ou knoll that this pror,ert/ ,s~·t un·oc1e •,:,
REFJ.[ 1u:iu1ds? .- ..,, .,, -
..,c;:_
r ........ -,-, ....
.>A J ~
8 !ea: <..1;- ~ - J..;s ... :: •,a~,.. ca_,,.~ !C;::c
He 1gu subirtances that ffcm-liquids and gas'f:s~•e ;:: C~t: ... ~~ .. rr~_ ... a--:1~ -
' •' J!OUfble l(novm as fluids, Since the molewIe::, o' a •,u d r-as.,:, ratf:d la-es sta,..e~ a· ,..is ·sa ett ~
re in constant rapid
amove
motion, they're fJl-e~; 10 'o•o,e·ar. •cur 'l:-<-r. A<-r.:-c•:. ,..
in random d'irect1ons.
.
di:,-tr :;;· 'J :i1s po-:.er.: s~m ;s;~e::
from t"e <.::tt.e s SJY.l~ • P.er::ov ~-:: a.
rand rrc~ 1.~e d l'l'.ade • oo~, ~saga "

Later, Jarr:es r:-1e~teo a .,,aytn ge1 ever:

Hydrostatics ,s the branch of mechanics that more power fror:1 the s•eam e~g ~e:.
imtolves the study of fluids at rest and the ·111thout bum ng any more foe ,ames
pressure exerted by a fluid on an immersed body, Wans improvements ·o tne steam e~g ~e
made 1 an extreme y powerlu too,
 Lt'dl 11 '

..
4
....... ... . --------. -····-····--·---
"3..,·;;11/ • The p , ----------
1

---
water th ressur
Ori e dens e exerted b
• • than Wat~t~ of the hqu,l;,~quid depends on
the Walls ~~e Pressure exeC:. ~•I less dense
oi ,s
Th
•
as molecules inside the kettle are When a gas is heated, its atoms and
K
I,
>I
exerted b e beaker w,JJ e by o,r on
travel a g y Water. Theref be less than that
8 gtantiY colliding with
cons . each
St other
. and with molecules start
th . vibrating taste•,, d0ue to Wh' reate r d•stance.ore, the Jet of water w,II
thowallsollh" °"ra'"'· .,m, ,.e. waw 1n e gas part,cles m""'a,ouoct m . "h
m, ''"°"' ,rate, ;, fo,~,W wheo the w,te, These particles hit the walls of th ~ QU,okly.
; ,;de the 1<ett1,.ran> "°"'"' h"de,ond more oft<m. e ettle
0
This increases the
· · pressure exerted
I f h on the walls of the kettle. Eventually' this press ure lifts
. th •
of the l<e(tle. Th" ,s " .,,mp e o ow goses exert pressure. Now, let's look ., how e hd
e,erted by"'""''· P'"'"" ;,
O tiaMMIMmtlllUn/@RliiUllt----------- -------------~
~
1
2
We ,,ow that solids,, ,,. weight ond the,efore 3
exert pressure. Similarly, liquids exert a pressure
proportional to the weight of the liquid present in
a given container. This pressure is defined by the Free
• ftj;mimm I [)---------;,--~-:--~-;-----.-----------.--------- - -------
. . .
equation, ~surface

The pressure exert i 3

increases with ed by a fluid at a P .
fr an mere omt
1 si~: surface of the liqu,~se in depth from the
h
where pis the density of the given liquid, h is the 2 3 will travel the farth~~~nce, the jet at
depth of the point in consideration in the liquid 3
from the tree surface, i.e. the surface in contact
with air, and g is the acceleration due to gravity.
Since the acceleration due to gravity is constant at IHI
,, IDBl!fm
a particular point on the surface of the Earth, the I( )I
pressure exerted by a liquid depends on its density
(pl and depth (h). IE )I

