GRADE X

HISTORY: CH-5
THE AGE OF INDUSTRIALISATION

INTRODUCTION:-

 The history of industrialization is a story of development.

 The modern age is time of technological progress in which rapid industrialization became a time of
progress and modernity and development of society.

PRINT 1:-

A popular music publisher E.T. Paull produced a music book with a picture on the cover page named the
‘Dawn of the Century’ in 1900.

FEATURES:-
 At the center of the picture is a Goddess,
 She is shown as the angel of progress who is holding the flag of the new century.
 She is gently floating on a wheel with wings that symbolizes time.
 Her flight is taking her into the future.
 Signs of progress like railway, camera, machines, printing press and factory etc. are floating behind her.

PRINT 2:-

This picture, Two Magicians appeared on the pages of a trade magazine in Inland Printers, 26 January
1901, glorified the machines and technology
FEATURES:-
 It shows two magicians.
 The first one at the top is Aladdin from the Orient who built a beautiful palace with his magic lamp.
 The one at the bottom is the modern mechanic, who builds bridges, ships, towers and high-rise buildings
with his modern tools.
 Aladdin is representing the East and the past.
 The mechanic stands for the West and modernity.

Both these images give us a successful account of the modern world which is associated with:-
 Rapid technological change and innovations,
 machines and factories,
 Railways and steamships.

 ORIENT: – The countries to the East of the Mediterranean, referring to Asia. The western people saw
this region as pre modern, traditional and mysterious.

PART-1: BEFORE THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION:-

[PROTO-INDUSTRIALISATION]
 Before the first factories came up in Europe, large-scale industrial production was done in the villages.
 Merchants from towns used to get their products from these villages for the international market.
 The period of industrialization before the first factories came up in Europe is known as ‘Phase of
Industrialization’ or ‘Proto-Industrialization’.

 PROTO:- First or early form of something.

PRODUCTION OF GOODS IN THE PHASE OF PROTO INDUSTRIALISATION:-

PRIME FEATURES

In the 17th and 18th centuries, merchants from the European towns began moving to the countryside
for the following reasons:-
 Demand for goods increased with the expansion of international trade and the acquisition (gaining) of
colonies in different parts of the world
 Open fields were disappearing and common areas were being enclosed in the villages.
 Peasants in the villages were looking for additional source of income because small plots of land were
not enough to meet the need of growing population. So, they started producing goods for the merchants.
 Merchants gave money to peasants and artisans and asked them to produce for an international market.
 In the urban areas, powerful trade guilds did not allow the merchants to expand their production within
towns.
 Rulers also granted monopoly right to different guilds to produce and trade in specific products.
 Therefore it was difficult for the new merchants to set up business in towns and began shifting to the
countryside.

TRADE GUILDS:-They were associations of producers who performed the following jobs:-
 Trained craftspeople,
 Maintained control over production,
 Regulated competition and prices, and
 Restricted the entry of new people into the trade.

PROTO-INDUSTRIAL SYSTEM WAS A NETWORK OF COMMERCIAL EXCHANGES:-

 The interdependence of peasants and merchants resulted in a close relationship between the town and
the countryside that involved the following :-
  WOOL STAPLER:- A person who ‘staples’ or sorts wool according to its fibre.

 MERCHANT CLOTHIER:- purchased wool from a wool stapler, and carried it to the spinners.

 SPINNERS:-A person who turns cotton or wool into threads and yarn.

 WEAVERS:-A person who weaves the cloth using yarn.

 FULLERS:-A person who fulls or gathers the cloth by pleating it.

 DYERS:- A person who dyes or colours the cloth.

 FINISHING CENTRE:- A place from where the finished material is finally sent to the market.

FEATURES OF THE PROTO-INDUSTRIAL SYSTEM:-

 It was controlled by merchants and the goods were produced by a vast number of producers working
within their family farms, not in factories.
 At each stage of production 20 to 25 workers were employed by each merchant.
 This meant that each clothier was controlling hundreds of workers.
 The finished product passed through several stages and reached the finishing centers of London from
where the final products w ere supplied to the international market.

LONDON WAS THE FINISHING CENTRE:-

 The finishing of the woven cloth was done in London before it was sent to be sold in international market.

