ME2121

Lecture 1: Review of basic concepts

Engineering Thermodynamics and

Heat Transfer
2023/2024 Semester 1
Assistant Prof. SHIN Sunmi
Department of Mechanical Engineering
National University of Singapore

Office: EA-05-15
E-mail: mpeshin@nus.edu.sg
Aug 14, 2023

1
 What is Thermodynamics?

• Thermo Dynamics : the early efforts to convert heat into power.

Heat Power

o It includes all aspects of energy and energy transformations.

o It is a science that deals with the properties of matter and the
relationship between key variables – energy, heat, work,
temperature, enthalpy, entropy, etc.
o Treats all matters behave in a continuum manner.
o Based on simple laws, postulates for behavior of matters.
o To quantify efficiency, useful effects (work), etc.
o A tool to evaluate the viability to a machine or system
o To make investment decision on the thermo-economics of
projects, e.g., power plants, refrigeration, energy conversion
devices, etc.

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 What is Thermodynamics?

• The First Law of Thermodynamics

: It is simply an expression of the conservation of energy principle.
• The Second Law of Thermodynamics
: Actual processes occur in the direction of decreasing quality
of energy.

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Applications of thermodynamics

4
Applications of thermodynamics

5
 Applications of thermodynamics

How to make ice in a dessert?

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 Definitions of systems

• A system is defined as a quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for study.

• The mass or region outside the system is called the surroundings.
• The real or imaginary surface that separates the system from its surroundings is
called the boundary.

• The boundary of a system can be fixed or movable. Note that the boundary is the
contact surface shared by both the system and the surroundings. Mathematically
speaking, the boundary has zero thickness, and thus it can neither contain any mass
nor occupy any volume in space.
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 Closed system (control mass)

• System may be considered to be closed or open, depending on whether a fixed mass

or a fixed volume in space is chose for study.
• A closed system (also known as a control mass) consists of a fixed amount of mass,
and no mass can cross its boundary.

No mass can leave or enter the boundary;

But energy can cross the boundary;
The volume does not have to be fixed

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 Open system (control volume)

• An open system, or a control volume, as it is often called,

is a property selected region in space.
• It usually encloses a device that involves mass flow such as
a compressor, turbine, or nozzle.

Mass can leave or enter the boundary;

Energy can cross the boundary;
The mass does not have to be fixed

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 Properties of a System

• Any characteristic of a system is called a property.

pressure P, temperature T, volume V, and mass m.

• Intensive properties: independent of the mass of a system.

Temperature, Pressure and Density…

• Extensive properties: dependent of the size of the system.

Total mass, total volume, and total momentum…

• Specific properties

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 (Cont’d) Properties of a System

• Property can be defined by other established properties,

e.g., enthalpy (H) is given by (in extensive form)

𝑈=𝑈 𝑃 𝑇 or 𝑈=𝑈 𝑃 𝑉

and 𝐻 = 𝐻 𝑃 𝑇 = 𝐻 𝑃 𝑉 = 𝑈 + 𝑃𝑉

An example of the piston-cylinder assembly

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 Continuum

• Matter is made up of atoms that are widely spaced in the gas phase. Yet it is very
convenient to disregard the atomic nature of a substance and view it as a
continuous, homogenous matter with no holes, that is, a continuum.

• The continuum idealization is implicit in many statements we make, such as “the

density of water in a glass is the same at any point.”

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 State and Equilibrium

• Consider a system not undergoing any change. At this point, all the properties can be
measured or calculated throughout the entire system, which gives us a set of
properties that completely describes the condition, or the state, of the system.

• In an equilibrium state, there are no unbalanced potentials (or driving forces) within
the system. A system in equilibrium experiences no changes when it is isolated from
its surroundings.

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 Processes
• Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to another is called a
process, and the series of states through which a system passes during a process is
called the path of the process.

• A process is the path between two given states where there may be interactions of
heat (Q) and work (W) transfer in or out of a control volume. The Q or W are deemed
as a useful effect arising from the process.

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 (Cont’d) Processes
• Note that the process path indicates a series of equilibrium states through which the
system passes during a process and has significance for quasi-equilibrium processes
only.

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 (Cont’d) Processes

• The area under a process path is of interest to an engineer because it represents a

variable e.g., Q or W, which is a non-property as it is path dependent.

2 (V2,P2)
Path A
Pressure, P

1 (V1,P1)

Volume, V

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 Cycles

• A cycle requires two or more processes to complete.

