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Physics
Fourth edition

Heather Kennett
Tom Duncan
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Physics
Fourth Edition

Heather Kennett
Tom Duncan
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Contents
How to use this book
Scientific Enquiry

1 Motion, forces and energy

1.1 Physical quantities and measurement techniques
1.2 Motion
1.3 Mass and weight
1.4 Density
1.5 Forces
1.6 Momentum
1.7 Energy, work and power
1.8 Pressure

2 Thermal physics
2.1 Kinetic model of matter
2.2 Thermal properties and temperature
2.3 Transfer of thermal energy

3 Waves
3.1 General properties of waves
3.2 Light
3.3 Electromagnetic spectrum
3.4 Sound

4 Electricity and magnetism

4.1 Simple phenomena of magnetism
4.2 Electrical quantities
4.3 Electric circuits
4.4 Electrical safety
4.5 Electromagnetic effects

5 Nuclear physics
5.1 The nuclear model of the atom
5.2 Radioactivity

6 Space physics
6.1 Earth and the Solar System
6.2 Stars and the Universe
Theory exam-style questions
Practical exam-style questions
Alternative to practical exam-style questions
List of equations
Symbols and units for physical quantities
Glossary
Index
1.2 Motion
FOCUS POINTS
★ Define speed and velocity and use the appropriate
equations to calculate these and average speed.
★ Draw, plot and interpret distance–time or
speed–time graphs for objects at different speeds
and use the graphs to calculate speed or distance
travelled.
★ Define average acceleration and use the
shape of a speed–time graph to determine
constant or changing acceleration and calculate
acceleration from the gradient of the graph.
The concepts of speed and acceleration are
encountered every day, for example, in television
monitoring of the speed of a cricket or tennis
ball as it soars towards the opposition or the
acceleration achieved by an athlete or racing
car. In this chapter you will learn how to define
speed in terms of distance and time. You will also
use graphs of distance against time to calculate
speed and determine how it changes with time.
Speed
The speed of a body is the distance it has travelled
in unit time. When the distance travelled, s, is over
a short time period, t, the speed, v, is given by:
distance
v = s    speed =
t time
Key definition
Speed is the distance travelled per unit time. For a
s short interval of time. We can find this using
distance s travelled in a short time t, the speed v = .
t
Over longer periods of time, we calculate the
average speed:
average speed = total distance travelled
total time taken
4
★ Relate acceleration and deceleration to changing
speed, and use the gradient of a speed–time
graph to analyse this.
★ Know the approximate value of the acceleration
of free fall, g, for an object close to the Earth’s
surface.
★ Describe the motion of objects falling with and
without air/liquid resistance.
You will learn that acceleration is defined in
terms of changes of speed with time and that
graphs of speed against time allow you to study
acceleration. Acceleration is also experienced
by falling objects as a result of gravitational
attraction. All objects near the Earth’s surface
experience the force of gravity, which produces
a constant acceleration directed towards the
centre of the Earth.
For example, if a car travels 300 km in five hours,
its average speed is 300 km/5 h = 60 km/h. The
speedometer is very unlikely to read 60 km/h for the
whole journey: it might vary considerably from this
value. However, if the car could travel at a constant
speed of 60 km/h for five hours, the distance
covered would still be 300 km. This is why we state
the average speed.
To find the actual speed at any instant, we
need to know the distance moved in a very
multiflash photography. In Figure 2.1, the golfer is
photographed while a flashing lamp illuminates him
100 times a second. The speed of the club-head as it
hits the ball is about 200 km/h.
 Acceleration

Acceleration
When the velocity of an object changes, we say
the object accelerates. If a car moves due north
from rest and has velocity 2 m/s after 1 second,
its velocity has increased by 2 m/s in 1 s and its
acceleration is 2 m/s per second due north. We
write this as 2 m/s2.
Average acceleration is defined as the change
in velocity per unit time, or:
change in velocity
acceleration = = Δv
time taken for change Δt

For example, for a steady increase of velocity

▲ Figure 2.1 Multiflash photograph of a golf swing from 20 m/s to 50 m/s in 5 s:
(50 − 20) m/s
Velocity acceleration =
5s
= 6 m/s2

