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Mechanisms to generate ultrahigh-temperature metamorphism

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Review article Check for updates

Mechanisms to generate ultrahigh-

temperature metamorphism
Shujuan Jiao 1,2 , Michael Brown 3, Ross N. Mitchell 1,2,4, Priyadarshi Chowdhury 5
, Chris Clark6, Lin Chen ,
1,2

Yi Chen 1,2, Fawna Korhonen7, Guangyu Huang 1,2 & Jinghui Guo1,2
Abstract Sections

Ultrahigh-temperature (UHT; Tmax ≥ 900 °C) metamorphism requires Introduction

unusually high heat in continental crust at depths of 15–55 km, but Main characteristics of UHT
how such extreme thermal conditions are achieved is enigmatic. In metamorphism

this Review, we investigate UHT metamorphism, based on advances Competing mechanisms

in metamorphic petrology and numerical modelling, to identify the Implications for
tectonic settings where UHT metamorphism occurs. UHT rocks are metamorphism today

spatially related to convergent plate margins and spatially correlate Summary and future
perspectives
with the assembly of supercontinents, such as the formation of
Rodinia (1,350–850 Ma). Commonly, UHT occurrences are linked
to arc–backarc systems, thinned lithosphere or orogenic plateaus.
Elevated mantle heat in younger arc and backarc systems is related
to slab rollback, whereas thinned lithosphere in ancient orogens is
related to lithospheric peeling or shallow slab breakoff. By contrast,
UHT metamorphism in orogenic plateaus is a result of radiogenic
heating during thickening, sometimes with elevated mantle heat during
orogenic collapse. Geophysical mapping of Moho temperature and
depth beneath present-day orogens reveals the locations where UHT
metamorphism is occurring, such as in the Tibetan Plateau and the
North American Cordillera. Future research should include improved
geodynamic modelling of UHT metamorphism and the respective
tectonic settings to establish quantitative correlations between a viable
heat source and the spatial extent of UHT metamorphism.

1
State Key Laboratory of Lithospheric Evolution, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of
Sciences, Beijing, China. 2Innovation Academy of Earth Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.
3
Laboratory for Crustal Petrology, Department of Geology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA.
4
College of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China. 5School of
Earth and Planetary Sciences, National Institute of Science Education and Research, HBNI, Bhubaneswar, Odisha,
India. 6School of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia. 7Geological Survey of
Western Australia, East Perth, WA, Australia. e-mail: jiaoshujuan0215@126.com

Nature Reviews Earth & Environment

Review article
Key points
•• Occurrences of ultrahigh-temperature (UHT) metamorphism
are widespread in the geological record since about 3,100 Ma.
After the Archaean, since about 2,200 Ma, the mechanisms of UHT
metamorphism are closely related to the supercontinent cycle and
tectonic processes at convergent plate margins.
•• The most likely tectonic settings to generate UHT metamorphism
are at depth in arc–backarc systems, in continental collisional belts,
and in thinned orogens associated with lithospheric extension or
delamination.
•• In arc–backarc settings and/or thinned orogens, UHT metamorphism
is characterized by isobaric or decompression heating and then
cooling-dominated pressure–temperature (P–T) paths, and short
durations of heating (≤30 Myr). Heating is dominated by elevated
mantle heat flux beneath thinned lithosphere, probably due to slab
rollback in Phanerozoic orogens, and due to lithospheric peeling or
shallow slab breakoff in Precambrian orogens.
•• In continental collisional belts, eclogite- or HP granulite-facies
metamorphism is commonly followed by UHT metamorphism
generated by heating during decompression; thus, the event is
characterized by a clockwise P–T path. Such UHT metamorphism is
most likely caused by a combination of radiogenic heating in thickened
crust and then elevated mantle heat flux during orogenic collapse.
•• Alternatively, UHT metamorphism can be generated in continental
crust that has unusually high radiogenic heat production — although
radiogenic heating alone is unlikely to be the sole cause of UHT
metamorphism. In these rare cases, the duration of heating is generally
longer (≥30 Myr), and the retrograde P–T paths are commonly
decompression dominated.
••Secular variation in the T/P ratios and durations of UHT
metamorphism correlate with cooling rate, with the highest T/P ratios,
longest durations and lowest cooling rates occurring in the mid-
Proterozoic (1,350–850 Ma) during the assembly of Rodinia. Orogenic
style in the mid-Proterozoic favoured the formation of large-scale,
long-lived UHT metamorphic terranes.
Introduction
Ultrahigh-temperature (UHT) metamorphism represents the most
extreme thermal conditions that the continental crust is capable of
sustaining at crustal depths of 15–55 km (refs. 1–4) (Fig. 1a–c). The
continental crust records evidence of UHT metamorphism since
the Mesoarchaean, approximately 3,100 million years ago (Ma), most
commonly in refractory crustal rocks that are the residue left after
partial melting and melt loss5. Moreover, the spatiotemporal distribu-
tion of UHT granulites correlates well with convergent plate margins
and the supercontinent cycle since about 2,200 Ma (refs. 2,6). Under-
standing how UHT metamorphic conditions are generated is critical to
interpreting the evolution of orogenic belts and interactions between
the crust and mantle1–4,7–10. However, there is currently no consensus
concerning the mechanisms by which UHT metamorphic conditions
are achieved.
Nature Reviews Earth & Environment
Temperature exerts a first-order control on lithospheric strength
and profoundly influences lithosphere stability and evolution. The
thermal state of the crust primarily depends on internal heat produc-
tion, mainly by radiogenic heating (with secondary contributions
from viscous dissipation), and mantle heat flux, with or without heat
advection via magmatism11. The relative importance of these heat
sources varies in different tectonic settings, and their respective con-
tributions to UHT metamorphism is a matter of ongoing debate. Dur-
ing plate convergence, thickening of continental crust during plate
collisions12–14 and lithospheric thinning in arc–backarc systems15,16 have
commonly been proposed as potential tectonic settings for regional
UHT metamorphism (Fig. 1b–c). In addition, various tectonic processes
have been suggested that have the potential to achieve UHT metamor-
phic conditions in specific circumstances, including slab rollback17,
ridge subduction and the formation of slab windows18, slab breakoff19
and lithospheric delamination20–22.
Advances in petrological techniques since the early 2000s, espe-
cially the development of thermometers based on slow-diffusing
elements23–28, the maturation of phase equilibrium modelling29–32,
and the introduction of chemically and texturally constrained petro­
chronology33–37, have allowed for better characterization of UHT meta-
morphic pressure–temperature–time (P–T–t) paths and determination
of the duration of metamorphic events38–43. Improvements have also
been made to understanding the geodynamic processes that have been
involved in generating UHT metamorphism, based on comparisons
between P–T–t and T–t paths retrieved from natural occurrences and
those predicted from numerical models21,42,44. Importantly, geophysical
data for typical orogenic settings have been synthesized to determine
and map the present-day Moho depth and temperature45,46, which
has enabled occurrences of ongoing UHT metamorphism and their
tectonic settings to be inferred. As a result of these developments, the
first-order features of UHT metamorphism are better understood as it
is now possible to synthesize the key petrological attributes with results
from numerical and geophysical models. For example, the duration
of heating during UHT is more tightly constrained, which is a critical
part in discriminating between different heat sources and tectonic
settings1,3,4,8,47. In addition, the spatiotemporal distribution of types of
metamorphism based on supercontinent reconstructions48 provides a
basis for discussing the relationship between mechanisms to generate
UHT metamorphism and plate tectonics.
In this Review, we first summarize the characteristics of UHT meta-
morphic localities worldwide, and then evaluate the proposed heat
sources and tectonic settings based on insights from numerical model-
ling. Using these empirical and theoretical constraints, and considering
the distribution of localities where UHT metamorphism is inferred to
be occurring on the Earth today, we discuss the most likely mechanisms
to generate regional UHT metamorphism and the implications for the
evolution of plate tectonics. Finally, we summarize the primary features
of the major tectonic settings in which UHT metamorphism occurs and
the changes over time, consider areas of continued uncertainty
and suggest future research opportunities.
Main characteristics of UHT metamorphism
In this section, the P−T conditions and the spatiotemporal distribu-
tion of UHT metamorphism, and its relationship to the late Archaean
(pre ~2500 Ma) formation of supercratons and the Proterozoic–
Phanerozoic (since ~2200 Ma) supercontinent cycle are reviewed. Dis-
tinct microstructures in UHT granulites record two endmember types
of post-peak metamorphic evolution, which are cooling dominated
Review article

a P–T conditions of metamorphism b Continent–continent collision

d Preserved material of
on ite
30 Uncertainty iam hite UHP Coes z prior subduction UHT
D ap t
Gr Quar

100
z
rt
ua
25 + Q
ite

te
de Gn Am
bi
s

Ja UHT
Al
olidu

E-HPG
80 Am Gn E-HPG
E-HPG
Wet s

20
ite
an te
Ky ani

Depth (km)
m c Subduction zone and accretionary region
P (kbar)

li
Sil 1 60
Bl r–
15 °C kba
77.5

Fluid
40
10 Exhumation of rocks
of E and/or UHP Am, Gn, UHT

kbar E, UHP
–1

150 °C
5 20
UHT Muscovite-breakdown UHT granulites
Gr Am
An melting (peak–T ≥900 °C)
da Gn
lus Biotite-breakdown Common Am to
ite
melting Gn rocks
0
300 500 700 900 1,100
T (°C)