RELATED QUESTIONS:-

 How was the production done in the proto industrialization phase?

 What was the role of trade Guilds in the towns?
 Why the poor peasants in the countryside began working for the merchants?
 How did London become an important finishing centre during the period of Proto industrialization?

1.1 THE COMING UP OF THE FACTORY

BEGINNING OF INDUSTRIALISATION IN ENGLAND:-

 The earliest factories came up by the 1730s but the number of factories increased only in the late 18th
century in England.
 The first symbol of new era was cotton.
 This development was a result of a number of changes brought in the process of production.

A SERIES OF INVENTIONS:-

RICHARD ARKWRIGHT created the FIRST COTTON MILL.

Inventions of 18th century were Revolutionary for the following reasons:-
 They enhanced the output of each worker and enabled them to produce more.
 Production of stronger threads and yarn was made possible.
 Increased the efficacy of production process that included-carding, twisting, spinning and rolling.

 CARDING – it is a process in which fibres, such as cotton or wool, are prepared prior to spinning.

WORKING OF A MILL IN ENGLAND DURING 18TH CENTURY:-

BENEFITS OF FACTORIES:-

 With the setting up of factories, costly new machines could be purchased, set up and maintained.
 Entire Mill processes were brought together under one roof and management.
 Supervision over the production process and the quality of production could be done more carefully.
 Labour could be easily regularized.
 A worker could produce better products in much bigger quantities with new machines.
 All this has been difficult to do when production was done in the countryside.

MILLS IN ENGLAND:-
 Factories increasingly became an intimate part of the England in the early 19th century.
 Attention was only on the mills, by lanes and the workshops were almost forgotten where production
still continued.
RELATED QUESTIONS:-

 How factories did became an intimate part of the English landscape in early 19th century?
 Which were the sectors that underwent industrialization in the proto phase in England?
 How rapid was the process of industrialization? Does it mean only the growth of factory industries?
 Differentiate between processes of cotton produced at country side with that of produced in factories.
 Explain the changes that were brought with the introduction of factories.

1.2 THE PACE OF INDUSTRIAL CHANGE:-

VARIOUS PHASES OF CHANGE:-

FIRST PHASE (until 1840):-

 The most dynamic industries in Britain were cotton and metals.
 Cotton was the leading sector in the first phase of industrialization.
 Later iron and steel industry led the way with the expansion of railways.
Eg:-By 1873 Britain was exporting iron and steel worth about £ 77 million that was double the value
of its cotton export.

SECOND PHASE:-
 The new industries could not easily displace or substitute traditional industries.
 Less than 20 % of the total workforce was employed in technologically advanced industrial sectors.
 Even in the Textiles industry, a large portion of the output was produced in domestic units.

THIRD PHASE:-
The pace of change in the ‘traditional’ industries did not remain stagnant.
Because of some ordinary and small innovations growth was seen in many non-mechanized sectors such as:-
 Food processing,
 Building,
 Pottery,
 Glass work and
 Tannin [A yellow coloured chemical found in plant cells]
 FOURTH PHASE:-
Technological changes occurred slowly because of the following reasons:-

 New technology was expensive and merchants and industrialists were careful about using it.
 The machines often broke down and repair was costly.
 They were also not as effective as their inventors and manufacturers claimed so, they did not spread
across the industrial landscape intensely.

CASE STUDYOF THE STEAM ENGINE:-

 JAMES WATT improved the steam engine produced by NEWCOMEN and patented it in 1781.
 His industrialist friend MATHEW BOULTON manufactured the new model but for years he could
not find buyers for it.
 By early 19th century, there were hardly 321 steam engines all over England.
 Steam engines came to be used much later in the 19th century.

CONCLUSION:-
 In spite of being powerful, new technology that enhanced the productivity of labour was slow to be
accepted by industrialists.
 So, it was said that the typical worker in the ‘Mid-nineteenth century was not a machine operator but
the traditional craftsperson and labourer’.