Speed is the distance travelled in unit time; velocity

is the distance travelled in unit time in a given Key definition
direction. If two trains travel due north at 20 m/s, Average acceleration is the change in velocity per
they have the same speed of 20 m/s and the same ∆v
velocity of 20 m/s due north. If one travels north unit time. Acceleration a = where Δv is the change
∆t
and the other south, their speeds are the same but in velocity in time Δt.
their velocities are different since their directions of
motion are different. Speed is a scalar quantity and Acceleration is a vector and both its magnitude
velocity a vector quantity. and direction should be stated. However, at
distance moved in a given direction present we will consider only motion in a straight
velocity = line and so the magnitude of the velocity will
time taken
equal the speed, and the magnitude of the
= speed in a given direction
acceleration will equal the change in speed per
unit time.
Key definition The speed of a car accelerating on a straight
Velocity is the change in displacement per unit time. road is shown in Table 2.1.
▼ Table 2.1 The speed of a car accelerating on a straight
The velocity of a body is uniform or constant if it road
moves with a steady speed in a straight line. It is
not uniform if it moves in a curved path. Why? Time/s 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
The units of speed and velocity are the same, Speed/m/s 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
km/h, m/s.
The speed increases by 5 m/s every second so the
60 000 m
60 km/h = = 17 m/s acceleration of 5 m/s2 is constant.
3600 s Acceleration is positive if the velocity
The distance moved in a stated direction is called increases, and negative if it decreases. Negative
the displacement. It is a vector, unlike distance acceleration is also called deceleration or
which is a scalar. Velocity may also be defined as: retardation. Acceleration can also be constant.
displacement
velocity =
time taken

5
1.2 Motion

Test yourself 30
1 What is the average speed of:
a a car that travels 400 m in 20 s? A B
b an athlete who runs 1500 m in 4 minutes? 20

speed/m/s
2 The speed of a train increases steadily from 10 m/s
to 20 m/s in 1 minute.
a What is its average speed during this time, in 10
m/s?
b How far does it travel while its speed is
increasing? C

3 a A motorcyclist starts from rest and reaches O

1 2 3 4 5
a speed of 6 m/s after travelling with time/s
constant acceleration for 3 s. What is his
acceleration? ▲ Figure 2.2 Constant speed
b The motorcyclist then decelerates to rest
at a constant rate over 2 s. What is his
acceleration?
4 An aircraft travelling at 600 km/h accelerates 40 Q
steadily at 10 km/h per second. Taking the
speed of sound as 1100 km/h at the aircraft’s
30
altitude, how long will it take the aircraf to
speed/m/s

reach the ‘sound barrier’? P

20 R

10

Speed–time graphs S
O
If the speed of an object is plotted against time, the 1 2 3 4 5
graph obtained is a speed–time graph. It provides time/s
a way of solving motion problems. ▲ Figure 2.3a Constant acceleration
In Figure 2.2, AB is the speed–time graph for an
object moving with a constant speed of 20 m/s.
The linear shape (PQ) of the speed–time graph
shown in Figure 2.3a means the gradient is constant, 30 X
and hence the acceleration of the body is constant
over the time period OS. 20
speed/m/s

Figure 2.3b shows a speed–time graph for non-

constant (changing) acceleration. Line OX is curved,
which means the gradient of the graph and hence 10
the acceleration of the object change over time
period OY. 0
Y
Note that an object at rest will have zero speed 0 1 2 3 4 5
and zero acceleration. time/s

▲ Figure 2.3b Changing acceleration

6
 Using a speed–time graph to calculate acceleration

Using a speed–time graph 40 A

to calculate acceleration 30

distance/m
The gradient of a speed–time graph represents
the acceleration of the object. 20
T
In Figure 2.2, the gradient of AB is zero, as is
the acceleration. In Figure 2.3a, the gradient of PQ 10
is QR/PR = 20/5 = 4: the acceleration is constant
C B
at 4 m/s2. In Figure 2.3b, when the gradient along
O
OX changes, so does the acceleration. 1 2 3 4 5
An object is accelerating if the speed time/s
increases with time and decelerating if the ▲ Figure 2.5 Non-constant speed
speed decreases with time. In Figure 2.3b the
speed is increasing with time and the object is
accelerating at a decreasing rate. Area under a speed–time
graph
Distance–time graphs The area under a speed–time graph shows the
distance travelled.
An object travelling at constant speed covers equal In Figure 2.2, AB is the speed–time graph for
distances in equal times. Its distance–time graph an object moving with a constant speed of 20 m/s.
is a straight line, like OL in Figure 2.4 for a speed Since distance = average speed × time, after 5 s it
of 10 m/s. The gradient of the graph is LM/OM = will have moved 20 m/s × 5 s = 100 m. This is the
40 m/4 s = 10 m/s, which is the value of the speed. shaded area under the graph, i.e. rectangle OABC.
In general, the gradient of a distance–time graph In Figure 2.3a, PQ is the speed–time graph for
represents the speed of the object. an object moving with constant acceleration. At
0 s, the speed is 20 m/s but it increases steadily to
40 L 40 m/s after 5 s. If the distance covered equals the
area under PQ, i.e. the shaded area OPQS, then:
30 distance = area of rectangle OPRS + area of triangle PQR
distance/m