Fig. 1 | P–T conditions and possible tectonic settings of UHT and other high-
grade metamorphism. a, The range of pressure–temperature (P–T) conditions
for ultrahigh-temperature (UHT) and common amphibolite- to granulite-facies
metamorphism. Each P–T datum records a point — the metamorphic peak — on a
geotherm crossed during a dynamic evolution, and a convenient way to represent
the metamorphic peak is using the thermobaric ratio (T/P). Uncertainties on the
P–T data (±1 kbar and ±50 °C) are discussed in the main text. UHT metamorphism
generally occurs at temperatures above the biotite-breakdown melting reaction,
is generally limited to the sillimanite stability field, and has similar T/P to common
amphibolite (Am) to granulite (Gn) facies rocks but achieves more extreme peak
temperatures. b, In continental collisions, eclogite–high-pressure-granulite
facies (E-HPG) metamorphism occurs close to the base of the thickened crust,
whereas Am to Gn metamorphism occurs in the middle of the thickened crust;
UHT metamorphism can occur at any depth in the lower half of the thickened crust.
Red teardrops represent mantle-derived melts and white teardrops represent
crust-derived melts. c, In orogenesis related to modern-style subduction, in
particular Phanerozoic orogens, UHT and common Am to Gn metamorphism
generally occur in the arc–backarc region of the overriding plate, while eclogite
(E) and ultrahigh-pressure metamorphism occur along the subducting slab. Bl,
blueschist facies; Gr, greenschist facies. Configuration of P–T space, metamorphic
facies, and the location of the wet solidus in pelitic rocks in panel a taken from
ref. 220. The temperature range for muscovite- and biotite-breakdown melting in
panel a is modified from ref. 221. Datasets are updated from ref. 11 and provided
in Supplementary Data 1. Panels b and c are adapted from ref. 222, Springer Nature.

and decompression dominated. The durations of metamorphic events
that reach UHT metamorphic conditions are variable (10–160 Myr),
but the prograde heating stage is generally short (≤30 Myr). In this sec-
tion, the main characteristics of UHT metamorphism are summarized.
These provide constraints on the tectonic settings and mechanisms of
formation discussed in the following section.
P−T and spatiotemporal distribution
There are approximately 110 localities worldwide where the peak P−T
conditions of UHT metamorphism have been quantified, with meta-
morphic ages that range from about 3,100 Ma to the present day42,49,50
(Supplementary Data 1; Fig. 2a). These P−T conditions were determined
using various thermobarometric methods, which have differing uncer-
tainties on both P and T across the range of P−T conditions shown in
Fig. 1a (refs. 2,31,51). Notwithstanding, for the P−T data determined
from common amphibolite- to granulite-facies and UHT rocks used
herein (Supplementary Data 1 and Fig. 1a), uncertainties of ±1 kbar and
±50 °C are recommended as appropriate minima, which lead to uncer-
tainties on the thermobaric ratio (T/P in °C kbar−1) of approximately
5−15% at 10 kbar and 1,000 °C. UHT metamorphism spans a similar
range of T/P ratios to common amphibolite- to granulite-facies meta­
morphism, but at higher peak temperatures (Fig. 1a). The highest
metamorphic T/P values were recorded during the amalgamation of
supercontinent Rodinia during the period 1,350–850 Ma (Box 1). There
are 19 high-grade terranes where outcrop is sufficient to demonstrate
areal extents of UHT metamorphism that exceed ~500 km2 (Supple-
mentary Data 2); the largest of these is the Mesoproterozoic Musgrave
Province of central Australia with UHT metamorphism covering an area
of ~120,000 km2 (ref. 52).
Since the early Palaeoproterozoic (about 2,200 Ma), the occur-
rence of both UHT and common amphibolite- to granulite-facies
metamorphism correlates well with the supercontinent cycle, that is,
the successive assembly of Columbia, Rodinia, Pangaea and Amasia, the
last of which is still in progress (Fig. 2b–e). The formation of the old-
est supercontinent from rifted cratonic fragments is evidence of
global horizontal displacements and provides a minimum age for the
linking up of the Earth’s global plate-tectonic network53,54. Assuming
no substantial exposure bias, most preserved UHT metamorphism

Nature Reviews Earth & Environment

Review article

a 220

UHT granulites
(peak-T ≥900 °C）
180
Common amphibolite-
to granulite-facies
rocks
Thermobaric ratio (°C kbar–1)

140

100

60

20
4,000 3,500 3,000 2,500 2,000 1,500 1,000 500 0
Metamorphic age (Ma)

b Columbia (2,200–1,350 Ma) d Pangaea (850–200 Ma) (including Gondwana megacontinent)

60°

60°
30°

30°

0° 0°

–30°

–30°
–60°

–60°

c Rodinia (1,350–850 Ma) e Amasia (200–0 Ma) (including Eurasia megacontinent)

60°

60°
30°

30°

0°
0°

–30°

–30°

–60°

–60°

Nature Reviews Earth & Environment

Review article
Fig. 2 | Spatiotemporal distribution of UHT metamorphism and correlation
with the supercontinent cycle. a, Secular change of thermobaric ratio (T/P,
in °C kbar−1) for ultrahigh temperature (UHT) and common amphibolite- to
granulite-facies metamorphism through time. b, Spatial distribution of UHT
and common amphibolite- to granulite-facies localities with metamorphic
ages of 2,200–1,350 Ma plotted on the supercontinent Columbia. c, As b, for
metamorphic ages of 1,350–850 Ma plotted on the supercontinent Rodinia.
d, As b, for metamorphic ages of 850–200 Ma plotted on the supercontinent
is located close to the edges of continental fragments in supercon-
tinents (Fig. 2b–e), suggesting a close relationship with convergent
plate margins48, although some common amphibolite- to granulite-
facies metamorphism occurs in intraplate settings, most notably in
the Proterozoic supercontinent Columbia (Fig. 2b). Therefore, since
at least about 2,200 Ma, mechanisms to generate UHT metamorphism
are generally related to processes associated with plate tectonics,
particularly at convergent plate boundaries.
Twenty localities record UHT metamorphism of Archaean age,
from about 3,100 Ma to 2,500 Ma: that is, during a period of craton
stabilization and formation of several supercratons before the start
of the supercontinent cycle54–56 (Fig. 2a). Based on a variety of proxies
in the geological record57–63 and numerical modelling studies22,64, this
period could represent the transition to plate tectonics, which followed
after a stagnant-to-sluggish lid tectonic regime dominated by mantle
plumes, lithospheric delamination and intermittent lithospheric over-
turn events65–68. Therefore, the dominant mechanisms that generated
UHT metamorphism in the late Archaean might differ from those
since the Archaean, and lithospheric delamination and mantle plumes
probably were more important at that time.
P–T–t evolution
P–T–t paths are regarded as diagnostic of specific tectonic settings
for the formation of UHT metamorphism. Before the turn of the
century, the UHT metamorphic peak was generally identified in the lit-
erature by diagnostic equilibrium mineral assemblages, such as
sapphirine + quartz + orthopyroxene (Fig. 3a) and orthopyroxene +
sillimanite + quartz (Fig. 3b). However, these assemblages are restricted
to specific bulk rock compositions (largely magnesian metapelites),
limiting their utility. More recently, since about 2000, the peak P–T
conditions and P–T paths retrieved from UHT metamorphic rocks are
constrained by various thermobarometric methods (Box 1). For exam-
ple, the coexistence of mesoperthite with metamorphic orthopyroxene
requires high temperatures (Fig. 3c), which can be quantified using the
two-feldspar thermometer to establish the presence of UHT metamor-
phism69–71. Two commonly referenced endmember types of post-peak
P–T path are one dominated by post-peak cooling (sometimes referred
to as isobaric cooling or an IBC path) and another dominated by decom-
pression (sometimes referred to as isothermal decompression or an ITD
path). An IBC path indicates that thickening and subsequent exhuma-
tion were limited and the UHT granulites remained in the lower crust
for a protracted period, whereas an ITD path shows that the rocks have
been exhumed soon after the thermal peak, probably because of thick-
ening followed by orogenic collapse. Nevertheless, many retrograde
P–T paths lie between these two endmembers.
UHT localities with post-peak cooling-dominated paths generally
record a pressure drop of <2 kbar (Fig. 3d), implying limited exhuma-
tion after the UHT peak. Thus, these localities remained in the deep
crust during slow cooling to the solidus, after which, in the absence
Nature Reviews Earth & Environment
Pangaea, which includes the early-formed Gondwana megacontinent223.
e, As b, for metamorphic ages of 200–0 Ma plotted on the nascent supercontinent
Amasia, which includes the early-formed Eurasia megacontinent223. Note that
the highest thermobaric ratios occurred in the mid-Proterozoic. Supercontinent
reconstruction data in panels b–e from ref. 48. Datasets updated from ref. 11,
shown in Supplementary Data 1. In each case, ultrahigh-temperature (UHT)
metamorphism is widely distributed and is generally located along or close
to a continental margin, representing a probable convergent plate boundary.
of fluid ingress, retrograde reactions were inhibited. Examples of
microstructures developed during high-temperature cooling include
the reactions of sapphirine + quartz to orthopyroxene + sillimanite
(Fig. 3e) and spinel + quartz to garnet + sillimanite (Fig. 3f), and
the replacement of osumilite by a characteristic symplectite of
cordierite + orthopyroxene + K-feldspar7,72,73 (Fig. 3g).
UHT localities with post-peak decompression-dominated paths
generally record a pressure drop of >2 kbar, although the associated
decrease in temperature is variable (Fig. 3h), implying distinct exhuma-
tion mechanisms following the UHT peak. There are numerous exam-
ples of symplectitic mineral assemblages that replace peak minerals
during decompression, such as sapphirine or spinel and cordierite
replacing sillimanite (Fig. 3i–j), and sapphirine and orthopyroxene
replacing garnet74–77 (Fig. 3k).
Compound P–T paths have also been recovered, where a first
decompression heating stage was followed by cooling, and then either a
second decompression or a second episode of decompression heating
(Fig. 3l). Such compound P–T paths either indicate multiple tectonic
events or the evolution of the thermal structure of an orogen with
time, such as the addition of mantle heat during orogenic collapse
after initial radiogenic heating during thickening. Sillimanite replac-
ing kyanite is one example of petrological evidence that supports
such compound P–T paths78–80 (Path 5 in Fig. 3l; Fig. 3m). In samples
from the Xiaoshizi locality in the Khondalite Belt, North China craton,
the change of CaO (a pressure-sensitive indicator81,82) with yttrium
(Y) in garnet indicates initial growth under isobaric conditions fol-
lowed by growth during decreasing pressure towards the rim before a
kick-up in pressure close to the rim83 (Fig. 3n). Similarly, the change of
titanium (Ti; a temperature-sensitive indicator84,85) with Y indicates a
temperature increase during early growth of garnet, while tempera-
ture decreased during subsequent growth83 (Fig. 3n). The decrease
of heavy rare-earth elements (HREEs) and Y from garnet core to rim
indicates garnet growth without any resorption or additional source
of HREEs + Y, because HREEs and Y are preferentially incorporated into
garnet during growth86. Combining these data reveals a decompression
heating stage followed by a cooling-dominated retrograde stage83,87,
similar to Path 6 in Fig. 3l.
The prograde heating (pre-peak) stage of the metamorphic evolu-
tion is rarely well constrained. First, reaction rates and elemental diffu-
sion in minerals are both faster at higher temperatures, and therefore
earlier microstructural and chemical records are generally overprinted
before the metamorphic peak is achieved. However, in some localities,
evidence, such as the preservation of cordierite and/or staurolite as
inclusions in garnet88–90, demonstrates increasing P and T along the
prograde path prior to reaching UHT conditions. Second, retrograde
overprinting reactions, particularly those related to crystallization of
residual melt, can obliterate evidence of the prograde P–T path.
In summary, based on compiled P–T–t data from the literature
(Supplementary Data 1), there is no clear secular change in the style
Review article

