MODULE 1

Module 1
Hydrology
In
Ag eng’g 208 INTRODUCTION

(AgRICULTURAL ENGINEERING)
Water management is taking on new dimensions. New federal thrusts, the
growing list of global issues, and strong public sentiments regarding environmental protection
have been the principal driving forces.

Water policies of the future must therefore take on broader dimensions. More
emphasis must be placed on regional planning and management, and regional institution to
accommodate this must be devised. Water management must be practiced at, and between,
all levels of government. Land use and water use planning must be more tightly coordinated
as well.

PREPARED BY: Exercises are found in every section, and exercises and quizzes are found at
the end of each chapter to test student’s knowledge and comprehension of chapter content.

JONATHAN M. JABEL As your facilitator of learning, I will enrich our discussion by presenting information with
citations. If you have questions please do not hesitate to call, text, or chat me.

COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the module, the students are expected to perform appropriate suitable
mathematical and statistical computations in data analysis.
 DISCUSSION
CONTENTS OF THE MODULE
1.1 HYDROLOGY DEFINED
This module contains the following lessons:
Lesson 1: The hydrologic Cycle Hydrology is an earth science. It encompasses the occurrence, distribution , movement,
Lesson 2: Precipitation and properties of the waters of the earth. A knowledge of hydrology is fundamental to
decision making processes where water is a component of the system, of concern. Water
DIRECTIONS ON HOW TO USE THE MODULE PROPERLY and environmental issues are inextricably linked, and it is important to clearly understand
In order to benefit profoundly from this module, please be guided by all the key points how water is affected by and how water affects ecosystem manipulations.
presented below.
1. This module contains (2) lessons. Each lesson is explaining authentically. Read and
understand carefully so that you would know the lesson entirely. 1.2 THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
2. On the first page of this lesson, you will notice the specific learning outcomes (SLO’s)
of each lesson. LSOs are knowledge and skills you are expected to obtain at the end The hydrologic cycle is a continuous process by which water is transported from the oceans to
of the lesson. the atmosphere to the land and back to the sea. Many subcycles exist, the evaporation of inland
3. You are obliged to answer the learning Activities/ Exercises (LAEs). The LAEs are water and its subsequent precipitation over land before returning to the ocean is one example.
outlined to help you in how to obtain the SLOs The driving force for the global water transport system is provided by the sun, which furnishes
4. Feel free to chat, call, text or send me an email if you have questions, reactions, or the energy required for evaporation. Note that the water quality also changes during passage
reflections about the module’s contents or activities. through cycle; for example, sea water is converted to fresh water through evaporation.
5. The Practice Task/ Assessment and the Assignment shall be checked by me.
1.3 THE HYDROLOGIC BUDGET
Lesson 1. The hydrologic Cycle
Because the total quantity of water available to the earth is finite and indestructible, the
Specific Learning Outcomes global hydrologic system may be looked upon as closed. Open hydrologic subsystems are
abundant, however, and these are usually the type analyzed. For any system a water
1. Define Hydrology; budget can be developed to account for the hydrologic components.
2. Give a brief history of the evolution of this important earth science;
3. State the fundamental equation of hydrology; In the figure 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3 show a hydrologic budget for the coterminous United States,
4. Demonstrate how hydrologic principles can be applied to a conceptualized hydrologic cycle, and the distribution of a precipitation input, respectively.
supplement; decision support systems for water and environmental These figures illustrate the components of the water cycle with which a hydrologist is
management. concerned.

Precipitation is the primary input in a hydrologic budget. Figures 1.1-1.3 illustrate this.
Some of the precipitation (e.g. rain, snow, hail) may be intercepted by trees, grass, other
vegetation, and structural objects and will eventually return to the atmosphere by
evaporation. Once precipitation reaches the ground, some of it may fill depressions
(become depression storage), part may penetrate the ground (infiltrate) to replenish soil
moisture and groundwater reservoirs, and some may become surface runoff--- that is, flow
over the earth’s surface to a defined channel such as stream. Figure 1.3 shows the
disposition of infiltration, depression storage, and surface runoff.