1
20 = OP × OS + × PR × QR
2

10 (area of a triangle = 1 base × height)

2
M = 20 m/s × 5s + 1 × 5s × 20 m/s
O 2
1 2 3 4
time/s
= 100 m + 50 m = 150 m

▲ Figure 2.4 Constant speed
When the speed of the object is changing, the
gradient of the distance–time graph varies, as
in Figure 2.5. The speed at any point equals the
gradient of a tangent to the curve at that point.
For example, the gradient of the tangent at time
T is AB/BC = 40 m/2 s = 20 m/s. The speed at
time T is therefore 20 m/s.
Note: when calculating the area from a graph, the
unit of time must be the same on both axes.
The rule for finding the distance travelled is true
even if the acceleration is not constant. In Figure
2.3b, the distance travelled equals the shaded area
OXY.

7
1.2 Motion

Test yourself
Second equation
The speed of an object moving with constant
5 The speeds of a bus travelling on a straight road at
acceleration in a straight line increases steadily. Its
successive intervals of 1 second are shown in the
table. average speed therefore equals half the sum of its
initial and final speeds, that is:
Time/s 0 1 2 3 4
Speed/m/s 0 4 8 12 16 average speed = u + v
2
a Sketch a speed–time graph of the values.
b Choose two of the following terms to describe
the acceleration of the bus: If s is the distance moved in time t, then since
zero   constant   changing   positive   average speed = total distance/total time = s/t,
negative
s = u+v
c Evaluate the acceleration of the bus.
t 2
d Calculate the area under your graph.
e How far does the bus travel in 4 s? or
6 The distances of a walker from the start of her
(u + v )
walk at successive intervals of 1 second are shown s= t (2)
in the table. 2
Time/s 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Distance/m 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 Going further
a Sketch a distance–time graph of the values.
b How would you describe the speed at which she Third equation
walks? Equation (1): v = u + at
constant   changing   increasing  
accelerating s u+v
c Evaluate her average speed. Equation (2): =
t 2
Combining these two equations:
s u + u + at 2u + at
Equations for constant t
=
2
=
2
acceleration 1
= u + at
Problems involving bodies moving with constant 2
acceleration in a straight line can often be solved and so
quickly using equations of motion.
1
s = ut + at 2 (3)
First equation 2

If an object is moving with constant acceleration a Fourth equation

in a straight line and its speed increases from u to v This is obtained by eliminating t from equations (1) and
in time t, then: (3). Squaring equation (1) gives:
change in speed v − u
a= = v 2 = (u + at )2
time taken t
∴ at = v − u ∴ v 2 = u 2 + 2uat + a 2 t 2

or 1
= u 2 + 2 a(ut + at 2 )
2
v = u + at (1)
1 2
But s = ut + at
Note that the initial speed u and the final speed 2
v refer to the start and end of the timing, not ∴ v 2 = u 2 + 2 as
necessarily the start and end of the motion.
8
 Falling bodies

If we know any three of u, v, a, s and t, we can find times heavier from the top of the Leaning Tower of
the others from the equations. Pisa. We are told that, to the surprise of onlookers
who expected the cannonball to arrive first, the two
balls reached the ground almost simultaneously.
Worked example
A sprint cyclist starts from rest and accelerates at 1 m/s2 rubber
for 20 seconds. Find his final speed and the distance he stopper
travels.
We know u = 0, a = 1 m/s2 , t = 20 s
Use v = u + at to find his final speed:
v = 0 + 1 m/s2 × 20 s = 20 m/s
Perspex or
Pyrex tube
To find distance travelled:

(u + v )
s= t
2 paper

(0 + 20) m/s × 20s 400

= = = 200 m
2 2 1.5 m coin

Now put this into practice

1 An athlete accelerates from rest at a constant rate of
0.8 m/s for 4 s. Calculate the final speed of the athlete.
2 A cyclist increases her speed from 10 m/s to 20 m/s in
5 s. Calculate her average speed over this time interval.
3 Calculate the distance moved by a car accelerating from
rest at a constant rate of 2 m/s2 for 5 s.