RELATED QUESTIONS:-

 Even though the steam engine was invented in 1781, it was not instantly accepted by all? Why?
 ‘Mid-nineteenth century was not a machine operator but the traditional craftsperson and labourer’-
Explain.
PART: 2 -HAND LABOUR AND STEAM POWER

HAND LABOUR vs. STEAM POWER:-

Industrialists did not want to introduce machines for the following reasons:-

A] HUMAN LABOUR WAS IN ABUNDANCE OR THERE WAS NO SHORTAGE OF LABOUR IN

THE VICTORIAN BRITAIN:-

● Poor peasants and wanderers moved to the cities in large numbers in search of jobs.
● As there was plenty of labour, wages were low.
● Industrialists had no problem of labour shortage or high wage costs.
● They did not want to introduce machines to get rid of human labour as it required large capital investment

B] DEMAND FOR LABOUR WAS SEASONAL:-

 Gas works and breweries were busy only through the cold months, so they needed more workers to meet
their peak demands.
 Book binders and printers, too needed extra hands only before Christmas.
 At waterfront, winter was the time that ships were repaired and spruced up.
 In all such industries where production varied with the changing season, industrialists usually preferred
hand labour, employing casual workers according to the seasons.

C] MANUAL LABOUR WAS PREFERRED OVER MACHINES:-

ELITES PREFERRED HAND MADE GOODS OVER THE MACHINE MADE GOODS BECAUSE:-

 Hand labour could produce a range of products.

  Machines were oriented to producing uniforms and standardized goods for a mass market, it meant for
export to the colonies.
 The market demand was often for goods with intricate designs and specific shapes that only hand labour
could produce.
 In Victorian Britain, the upper classes – the aristocrats and the bourgeoisie – preferred things produced
by hand as:-
 They symbolized refinement and class
 Hand made products were better finished,
 Individually produced and carefully designed.

EXCEPTION:-[Some countries faced labour shortage]

 Industrialists used mechanical power so that the need for human labour could be minimized.
 This was the case in 19th century America.

RELATED QUESTIONS:-

 Why was the demand for labour seasonal in England?

 There was no shortage of labour in the Victorian Britain, Explain why?
 How was hand labour different from machines?
 Why did the elites prefer hand made goods over machine made products?

2.1 LIFE OF THE WORKERS:-

THE ABUNDANCE OF LABOUR IN THE MARKET AFFECTED THE LIVES OF WORKERS IN
DIFFERENT WAYS:-
● As news of possible jobs travelled to the countryside, hundreds migrated and moved to the cities.
● Getting a job was depended on networks of friendship and kin relations as it was easy to get a job if a
known was already working in the factory.

MANY JOB-SEEKERS HAD TO WAIT FOR WEEKS:-

 Spending nights under bridges at night

 Some stayed in night- refugees that were set up by private individuals;
 Others went to the casual wards maintained by the poor law authorities.

SEASONALITY OF WORK IN MANY INDUSTRIES:-

 Prolonged period without work.
 After the busy season was over, the poor were again on streets again.
 Some returned to the countryside after the winter as demand for labour in the rural areas opened up.
● Wages increased in early 19th century, but during the prolonged Napoleonic War, the real value of
worker’s income fell significantly, with the same wages they could now hardly buy a fewer things.
● The fear of unemployment made workers hostile to the introduction of new technology.

Eg:- when the spinning jenny was introduced women workers in the woolen industry started attacking the
machines as they feared unemployment.

 SPINNING JENNY:– This machine speeded up the spinning process and reduced labour demand. By
turning one single wheel a worker could set in motion a number of spindles and spin several threads at
the same time. It was devised by JAMES HARGREAVES in 1764.

IMPACT OF INDUSTRIALISATION IN THE CITIES:-

Building activities opened up employment opportunities 1840’s as:-

  Construction work increased in cities after 1840
 Roads were widened
 New railway stations came up.
 Railway lines were extended.
 Tunnels were dug.
 Drainage and sewers laid
 Rivers embanked.
The number of workers employed in the transport industry doubled in 1840s, and again doubled in next 30
years.

RELATED QUESTIONS:-

 What was the impact of industrialization in the cities?

 Seasonality of work in many industries meant prolonged periods without work. Give reasons.
 Describe the life of a worker in Victorian Britain

PART-3: INDUSTRIALISATION IN THE COLONIES

CASE STUDY OF COLONIAL/BRITISH INDIA

3.1 THE AGE OF INDIAN TEXTILES:-

ROLE OF THE INDIAN MERCHANTS AND BANKERS IN THE NETWORK OF EXPORT
TRADE BEFORE THE MACHINE AGE:-

 Silk and cotton goods from India dominated an international market.