Figure 1.2 The hydrologic cycle: T, transpiration; E, Evapopartion; P, Precipitation; R,

surface runoff; G, groundwater flow; and I, infiltration.

Figure 1.1 Hydrologic budget of coterminous United States. ( U.S. Geological Survey.)

Figure 1.3 Distribution of precipitation input.

Water entering the ground mat take several paths. Some may be directly evaporated 1. Hydrologic budget above the surface
If adequate transfer from the soil to the surface is maintained. This can easily occur where
a high groundwater table (free water surface) is within the limits of capillary transport to 𝑃 + 𝑅1 − 𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑔 − 𝐸𝑠 − 𝑇𝑠 − 𝐼 = ∆𝑆𝑠 (1.1)
the ground surface. Vegetation using soil moisture or groundwater directly can also
transmit infiltrated water to the atmosphere by a process known as transpiration. 2. Hydrologic budget below the surface

A general hydrologic equation can be developed based on the processes illustrated in 𝐼 + 𝐺1 − 𝐺2 − 𝑅𝑔 − 𝐸𝑔 − 𝑇𝑔 = ∆𝑆𝑠 (1.2)
figure 1.2 and 1.3. Considered Figure 1.4. in it, the hydrologic variables P,E,T,R,G, and I
are as defined in figure 1.2. Subscripts s and g are introduced to denote vectors 3. Hydrologic budget for the region (sum of Eq. 1.2 and 1.3)
originating above and below the earth’s surface, respectively.
𝑃 − (𝑅2 − 𝑅1 ) − (𝐸𝑠 + 𝐸𝑔 ) − (𝑇𝑠 + 𝑇𝑔 ) − (𝐺2 − 𝐺1 ) = ∆(𝑆𝑠 + 𝑆𝑔 ) (1.3)

If the subscripts are dropped from Eq. 1.3. so that letters without subscripts refer
to total precipitation and net values of surface flow, underground flow,
evaporation, transpiration, and storage, the hydrologic budget for a region can be
written simply as

𝑃 − 𝑅 − 𝐺 − 𝐸 − 𝑇 = ∆𝑆 (1.4)
This is the basic equation of hydrology. For a simplified hydrologic system where
terms 𝐺, 𝐸, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇 do not apply. Eq. 1.4 reduces to

𝑃 − 𝑅 = ∆𝑆 (1.5)
Equation 1.4 is applicable to exercises of any degree of complexity and is
therefore basic to the solution of all hydrologic problems.

For example, 𝑅𝑔 signifies groundwater flow that is effluent to a surface stream, and 𝐸𝑠
represents evaporation from surface water bodies or other surface storage areas. Letter 𝑆
stands for storage. The region under consideration specified as A has a lower boundary
below which water will not be found. The upper boundary is the earth’s surface. Vertical
bounds are arbitrarily set as projections of the periphery of the region.
In figure 1.4 can be translated into the following mathematical statements, where all
values are given in units of volume per unit time:
Example 1.1
In the given year, 10,000 − 𝑚𝑖 2 watershed received 20𝑖𝑛 of precipitation. The
average rate of flow measured in the river draining the area was found to be
700 𝑐𝑓𝑠 (cubic feet per second) . make a rough estimate of the combined
amounts of water evaporated and transpired from the region during the year of
record.
 Solution. The amount of evapotranspiration for the year in question is estimated to be 19.05 in. this is
admittedly a crude approximation but could serve as a useful guide for water resources
Beginning with the basic hydrologic equation planning.