'·

Two identical beakers;;J:r.Trfci"/f~ltlie same

height with water,and oilifl}Pe~1vel~ l,e1~re -
made in both beakers~J'lhe·s~m_e,\t,e~li!"!.rf!"'
the ground. In which beak~r-wiU tfie,r~s~l!ipg~e.t.
travel a greater distance?
-··
· · · _. • 'f:!.. .s -/■' :, .- '
.:
 f H1 r u,;11. I
1 ,n 1r u ondlllon in which nl lhu forcnu
uillbrlum, 1.0. n c
ttnrn a state of oq . ble
By nature, the system will uy 1,ohea whole, tho system is sta .
sothut on 8 Id(' r n
fluid thnl IS confine<l b1 tw,• Cl" l
cancel each 01her his • ., \/'/()
Id nsos to ditteronl 11019 . A, I muc,1
conton~ ol area A 1 and A such thut ,
L l's assumo that tho hqu •• We've learnt that . pl& r than A,. If forco r-. ,~apphocJ nt pr ton 1,
10 each of the d1f1oront boa~~~e density of the hqu1_ d 1ar9° essuro al piston 1 10 given by,
the pressure is a function o surface. Since the llqurd ,11cn pr
and the depth from the free density will be constant.
l!J
is the same in each beaker, . g the pressure al a p p
Thus, tho only factor impac;:~e suriace. Since we've If F I
point is the depth from the re ditterent, the pressure A B C D
assumed that the heights a d D) will be different.
ch point (A. B, C, an
. ressure acting at A, B, C, and D must be - ■
ac11119 at ea F A A
In ordor for the system
to be in a state of equilibnum, t~b~ pif the height of the liquid in each beaker
the same As we have just isc
d. ussed this is only possr e
'
t Rearranging, F • A,,, _~
Is the same.
r - Pistons~ A
h . ht in each beaker.
Thus, the liquid will rise to the same e1g Since ~ 1n much larger tl'ta A F t
greater than F So. for a g 1e P • g •
Fluid a lar~er_outpu Tors is ar. exz'.'Tlp e o' a force

•, l
mult1pher.

: ----------------- ........................................................... ···--

~
Small force

Hydraulic jacks that

T
are used to lift vehicles
·································• operate on this
PASCAL'S LAW principle.

Pascal's Law states that the pressure

exerted at any point in a confined fluid
i
Is transmitted equally and undiminished
in all directions throughout the fluid.

The terms ·confined" and

"und1m1nished" are especially

--·-------···•···············....-------------- .......... ·--·.

sIgnif1cant. Let's try and understand this Hydrauliciack
better. ' .. --- ---.. -- --......

Irrespective of the point at which you apply pressure on the tube, the amount of toothpaste that
gets e1ected rerriains the same. This means that the effect of the pressure is undiminished. -iiliMW
Therefore, 1t can be concluded that the pressure is transmitted equally in all directions. Fluids apply pressure on the base as well as the sides ol lhe contarner
h lrom the free surface ard dens ty
The pressure exerted by a fluid depends on the dept
Here, the tube 1s confined, i.e. lhe volume occupied by the fluid is constant.
• Pressure in a confined fluid is transmitted unci,minished II' al directions
 i l JI .J

01 0 11qu1d mu;,~~• ~;Jo

t,y II on Der .ty ,
1 urtud
!11• f)f
uln••J11t1111•r l ObJ'.ct p .., un °e 1~ ma coma red tr1 an
(11,crco 's/tJ•1•,1• u , s .
D<>n tty Yar ~ w~'-
,rnm1Jr i•Jd in :i ,u, 'TIPefa: .ire
?. fl c,,1,, of 111 11 10 ';~;,~ kufm ouch that
Den It/ r.an be <>d
llqulrJ of ,t, n lty I II 1!.1 crn t,oloW substance. u-, _ to measure the purrty of a
1110 1op of Iii" ,;ulJ~ \,'~ liquid. c:,lculoto:
lll•J i,111 urfrn,O o I
I Ill ltlrl tor> of tho
(ll) 1/u f)fl JOIJrl ,!Cl ll{l

m1h11 • bottom of
(l.J) 11111 f)JIIRSlJrll uc;lln(I' 11 11111
lhPt;uhit

N (')