 Coarser cottons were produced in many countries, but finer varieties came from India.
 Armenian and Persian merchants took the goods from Punjab to Afghanistan, eastern Persia and Central
Asia.
 Bales of fine textiles were carried on camelback.
 A vibrant sea- trade was also done through the main ports like:-
 Surat on the Gujarat coast connected India to the Gulf and the Red sea ports.
 Masulipatnam on the Coromandel Coast had trade links with South- East Asian ports.
 Hooghly in Bengal had trade links with South- East Asian ports.

NETWORK OF EXPORT TRADE CONTROLLED BY INDIAN MERCHANTS:-

Indian merchants and bankers of this network performed various tasks and were involved in the
following activities:-

A. Financing Production by:-

 Giving advances to weavers
 Carrying Goods
 Supplying Exporters

B. Supply merchants linked the port towns to the inland regions by:-

 Procuring the woven cloth from weaving villages, and

 Carrying the supply to the ports.

C. Brokers of the big shippers and export merchants negotiated the price and bought goods from the supply
merchants from inland at the ports.

RELATED QUESTIONS:-
.
 Which were the important sea- ports before arrival of British to India?
  What was the role of the Indian merchants and bankers in the network of export trade before the age
of machine?

DECLINE OF INDIAN TRADEAFTER 1750:-

By the 1750s network controlled by Indian merchants, started to break down as:-

 The European companies gradually gained power in India.

 Firstly by securing a variety of concessions from local courts.
 Secondly, through monopoly rights to trade.

 This resulted in a drastic decline in Indian exports because of the following reasons:-

 The old ports of Surat and Hooghly declined

 Bombay and Calcutta grew as new ports.
 Credit that had financed the earlier trade began drying up.
 Many of the old trading houses collapsed.
 Indian bankers became bankrupt.

GROWTH OF NEW PORTS:-

 After the decline of old ports, Bombay and Calcutta grew as a sign of the growth of colonial power.
 These new ports were controlled by European companies and were carried in European ships.
 New trading houses that wanted to survive had to be operated within a network of European
companies.

RELATED QUESTIONS:-

 What happened after the European trading companies took control of trade in India?
 While Surat and Hooghly decayed, Bombay and Calcutta grew. Explain why?
.
3.2 WHAT HAPPENED TO WEAVERS?

AFTER ESTABLISHING POLITICAL POWER IN INDIACOMPANY WAS KEEN ON

EXPANDING TEXTILE EXPORTS FROM INDIA BECAUSE:-

 British cotton industries had not yet expanded.

 Indian fine textiles were in great demand in Europe.

REASON OF FACING PROBLEMS IN ENSURING REGULAR SUPPLY OF GOODS FOR

EXPORT BY THE COMPANY:-

 The French, Dutch, Portuguese and the local traders competed in the market to secure woven cloth.
 The weaver and supply merchants could bargain and try selling the produce to the best buyer.

NOTE:-In their letters back to London, Company officials continuously complained of difficulties of supply
and the high prices.

STEPS TAKEN BY EIC TO ENSURE A REGULAR SUPPLY OF SILK AND COTTON

EEIC developed a system of management and control through a series of steps to:-
I) ELIMINATE COMPETITION:-

 Company tried to eliminate the existing traders and brokers connected with cloth trade
 Established a more direct control over the weaver.
 Appointed a paid servant called the Gomastha to do the following tasks:-
 Supervise weavers
  Collect supplies,
 Examine the quality of cloth.
II) CONTROL COSTS:-

 It prevented Company weavers from dealing with other buyers through the system of advances.
 Once an order was placed, the weavers were given loans to purchase the raw material for their
production.
 Those who took loans had to hand over the cloth they produced only to the Gomastha.
 They could not take it to any other trader.
 As loans flowed in and the demand for fine textiles expanded, weavers eagerly took the advances,
hoping to earn more.

RELATED QUESTIONS:-

 What steps were taken by EIC to ensure a regular supply of silk and cotton?
 How did EEIC assert a monopoly right to trade?