𝑃 − 𝑅 − 𝐺 − 𝐸 − 𝑇 = ∆𝑆 (1.4) 1.4 Hydrologic Models

And since evaporation and transpiration can be combined, Hydrologic systems are generally analyzed by using mathematical models. These models
may be empirical, statistical, or founded on known physical laws. They may used for such
𝐸𝑇 = 𝑃 − 𝑅 − 𝐺 − ∆𝑆 (1.6) simple purposes as determining the rate of flow that a roadway grate must be designed to
handle, or they may guide decisions about the best way to develop a river basin for a
Let the term 𝐸𝑇 is the unknown to be evaluated and 𝑃 multiplicity of objectives.
and 𝑅 are specified.
In order to get solution, two assumptions are made, 1.5 Hydrologic Data
1. Since the drainage area is quite large (measured in hundreds o square
miles), Hydrologic data are needed to describe precipitation; streamflows; evaporation;soil moisture;
2. A presumptions that the groundwater divide (boundary) follows the surface snow fields; sedimentation; transpiration; infiltration; water quality;air soil; and water
divide is probably reasonable. temperatures; and other variables or components of hydrologic systems. Sources of data are
In this case 𝐺 = 0, the vector 𝑅𝑔 exists but is included in 𝑅. The foregoing assumption is numerous, with the U.S. Geological Survey being the primary one for streamflow and
usually not valid for small areas and must therefore be used carefully. It is also presupposed groundwater facts. The National Weather Service (NOAA or National Oceanic and
that ∆𝑆 = 0, thus implying that the groundwater reservoir volume has not changed during the Atmosphere Administration) is the major collector of meteorological data.
year.
Common Units of Measurements
Using the simplifications just outlined, the working relation reduces to
Stream and river flows are usually recorded as cubic meters per second (𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐), cubic feet
𝐸𝑇 = 𝑃 − 𝑅 per second (𝑐𝑓𝑠), or second-feet (𝑠𝑒𝑐 − 𝑓𝑡); groundwater flows and water supply flows are
Which can be solved directly. First, change 𝑅 into inches per year so that the units are commonly measured in gallons per day (𝑔𝑝𝑑); flows used in agriculture or related to water
compatible: storage are often expressed as acre-feet (𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑒 − 𝑓𝑡), acre-feet per unit time, inches (𝑖𝑛. )
Or centimeters (𝑐𝑚) depth per unit time, or acre-inches per hour (𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑒 − 𝑖𝑛. ℎ𝑟).
𝑓𝑡 3 1 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑖𝑛
𝑅, 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 = 𝑅, 𝑖𝑛. Volumes are often given as gallons, cubic feet, cubic-meters, acre-feet, second-foot-days, and
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑡 2 ) 𝑦𝑟 𝑓𝑡
inches or centimeters. An acre-foot is equivalent to a volume of water 1 𝑓𝑡 deep over 1 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑒
700𝑥 86,400𝑥 365𝑥12 of land (43,560𝑓𝑡 3 ). A second-foot-day (𝑐𝑓𝑠 − 𝑑𝑎𝑦, 𝑠𝑓𝑑) is the accumulated volume
R= = 0.95 𝑖𝑛 produced by a flows of 1 𝑐𝑓𝑠 in 1 hr. inches or centimeters of depth relate to a volume
104 𝑥(5280)2
𝑖𝑛 equivalent to that many inches or centimeters of water over the area of concern.
Therefore, 𝐸𝑇 = 20𝑖𝑛 − 0.95 𝑖𝑛 = 19.05 .
𝑦𝑟
Exercises.
1.1 one-half inch of runoff results from a storm on a drainage area of 50𝑚𝑖 2 .
Convert this amount to acre-feet and cubic meters.
1.2 Assume you are dealing with a vertical walled reservoir having a surface area
of 500, 000𝑚2 and that an inflow of 1.0𝑚2 /𝑠𝑒𝑐 occurs. How many hours
will it take to raise the reservoir level by 30𝑐𝑚?
1.3 The evaporation rate from the surface of a 3650 −acre lake is 100 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑒 −
𝑓𝑡/𝑑𝑎𝑦. Determine the depth change (feet) in the lake during a 365 days year
if the inflow to the lake is 25.2 cfs. If the change in lake depth an increase or
decrease?
1.4 One and one-half inches of runoff are equivalent to how many acre-feet if the
drainage area is 25 − 𝑚𝑖 2 ? (note: 1 acre = 43, 560ft)
1.5 The annual evaporation from a lake is 50𝑖𝑛. If the lake’s surface area is
3000 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑠, what would be the daily evaporation rate in acre-feet and in
centimeters?
1.6 A flow of 10 𝑐𝑓𝑠 enters a 1𝑚𝑖 2 vertical walled reservoir. Find the time
required to raise the reservoir level by 6𝑖𝑛.
1.7 One – half inch of rain per day is equivalent to an average rate on how many
cubic feet per second if the area is 500 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑠? How many meters per
second?
Lesson 2: PRECIPITATION
Specific Learning Outcomes
1. Define precipitation,discuss its forms, and describe its spatial and
temporal attributes.
2. Illustrate techniques for estimating areal precipitation amounts for
specific storm events and for maximum precipitation-generating
conditions.
Discussion
Precipitation replenishes surface water bodies, renews soil moisture for plants, and recharges
aquifers. Its principal forms are rain and snow. The relative importance of these forms is
determined by the climate of the area under consideration. In many parts of the western