• As the initial (“1”) and final (“2”) states are defined by thermodynamic properties,
say ∏. The net change of a variable undergoing a cyclic process would be zero.

• The ∏ is the property of a system, such as P, V or T or any variable of the system.

2 (V2,P2)
Path A
Pressure, P

1 (V1,P1)
Path B

Volume, V

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 (Cont’d) Cycles

• A property of a thermodynamic system must satisfy the definition of a continuous

function, that is, it is not an abrupt or discontinued function.

B(2,4) C(4,4)
Y=P

A(2,2) D(4,2)

X=V

(𝜋 = * 𝛥𝑃 = 4 − 2 + 4 − 4 + 2 − 4 + 2 − 2 = 0

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 Mathematical Test of a Property as a continuous function
(1) A property satisfies continuum requirement and from math,

𝑧 𝑥 𝑦

𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
𝑑𝑧 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 ! 𝜕𝑦 "

𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 𝑃𝑣 = 𝑅𝑇
𝑇 = 𝑃 𝑣⁄𝑅 Experimental fact

Total differential Change in P Change in v

𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
𝑑T = 𝑑P + 𝑑𝑣
𝜕𝑃 # 𝜕𝑣 $

Partial differential Partial differential

• A property is independent of path. The change from points “A” to “B” can be
obtained by a partial integration of any path to obtain the total change on a surface.
(e.g. path “C” or the sum of dotted paths).
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Mathematical Test of a Property as a continuous function
(2) From mathematics, for a continuous function of the form z=z(x,y), the order of
partials of z with respect to x and y would be immaterial:

𝜕 𝜕𝑧 𝜕 𝜕𝑧
=
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 ! " 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 " !
Order of differentiation is immaterial.

𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇
=
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑃 # $ 𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑣 $ #

• For ideal gas, the equation of state is Pv=RT, obtaining the second order differentials:

𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝑣 1 𝜕 𝜕𝑇 𝜕 𝑃 1
= = = =
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑃 # $ 𝜕𝑣 𝑅 𝑅 𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑣 $ # 𝜕𝑃 𝑅 𝑅
$ #
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Mathematical Test of a Property as an independent parameter

• Independency is also a necessary condition for being a property in a thermodynamic

system. To demonstrate independency of variables in an equation of state, we need to
use two mathematical relations in addition to the thermodynamic relations.

The chain rule The derivative inversion

𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 1
= =
𝜕𝑥 % 𝜕𝑦 %
𝜕𝑥 % 𝜕𝑧 ! 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑥 !

𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
𝑑T = 𝑑P + 𝑑𝑣
𝜕𝑃 # 𝜕𝑣 $

• If we now take the partial derivative of each term with respect to P at constant T:

𝑑𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑣
= +
𝑑𝑃 & 𝜕𝑃 # 𝜕𝑃 & 𝜕𝑣 $ 𝜕𝑃 &

𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑣
0 = 1 +
𝜕𝑃 # 𝜕𝑣 $ 𝜕𝑃 & 21
Mathematical Test of a Property as an independent parameter

𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑣
0= 1+
𝜕𝑃 # 𝜕𝑣 $ 𝜕𝑃 &

𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑣
𝜕𝑣 $ 𝜕𝑃 &=
0=1+ 𝜕𝑇
𝜕𝑃 #

𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑣
0=1+
𝜕𝑇 # 𝜕𝑣 $ 𝜕𝑃 &

𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑣
−1 = constant
𝜕𝑇 # 𝜕𝑣 $ 𝜕𝑃 &

• It proves the independency requirement of the variables (P, v, T) in the system.

• It is a necessary requirement for being a property of a thermodynamic system.

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 Example 1-1

• Consider the relationship between V, T and P of a gas contained in a

vessel (closed system). The experimental relationship between the
expansion and compression coefficients of the gas are inversely
proportional to T and P, respectively. Derive PV/T=constant.

Note the definitions of the expansion (β) and compression (κ) coefficients for
real gases are respectively given by:

(note that these approximations are found from experiments)

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 (Cont’d) Example 1-1
• Consider the relationship between V, T and P of a gas contained in a vessel (closed
system). The experimental relationship between the expansion and compression
coefficients of the gas are inversely proportional to T and P, respectively. Derive
PV/T=constant.