IMPACT OF THE SYSTEM OF ADVANCES ON INDIAN WEAVERS:-

● As loans flowed in and the demand for fine textiles expanded, weavers eagerly took the advances.
● Farmer now had to lease out the land and devote all their time to weaving.
● In many villages, there were reports of clashes between weavers and gomasthas.
● Gomasthas were outsiders, they did not have long term social link or close relationship with the
villagers.
● Gomasthas acted arrogantly, marched into villages with sepoys and peons, and punished weavers for
delays in supply- often beating and flogging them.
● The weavers lost the chance to bargain for prices and sell their produce to different buyers.
● The price they received from the Company was miserably low and the loans they had accepted forcefully
tied them to the Company

RESULT OF EXPLOITATION OF WEAVERS:-

 In many places, in Carnatic and Bengal, weavers deserted villages and migrated, setting up looms in
other villages.
● At many places, weavers revolted and opposed company and its officials.
● Over time many weavers began refusing loans, closed down their workshops and started working as
agricultural labour.

 SEPOY:- British pronounced the word Sipahi as Sepoy, meaning an Indian soldier working for the
British.
 GOMASHTHA:-A paid servant of the Company who supervised the weaver’s work, collected cloth
from them and handed it over to the Company.
RELATED QUESTIONS:-

 What was the impact of the system of advances on Indian weavers?

 How did the change in Company’s policies affect the life of weavers?

3.3 MANCHESTER COMES TO INDIA:-

 HENRY PATULLO a Company official said that the demand for Indian textiles could never reduce,
because no other nation produced goods of the same quality.
 But by the beginning of 19th century there was a sharp decline in textile exports from India from 33%
(1811-12) to only 3% (1850-51).

CAUSES OF DECLINE OF INDIAN EXPORT:-

IMPACT OF MANCHESTER ON INDIAN TEXTILE INDUSTRY:-
● As cotton industries developed in England, industrial groups began worrying about imports from other
countries so they forced the British government to impose import duties on cotton textiles so that
Manchester goods could be sold in Britain without facing any competition from outside.
● Industrialists influenced the EIC to sell British manufactures in Indian market.
● At the end of 18th century, there had been no import of cotton-piece goods into India, but by 1850s
cotton- piece goods constituted over 31% and by 1870s this figure was over 50%.

As a result, export of British cotton textile increased and Indian cotton weavers faced two major
problems:-

 Collapsing of their export- after imposition of import duties Indian textiles lost their world market.
 Shrinking demand in local market.

IMPACT OF MACHINE MADE CLOTHES ON THE INDIAN MARKET:-

Indian textile and cloth weavers could not compete with machine made cloth because:-

 They were sold at very cheap prices whereas hand weaved cloth was expensive.
 Shortage of good quality raw cotton after 1860.
 By the end of 19th century Indian weavers and other craftspeople also faced competition from
factory made goods produced in India.

REASONS OF SHORTAGE OF GOOD QUALITY RAW COTTON IN INDIA AFTER 1860:-

 As civil war broke out and cotton supplies in U.S were cut off.
 Britain started buying raw cotton from India which resulted in increase in the price of raw cotton.
 This created shortage of raw materials in Indian market for Indian weavers and they were forced to
buy raw cotton at exorbitant (very high) prices.

PART- 4: FACTORIES COME UP

EARLY MILLS OF INDIA:-

CITY TYPE OF MILL YEAR

Bombay 1st Cotton Mill 1854

Bengal 1st Jute Mills 1st:-1855

2nd:- 1862

Bengal 4 other Mills 1862 with 94,000 spindles and 2,150

looms

Kanpur Elgin Mill 1860

(North India) 1st cotton Mill 1874

Ahmedabad 1st spinning and weaving Mill 1874

4.1 EARLY ENTREPRENEURS:-

TRADE WITH CHINA:-
Industries were set up in different regions of India by different people because of the profit earned in
TRIANGULAR TRADE between:-
 Britain
 China
 India

 By late 18th Century British in India began exporting opium to China and took tea from China to
England.
 Many Indians became junior players in this trade, providing finance, procuring supplies, and shipping
Consignments.
 After earning huge profits through trade, some of these businessmen developed industrial enterprises in
India.