Box 1

Determining P–T–t paths and timescales

Pressure–temperature–time (P–T–t) paths record information
related to the burial, residence at depth and exhumation of rocks,
the associated heating and cooling, and the timescale from
initial burial to final exhumation of rocks. The P–T conditions can
be calculated either by using the compositions of minerals in
combination with the equilibrium thermodynamics of balanced
reactions among mineral endmembers (that is, thermobarometry),
or by using phase equilibrium modelling for a given rock
composition. For the latter method, combining the results with
observed mineral assemblages, proportions and compositions
provides information related to the P–T path in addition to the
peak P–T conditions31.
It is also important to know the timing, duration and rates
of processes and events. To determine these variables requires
geochronology on both rock-forming (for example garnet, micas)
and accessory (for example zircon, monazite and titanite) minerals.
These minerals have different closure temperatures for diffusion that
can be combined with microstructural and compositional information
so that an age can be linked to a specific P–T condition228. Diffusion
modelling of compositional zoning preserved in minerals, termed
diffusion chronometry, can also provide constraints on the heating–
cooling and/or burial–exhumation rates of metamorphic rocks229,230.
Using these methods, the duration of ultrahigh-temperature (UHT)
metamorphic events and the length of the prograde heating stages
can be determined (box figure, parts a,b).
A compilation of geographically distributed P–T–t data has allowed
an assessment of secular variation for multiple variables, grouped
by supercontinent or supercraton. In the box figure (parts c–f),
box-and-whisker plots are shown versus age of supercontinent or
supercraton for the duration of the UHT metamorphic events, the
duration of heating, the T/P ratios of UHT granulites, and cooling
rates. Gyr, billion years. The cooling rate data are from ref. 108.
Numerical methods can be used to forward model P–T–t paths and
timescales on the basis of Fourier’s law and the heat flow equation.
Fourier’s law is:
dT
Q = −k
dz
where Q is heat flow in W m−2, k is thermal conductivity in J s−1 m−1 K−1,
z is the depth in metres, and dT/dz is the geothermal gradient.

a UHT metamorphic events record durations of 10–160 Myr, with one b UHT metamorphic events record durations of prograde heating of
locality at 250 Myr 5–30 Myr, with two localities of 40 and 60 Myr
200 50

An outlier: 250 Ma An outlier: 60 Ma

Duration of heating

40
150
Duration (Myr)

stage (Myr)

30
100
20
50 10

0 0
4,000 3,500 3,000 2,500 2,000 1,500 1,000 500 0 4,000 3,500 3,000 2,500 2,000 1,500 1,000 500 0
Metamorphic age (Ma) Metamorphic age (Ma)

c Duration of UHT metamorphism (Myr) d Duration of heating of UHT metamorphism (Myr)

300 60
Duration of heating

250 50
Duration (Myr)

Outlier
stage (Myr)

200 40
Median
150 30
100 Mean 20
50 10
0 0

e T/P of UHT granulites (°C kbar–1) f log10 cooling rate (°C Gyr–1)
250 3.5
3
Thermobaric ratio

log10 cooling rate

(°C billion year–1)

200
2.5
(°C kbar–1)

150 2
1.5
100 1
0.5
50
0
0 –0.5
s bia ia a a s bia ia a a
on din ) ae asi ) on din ) ae asi )
rat a) lum a) Ro Ma ng a) Am Ma rat a) lum a) Ro Ma ng a) Am Ma
p erc 00 M Co 50 M 0 Pa 0 M 0 p erc 00 M Co 50 M 0 Pa 0 M 0
5 20 – 5 20 –
Su >2,2 1,3 –8 0–
0 Su >2,2 1,3 –8 0–
0
( 0– 50 (20 ( 0– 50 (20
,20 (1,3 (85 ,20 (1,3 (85
(2 (2

Nature Reviews Earth & Environment

Review article
(continued from previous page)
The heat flow equation combines the contributions from conduction
of mantle heat, radiogenic heat production and heat advection116,
which is:
2 is velocity in m s−1. The temperature and pressure (or depth) history
dT ∂ T A dT
=κ 2 + − Uz
dt ∂z ρc dz
of P–T–t paths for UHT metamorphism, although IBC is more common
than ITD in the Archaean record. In some high-grade metamorphic ter-
ranes, the post-peak P–T–t paths record either cooling-dominated or
decompression-dominated trajectories from the UHT peak at different
locations, such as in the Eastern Ghats Province, India91, and the Rayner
Complex, East Antarctica92.
Duration of UHT metamorphism
The duration of a metamorphic event is not well defined but is gener-
ally considered to extend from diagenesis through to a metamorphic
peak, and continue until the exhumation and cooling related to the
associated orogenic event have ceased. As a result, it is generally not
feasible to determine when a metamorphic event began or finished
using geochronology4,47, even though it is clear that the duration of an
event provides a minimum estimate for the longevity of the heat source
and the type of orogenesis involved4,21, both of which are important to
identifying mechanisms of formation. In one view, the duration of UHT
metamorphism was defined as the time spent above 900 °C (that is,
Δt900), and that of the granulite-facies metamorphism as Δt800 (ref. 47).
Long-lived UHT metamorphism generally has Δt900 > 30 Myr, and short-
lived UHT metamorphism has Δt900 < 10 Myr (ref. 47). Although such
definitions provide a useful measure of how long the crust has spent
under UHT conditions, which relates to specific tectonic settings47, the
duration of the prograde heating versus the post-peak cooling and/or
decompression stages remain largely unknown.
In most cases, the timing and duration of UHT metamorphism have
been constrained by zircon and/or monazite U–Pb geochronology,
which means both are controlled by the mechanisms of zircon and
monazite formation during the P–T evolution and the interpretation
of the respective U–Pb ages4,93–95. Thus, both the duration of a UHT
metamorphic event and the duration of the prograde heating segment
will be model-dependent. Zircon and monazite grow substantially in
melt-bearing systems93–98. As a result, in this Review, the duration of a
metamorphic event leading to UHT conditions is defined as the period
during which the crust was suprasolidus, that is, from the prograde
crossing of the muscovite-breakdown reaction in rocks of appropriate
composition at ~700 °C until the post-peak retrograde crossing of the
elevated solidus for the residual composition after melt loss99 (Fig. 1a).
The duration of the suprasolidus prograde heating segment is then
defined as the period from the beginning of partial melting at ~700 °C
to the peak temperature.
Through the use of microstructures, elemental mapping, chemi-
cal composition, and especially the partitioning of the HREEs between
minerals such as garnet and zircon33,100–102, advances have been made
in linking the behaviour of zircon and monazite with the rock-forming
minerals generally used for thermobarometry, which has substantially
improved the interpretation of U–Pb ages41,99,103. Separate periods of
zircon and monazite growth are commonly recognized, although the
age ranges can overlap to some extent. Therefore, using age ranges from
Nature Reviews Earth & Environment
where T is temperature in K, t is time in seconds, κ is thermal
diffusivity in m2 s−1, A is heat production (from radioactive decay)
in W m−3, ρ is density in kg m−3, c is heat capacity in J kg−1 K−1, and Uz
at any time can be calculated for any point in the thermal model.
both can provide better, if imperfect, constraints on the duration of an
event or a segment of the P–T–t evolution38–43. However, problems such
as isotopic resetting due to metamictization, volume diffusion and/or Pb
mobilization at submicrometre scale, and possible decoupling of zircon
ages from their compositions at UHT conditions, could make both the
metamorphic age and duration of the event difficult to constrain104–107.
Such problems can be recognized by following systematic isotopic
and trace element analysis, and using high-spatial-resolution (~2 μm)
scanning ion imaging of dated grains105–107.
The reported durations of UHT metamorphic events are mostly
in the range 10–160 Myr (Box 1). There is secular variation in the data,
particularly in terms of supercontinent cycle, as the crust with the
highest T/P values correlate with the longest durations of UHT meta-
morphic events, which occurred during amalgamation of the Rodinia
supercontinent (Box 1). Indeed, the mid-Proterozoic (1,350–850 Ma)
period was characterized by the slowest post-peak cooling rates21,108
(Box 1), orogens with relatively thin crust and generally low eleva-
tions109,110, extensive massif-type anorthosites111, and only a limited
number of long-lived passive margins112. These features, which require
a substantial contribution of mantle heat and elevated crust–mantle
interaction110, have been explained by stagnation and/or a slowdown
of plate tectonics109,113,114, and/or the incomplete breakup of the Colum-
bia supercontinent in transforming into Rodinia115. By contrast, the
reported durations of the suprasolidus prograde heating stage lead-
ing to UHT metamorphism are generally in the range 5–30 Myr, with
two localities with durations of 40 and 60 Myr, respectively (Box 1).
However, the geochronological constraints on which these estimates
are based are poor enough that the timescales of heating could be
considered effectively unknown in many cases. Even so, the apparently
short durations of prograde stage suggest that mantle heat contributed
to the development of UHT metamorphism at many of the localities
summarized herein.
UHT metamorphism is closely spatially related to the assembly of
supercratons and supercontinents. The peak P–T conditions record
secular variation, with the highest T/P ratios occurring in the mid-
Proterozoic (1350–850) during the formation of Rodinia, while the
retrograde P–T–t paths are variable between IBC and ITD types. Secu-
lar variation in the duration of UHT metamorphism correlates with
cooling rate, with the longest durations and the lowest cooling rates
occurring in the mid-Proterozoic. Based on limited data, the durations
of prograde heating seem to be short.
Competing mechanisms
There are two primary sources of heat to generate regional metamor-
phism: radiogenic heating (with secondary contributions from viscous
dissipation), and mantle heat (including heat advected with magmas).
Generating UHT metamorphic conditions requires that one or both
primary heat sources are prevalent during orogenesis. Radiogenic
heating is dominant in thickened orogens because of the enriched
Review article