3. How does lilt' liquid pwssure on fl d1ve1

change If. a,1wttt:iP
(a) the diver moves to a greater depth
(bl the diver moves horizontally
 Ct ► e pi,ODI uorn_,-- --,--- - - - . . . -
ood is rnuch
hOllViOr thOrl th . 111 float. Then, what IS the dec1d111a I ISri•,
Even thounh tho 1011 of w h t decides whet
her or not it w ltcton 0 ··········································· •
Just tho moss of ,n ob1ect t II ther example. cience, this packing of particles 18 Called •••••••••••••••••••••••••••• , ..
I t's look ut ano 1n s bC defined as the mass of the ObJect th the denaity of an ob
To onswor this quosuon, e can at can be contained JCct 1he density of an ob1ect
ernaucally, 1r1 a unit volume.
~ath Sa
nd io denser than
Mass containing sand "cot1on, which is why the box
oensitY ::: Volume example, the pe;~i~~\more S1m1larly, tn the hrst
but more importa ti s enser than the wooden log
n Y, dense• than water

e
This IS why thew
Now, let's look ooden log floats on v,ater
at something that f oats in air.

IJ ------- ---~---

. hat the have the same volume. How~ver, the box containin
9 Smee most obJects expand on
The boxes are 1dent1cal, which mean~ t t' lo~k at how the constituent particles are arranged
sand wc,ghs more To understand this, Ie s --~ - -~~-,,-----~ .
t heating, their volume mcreases
with increasing temperature
We've already learned that
generally, obJects expand

Miindih on heating and contract on

cooling. This apphes to air as
well. When the air inside a hot
air balloon 1s heated, its volume
increases. Since density 1s
inversely proportional to volume,
it decreases with an ncrease
in volume, and by extension,
temperature. Thus, the hot air
inside the balloon 1s less dense
However, the sand particles are closely than the air surrounding the
If you look closely, you can see that the
cotton I bres are loosely packed with packed with very little space between the balloon. Surrounded by denser
cons derab e empty space between fibres. particles. air, the less dense ar inside the
balloon causes itto rise.
So, when a subs1111C918 hNIBII.
Thus the packing of particles n a confined space determines how heavy or light an object is.
itS denSity ~
Therefore 1t can be concluded that the tighter the packing of particles, the more the mass of the
obJect that cari be packed into a unit volume.
 .........··················G>
" RELATIVE OtNSITY ~------~------~------ ~ - , - -- - - , --
1t w1II sink or float b Y corn
c n tell 1f Th
toef 11118ter. Is comparison ,s g,ven Paring
· ·········- -···--·-
by It• the densi ·-·------··------- •
~
-.

Howevei water 11as a very ,nteresnng property. Water contracts as it cools till 4 •c from a . alive density 1s defined as the rat, e lerrn, relaty Ol the Obie -· • , ..
temperature.. On further coo ,ng to O •c . water expands. This means that the density of higher
O
118__..,ter at 4 •c. If the relative den
of...- 1 th th
° ol the den
sity of a s,ty ot
live dens;.,., ct v. th
·•
ncreases as rt ,s cooled to 4 •c and then decreases when water 1s further cooled to .~ater • ...ater than , en e obiect Will smk, I n ob1ec1 V.1th an obiect to t
Th s property ofwa1er Is known as the anomalous expansion of water. · 1r:...ct will float. n Water 1, ,t respect to he ders,ty
<JUI- - then is
•s less than 1,Water

~thematically, the
Due to this property,
,ce ,s less dense than Relative Density = Densi
. o anobjec
water and thus floats Dens,
on ,ts surface.
The sheet of ,ce
behaves as an ·. , ·c , "" consider a block of aluminium as an exam 1
insulator and prevents · of 1000 k.g/
· h h as a d ensIty
...,. 5 w hIc . ot 2110
Pe. It has a dens1ty
... ter,
..... . m.
heat from escaping o·c -n.e relative density of aluminium with respect to water kg/m' compared t
from the water ,·c ," o
beneath it. This helps
aquatic life survive .....__,,_ ~ -
·· 2
3 "C
·c A., 2.7 s greater than 1, the block will s10k. .I
,.. I n water. is 2.7.