Falling bodies
In air, a coin falls faster than a small piece of
paper. In a vacuum they fall at the same rate, as
may be shown with the apparatus in Figure 2.6. The
difference in air is due to air resistance, which pressure
has a greater effect on light bodies than on heavy tubing
bodies. The air resistance to a light body is large
when compared with the body’s weight. With a to vacuum
pump
dense piece of metal, the air resistance is negligible
screw clip
at low speeds.
There is a story, now believed to be untrue, that
▲ Figure 2.6 A coin and a piece of paper fall at the same
in the 16th century the Italian scientist Galileo
rate in a vacuum
dropped a small iron ball and a large cannonball ten

9
1.2 Motion

Practical work

For safe experiments/demonstrations related 3 Why would a stopwatch not be used to

to this chapter, including further questions, measure the time of fall in this experiment?
please refer to Cambridge IGCSE Physics 4 How would you expect the times taken for the
Practical Skills Workbook 2nd edition that is also 100 g and 200 g masses to fall 2 m to differ?
part of this series.
2 V a.c.
Motion of a falling object
Arrange apparatus as shown in Figure 2.7 to
investigate the motion of a 100 g mass falling from
tickertape
a height of about 2 m. timer
A tickertape timer has a marker that vibrates
50 times each second, making dots at 1/50 s
intervals on a paper tape being pulled through
the timer. Ignore the start of the tape where the
dots are too close together to be useful.
tickertape retort
Repeat the experiment with a 200 g mass and stand
compare your results with those for the 100 g
mass.
1 The spacing between the dots on the
tickertape increases as the mass falls. What
does this tell you about the speed of the falling 100 g
mass? mass to floor
2 The tape has 34 dots on it by the time the mass
has fallen 2 m. Estimate how long it takes the ▲ Figure 2.7 Apparatus to investigate the motion of a
mass to fall 2 m. falling mass

Acceleration of free fall
All bodies falling freely under the force of gravity
do so with uniform acceleration if air resistance is
negligible (i.e. the dots on the tickertape in the
practical investigation would be equally spaced).
This acceleration, called the acceleration of
free fall, is denoted by the italic letter g. Its value
varies slightly over the Earth but is constant in
each place; on average it is about 9.8 m/s2 or near
enough 10 m/s2. The velocity of a free-falling body
therefore increases by 10 m/s every second. A ball
shot straight upwards with a velocity of 30 m/s
decelerates by 10 m/s every second and reaches its
highest point after 3 s.
Key definition
Acceleration of free fall, g: for an object near to the
surface of the Earth, this is approximately constant and
approximately 9.8 m/s2.
In calculations using the equations of motion, g
replaces a. It is given a positive sign for falling
bodies (i.e. a = g = +10 m/s2) and a negative sign
for rising bodies since they are decelerating
(i.e. a = −g = –10 m/s2).

10
 Acceleration of free fall

80 Test yourself
60 7 An object falls from a hovering helicopter and hits
distance/m

the ground at a speed of 30 m/s. How long does it

40 take the object to reach the ground and how far
does it fall? Sketch a speed–time graph for the
20 object (ignore air resistance).
8 A stone falls from rest from the top of a high
tower. Ignore air resistance and take g = 10 m/s2.
0 Calculate:
4 8 12 16
a the speed of the stone after 2 seconds.
(time)2/s2 b how far the stone has fallen after 2 seconds.
▲ Figure 2.9b A graph of distance against (time)2 for a body 9 At a certain instant a ball has a horizontal velocity
falling freely from rest of 12 m/s and a vertical velocity of 5 m/s. Calculate
the resultant velocity of the ball at that instant.

Going further
Projectiles can calculate the height of the cliff by considering the
vertical motion only. We know u = 0 (since the ball has
The photograph in Figure 2.10 was taken while a lamp
no vertical velocity initially), a = g = +10 m/s2 and t = 3 s.
emitted regular flashes of light. One ball was dropped
The height s of the cliff is given by:
from rest and the other, a projectile, was thrown
sideways at the same time. Their vertical accelerations 1
(due to gravity) are equal, showing that a projectile falls s = ut + at 2
2
like a body which is dropped from rest. Its horizontal
velocity does not affect its vertical motion.
1
The horizontal and vertical motions of a body are
= 0 × 3s +
2
( )
10 m/s 2 32 s 2
independent and can be treated separately.
= 45 m
Projectiles such as cricket balls and explosive shells
are projected from near ground level and at an angle.
The horizontal distance they travel, i.e. their range,
depends on:
● the speed of projection – the greater this is, the
greater the range, and
● the angle of projection – it can be shown that,
neglecting air resistance, the range is a maximum
when the angle is 45º (Figure 2.11).