Equilibrated mineral assemblages at UHT peak

a b c

Opx

Qz Opx
Spr
Qz

Sil Mesoperthite
Opx
500 µm 100 µm 400 µm

Post-peak cooling-dominated
d Cooling-dominated
an
ite
e
e Qz f g
retrograde P–T path Ky anit 60 Crd
Sil Qz
lim Sil
15 Sil
Grt
Depth (km)

Spr
P (kbar)

40 Crd+Opx+Kfs
10
Spl
1
Opx Sil
5 2 20
Qz
Qz
And 500 µm 200 µm 200 µm
alu
0 site
600 800 1,000 1,200
T (°C)

Post-peak decompression-dominated
h Decompression-dominated ite
i j
retrograde P–T path an
Ky anit
e k
4 60
illim Crd
15 S
Sil Spr+Opx
Grt
Depth (km)

40 Spr+Crd
P (kbar)

10 3
Crd

20 Spl
5 Spl+Crd
400 µm 20 µm 500 µm
Grt
0
600 800 1,000 1,200
T (°C)

Pre-peak decompression heating

l n 8.5 kbar
P stable to
Pre-peak decompression-
an
ite
e m Bt
1.2
Ky anit 60
Grt (wt%)

heating P–T path decreased

CaO in

8.0 kbar
lim P stable or
15 Sil 1.1
Sil p 7.5 kbar slightly
5 6 seud increased
Depth (km)

o 1
40 afte morph
P (kbar)

10 r Ky 900 °C
200
Ti in Grt (ppm)

Bt Spr+Crd
150 850 °C T increased
5 20 800 °C T decreased
Grt 100
750 °C
2,000 µm 50 700 °C
0 0
600 800 1,000 1,200 0 200 400 600 800
T (°C) Y in Grt (ppm)

concentrations of radioactive elements (U, Th and K) in the continen-
tal crust, whereas mantle heat flux dominates at sites of lithospheric
thinning and/or removal. This section assesses the mechanisms that
can generate the heat required to achieve UHT metamorphism in
the continental crust and compares competing tectonic settings for the
formation of UHT metamorphic rocks.
Radiogenic heating
Earth’s surface heat flow comprises approximately equal amounts
derived from primordial heat left over from the formation of Earth
and radiogenic heat produced by the radioactive decay of 238U, 235U,
232
Th and 40K (refs. 116,117). These elements are strongly incompatible
in residual minerals during mantle melting, and therefore are concen-
trated in the crust as compared with the mantle118. However, radiogenic
heat production in the continental crust is variable over two orders of
magnitude, from 0.1 to 10 μW m−3, owing to the heterogeneous dis-
tribution of radioactive elements from lithology to lithology, and to
metamorphic and magmatic processes117,119–122. Granites and metasedi-
mentary rocks have much higher radiogenic heat production (mean
value of 2.0–3.3 μWm−3) compared to that of metabasites (mean value
of ~0.08 μW m−3)119–121. Although partial melting and granulite-facies
metamorphism generally do not reduce the whole-rock Th budget,
UHT metamorphism and substantial melt loss can deplete the crust in
Th121. The average radiogenic heat production in the continental crust

Nature Reviews Earth & Environment

Review article
Fig. 3 | Representative metamorphic features of UHT metapelitic granulites.
a–c, Representative equilibrium ultrahigh-temperature (UHT) mineral
assemblages: (a) sapphirine (Spr), quartz (Qz) and orthopyroxene (Opx),
Napier Complex, East Antarctica; (b) orthopyroxene, sillimanite (Sil) and
quartz, Highland Complex, Sri Lanka; (c) mesoperthite in equilibrium with
orthopyroxene, Itabuna–Salvador–Curaçá Block, Brazil. d, Post-peak cooling-
dominated pressure–temperature (P–T) paths7,224. e–g, Photomicrographs
showing representative cooling-dominated reaction microstructures:
(e) sapphirine and quartz reacted to form sillimanite and orthopyroxene,
Eastern Ghats Province, India; (f) spinel and quartz reacted to form sillimanite
and garnet, Khondalite Belt, North China craton; (g) pseudomorph of osumilite
completely replaced by a symplectite of cordierite (Crd), orthopyroxene and
K-feldspar (Kfs), Napier Complex. h, Post-peak decompression-dominated
P–T paths75,225. i–k, Photomicrographs showing representative decompression-
dominated reaction microstructures: (i) pseudomorph of sillimanite replaced
is about 1–1.2 μW m−3, but is less in the lower continental crust at about
0.4–0.8 μW m−3 (ref. 119), which can be replicated with 20–30 vol% meta-
sedimentary rocks and 70–80 vol% metabasite121. The relatively high
heat production of the lower crust in some high-grade metamorphic
terranes, such as 2.3 μW m−3 in the Ivera–Verbano Zone, northern Italy,
can be explained by a high proportion of metasedimentary rocks120. By
contrast, radiogenic heat production in the mantle is around 0.2 μW m−3
(ref. 116). After correcting for radioactive decay, it is apparent that
crustal heat production remained relatively constant throughout Earth
history, with median values for felsic igneous rocks (SiO2 > 60 wt%) of
2.53 μW m−3 and for mafic igneous rocks (SiO2 ≤ 60 wt%) of 0.61 μW m−3
(ref. 122). Enhanced radiogenic heating by thickening of the continental
crust has long been regarded as a dominant mechanism for common
amphibolite- to granulite-facies44,123–126, and UHT metamorphism3,4,7,8,47.
One-dimensional thermal models suggest that the attainment of
UHT conditions requires a much higher than average heat production
(>3 μW m−3), a thickened crust by a factor of 2–3, long-lived orogenesis
(>60 Myr) and/or a low erosion rate (0–0.7 mm yr−1)127–129 (Fig. 4a).
Thermomechanical models have been used to investigate crustal-scale
lateral transport of heat and mass in large hot orogens12–14,130 (Fig. 4b).
Two specific models can reproduce UHT conditions: first, a model
of the Himalayan–Tibetan Orogen12,13, hereafter referred to as HT1,
which allows laterally homogeneous ductile flow and was designed to
investigate channel flow in the middle crust of the orogen; second, a
model designed to investigate the evolution of the western Grenville
Orogen14, hereafter referred to as GO-ST87, in which heterogeneous
ductile flow occurs because of the variable strength of the crustal
units14. In these models, the heat production was set at 2 μW m−3 for
the upper and middle crust, and 0.75 μW m−3 for the lower crust, with
a mantle heat flux of 20 mW m−2(Fig. 4b). In both the HT1 and GO-ST87
models, radiogenic heating is dominant, and the time taken to reach
UHT conditions is long (in the range of 30–75 Myr; Fig. 4c). The resultant
P–T–t paths are clockwise. The pre-peak stage varies from isobaric
heating or heating with decompression during fast convergence
to heating with compression if convergence is slow, whereas the post-
peak stage is decompression-dominated owing to erosion128,129 or exhu-
mation by lateral expulsion12–14 (Fig. 4d). Eclogite- or high-pressure (HP)
granulite-facies metamorphism can occur prior to decompression
heating to the UHT peak (Fig. 4d). Lastly, it is noted that in these two
models the Moho temperature based on the initial conditions is 704 °C
at 35 km depth (Fig. 4b), which is ~200 °C higher than that based on a
steady-state geothermal gradient in continental crust131.
Nature Reviews Earth & Environment
by a symplectite of sapphirine and cordierite, Itabuna–Salvador–Curaçá Block;
( j) multilayer corona of cordierite, spinel and symplectite of cordierite plus
spinel separating garnet (Grt) from sillimanite, Khondalite Belt; (k) symplectite
of sapphirine and orthopyroxene replacing garnet, Southern Granulite Terrane,
India. l, Pre-peak decompression-heating P–T paths80,87,226. m, Pseudomorph
of sillimanite after kyanite (Ky) replaced by a symplectite of sapphirine and
cordierite, Palghat Cauvery Shear System, India. n, Change in CaO records the
change in P, and change in Ti records the change in T during garnet growth,
Khondalite Belt. Different symbols refer to different garnet grains. See text for
explanation of the trends. Data in panel n are from ref. 83. Mineral abbreviations
adapted from ref. 227. In summary, there are two endmember types of P–T path
retrieved from UHT metamorphic rocks, those dominated by decompression
and those dominated by cooling, and less commonly pre-peak temperature paths
characterized by decompression and heating that link an early high-pressure
metamorphism with a late UHT overprint. Bt, biotite.
Long-lived UHT metamorphism, especially in terranes without
coeval voluminous mantle-derived magmatism, has generally been
interpreted as a result of orogenic thickening of the crust and radio-
genic heating, such as the Napier Complex of East Antarctica7,47, the
Madurai Block of southern India129, the Namaqualand Complex, South
Africa132, and the Reynolds–Anmatjira Ranges of central Australia133.
More generally, the moderate heat production (~2.0–2.5 μW m−3)
and/or short-lived (≤40 Myr) nature of the pre-peak heating stage, as
found in the Kerala Khondalite Belt of southern India134 and the Khon-
dalite Belt of the North China craton135, suggest that radiogenic heating
alone was insufficient to generate the UHT metamorphic conditions, and
an elevated mantle heat flux was probably required as well. However, the
relative importance of these heat sources can be difficult to pin down.
For example, initially, thermal models of an orogenic plateau setting for
the Anosyen domain of southern Madagascar suggested that heating to
UHT conditions could be achieved in about 65 Myr with the presence of
a crustal layer at least 25 km thick with heat production of 3.5–5 μW m−3
located at a depth of >20 km (ref. 136). However, new geochronology
has limited the period of suprasolidus prograde heating to between
20 and 40 Myr, which is insufficient time to achieve UHT conditions by
radiogenic heating alone, and elevated mantle heat flux or advection of
heat with mantle-derived magmas was probably required73,90.
To generate UHT metamorphism by radiogenic heating alone
requires either unusual initial conditions or higher than average radio-
genic heat production in the crust and long durations of heating, which
contrasts with the short durations of prograde heating reported in the
current dataset (≤30 Myr). Thus, we conclude that in many cases it is
likely that UHT metamorphism in collisional orogens was generated by
a combination of early radiogenic heating in thickened crust followed
by an elevated mantle heat flux during exhumation from eclogite- or
HP granulite-facies conditions.
Elevated mantle heat flux
The mantle heat flux in stable continental shields is generally no less
than ~20 mW m−2 (ref. 137). Elevated mantle heat flux is caused by
litho­spheric thinning due to extension or delamination that ensures
astheno­spheric mantle upwelling. Several tectonic settings or concep-
tual models have been proposed to explain UHT metamorphism in this
way, including arc–backarc systems (Fig. 5a–b), slab rollback (Fig. 5c),
slab breakoff (Fig. 5d), lithospheric delamination (including lithospheric
foundering and lithospheric peeling (Fig. 5e)), ridge subduction with
the formation of slab windows (Fig. 5f), and mantle plumes. In these
 Review article