• Solution:

The general expression for the variables can be given by

𝑉=𝑉 𝑃 𝑇
From mathematics, the total differential of V is given by

𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝑑𝑉 = 𝑑𝑇 + 𝑑𝑃
𝜕𝑇 $ 𝜕𝑃 &

Using the definitions and the experimental relation of the gas, the above can be re-
written as
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑃
𝑑𝑉 = 𝛽𝑉𝑑𝑇 − 𝜅𝑉𝑑𝑃 = 𝑉 −𝑉
𝑇 𝑃
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 (Cont’d) Example 1-1
• Consider the relationship between V, T and P of a gas contained in a vessel (closed
system). The experimental relationship between the expansion and compression
coefficients of the gas are inversely proportional to T and P, respectively. Derive
PV/T=constant.

• Solution:

𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑃
𝑑𝑉 = 𝛽𝑉𝑑𝑇 − 𝜅𝑉𝑑𝑃 = 𝑉 −𝑉
𝑇 𝑃

𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑃
− + =0
𝑉 𝑇 𝑃

Integrating, we have,

ln 𝑉 − ln 𝑇 + ln 𝑃 = c c: constant

𝑃𝑉
= 𝑒' : constant
𝑇
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 Example 1-2

• Estimate the change in the specific volume of air (assuming ideal gas)
if the temperature and pressure changes are from T1= 25 oC and P1=
122 kPa to T2= 65 oC and P2= 102 kPa, respectively. Compare the
changes as calculated directly from the ideal gas law (as derived in
example 1-1).

• Solution:

𝑃𝑉 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇 (𝑣 = 𝑉 ⁄𝑚)
𝑃𝑣 = 𝑅𝑇
𝑘𝐽
𝑅𝑇 𝑅! 8.3145 (𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙. 𝐾) 𝑘𝐽
𝑣= 𝑅=
𝑀
=
𝑘𝑔
= 0.287 (
𝑘𝑔. 𝐾
) M: average molar mass of air
𝑃 28.98 (
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
)

𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝑅 𝑅𝑇
𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑇 + 𝑑𝑃 = 𝑑𝑇 + − ( 𝑑𝑃
𝜕𝑇 $ 𝜕𝑃 & 𝑃 𝑃

𝑑𝑣 = 0.248 m) /kg

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 The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
• When a body is brought into contact with another body that is at a different
temperature, heat is transferred from the body at higher temperature to the one at
lower temperature until both bodies attain the same temperature.
• At that point, the heat transfer stops, and the two bodies are said to have reached
thermal equilibrium.

• The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if two bodies are in thermal
equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.

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 Temperature Scales

• All temperature scales are based on some easily reproducible states such as the
freezing and boiling points of water, which are also called the ice point and the
steam point, respectively.

• Celsius scale: 0 oC (ice point), 100 oC (steam point)

• Fahrenheit scale: 32 oF (ice point), 212 oF (steam point)

• It is very desirable to have a temperature scale that is independent of the properties

of any substance.
• Such a temperature scale is called a thermodynamic temperature scale.

• Kelvin scale

• Rankine scale

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 Ideal-Gas Temperature Scale

• A temperature scale that turns out to be nearly identical to the Kelvin scale is the
ideal-gas temperature scale.

• This thermometer is based on the principle that at low pressures, the temperature of
a gas of fixed volume varies linearly with pressure at sufficiently low pressures.

𝑇 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑃

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 Constant-Volume Gas Thermometer

• The temperature on this scale are measured using a constant-volume gas

thermometer.

• Reading of mercury height is an indication

of the pressure of gas in the bulb.
• Immerse the bulb into a reference
temperature (i.e., the triple point of
water).
• Then immerse the bulb into an environment
of steam (boiling water) at 1 atm.
• Evacuate some gas out of the bulb and
repeat the processes.
• Plot the ratio, Ps/P3 to P3 using the
experimental data.

P3 is the pressure at the triple point 30

Constant-Volume Gas Thermometer

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 How are the numerical numbers of an absolute
temperature scale assigned?
1) The number of divisions between steam point and
ice point:

𝜃* − 𝜃+ = 100 or 180
Empirical temperature

2) The thermometric property ratio of a thermometer

(that follows the thermodynamics law), e.g. constant
volume bulb thermometer.

𝜃* 𝑃*
= ≈ 1.3661
𝜃+ 𝑃+
Solving,
100 100
𝜃+ = = = 273.15 [K] Kelvin scale
𝑃* 0.3661
𝑃+ − 1
180 180 Rankin scale
𝜃+ = = = 491.69 [R]
𝑃* 0.3661
−1 32
𝑃+
How are the numerical numbers of an absolute
temperature scale assigned?