in extreme weather
conditions.
....-------------------G APPLICATIONS OF REl.All\'E DENS\lY
fhe concept of relative density can be
used to test t he purity of substances.
Howe~er, this anomalous expansion of
11,1ectometer is an instrument which
PITSTOP! IIJ . ""'.ater I~ also responsible for bursting water
pipes In the winter. Since water expands
on freezing, the water present in the pipes
Is used to check the purity of milk by
comparing the relative density of pure
milk with that of a given sample.
The density of water is maximum at ~. exerts pressure on the walls of the pipe,
4 •c, equal to 1ooo l<g/m •
3
• • causing them to burst open. Atactometer will f loat when dipped
tn a sample of pure milk. However, if it
1s dipped in a sample containing milk
adulterated with water, it will sink. This
18 l)eeause milk is denser than water.

Reladtive ~ensity is also used to calculate the density al an unknown substance by comparing it w,th
the ensIty of a known substance.
It is also used to calculate the mineral content of rock samples.

THINK & REFLECT

enuW1:\nt
• The more m ass an o bject contains per unit volume, the greater its density.
. .•
Given the density of an object, how can you teW·-if1t,vvi11,sln -~.(!i'~·nLof~
...,- , n ater.
• The density of water is maximum at 4 •c.
t 01
lative density is the ratio of the density of an object to tha water
... ·•• ·•· ......... ······' .............. . - ..... -,~
 nrce 8cts
An llJ)\varc1s
SU!»nerged n a :qL; d on Iii'\ Ob;ect llan±a or w

ttcs Ort:eiseq
d:Sp!acedbythe~Weightofthe w.::!
I

Gj 4·JfiD

the
~
00 he

Le- A be e sur!ace a~ of each

of "'e aces.
Pressu:-e = ~ Area

Therefore
Force act:!IQ on surface 1 F = P A
Force actJng on surface 2 F = P A

Snee
 . , ..........- - -issr - "'·-- - - - - - - - - Lt'a-rn Buoyancy
., r,CY 89
tearn suo, ltude ,s given by
((Pz . P,) A_
;'\J Class 9 CBSE

Therefore there exists a net up

'
ward force
whosefl'lagn

ct whel'l I
rt II ·
t ,s cof11Pletely or pa ,a y immersed in a fill
0 CiMUiMNtik-i,--................ Sc,ence

. ed bY an obJe F
l(j IS
1,.et •s consider the following expenmental setup. -4·
·····················•••• •••••• , . .
This upward force experien1~r1.1st. It ,s denoted bY •· 41\j

called buoyant force or up C)'t,nder attached to a spnng balance ,s

A ersed ,n water. Before ,t Is immersed . rill
Thus, G. (P
2
• P, ) ~
on tor the resistance
felt when trying to submerge the can ,n ,,,,rn
~,ghtrsn
oted to be 4 N
·
• its c..,a

This buoyant force is the reas ••lh n ,t ,s ,mmersed rns1de the beaker th
yw,,e b k • e water
the bucket. eV8 inside the ea er rncreases and spills into
1 1 arate beaker which 1s then weighed a
seP ·
Thi! buoyant force acting on thE: cylinder can be . ~
,., ,ght of the cylinder when It ,s weigh d obtained by subtrac1tn
11,e •·
w,ighl wh 11 11 , out Id n t I10 wntcr. e inside th
e water from ,ts
g

w, l{llll Ill
euov11nt IOfGI tr wc,otit In water . 4 N
· 1N • 3N
On weightrlll Ill ic, d hy the cylinder t
th dtefllllC I w ,11 N Whilt <foes this .~:I ~:~bservod that the weight of