United States, the extent of the snowpack is a determining factor relative to the amount of
water that will be available for the summer growing season. In more humid localities, the
timing and distribution of rainfall are of principal concern.
Precipitated water follows the paths shown in Fig. 1.2 and 1.3. Some of it may be
intercepted, evaporated, infiltrated, and become surface flow. The actual disposition depends
on the amount of rainfall, soil moisture conditions, topography, vegetal cover soil type, and
other factors.
2.1 water vapor
The fraction of water vapor in the atmosphere is very small compared to quantities of
other gases present, but it is exceeding important to our way of life. Precipitation is
derived from this atmospheric water.
Amount of Precipitable Water
Estimates of the amount of precipitation that might occur over a given region with
favorable conditions are often useful. These may be obtained by calculating the amount of
water contained in a column of atmosphere extending up from the earth’s surface. This
quantity is known as the precipitable water 𝑊, although it cannot all be removed from the
atmosphere by natural processes. Precipitable water is usually expressed in centimeters or
iches.
An equation for computing the amount of precipitable water in the atmosphere can be derived
as follows. Consider a column of air having a square base1 cm on a side. The total water
mass contained in this column between elevation zero and some heights 𝑧 would be
𝑧
𝑊 = ∫0 𝜌𝑤 𝑑𝑧 (2.1)
Where 𝜌𝑤 = the absolute humidity and 𝑊 is the depth of precipitable wqater centimeters.
The integral can be evaluated graphically or by dividing the atmosphere into layers of
approximately uniform specific humidities, solving for these individually, and then summing.
Figure 2.1 illustrates the average amount of precipitate water for the continental United States
up to an elevation of 8 𝑘𝑚2 .
Geographic and Temporal Variations
The quantity of atmosphere water vapor varies with location and time. These variations may
be attributed mainly to temperature and source of supply considerations. The greatest
concentrations can be found near the ocean surface in the tropics, the concentrations
generally decreasing with latitude, altitude, and distance inland from coastal areas.
Precipitation
Precipitation is the primary input vector of the hydrologic cycle. Its forms are rain, snow, and
hail and variations of these such as drizzle and sleet. Precipitation is derived from atmospheric
water, its form and quantity thus being influenced by the action of other climatic factors such
as wind, temperature, and atmospheric pressure.
Formation of Precipitation
Two processes are considered to be capable of supporting the growth of droplets of sufficient
mass ( droplets from about 500 to 4000 𝜇𝑚 in diameter) to overcome air resistance and
consistency fall to the earth as precipitation. These are known as the ice crystal process and
the coalescence process.
Types of precipitation
1. Convective precipitation – is typical of the tropics and is brought about by heating
of the air at the interface with the ground
2. Orographic Precipitation – it is from the mechanical lifting of moist horizontal air
currents over natural barriers such as mountain ranges. It is a very common on the
West Coast of the United States where moisture laden air from the Pacific Ocean is
intercepted by coastal hills and mountains. Factors that are important in this process
include land elevation, local slope, orientation of land slope, and distance from
the moisture source.
3. CYLONIC Precipitation – it’s classified as frontal and nonfrontal. It is associated with
the movement of air masses from high-pressure regions to low- pressure regions. If
the air masses are moving so that warm air replaces colder air, the front is known as
a warm front; if on the other hand, cold air displaces warm air, the front is said to be
cold. If the front is not in motion, it is said to be a stationary front. Figure 2.2 illustrates
a vertical section through a frontal surface.
Thunderstorms
Many areas of the United States are subjected to severe convective storms, which
are generally identified as thunderstorms because of their electrical nature. It develop from
vertical air movements associated with intense surface heating or orographic effects.
The three primary stages ion the life history of a thunderstorms
1. Cumulus stage
2. The mature stage
3. The dissipating stage
All thunderstorms begin as cumulus clouds, although few such clouds ever reach the stage of
development needed to produce such a storm. The cumulus stage is characterized by strong
updrafts that often reach altitudes of over 25,000 ft. vertical wind speeds at upper levels are
often as great a 35mph. as indicated in figure 2.3a, there is considerable horizontal inflow of
air (entrainment) during cumulus stage. This is an important element in the development of the
storm, as additional moisture is provided.
 Point precipitation data are used collectively to estimate areal variability of rain and snow and
are also used individually for developing design storm characteristics for small urban or other
watersheds.