cases, the thermal effect of enhanced mantle heat flux can be supple-
mented by heat advected with mantle-derived magmas138,139. However,
magmatism alone, such as the emplacement of an anorthosite complex,
generates only local and transient contact UHT metamorphism140,141,
and hence is not discussed here.
Arc–backarc systems. There is commonly a 200–1,000-km-wide
uniformly hot and weak backarc region that develops during ocean
plate subduction15 (Fig. 5a). The Moho temperature of the backarc
region is 800–1,000 °C at a depth of ~35 km, and the surface heat flow
is 60–100 mW m−2 as compared to 30–50 mWm−2 in normal stable
crust15,142. Such an extremely hot environment could be due to vigor-
ous small-scale mantle convection underneath the thin lithospheric
mantle (60–70 km), which can be sustained for several tens of millions
of years after the termination of subduction15,142 (Fig. 5g). As a result,
it is possible to achieve UHT metamorphic conditions associated with
widespread ductile deformation and igneous activity in arc–backarc
systems. Convergence of active backarcs by lateral wedging of adjacent
cold continents can form an orogenic root143 (Fig. 5b). The conver-
gence accelerates cooling of the backarc region (Fig. 5g) and generates
counter-clockwise P–T–t paths, with cooling from UHT conditions to
eclogite- or HP granulite-facies conditions143 (Fig. 5h).
There is a relatively large number of UHT terranes proposed to
have been formed in arc–backarc settings (Supplementary Data 1).
In these cases, the reported prograde heating stages are generally
isobaric or involve decompression heating, with durations of heating
≤30 Myr, although the durations of the whole UHT event could be long
(>70 Myr) owing to slow cooling (Supplementary Data 1). These features
are consistent with an arc–backarc system as a common and generally
suitable tectonic setting to generate UHT metamorphism.

a Homogeneous crustal thickening b Crustal channel flow

Pre-thickening Post-thickening Post-erosion
0
T = 0 °C 5 km Thermal properties
Upper crust
A = 3 µW m–3
20 Qs = 71.25 mW m–2
35 km Tsurface = 0 °C

Depth (km)
35 0 0
Lower crust 40 km A1
25
Depth (km)

A = 0 µW m–3 S A2 A1 = 2.0 µW m–3

35

Depth (km)
70 km Vp = 5 cm yr–1 TMoho = 704 °C
Mantle Mantle 20
A = 0 µW m–3
A2 = 0.75 µW m–3

T = 1,300 °C 150 km 35
150 QM = 20 mW m–2

185 km

c Temperature–time paths reaching UHT conditions d Pressure–temperature paths reaching UHT conditions
1,100 20
Duration to reach UHT conditions: 30–75 Myr ite
an
Ky ite
a an
illim 60
900
b 15
S
b
a 0
b
Depth (km)
40
P (kbar)
T (°C)

700 10

10
Homogeneous thickening 30 a UHT
(initial depth at 35 km) 10 b
Homogeneous thickening 20
500 5
(initial depth at 50 km) a
Homogeneous channel flow
Heterogeneous channel flow

300 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 400 600 800 1,000 1,200
t (Myr) T (°C)

Fig. 4 | UHT metamorphism at thickened continental orogens. a, Model of
homogeneous thickening of the crust (by a factor of 2), inspired by ref. 129.
Note that the columns are not drawn to scale. b, Initial lithosphere structure
and properties for each lithosphere layer for crustal channel flow models of large
hot orogens with laterally homogenous (HT1) or heterogeneous (GO-series)
viscosity, simplified from ref. 14. S is the initial model singularity. Q, heat flow;
T, temperature; A, heat production. c, T–t paths that reach UHT metamorphic
conditions based on the models in panels a (homogeneous thickening, paths
for makers at post-thickening depths of 50 km and 35 km) and b (homogeneous
and heterogeneous channel flow). d, P–T paths that achieve UHT metamorphic
conditions correspond to those in panel c. Markers are shown at 10-Myr
intervals on each path, with the number at the first marker indicating millions
of years from the beginning of the experiment. Panels c and d updated from
refs. 13,14,129. Properties for these models are provided in the Supplementary
Note 1. UHT metamorphism caused by radiogenic heating is characterized by
long-lived (30–75 Myr) duration of heating (the period of time from 700 °C to
the temperature peak for each path), and clockwise P–T paths with increasing
T during thickening, or isobaric heating followed by decompression heating,
before variable post-peak decompression.

Nature Reviews Earth & Environment

Review article

a Hot arc–backarc b Thermal regime of arc–backarc 8 Myr after arc–backarc

before thickening gradual thickening
Potential region to reach Moho
UHT conditions Continent Arc–backarc Continent
20–40 km; 800–1,000 °C
Oceanic Upper
crust Continental crust 400 °C crust
500 °C >700 °C Lower crust
Lithospheric 600 °C
mantle Fluid Lithospheric mantle
700 °C, 35 km Lower crust
Moho Moho

>700 °C
1,350 °C, 1,350 °C,
70 km 70 km
Asthenospheric Asthenospheric
Mantle convection mantle mantle

c Slab rollback d Shallow slab breakoff (< 50 km) e Lithospheric peeling f Ridge subduction or slab window

g T–t paths reaching UHT conditions h P–t paths reaching UHT conditions
1,200 20
Duration to reach UHT conditions: 1.5–10 Myr
ite
an e
Ky anit
m
lli 60
1,000 Si
15

800 b 25
b

Depth (km)
40
P (kbar)

30
T (°C)

10 20
e a
UHT
600

Slow cooling of backarc 0

Thickening of arc–backarc 20
5 e
400 Slab rollback
Lithospheric peeling
f Ridge subduction

200 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200
t (Myr) T (°C)

Fig. 5 | UHT metamorphism at subduction-related and collisional orogens.
In each model, regions with the potential to generate ultrahigh-temperature
(UHT) metamorphism are marked with a red dashed oval. a, Schematic cross-
section showing a hot arc–backarc system 16. b, Model of a thickened hot
arc–backarc143. c, Model of slab rollback. d, Model of shallow slab breakoff 154.
e, Model of lithospheric peeling21. f, Model of ridge subduction with a slab window.
g, Temperature–time (T–t) paths that reach UHT metamorphic conditions, based
on models in panels a–f. Updated from refs. 15,18,21,143,148. However, note
that the path for slab rollback is based on a model of continental subduction,
not ocean plate subduction as shown in panel c. h, Corresponding pressure–
temperature (P–T) paths that reach UHT metamorphic conditions, based on
models in panels b–f. Updated from refs. 21,143,148. The path for slab rollback
corresponds to the path in panel g, but the early evolution before exhumation
to the lower crust is not shown. The paths for thickening of arc–backarc and
lithospheric peeling correspond to those in panel g. Markers are shown at 10-Myr
intervals on each path, with the number at the first marker indicating millions of
years from the beginning of the experiment (except slab rollback, where markers
are shown at 25 and 30 Myr from the beginning). Properties for these models are
provided in the Supplementary Note 2. UHT metamorphism caused by elevated
mantle heat is characterized by a heating period (the time taken from 700 °C to
the temperature peak for each path) of 1.5–10 Myr and P–T paths involving close
to isobaric heating and cooling.