SOME PROMINENT INDUSTRIALISTS OF COLONIAL INDIA:-

1. BENGAL:-
a] DWARKANATH TAGORE:-
 He made his fortune in the China trade and set up six joint-stock companies in the 1830s and
1840s.
 Tagore’s enterprises sank during the wider business crises of the 1840s.
 He majorly invested his capital in mining, shipping, banking and plantation.
 He believed in westernization and industrialization of India.

b] SETH HUKUMCHAN:-
 He was a Marwari businessman who set up the first Indian jute mill in in 1917.
 Father as well as grandfather of the famous industrialist G.D. Birla also traded with China.
2. BOMBAY:-

a] PARSIS like DINSHAW PETIT and JAMSETJEE NUSSERWANJEE TATA:-

 Built huge industrial empires in India.
 They used wealth accumulated from exports to China and from raw cotton shipments to
England.

b] JAMSETJEE JEEJEEBHOY:-
 A son of a Parsi weaver was involved in the China trade and shipping.
 He owned a large fleet of ships, but competition from English and American shippers forced
him to sell his ships by the 1850s.
3. MADRAS:-
 Some merchants from Madras traded with Burma while others had links with the Middle East
and East Africa.

4. OTHER COMMERCIAL GROUPS:-

 They were not directly involved in external trade.
 They operated within India, carrying goods from one place to another, banking money,
transferring funds between cities, and financing traders.
 When opportunities of investment in industries opened up, many of them set up factories.

RELATED QUESTIONS:-

 How was capital accumulated by Indian merchants and traders?

BRITISH TRIED TO PUT CONTROL ON THE INDIAN MERCHANTS:-

As colonial control over Indian trade tightened, the space within which Indian merchants could function
became increasingly limited.

So, they put various restrictions on the Indian merchants like:-

 They were barred from trading with Europe in manufactured goods.
 Were forced to export mostly raw materials and food grains that British required for trading like
 Raw cotton,
 Opium
 Wheat and
 Indigo
 They were also gradually edged out of the shipping business.

BRITISH ESTABLISHED STRICT CONTROL OVER INDIAN INDUSTRIES:-

 By the 1st World War, European Managing Agencies started controlling a large sector of Indian
industries.
 Three of the biggest such Agencies mobilized capital, set up joint-stock companies and managed a
large sector of Indian industries named-
 BIRD HEIGLERS & CO.
 ANDREW YULE AND
 JARDINE SKINNER & CO
 In most instances Indian financiers provided the capital but the European Agencies made all
investment and business decisions.
 The European merchant-industrialists had their own chambers of commerce which Indian
businessmen were not allowed to join.

4.2 WHERE DID THE WORKERS COME FROM?

 With the expansion of factories demand for workers increased.
 From only 584,000 workers in Indian factories in 1901, it went up to over 2,436, 000 by 1946.

MIGRATION OF WORKERS FROM RURAL TO URBAN AREAS:-

 In most industrial regions workers came from the districts around.
 Peasants and artisans who found no work in the village went to the industrial centres in search of
work.
 In the Bombay cotton industries in 1911 Over 50% workers came from thw district of Ratnagiri.
 The mills of Kanpur got most of their textile hands from the villages of Kanpur district.
 Mostly millworkers moved between the village and the city, returning to their village homes during
harvests and festivals.
 As news of employment spread, workers travelled great distances in the hope of work in the mills.
Eg:- From the United Provinces, workers went to work in the textile mills of Bombay and in the
jute mills of Calcutta.

NEED OF WORKERS AND RECRUITMENT OF JOBBERS:-

 Even with increased no of mills and the demand for workers increased, getting jobs was still very
difficult.
 People seeking work were always more than the jobs available.
 Entry into the mills was also restricted for new comers.

ROLE AND FUNCTIONS OF A JOBBER:-

 Company did not trust the new workers approaching for jobs hence, the industrialists employed a
jobber to get new recruits.
 The jobber was an old and trusted worker.
  He got people from his village, ensured them jobs, helped them settle in the city and provided them
money in times of crisis.
 The jobber therefore became a person with some authority and power.
 He began demanding money and gifts for his favour and started controlling the lives of workers by
misusing his power and position..