Thl8 11 •1•1•1C~d W,iter ,s equal t th

f our friend 1s W.
O
C)'llnd in ,er• d by Arch,mede o e buoyant force acting on the
Let's assume that the weight Y '"260 BC Arctur le that when a b d .s, a Greek mathematician and physicist
When you're hft1ng your 11qu1d, tho buoyan d IYJ rt u,11 I>!: cqu~I t~'~hcomptetely or part,ally immersed in a
e weight of the hqu1d displaced by it.
friend underwater, there is
a buoyant force (f- ) acting
In the d1rect,on opposite to
h1S weight (W) and in the
same d1rectIon that you arc

.-
applying force

H,s apparent we ght

underwater W ,s effectively
w. F ,nstead of Just W Or,

•
the buoyant force acting
on the body IS W• W This
Is why 111s easier to 11ft him
FACTORS AFFECTING :BUOYANT FORCE
underwater On substituting the value of pressure
Let's consider a cyhndncal obJect in the expression of buoyant force,
immersed inside a beaker.
F8 =(h -h,) pgA
The buoyant force ,s given by,
THINK &REflfCT Here, h2• h, IS the height of the
given cylinder.
Why doel tht lewelof ...... iMldtaCOllllaillillrilM. . . We know that pressure ,n fluids Is The volume of the cylinder is grven by,
when an oltlect fa tmm11BMfn II? grven by the equation, P = p x g x h V = (h • h,) A
In the given figure, On replacing (h • h,} A in the term for
buoyant force,
P, =pxgxh,
P =pxgx h
{)CU

~a ::,
P'ects~froi-::e

~ s:a-...a ~-=··-.a· -
6sj''·t:➔ e
 ond case,
11,e sec applies
WATCHOUl! ~
111 ...,.ornanhe wall.
th 8 on 1
101c~ the first Wo:k l!i Baid to be done on!lj when
a811.5iy1n9
. n However.
there rs a transre, of energy When
S
Y0IJ Ptlsti haro ag.11!\st a w;i you
co"ditlOII doesn
· ·1 move.
tire because t• e muscles 1n YoUr
the .,.,a NOT get
does Therefore. hand are cont 11tious1y contrac11ng
1.e. ced- /\. and retax ng ln the CG:nmon sen-..e.
displa ·s done.
work I YOli are ~IOf\Jng H<M11ve1, such
no effort does not cause an et1eflJY
transfer to or from lhe waJ and thus,
WOrk IS not done on the wall 11/ you,
as defined scieot:' ca ty

fore, wor,,... 1
•s said to be done by or on a body only when 1t 1s displaced under ti--e ac· on
,tiere
k- Force x Displacement of a force. define work as follows:
wor - F X s 10rmally, we .
work done
T)l•refore. the
- force is.
. w = ----- v,o
, Al rk (W)
th
.,,~ _d energy,, "1Y "'"sfeccedtoo, from ao ob1eot by meaos of , fo,oeaot,og oo ,, "'"' -_ '""'
t,ythe ,ransferre1s eme en . "doing work" is the act of transferring energy. The Si unit of \\-Ork sine 1oule (Jl.
unit as energy.
. his the sa

f rce acting on.anthe

rk doneby a o f the object in
. tis. equa 1to the product of the magnitude of th,•
obJeC . of the force.
direction
. le is define
whiC
1JOU
it by 1 metre. (0
. d as the amount of work done by a force of magnitude 1 newton on a body to displace

"""~ the ''°""""'"

force and "°
2
luj:IMiiLi! O
rim.---- ---- - - - - - - - - -
lll,l 11 !t
\u

®(1MWlli
. lllm ll~ 1
the definition of work' we
Ca n conclu
-g oood;boos oeed to be"'''""
de that the followin

From kto be done.

orderfor wor
.
The obJect must undergo a displacement
AforcemUst act on the object.

Force

In the first case, the woman

lies a force on the trolley, .
app · 1
causing ·1to move in the direction
of the applied force.

Here, both conditions are satisfied

and hence, the womandoes work
in moving the trolley.