Hydrologic Design Procedures

In the figure, it shows the cumulus, mature and dissipating stages of a thunderstorms cell.
Precipitation Data
Considerable data on precipitation are available in publications of the National weather
Service. Other sources include various state and federal agencies engaged in water resources
work. For critical regional studies it is recommended that all possible data be compiled; often
the establishment of a gauging network will be necessary.
Procedures for estimating design flood flows ( interest can be in either the peak flow rate or
the entire hydrograph) include methods that examine historical or projected flood flows to
arrive at a suitable estimate ( flow- based methods), and methods that evaluate the storms
that produce floods, and then convert the storms to flood flow rates ( precipitation-based
methods). In this case, the analysis can be based on selecting a design frequency and
determining the associated flood ( frequency-based methods), developing designs for a
range of flood frequencies and narrowing the final choice on the basis of long –term costs and
benefits ( risk-based methods), or designing on the basis of an estimate of the probable
maximum storm or maximum flood that could occur at the site (critical-events methods).
Point rainfall data are used to derive intensity-duration- frequency curves such as those shown
in figure. Such curves are used in the rational method for urban storm drainage design.

Precipitation Variability

Precipitation varies geographically, temporarily, and seasonally. Figure 2.4 indicates the mean
annual precipitation for the continental United States, while figure 2.5 gives an example of
seasonal differences. It should be understood that both regional and temporal variations in
precipitation are very important in water resources planning and hydrologic studies. For
example, it may be very important to know that the cycle of minimum precipitation coincides
with the peak growing season in a particular area, or that the period of heaviest rainfall should
be avoided in scheduling certain construction activities.