PART-5: THE PECULIARITIES OF INDUSTRIAL GROWTH

SPECIFIC PRODUCTS FOR TRADE:-

 European Managing Agencies were interested in only certain kinds of products. So, to get hold of the
products, they invested in following areas of production:-
 Established tea and coffee plantations( by acquiring land at cheap rates from the
colonial government)
 Invested in mining,
 Cultivation of indigo and jute.
 Most of these were products required primarily for export trade and not for sale in India.
 When Indian businessmen began setting up industries in the late 19th century, they avoided
competing with Manchester goods in the Indian market.
 Since yarn was not an important part of British imports into India, the early cotton mills in India
produced coarse cotton yarn (thread) rather than fabric.
 Only superior variety of Yarn was imported
 The yarn produced in Indian spinning mills was used by handloom weavers in India or exported to
China.

RELATED QUESTIONS:-

 How did British get hold of production of the commodities they wished to produce in India?

CHANGES THAT AFFECTED THE PATTERN OF INDUSTRIALISATION IN INDIA:-

As the Swadeshi movement gathered momentum, nationalists convinced people to boycott foreign cloth.
● Industrial groups organised themselves to:-
 Protect their collective interest
 Pressurised the British government to:-
 increase tariff protection
 Grant other concessions.
● From 1906, moreover, the export of Indian yarn to China declined since produce from Chinese and Japanese
mills flooded the Chinese market.
● So industrialists in India began shifting from yarn to cloth production.
● Cotton piece goods production in India doubled between1900-1912.

IMPACT OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR ON INDIAN INDUSTRIALISTS AND TRADERS:-

 Industrial growth was quite slow till the First World War.
 But the World War created a dramatically new situation in favour of the Indians.
 As the British mills were busy with the war production to meet the needs of the army, Manchester
imports in India declined.
 This resulted in providing a vast home market to supply to the Indian mills.
 As the war prolonged, Indian factories were called upon to supply war needs like:
 Jute bags,
 Cloth for army uniforms,
 Tent and leather boots,
 Horse and mule saddles and some other items.
 New factories were set up and old ones ran multiple shifts.
 Many new workers were employed and everyone was made to work longer hours.
 Over the war years industrial production boomed.

MANCHESTER LOST ITS OLD POSITION IN THE INDIAN MARKET:-

 The economy of Britain crumbled after the war as it was unable to modernize and complete with the US,
Germany and Japan.
 Cotton production collapsed and export of cotton cloth from Britain fell dramatically.
 In all the British colonies, local industrialists gradually consolidated their position and substituted foreign
manufactures and captured the home market. Eg:- India

RELATED QUESTIONS:-
 What was the impact of the First World War on Indian industrialists and traders?
 Manchester could never recapture its old position in the Indian market After the WORLD WAR 1.
Explain.

5.1 SMALL-SCALE INDUSTRIES PREDOMINATE:-

HANDICRAFT PRODUCTION IN INDIA:-

 While factory industries grew steadily after the war, large industries still were only a small segment of
the economy.
 About 67 % in 1911 – were located only in Bengal and Bombay.
 Over the rest of the country, small-scale production continued to predominate even though worked in
small workshops and household units, often located in alleys and by lanes.

EXPANSION OF HANDICRAFT PRODUCTION IN THE 20TH CENTURY:-

 While cheap machine-made thread wiped out the spinning industry in the nineteenth century, the
weavers survived, despite problems.
 In the twentieth century, handloom cloth production expanded steadily and handicrafts production
actually expanded in India in the 20th century.
 This was partly because of technological changes.
 By the second decade of the 20th century, weavers used fly shuttle in looms.
 The invention of the fly shuttle made it possible for weavers to operate large looms and weave wide
pieces of cloth.
 This increased productivity per worker, speeded up production and reduced labour demands.
 By 1941, over 35% of handlooms in India were fitted with fly shuttles.
 In regions like Travancore, Madras, Mysore, Cochin, Bengal the proportion was 70-80%.
 There were several other small innovations that helped weavers improve their productivity and compete
with mill sector.

RELATED QUESTIONS:-
 What were the reasons for expansion in handicraft production in the 20th century?

 FLY SHUTTLE:- It is a mechanical device used for weaving which is moved by ropes and pullies.
It places the horizontal threads (weft) into the vertical threads (warp) in the process of weaving.