Nature Reviews Earth & Environment

Review article
Slab rollback and breakoff. Slab rollback causes extension in the
overriding lithosphere and can induce the formation of a backarc
basin144,145 (Fig. 5c). Rollback can cause rapid heating of the lower crust
underneath the accretionary region and/or in the extending overriding
plate17. Unfortunately, there is no thermomechanical model yet for slab
rollback during ocean plate subduction to document the detailed P–T
and T–t paths of any UHT metamorphism. However, the very young
UHT metamorphism from the island of Seram (about 16 Ma), part
of the Banda arc, has been interpreted as exhumed during slab roll-
back77. Here, decompression from ~8 kbar to <7 kbar occurred at UHT
metamorphic conditions, which is consistent with rollback-driven core
complex–style exhumation by extension. The duration of the UHT met-
amorphic event is <10 Myr, with a period of prograde heating of <5 Myr
(ref. 146). Similarly, UHT metamorphism at about 92 Ma recorded by
felsic granulite xenoliths in the Kakanui Mineral Breccia, located along
the New Zealand margin of Gondwana, has also been explained as a
result of slab rollback147. By contrast, some HP and ultrahigh-pressure
(UHP) metamorphic rocks preserve beta-shaped P–T paths, indicating
a two-stage evolution in which deeply subducted continental crust was
exhumed to the base of the crust before isobaric heating to a UHT peak
and post-peak close-to-isobaric cooling148 (Fig. 5h). These paths have
been modelled as due to rollback of a subducting continental plate,
which leads to fast exhumation of the deeply subducted rocks to the
base of the crust, where asthenospheric upwelling allows the exhumed
HP and UHP metamorphic rocks to be conductively heated to UHT
metamorphic conditions within ~10 Myr (Fig. 5g).
Slab breakoff could be preceded by and even accelerated by slab
rollback148,149. The depth of slab breakoff is strongly controlled by tem-
perature, and by the subduction velocity and the age and strength of
the subducting slab150–152. In most Phanerozoic orogens, slab breakoff
occurs too deep to substantially affect the thermal structure of the
overriding lithosphere19,148,150,153,154. However, in the Archaean and early
Palaeoproterozoic the ambient mantle potential temperature was
probably 100–250 °C hotter than today155. As a result, shallow slab
breakoff (that is, breakoff that allows asthenosphere upwelling to
depths <50–60 km) was more likely in Archaean-to-early Proterozoic
orogens19,151,156. It leads to extension of the overriding plate and astheno-
spheric upwelling, which could have generated UHT metamorphism19.
Shallow slab breakoff is a plausible model to explain some natural
examples of UHT metamorphism in Precambrian orogens, such as that
in the Palaeoproterozoic Helanshan Terrane of the Khondalite Belt of
the North China craton157, in the Palaeoproterozoic Bakhuis Granulite
Belt of the Guiana Shield of Surinam158, and in the Mesoproterozoic
Eastern Ghats Province of India19.
In summary, slab rollback is a favourable mechanism to generate
UHT metamorphism in the Phanerozoic. By contrast, shallow slab
breakoff was more likely prior to the Neoproterozoic and is a favourable
mechanism to generate UHT metamorphism during the Precambrian.
Lithospheric delamination. Two specific types of lithospheric
delamination are considered here: foundering and peeling.
Lithospheric foundering refers to the removal of a thickened
cold and dense mantle root due to the negative buoyancy of the litho-
sphere leading to gravitational instability159–161. Numerical modelling
shows that when an entire mantle lithosphere gets removed via found-
ering, a thermal pulse could generate UHT conditions within ~2 Myr
at the base of the crust (at 42.6 km depth), although the removal is
too rapid for any thermal contribution by conduction of heat into
the lower crust161.
Nature Reviews Earth & Environment
Lithospheric peeling occurs where a weak lower crust (due to a
hot geotherm, partial melting or composition) remains attached to the
underlying negatively buoyant and dense lithospheric mantle22,64,161–163
(Fig. 5e). Numerical models show that peeling can lead to thinning
of the overriding lithospheric plate, mantle upwelling and juvenile
magmatism, heating of the thinned orogenic crust, syn-convergence
extension and topographic uplift.
Large-scale lithospheric peeling was suggested to be more com-
mon in the Archaean-to-early Proterozoic, because the mantle was
hotter (100–250 °C) than today155, and hot and weak lithospheres were
more common21,22,64,164,165. Numerical geodynamic models show that
under hotter mantle conditions, convergence between two continen-
tal lithospheres can generate a long-lived (ultra-)hot accretionary
orogen characterized by a thin crust with hot and laterally extensive
flat Moho residing atop hot upwelling mantle (Fig. 5e). The thinning of
the orogenic crust and mantle upwelling were caused by peeling off
of the incoming lithospheric mantle (and/or parts of the lower crust).
The orogenic crust within the peeled-off zone would have high mantle
heat flux, which could have caused UHT metamorphism (900–1,100 °C)
at mid-to-lower crustal depths22,64,165. The geodynamic models further
predict that the UHT metamorphic conditions could persist for long
periods (>50–150 Myr) owing to the stabilization of the peeling process
by the convective mantle flow. However, the prograde heating stages
last for a much shorter time (<15 Myr)20,21,64,165, and the P–T–t paths
for crustal markers are mostly cooling dominated. As an example,
the marker tracked in Fig. 5g–h records ~10 Myr of isobaric heating
to the UHT peak followed by another ~10 Myr of cooling from the peak
temperature of ~1,000 °C to ~700 °C (ref. 21).
In summary, lithospheric peeling is a favourable mechanism for
the generation of UHT metamorphism in Precambrian terranes, par-
ticularly for those with long-lived UHT events and large-scale spatial
distribution of UHT metamorphism21. The largest long-lived Mesopro-
terozoic UHT metamorphic event, which was associated with extensive
coeval high-temperature magmatism, is related to the Musgrave Orog-
eny (1,260–1,110 Ma) in the Musgrave Province, central Australia166,167. It
has been proposed that this event was caused by lithospheric peeling,
in either an ultrahot orogen or an intraplate setting20,166,167. However, the
relationship between lithospheric foundering and UHT metamorphism
needs to be further investigated using both geodynamic modelling and
data from the geological record.
Ridge subduction and slab windows. Ridge subduction (short for
mid-ocean ridge subduction) can occur on Earth, as exemplified by the
Kula–Pacific Ridge, which subducted beneath Japan, and the Farallon–
Pacific Ridge, which subducted beneath western North America, both
since about 80 Ma (ref. 168). During ridge subduction, an expanding
window might form between the two slabs and is filled with upwelling
asthenospheric mantle owing to divergence of the two ocean plates169
(Fig. 5f). In an obliquely convergent subduction system, more than one
slab window can form at each site of ridge–trench intersection, as the
intersection migrates along the plate motion vector170,171.
At the initiation of ridge subduction, thermal modelling shows that
temperature increases abruptly in the overriding continental plate,
by 50–500 °C, within a few millions of years18,172. Therefore, high-T/P
metamorphism, and even UHT metamorphism, could occur during
ridge subduction and the formation of one or more slab windows173,174.
However, in numerical models, UHT conditions are barely achieved
or, if achieved, are limited to within a few tens of kilometres from the
slab–crust interface, and then only in cases where the subduction
Review article
velocity is rapid (≥6.3 cm yr−1) and the slab age is young (≤10 Myr old)18,175
(Fig. 5g). For example, in one model, temperature increased rapidly
from ~300 °C to ~1,000 °C within 10 Myr for a subduction velocity of
6.3 cm yr−1, but the thermal pulse sustained UHT conditions for <1 Myr
(Fig. 5g); therefore, heat advected with magma would be necessary if
UHT conditions were to last for long enough to be registered in the
crust18. However, these models did not consider the thermal effect of
the formation of one or more slab windows, which could enhance the
thermal perturbation.
One example of a short-lived (~2–3 Myr) amphibolite- to granulite-
facies metamorphic event that has been related to ridge subduction
and/or a slab window is the Chugach metamorphic complex of south-
ern Alaska176. However, there are no examples of UHT metamorphism
demonstrably related to ridge subduction. This mechanism remains
speculative until examples of UHT metamorphism explicitly related
to ridge subduction and the formation of one or more slab windows
are demonstrated and further investigated by numerical modelling.
Mantle plumes. Mantle plumes, which are thought to originate from
the mantle transition zone and/or the core–mantle boundary, cause
short-lived episodes of extensive flood basalt volcanism, and generate
volcanic plateaus or hotspot tracks177,178. A plume head is predicted
to be 1,500–2,500 km across and 100–200 km thick as it spreads
beneath the lithosphere, which is important for crustal reworking,
high-grade metamorphism and partial melting at a regional scale177.
Mantle plumes have high mantle potential temperatures, in the range
of 1,450–1,600 °C, and are generally 100–250 °C hotter than the ambi-
ent mantle178,179. A plume head event can last for several to tens of
millions of years, and the plume tail can persist for up to 200 Myr177,
where the duration in any one locality in the crust is controlled to first
order by the rate of the overlying plate motion. A hot mantle plume
head might generate UHT metamorphism, considering the abundant
mantle-derived magma generated by a plume, in which case the timing
of any UHT metamorphism should coincide with the formation of a
large igneous province.
The deep crustal granulite xenoliths brought up in kimberlites
in the central Kaapvaal craton, South Africa, experienced short-lived
(5–10 Myr) UHT metamorphism at about 2,720 Ma180,181. The timing and
duration of UHT metamorphism are consistent with the Ventersdorp
flood basalt magmatism180,181. As a result, the UHT metamorphism
could have been generated by a mantle plume. However, no correla-
tion between the temporal distribution of UHT metamorphism and
large igneous province and/or komatiite magmatism has yet been
established. Therefore, more evidence from both numerical modelling
and other natural examples is required to further document a possible
relationship between mantle plumes and UHT metamorphism.
Radiogenic heating alone is unlikely to generate UHT metamor-
phism unless the crustal heat production is substantially higher than
average, and an elevated mantle heat flux represents the more general
case to achieve UHT conditions. Given a high enough crustal heat pro-
duction and low erosion rates, sufficient time for radiogenic heating
during thickening UHT metamorphism can be achieved in an orogenic
plateau maintained by ongoing plate collision. Also, orogenic thickening
followed by collapse during extension could lead to UHT overprints on
earlier eclogite- or HP granulite-facies metamorphism. In the Phanero-
zoic, arc–backarc systems and/or thinned orogens due to slab rollback
probably generated UHT metamorphic conditions. By contrast, in the
Precambrian, shallow slab breakoff or lithospheric peeling during plate
convergence could have generated UHT metamorphic conditions.
Nature Reviews Earth & Environment
Implications for metamorphism today
Geophysical mapping of Moho temperature and depth beneath Ceno-
zoic collisional belts and orogens that experienced lithospheric thin-
ning and/or removal provides new insight about regions where UHT
metamorphism could be occurring currently on the Earth. Using this
insight combined with appropriate examples of UHT metamorphism,
a synoptic view of two plausible tectonic settings for generating UHT
metamorphic conditions is offered: first, beneath thickened crust,
particularly orogenic plateaus, where the major source of heating was
radiogenic (and/or elevated mantle heat); second, in an arc–backarc
and/or a thinned orogen, where each setting was dominated by mantle
heat flux.
The Tibetan Plateau example
It has been proposed that the core of the large orogenic plateau in Tibet
is currently experiencing ongoing UHT metamorphism49,50. Based on
the Moho temperature and depth in central–eastern Tibet45, UHT meta-
morphism could be occurring currently under the Qilian orogenic belt
and the Songpan–Ganzi Terrane, beneath the eastern Lhasa Terrane and
at depth in the southern Chuandian Block (Fig. 6a–b). This potential
UHT metamorphism occurs at depths between 40 and 75 km, with that
beneath the southern Chuandian Block occurring at the shallowest
level (40–55 km), and that beneath the eastern Lhasa Terrane occurring
at the deepest level (55–75 km) (Fig. 6c). These sites of potential UHT
metamorphism are in close association with the potential occurrence
of eclogite- to HP granulite-facies metamorphism, because the Tibetan
crust is generally at least 60–70 km thick (Fig. 6c). Moreover, Moho
temperatures are positively correlated with Moho depths, suggesting
that radiogenic heating and crustal thickening are the driving forces
to achieve UHT metamorphic conditions.
Nevertheless, the uplift of Tibet, the east–west extensional struc-
tures and the extensive Cenozoic volcanism have all been explained by
post-thickening lithospheric delamination182,183, which is supported
by geochemical signatures of the magmatic rocks184–186, helium iso-
tope data from geothermal springs187, numerous seismic tomographic
studies188–192 and numerical modelling193,194. The potential UHT meta-
morphism beneath the eastern Lhasa Terrane, in the core of the cen-
tral Tibetan Plateau, and also that beneath the Qilian orogen and the
Songpan–Ganzi Terrane, at the northeastern margin of the plateau,
associated with extensive volcanism in western–central Tibet, could
have been situated in a continental arc–backarc system due to the
northward subduction of the Indian plate, and have probably also been
affected by an elevated mantle heat flux due to lithospheric delamina-
tion195. For comparison, the potential UHT metamorphism beneath the
southern Chuandian Block at the eastern edge of the plateau, coupled
with the Tengchong volcano to the southwest of this block, might be
related to a continental arc–backarc system generated by the eastward
subduction of the Indian plate beneath the Burmese arc195–197, and
probably also affected by lithospheric delamination198,199.
Cenozoic UHT metamorphism (at 25–15 Ma) overprinting prior
eclogite-facies metamorphism (at about 30 Ma) by decompression
heating has been reported from the central Himalaya200–202. It has been
proposed that partial melting of the crust and the early eclogite-facies
metamorphism were related to thickening of the crust and radiogenic
heating200,203, while UHT metamorphism was caused by elevated mantle
heat flux due to lithospheric thinning200. In northern Qiangtang, UHT
metamorphism at about 2.3 Ma is associated with deeply sourced
dacites. Here, the driving mechanism for metamorphism and crustal
melting is thought to have been 20–40 Myr of radiogenic heating in
Review article