Point Precipitation
Precipitation events are recorded by gauges at specific locations. The resulting data permit
determination of the frequency and character of precipitation events in the vicinity of the site. Figure 2.9 four quadrants surrounding precipitation station A.
It is occasionally necessary to estimate point rainfall at a given location from recorded values
at surrounding sites. This can be done to complete missing records or to determine a 𝐹 1.70 2 2 8 125.0 212.5
representative precipitation to be used at the point of interest. The National Weather Service
has developed a procedure for this which has been verified on both theoretical and empirical Sums ---- ---- ---- ---- 334.5 567.7
bases.
567.7
Consider that rainfall is to be calculated for point A in figure 2.9. establish a set of axes running Note: estimated precipitation (𝑃) at 𝐴 = ;𝑃 = 1.70 𝑖𝑛.
334.5
through A and determine the absolute coordinates of the nearest surrounding points B, C, D, E
and F. These are recorded in column 3 and 4of table 2.1. the estimated precipitation at A is
determined as a weighted average of the other five points. The weights are reciprocal of the AREAL PRECIPITATION
sums of the squares of ∆𝑋 and ∆𝑌; that is, 𝐷 2 = ∆𝑋 2 + ∆𝑌 2 , and 𝑊 = 1⁄ 2 . The
𝐷 For most hydrologic analysis, it is important to know the areal distribution of precipitation.
estimated rainfall at the point of interest is given by ∑(𝑃 𝑥 𝑊)/ ∑ 𝑊. In the special case Usually, average depths for representative portions of the watershed are determined and used
where rainfall is known in only two adjacent quadrants (e.g., I and II), The estimate is given as for this purpose. The most direct approach is to use the arithmetic average of gauged
∑(𝑃 𝑥 𝑊). This has the effect of reducing estimates to zero as the points move from an area quantities.
of precipitation to one with no records.
Function of the reliability of rainfall measure:
TABLE 2.1 DETERMINATION OF POINT RAINFALL FROM DATA AT NEARBY GAUGES
1. The distance from the gauge to the center of the representative area.
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) 2. The size of the area.
Point Rainfall ∆𝑋 ∆𝑌 𝐷2 𝑊 𝑥 103 𝑃 𝑥 𝑊 𝑥 103 3. Topography.
(inches) 4. The nature of the rainfall of concern.
5. Local storm pattern characteristics.
𝐴
-- -- -- -- -- -- Two principal methods for determining areal averages of rainfall
1. Isohyetal method
𝐵 1.60 4 2 20 50 80.0 2. Thiessen method

Isohyetal method is based on interpolation between gauges. It closely resembles the

𝐶 1.80 1 6 37 27.0 48.6 calculation of contours in surveying and mapping. To develop an isohyetal map is to plot the
rain gauge locations on a suitable map and to record the rainfall amounts.

𝐷 1.50 3 2 13 76.9 115.4

𝐸 2.00 3 3 18 55.6 111.2

 ∑ 𝐴𝑖 𝑃
Average depth over the entire watershed = ∑ 𝐴𝑖
𝑖

In the figure, it shows on how to construct of a Thiessen Diagram:

a. Connect rain gauge locations;

b. Draw a perpendecular bisectors;
c. `Calculate Thiessen weights (𝐴1, 𝐴2, 𝐴3 );
d. A completed network.

Example 2.1. Given the drainage area in the figure below and the rainfall data displayed in
column 3 of table 2.2, calculate the average rainfall over the area using (𝑎) the arithmetic
mean, and (𝑏) the Thiessen polygon weighing system.
∑ 𝐴𝑖 𝑃
Average precipitation for the entire basin = ∑ 𝐴𝑖
𝑖

In the figure, it shows how to construct of an isohyetal map:

a. Locate rain gauges and plot values;

b. Interpolate between gauges
c. Plot isohyets.

Thiessen method is subdivided into polygonal subareas using rain gauges as centers. The
subareas are used as weights in estimating the watershed average depth.