SOME GROUPS OF WEAVERS SURVIVED THE COMPETITION WITH MILL INDUSTRIES:-

 Certain groups of weavers were in a better position than others to survive the competition with mill
industries for the following reasons:-
● Amongst weavers, some produced coarse cloth while others produced finer qualities.
● The coarser cloth was bought by the poor and its demand fluctuated violently.
● In the times of bad harvests and famines, when the rural poor had little to eat, and their cash income
disappeared, they could not buy cloth.
 The demand for the finer varieties bought by the well-to-do was more stable as famines did not affect the
sale of Banarasi or Baluchari saris.
● The rich could buy these even when the poor starved.
● Mills also could not imitate weaving by the specialized weavers.

Eg:- Saris with woven borders, or the famous lungis and handkerchiefs of Madras, could not be
easily displaced by mill production.

RELATED QUESTIONS:-

 Why some groups of weavers were in a better position than others to survive the competition
with mill industries?
LIFE OF A WEAVER IN INDIA:-
● Even if the weavers and other craftspeople continued to expand production, they did not prosper.
● They lived hard lives and worked for long hours.
● Entire household- including all the women and children- had to work at various stages of the production
process.
● Their life and labour was still an integral to the process of industrialization.

LOCATION OF LARGE-SCALE INDUSTRIES IN INDIA DURING THE EARLY 20TH

CENTURY:-
(According to the size of industries in the different regions of India)

1. Bengal
2. Bombay
3. Madras
4. United Province
5. Central Province
6. Bihar
7. Punjab

PART-6: MARKET FOR GOODS

INDIAN TRADERS AND WEAVERS RESISTED THE BRITISH MANUFACTURERS BY:-

● Resisting colonial controls.

● Demanding tariff protection.
● Creating own spaces.
● They also tried to extend the market for their produce.

RELATED QUESTIONS:-
 How did the Indian traders and weavers resist the British manufacturers?

CREATING MARKET FOR THE PRODUCTS THROUGH ADVERTISEMENTS:-

 From the very beginning of the industrial age, advertisements helped in expanding the markets for
products.
 New consumers were created through advertisements as:-
 Advertisements made products appear desirable and necessary.
 They tried to shape the minds of people and created new needs.
 Shaped a new consumer culture

USE OF ADVERTISEMENT AS A TOOL FOR MARKETING OF GOODS BY THE BRITISH IN

INDIA:-
A] LABLES:-
 Manchester industrialists began selling cloth in India by putting labels on the cloth bundles.
 The label was needed to make the place of manufacture and the name of the company familiar to the
buyer.
 Labels were printed with words and text, they also carried beautifully illustrated images.
 The label was also to be a mark of quality as when buyers saw ‘MADE IN MANCHESTER’ written in
bold on the label; they were expected to feel confident about buying the cloth.
 Images of Indian Gods and Goddesses regularly appeared on those labels as if the association of Gods
gave divine approval to the goods being sold.

NOTE:-
 Images of numerous Indian Gods and Goddesses like- KARTIKA, VISHNU, KRISHNA,
LAKSHMI, SARASWATI etc. were shown in imported cloth labels.
 Historic figures like MAHARAJA RANJIT SINGH was also shown on a Manchester label to
create respect for the product.

B] CALENDERS:-
 By the late 19th century, manufacturers were printing calendars to popularize their products.
 Unlike newspapers and magazines, Calendars were used even by people who could not read.
 They were hung in tea shops and in poor people’s homes and in offices and middle-class apartments.
 And those who hung the calendars had to see the advertisements, day after day, through the year.
 Figures of Gods, important personages, of emperors and nawabs, decorated advertisement and
calendars being used to sell new products.
 The message often say: if you respect the royal figure, then respect this product.
 Indian manufacturers advertised clear and loud nationalist messages.
 Advertisements became a vehicle of the nationalist message of ‘Swadeshi’.

RELATED QUESTIONS:-

 How was the marketing of goods done by the British in India?

CONCLUSION:-
 The age of industries meant major technological changes, growth of factories, and the making of a
new industrial labour force.
 Still, hand technology and small-scale production remained an important part of the industrial
landscape.