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 Example 1-3

• During a heating process, the temperature of a system rises by 10

oC. Express this rise in temperature in K, oF, and R.

• Solution:

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 Example 1-4

• This exercise relates to the expansion or

contraction coefficients when a liquid experiences
a change in temperature.

• The volume of mercury contained in a bulb type

thermometer is Vb,0 (m3) at ice point. If the
capillary of thermometer has a cross sectional
area As,0 (m2) and the linear and volumetric
expansion coefficients of glass and mercury are
αg(1/K) and βm(1/K) respectively, determine the
change in height of mercury column for a small
change in temperature, ΔT(K)?

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 (Cont’d) Example 1-4

• The volume of mercury contained in a bulb type thermometer is Vb,0 (m3) at ice
point. If the capillary of thermometer has a cross sectional area As,0 (m2) and the
linear and volumetric expansion coefficients of glass and mercury are αg(1/K) and
βm(1/K) respectively, determine the change in height of mercury column for a
small change in temperature, ΔT(K)?

• Solution:

The volume of mercury sensitive to ΔT:

𝑉, = 𝑉-,/ + 𝑉-,/ 𝛽𝑚𝛥𝑇 = 𝑉-,/ 1 + 𝛽𝑚𝛥𝑇

The diameter of the glass tube (stem) sensitive to ΔT :

𝑟* = 𝑟0,/ 1 + 𝛼* 𝛥𝑇
(
𝐴0 = 𝜋 𝑟0,/ + 𝑟0,/ 𝛼1 𝛥𝑇
( (
= 𝜋𝑟0,/ 1 + 2𝛼1 𝛥𝑇 + 𝛼1 𝛥𝑇

≈ 𝐴0,/ 1 + 2𝛼1 𝛥𝑇
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 (Cont’d) Example 1-4

• The volume of mercury contained in a bulb type thermometer is Vb,0 (m3) at ice
point. If the capillary of thermometer has a cross sectional area As,0 (m2) and the
linear and volumetric expansion coefficients of glass and mercury are αg(1/K) and
βm(1/K) respectively, determine the change in height of mercury column for a
small change in temperature, ΔT(K)?

• Solution:

Similarly, the volume of the glass bulb sensitive to ΔT :

4 )
𝑉- = 𝜋 𝑟-,/ + 𝑟-,/ 𝛼1 𝛥𝑇
3
4 ) )
= 𝜋𝑟-,/ 1 + 𝛼1 𝛥𝑇
3
( )
= 𝑉-,/ 1 + 3𝛼1 𝛥𝑇 + 3 𝛼1 𝛥𝑇 + 𝛼1 𝛥𝑇

≈ 𝑉-,/ (1 + 3𝛼1 𝛥𝑇)

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 (Cont’d) Example 1-4

• The volume of mercury contained in a bulb type thermometer is Vb,0 (m3) at ice
point. If the capillary of thermometer has a cross sectional area As,0 (m2) and the
linear and volumetric expansion coefficients of glass and mercury are αg(1/K) and
βm(1/K) respectively, determine the change in height of mercury column for a
small change in temperature, ΔT(K)?

• Solution:

Simultaneously, the mercury (liquid), also expands due to a temperature change,

would have to fill the cavity left behind by expanded glass tube and the expanded
bulb:

𝑉2 = 𝑉- + 𝑉* = 𝑉- + 𝐴* ℎ

𝑉-,/ 1 + 𝛽2 𝛥𝑇 = 𝑉-,/ 1 + 3𝛼1 𝛥𝑇 + ℎ𝐴*,/ 1 + 2𝛼1 𝛥𝑇

𝑉-,/ 𝛽2 − 3𝛼1
ℎ= 𝛥𝑇
𝐴*,/ 1 + 2𝛼1 𝛥𝑇

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 Types of Temperature Measuring Devices

𝜃( 𝑋( q = empirical temperature
=
𝜃3 𝑋3 X = thermometric property

A. A liquid-in-bulb device, called thermometer

X= expansion of liquid represented by height of column
B. Resistance change of an inert wire, called resistance-temperature device or RTD
X= change in resistance
C. The electro-motive force (electric field) generated across a pair of wires of different
materials, called the thermocouples
X= change in voltage
D. The constant-volume bulb with pressure changes (mercury in tube)
X= change in gas pressure
(A) (C)
(B) (D)

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