Figure 2.15. Thiessen diagram for Example 2.1

Table 2.2 DATA AND THIESSEN POLYGON CALCULATION FOR EXAMPLE 2.1. Gross and Net Precipitation
 The net (excess) precipitation that contributes directly to surface runoff is equivalent
(1) (2) (3) (4) to the gross precipitation minus the losses to interception, storm period evaporation,
Gauge No. % area Precip.-in. (2) 𝑥 (3) depression storage, and infiltration. The relation between excess precipitation 𝑃𝑒 and
1 5 1.56 0.08 gross precipitation 𝑃 is thus
2 4 2.95 0.12
3 3 3.44 0.10 𝑃𝑒 = 𝑃 − ∑ 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
4 15 2.91 0.44 Where the losses include all deductions from the gross storm input.
5 11 4.17 0.46
6 19 4.21 0.80
7 4 2.7 0.11
8 7 2.45 0.17 Exercises:
9 21 3.88 0.81
10 6 3.98 0.24 1. Rain gauge 𝑋 was out of operation for a month during which there was a storm. The
rainfall amounts at three adjacent stations 𝐴, 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 were 4.2, 3.7 and 4.9 in.,
11 5 2.51 0.13
respectively. The average annual precipitation amounts for the gauges are 𝑋 =
Total 100 3.46
36.5, 𝐴 = 42.1, 𝐵 = 37.1, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 = 39.8. The delta 𝑥 and delta 𝑦 values
respectively for each station are 𝑋 − 0, 0; 𝐴 − 3, 7; 𝐵 − 4,6; 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 − 5, 9.
Solution.
Using a weighted averages estimate the amount of rainfall for gauge 𝑋.
a. Identify those gauges falling within the area boundary. They include gauges 1, 4
through 6,8 and 9. Averaging the values for these six gauges yields an estimated 2. Compute the rainfall for gauge 𝑋 in Problem 1 if the storm readings at 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶
mean areal rainfall of 3.20 inches. were 3.7,4.1, and 4.8in., respectively.
b. Following the Thiessen method as described in areal precipitation. Construct
polygons using triangles to connect gauge points. These polygons are shown on 3. Compute the mean annual precipitation for the watershed in the following figure using
figure 2.15. calculate the percent of the total area associated with each gauge and the arithmetic mean, the Thiessen polygon method, and the isohyetal method. The
record as in column 2 of table 2.2. The Thiessen weighted average is obtained by gauge readings for gauges 𝐴 − 𝐾, respectively, are: 29.79, 34.97, 25.6, 24.6,
multiplying the values in column 2 by the values in column 3. The Thiessen average 42.61, 42.35,15.51, 39.99, 43.04, and 28.41.
is computed as 3.46 inches of rainfall . the use of a spreadsheet (table 2.2) facilitates
computations and aids in organizing data.

Probable Maximum Precipitation (𝑃𝑀𝑃)
 Is the critical depth-duration- area rainfall relation for a given area and season which
would result from a storm containing the most critical meteorological conditions
considered probable.
4. A mean draft of 100 𝑚𝑔𝑑 is produced from a drainage area of 200𝑚𝑖 2 . At the flow
line the reservoir is estimated to cover about 4000 acres. The annual rainfall is 37 in.,
the mean annual runoff is 10 in., and the mean annual lake evaporation is 30 in. find
the net gain or loss is storage. Compute the volume of water evaporated. Hoe
significant is this amount?
 5. A mean draft of 380,000 𝑚3 / 𝑑𝑎𝑦 is produced from a drainage area of 330𝑘𝑚2 . At
the flow line, the reservoir is estimated to cover about 1600 hectares. The annual
rainfall is 96.5 cm, the mean annual runoff is 22.8 cm, and the mean annual lake
evaporation is 77.1 cm. find the net gain or loss in storage and compute the volume
of water evaporated. Calculate volumes in 𝑚3 .

6. Discuss how you would go about collecting data for analysis of the water budget of a
region. What agencies would you contact? What other sources of information would
you seek out?

Do it yourself!

Create a four quadrants surrounded by the given precipitation station (100𝑚2 ). The delta 𝑥
and delta 𝑦 values are the following: 𝐴(−1, 0), 𝐵(−5, −2), 𝐶(1, −3), 𝐷(−1,
−5), 𝐸(−3, 6), 𝐹(4, 3), 𝐺(3, 5), 𝐻(8, −4), 𝐼(−2, 7),𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐽(5, −5). Collect the
point rainfall (𝑖𝑛) From the data at nearby gauges. Compute the estimated precipitation.
Draw the isohyetal map and the Thiessen method.