Displacement
 •• . ,--y- l Il <\ l U',1 ,, 11 llll

• .. ..
,,, W,

Ali~~
v
1►1U\'.i!IJ,11Ilfflll@•n•·····························
, 'L ·············~
,, : .
P\1$lllM 1,,11~
:'
)f'
.:.:
'
A r.ar lG movmo ,n II c,rcu/or
Ill' tho work dono by th
of tlrno?
p.ith Whc1t
O Cdr ill 11r1y rnstilnt
WI/I
.I
i
Thtl fnctlomil 10,cll t nets on the b
.'''
H ~ t~ ob~<'.'t 1s l11$placed 111 tht, $:\llld diroctton opposite to tlMt 0111 • ct· o;.. "' o I
So, the work done by t will bes rsplocenient :
d ~tll."111 a::: tM npplit'<l rol\~, ,1iid ht>lll~e. the ''
W:". I s. negative. Thus:
"~fl -.1-.'!l'e is posltiw rM1tih.1rt1 tht' worl.. .'''
lh.'lll.' b\ p;.1$h·ng l\ll\':tc', W, • Fs :
'
''
:' "'
'
''
:'
N..;::\\ let S k1<h atthe \\CIX
dc-·•e o ts ball 111ro,,o:1
US)\\-~l'Q:,..
j Mot!OI' 11 do1VIT1\'(lrd direction
2 Four persons 1o,ntly lift a 2
'
:'
height of 1 m and hold II. SO k
However, when the ball starts to fall .
(a) Calculate the work d

\\~ 3 t'! IS thro\\n

u moves rn the same d Irection th 1 ' rt
gravity
act$, i.e. downwards· There!ore,a the
done by gravity on the ball is o .. work
the ball is moving downwards. P s1t1ve when
in httrng the box.

(b) How much work ,s d

the box?
one by the persons

one '"Just holding

li::',\31C$, t 11X>\'e$ ag..i nst (g = 10 m/si)
9~ t). Therefore. ,,'Olk
.::one
~ gr'Sli ~ ,~ be negative.
0 j .t. l G;r.; tauo.u pu
''

!
f
.:
i
'
i
.'
'
'
'
''

c a ,5
\'.o<lc ~sa:c to !:,e dooe by oronabocyonlywhen rt1s disp aced under the action
.''
''
''

''
:'
When·~~a'.1<!
s PoS =-,,e o.splacement are m the same d rection, then the work done ''

• v,~e1m2tc=a!'ld • en the work done 1s

opposne d re<:ttons, •h
,.~~ disp&acementa(l?
 Cl.iss 9 CBSE Science L" rn M r I
le .,, Me lia"
------. --- --·-- -- --- --- .......
·:.~-~~-back to the carrom When 111s hit a ,f - •. . ..• •
Le . _ , 1ran~ • of ,. e ,..
A moving body possesses energy which enables it the striker, causing 1t to move The energy associat d • v'/ ta s Pace frorri the p ;r-, rs hard to
• .-1111 a mcr11ng
' body1s L-
to do work.
Toe work done on an object is equal to the change
The kinetic energy associated with
a body of mass m ~nd velocity v Is
r--~--- ou•0Ymaskineticenergy

in its kinetic energy. given by the equation, Kinetic energy= m, .2..

An object acquires energy when its shape or
position changes with respect to a reference point.
--------../ 2

.•

In an earlier lesson, we learned that a ball h1t for a six has more momentum than a bal tha· has been
defended. This makes it harder to stop.
The kinetic energy of an object is directly related to 1ts velocrty. Since tt>e ba hrt for a SIX Is moving
faster than the ball that has been defended, it will have more kinetic energy
Then, are kinetic energy and momentum the same thing?

When a carrom striker

is hit it starts moving
in the direction in
v~l----------------
which the force is
applied. Since the
force acting on 11
displaces it from its
original position,
some work Is done.

The striker has the capacity to do work

~~
ore 'tI possesses SOI"'".) energy. Energy'
t Ist5 in many different forms and we will
earn about some of these forms over the
course of this lesson.