a Longitude (E) d Longitude (W)

90° 95° 100° 105° 110° 125° 120° 115° 110° 105° 100° 95° 90°
40° 50°
Central–eastern Tibet Western United States

des
Qili Ordos
an o

Casca
rog Potential region for
en
UHT metamorphism
Qaidam 45° Sna Yellowstone volcano
Riv ke
er P
35° lain
So AKM Wyoming
JR ng S craton
S pa
Qiangtang

Sie
n-G Basin and Southern
Latitude (N)

40°
an

rra
zi Qinling Range Rocky Mountains
BNS

Ne
vad
Colorado Great Plains
Sichuan

a
30° Lhasa basin 35° Plateau
Rio Grande Rift
IYS
Himalaya Yangtze
EHS Chuandian
Mogok block
30° Basin and
metamorphic
belt Range
25°
Tengchong volcano
25°

30 40 50 Moho depth (km) 70 80 90 20 30 Moho depth (km) 40 50

90° 95° 100° 105° 110° 125° 120° 115° 110° 105° 100° 95° 90°
b 40° e 50°
Central–eastern Tibet Western United States

45°

35°
Latitude (N)

40°

30° 35°

30°

25°
25°

400 600 Moho temperature (°C) 1,000 1,200 500 600 Moho temperature (°C) 900 1,000

c 30
UHP
f 30
Central–eastern Tibet Western United States
E-HPG
100 100
site
tz

Forbidden Coe tz Eastern

te uar

r
zone Qua Lhasa
Al + Q

ite
ite
bi

an ite 80 80
de
Wet solidus

Ky an
Ja

20 lim 20
Si
Depth (km)

Depth (km)
P (kbar)

P (kbar)

60 60
BI

40 40
10 Southern 10
Chuandian block

UHT 20 20
Am Gn
Lg
Gr
0 0
200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200 1,400 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200 1,400
T (°C) T (°C)

Nature Reviews Earth & Environment

Review article
Fig. 6 | Thermal regime at the Moho beneath central–eastern Tibet
and the western United States. Moho temperatures higher than 900 °C
in the sillimanite-stable field are marked by solid yellow in panels a,b,d & e,
representing likely locations where ultrahigh-temperature (UHT) metamorphism
could be occurring at the present day. a, Moho depth (km) beneath central–
eastern Tibet, a representative collisional orogen. b, Moho temperature (°C)
beneath central–eastern Tibet. c, Pressure–temperature (P–T) conditions at
Moho depth beneath central–eastern Tibet. P–T conditions of potential UHT
metamorphism beneath Eastern Lhasa are shown in light blue, those at depth in
the southern Chuandian Block in red, and the remainder in yellow. d, Moho depth
(km) beneath the western United States, a representative extensional orogen.
felsic Tibetan crust ≥60 km thick with heat production of 2.5 μW m−3
(ref. 204). The occurrence of this young UHT metamorphism is compa-
rable to the ongoing UHT metamorphism in the core of Tibet. Moreo-
ver, UHT metamorphism occurring at about 25 Ma was identified from
the Mogok metamorphic belt in Myanmar205. The Mogok metamorphic
belt extends over 1,500 km along the western margin of the Shan–Thai
Block, and from the Andaman Sea north to the eastern Himalayan syn-
taxis206; the Tengchong volcano, which has erupted since the late Mio-
cene, is located in the north of this metamorphic belt207 (Fig. 6a). The
mechanism to generate Cenozoic UHT metamorphism in the Mogok
metamorphic belt is comparable to that for the potential ongoing UHT
metamorphism beneath the southern Chuandian Block.
To summarize, potential UHT metamorphism in central–eastern
Tibet is likely to be a result of the combined effects of radiogenic heat-
ing in thickened crust and elevated mantle heat flux due to lithospheric
thinning by delamination.
The Cordilleran example
Moho temperatures in the North American Cordillera, which rep-
resents a modern arc–backarc system associated with subduction
of the Farallon and Juan de Fuca plates, are commonly in the range
800 to 850 °C, and even reach UHT conditions, whereas Moho depths
are shallow, in the range 30 to 35 km (refs. 46,142). UHT metamorphism
could be occurring under the Sierra Nevada volcanic arc and the eastern
Snake River Plain, along the western edge of the Colorado Plateau,
and to the east of the Rio Grande Rift, areas that are closely associated
with the occurrence of volcanism since about 30 Ma46,208 (Fig. 6d,e).
Moho temperatures under the Cordillera are independent of the Moho
depths (Fig. 6f), which contrasts with the case of the Tibetan orogenic
plateau (Fig. 6c). The lithosphere is thin, in the range 60–70 km, and the
elevated mantle heat flux was responsible for generating the UHT meta-
morphism and the extensive volcanism. However, the mechanism(s)
that caused the lithospheric thinning and/or asthenospheric upwelling
remain controversial.
In one proposal, following subduction of the Farallon plate, the
Columbia River flood basalts, the Yellowstone hotspot and a volcanic
track in the Snake River Plain were thought to be related to a mantle
plume starting at about 17 Ma209,210. However, this interpretation might
be an over-simplification, owing to plume–slab interactions in the
region, and it has also been argued that the plume activity was related
to complexities in the subduction-driven mantle flow generated by
ridge subduction and the formation of multiple slab windows, and the
detachment of the Farallon slab211–215. Moreover, the latter case can also
explain the uplift of the Colorado Plateau and the extensive volcanism
younger than about 30 Ma throughout the western United States208.
From the perspective of the spatial distribution of potential UHT
Nature Reviews Earth & Environment
e, Moho temperature (°C) beneath the western United States. f, P–T conditions
at Moho depth beneath the western United States. The purple colour in panels c
and f represents all collected Moho temperature and pressure datasets in the
regions of respective panels a and d. AKMS, Animaque–Kunlun Mountain
suture; BNS, Bangong–Nujiang suture; EHS, eastern Himalayan syntaxis; IYS,
Indo-Yarlung suture, JRS, Jinsha River suture; Lg, low-grade metamorphism.
Panels a–b adapted with permission from ref. 45, Elsevier. Panel c produced from
data in ref. 45; Panels d–f produced from data in ref. 46. At present on Earth, UHT
metamorphism is associated with convergent plate margins, either in continental
collisional belts or associated with subduction-related extensional orogens.
metamorphism (Fig. 6d), which is not limited to the plume-affected
region, the sinking Farallon slab would have influenced a large part of
the western United States.
Large-scale active UHT metamorphism was postulated to be occur-
ring beneath the southern segment of the Basin and Range42,216,217, which
could be caused by lithospheric extension after Laramide orogeny42.
Granulite xenoliths from Prindle volcano, Alaska, recorded UHT meta-
morphism at 63–48 Ma, indicating similar lithospheric thinning in the
Canadian Cordillera218.
To summarize, the dominant mechanism generating UHT meta-
morphic conditions in the western United States is most likely to be
the lithospheric extension due to the detachment of the subducted
Farallon slab.
Summary and future perspectives
To conclude, the most likely tectonic settings to generate UHT meta-
morphism are at depth in arc–backarc systems, in continental col-
lisional belts, and in thinned orogens associated with lithospheric
extension. In arc–backarc settings, UHT metamorphism is character-
ized by isobaric or decompression heating and then cooling-dominated
P–T paths, and short durations of heating (≤30 Myr). Metamorphism
is driven by elevated mantle heat flux beneath thinned lithosphere,
probably due to slab rollback in Phanerozoic orogens, where deep
subduction can occur. In continental collisional belts, eclogite- or HP
granulite-facies metamorphism commonly can be followed by UHT
metamorphism that was generated by decompression heating. Thus,
the metamorphic event is characterized by a clockwise P–T path. Such
UHT metamorphism is most probably caused by a combination of
radiogenic heating in thickened crust and then elevated mantle heat
flux during decompression. Alternatively, UHT metamorphism can be
generated in continental crust that has unusually high heat production.
In these cases, the duration of heating is generally longer (≥30 Myr) and
the P–T paths are commonly decompression dominated. In thinned
and hot Precambrian orogens, UHT metamorphism was probably caused
by lithospheric peeling or shallow slab breakoff during plate tectonics.
Overall, radiogenic heating is probably seldom the sole cause of UHT
metamorphism, while mantle heat is likely to be dominant in exten-
sional settings where lithospheric mantle is thinned and/or delami-
nated. Since the Archaean, the mechanisms of UHT metamorphism
have been closely related to the supercontinent cycle and tectonic
processes at convergent plate margins, which have evolved over time.
Numerical models designed to investigate the generation of UHT
metamorphism are generally limited in number and scope. In terms
of numerical modelling of specific tectonic settings, sometimes the
metamorphic evolution has not been fully investigated, and no quan-
titative correlation between a viable heat source and spatial extent
Review article