45°
▲ Figure 2.10 Comparing free fall and projectile motion
using multiflash photography ▲ Figure 2.11 The range is greatest for an angle of
For example, if a ball is thrown horizontally from the projection of 45°
top of a cliff and takes 3 s to reach the beach below, we

11
1.2 Motion

Air resistance: terminal Objects falling in liquids behave similarly to

those falling in air.
velocity
When an object falls in a uniform gravitational
field, the air resistance (fluid friction) opposing
its motion increases as its speed rises, so reducing
its acceleration. Eventually, air resistance acting
upwards equals the weight of the object acting
downwards. The resultant force on the object is
then zero since the gravitational force balances
the frictional force. The object falls at a constant
velocity, called its terminal velocity, and the
value of an object’s terminal velocity depends on
the size, shape and weight of the object.
A small dense object, such as a steel ball-
bearing, has a high terminal velocity and falls a
considerable distance with a constant acceleration
of 9.8 m/s2 before air resistance equals its weight.
A light object, like a raindrop, or an object with
a large surface area, such as a parachute, has a ▲ Figure 2.12 Synchronised skydivers
low terminal velocity and only accelerates over a
comparatively short distance before air resistance In the absence of air resistance, an object falls
equals its weight. A skydiver (Figure 2.12) has a in a uniform gravitational field with a constant
terminal velocity of more than 50 m/s (180 km/h) acceleration, as shown in the distance–time graph
before the parachute is opened. in Figure 2.9a.

Revision checklist
After studying Chapter 2 you should know and ✔ define and calculate average acceleration and
understand the following: use the fact that deceleration is a negative
✔ Acceleration and deceleration are related to acceleration in calculations
changing speed and make a qualitative analysis of
the gradient of a speed–time graph. ✔ state that the acceleration of free fall, g, for an
object near to the Earth is constant and use the
✔ A negative acceleration is a deceleration or given value of 9.8 m/s2
retardation.
✔ describe the motion of objects falling in a
After studying Chapter 1.2 you should be able to: uniform gravitational field.
✔ define speed and velocity, and calculate average
speed from total distance/total time; sketch, plot,
interpret and use speed–time and distance–time
graphs to solve problems

12
 Exam-style questions

Exam-style questions
1 The speeds of a car travelling on a straight 4 The graph in Figure 2.14 represents the distance
road at successive intervals of 1 second are travelled by a car plotted against time.
given in the table. a State how far the car has travelled after
5 seconds. [1]
Time/s 0 1 2 3 4 b Calculate the speed of the car during the
Speed/m/s 0 2 4 6 8 first 5 seconds. [1]
c State what happens to the car after A. [2]
Calculate: d Draw a graph showing the speed of the
a the average speed of the car [2] car plotted against time during the first
b the distance the car travels in 4 s [3] 5 seconds. [3]
c the constant acceleration of the car. [2] 120
2 A train is travelling at 10 m/s. It accelerates at 100
A
1 m/s2 for 15 s on a straight track. Calculate its

distance/m
80
final speed in m/s. [4] 60
40
3 The distance–time graph for a girl on a cycle ride
20
is shown in Figure 2.13.
a Calculate: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
i how far the girl travelled [1] time/s
ii how long the ride took [1] ▲ Figure 2.14
iii the girl’s average speed in km/h [1]
iv the number of stops the girl made [1]
5 Figure 2.15 shows an incomplete speed–time
v the total time the girl stopped [1]
graph for a boy running a distance of 100 m.
vi the average speed of the girl excluding
a Calculate his acceleration during the first
stops.[2]
4 seconds. [2]
b E xplain how you can tell from the shape of
b Calculate how far the boy travels during:
the graph when the girl travelled fastest.
i the first 4 seconds
Over which stage did this happen? [2]
ii the next 9 seconds. [4]
F
60 c Copy and complete the graph showing
clearly at what time the boy has covered
50
E the distance of 100 m. Assume his speed
40
D remains constant at the value shown by the
distance/km

horizontal portion of the graph. [2]

30 B C
7.5
20 A
speed/m/s

5.0

10
2.5

0 time of
1pm 2pm 3pm 4pm 5pm 6pm day
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
▲ Figure 2.13 time/s

▲ Figure 2.15

13

Written by renowned expert authors, our updated
resources enable the learner to effectively navigate
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IGCSE Physics syllabuses (0625/0972).
» Develop strong practical skills: practical skills
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