Glossary

Accretionary region
A region at the convergent plate margin
between a subducting ocean plate and
overriding continental plate, generally
including forearc, magmatic arc and
backarc components.
Channel flow
Protracted flow of a weak, viscous
crustal layer between relatively rigid yet
deformable bounding crustal layers.
Closure temperature
During cooling, the temperature at
which there is no longer any substantial
diffusion of the parent or daughter
isotopes out of the system; this
temperature is dependent on cooling
rate and grain size.
Geothermal gradient
The rate of temperature change with
respect to increasing depth in the
Earth’s interior.
Incompatible
Incompatible elements are those that
prefer to be in the liquid phase rather
than the solid phase during melting.
Laramide orogeny
Mountain building in western North
America, starting at 70–80 Ma and
ending at 35–55 Ma.
Lithospheric delamination
Detachment of the continental mantle
lithosphere and/or a portion of the
lowermost continental crust.
Lithospheric foundering
A type of delamination in which a cold
and dense mantle lithosphere root
founders into the hot mantle beneath.
Lithospheric peeling
A type of delamination in which the
dense lithospheric mantle and/or
portions of the lower continental
crust peel off from the mid-to-upper
continental crust along a plane that
runs parallel to the Moho.
Mantle convection
The movement of the mantle
as it transfers heat from the interior
to Earth’s surface.
Mantle plumes
A mechanism of convection within the
Earth’s mantle; hypothesized to explain
anomalous volcanism.
Mantle potential temperature
The temperature the mantle would
have at Earth’s surface if extrapolated
along an adiabat without melting.
Petrochronology
The discipline that links geochronology
with petrology.
Phase equilibrium modelling
The forward modelling of phase
equilibria involving solid solutions
in complex systems either by direct
minimization of Gibbs energy or by
solution of simultaneous nonlinear
equations.
Prograde heating stage
The period during which temperature
generally increases with time; in the
case of UHT metamorphism, the
duration is measured from ~700 °C
to the peak temperature.
Radiogenic heating
The generation of heat via radioactive
decay during the production of
radiogenic nuclides.
Retrograde reaction
A metamorphic reaction that occurs
after the metamorphic peak during the
decrease of temperature with time.
Ridge subduction
The subduction of a mid-ocean ridge
beneath the trench at a convergent
boundary.
Slab breakoff
A process whereby the oceanic
lithosphere detaches from the
continental lithosphere as subduction
locks up during continental collision.
Slab rollback
The trench migrates in the direction
opposite to the plate motion of the
subducting slab, also known as trench
retreat.
Slab windows
Gaps that form in a subducting ocean
plate when a mid-ocean ridge is
subducted.
Stable continental shields
The large stable areas of low relief in the
Earth’s continents that are composed
of Precambrian crystalline igneous
and high-grade metamorphic rocks.
Steady-state
A condition in which the variables that
define the behaviour of the system or
the process do not change over time.
Supercontinent
A single large landmass that includes
all or most of the existing continents
on the Earth.
Supercratons
Large late Archaean landmasses before
the supercontinent cycle since about
2,200 Ma.
Terrane
A fault-bounded block containing
a group of related rocks that have a
distinct geological history compared
with contiguous blocks.
Ultrahigh-temperature (UHT)
metamorphism
An extreme subset of granulite-
facies metamorphism that occurs at
temperatures above the breakdown
of biotite in metapelitic rocks, with peak
temperatures that exceed 900 °C in the
sillimanite stability field.
Viscous dissipation
The irreversible process by means
of which the work done by deformation
is transformed into heat.

of any UHT metamorphism has been established. Mechanisms such
as lithospheric foundering, slab rollback, ridge subduction and the
formation of multiple slab windows (particularly for the generation of
Phanerozoic UHT metamorphism), and mantle plumes (particularly for
Archaean UHT metamorphism) demand a wider range of systematic
thermomechanical modelling.
For the future, we encourage comprehensive investigations of
UHT metamorphic localities in terms of petrology, multimineral petro-
chronology and phase equilibrium modelling to better determine the
peak P–T conditions, P–T–t paths and duration of UHT metamorphic
events, especially the duration of the suprasolidus prograde heating
stage. We acknowledge that for UHT rocks in particular, the petrochro-
nology required to constrain the duration of the event and different
stages of the evolution is the most challenging part of the research.
We encourage the development of new ion mapping approches to
identify and avoid problems associated with isotopic resetting at
UHT conditions and decoupling of zircon U–Pb dates from their trace
element compositions. An increased number of natural examples with
better constrained P–T–t paths and estimates of metamorphic dura-
tions is required for comparison with results from numerical modelling,
particularly to investigate secular change in UHT metamorphism in
relation to geodynamic models.
The processes that generate UHT metamorphism are closely
correlated with the formation and evolution of continental crust,
changes of tectonic mode and the evolution of plate tectonics. Addi-
tional comparisons between Phanerozoic and Precambrian examples
of UHT metamorphism would deepen understanding of the thermal
evolution of the lithosphere and geodynamic processes during the

Nature Reviews Earth & Environment

Review article
transition to plate tectonics. For example, global mapping of Moho
depth and temperature using geophysical datasets to determine
the spatial distribution of potential sites of UHT metamorphism at the
present day will provide an overview of relationships with other types
of metamorphism and/or magmatic events, yielding new insights into
favourable tectonic settings and geodynamic processes that gener-
ate UHT metamorphism. For ancient examples, whether there are
occurrences of UHT metamorphism older than about 3,100 Ma should
be explored. Systematic comparisons of possible ancient examples
with geodynamic models will constrain the dominant tectonic mode
before the transition to plate tectonics. The role of mantle plumes in
generating UHT metamorphism in the Archaean should be addressed,
because plumes are widely considered to have been responsible for
the numerous extremely hot komatiites that are characteristic of the
Archaean219.
Lastly, the unique nature of the lithospheric conditions and
tectonics recorded by mid-Proterozoic orogens should be better
explored. These orogens record the highest T/P and longest durations
of UHT metamorphism, as well as the lowest post-peak cooling rates
compared with those formed before and after this period. Several
conceptual models have been proposed to explain the tectonic regime
during the mid-Proterozoic, such as a plate slowdown or a shutoff of
plate tectonics, or single-lid tectonics109,110,114,115, but as yet, there is no
consensus.
Overall, future research on UHT metamorphism and its links with
the thermal evolution of the lithosphere and the secular evolution of
plate tectonics demands a comprehensive multidisciplinary investiga-
tion. The combination of metamorphic petrology with palaeogeog-
raphy, various geophysical datasets and geodynamic modelling will
lead the way.
Data availability
The data for Figs. 1 and 2 are available in the online Supplementary
Data file.
Published online: xx xx xxxx
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Acknowledgements
The authors thank X. H. Li, Ling Chen and X. F. Liang for their comments on an initial draft,
Y. B. Liu for help with Fig. 2b–e and X. F. Liang for help with Fig. 6c and f. S.J., G.Y.H. and J.H.G.
Nature Reviews Earth & Environment
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were funded by grant 41890832 from the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC).
S.J. was funded by grant 42122018 from NSFC.
Author contributions
S.J. and Y.C. conceived the idea. S.J. drafted the manuscript. S.J. drafted the figures with
contributions from C.C. and L.C. M.B. contributed substantially to the manuscript preparation,
interpretation, discussion, writing and editing of the manuscript. R.N.M., P.C. and C.C.
contributed to the discussion of contents, interpretation and editing. All authors reviewed
the manuscript before submission.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
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