ENGINEERING

HYDROLOGY

1 | Introduction to
Hydrology &
Weather Basics
 Water is vital to life and development in all parts of the world. In
Third World countries where the agricultural sector plays a key role
in their economic growth, the management of water resources is
1.1 | Introduction to an item of high priority in their developmental activities. The basic
Hydrology inputs in the evaluation of water resources are from hydrological
parameters and the subject of hydrology forms the core in the

Hydrology evaluation and development of water resources. In the civil

engineering curriculum, this subject occupies an important
position.

INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES

What is hydrology?
• Hydrology means the science of water. It is the science that
• Define Hydrology and understand deals with the occurrence, circulation and distribution of water of
its application in engineering the earth and earths atmosphere.

• Differentiate Hydrology from • Scientific Hydrology the study which is concerned with the
Hydraulics
academic aspects.

• Engineering or Applied Hydrology a study concerned

with engineering applications. In a general sense
engineering hydrology deals with (i) estimation of water
resources, (ii) the study of processes such as precipitation,
runoff, evapotranspiration and their interaction and (iii) the
study of problems such as fl oods and droughts, and
strategies to combat them.
Hydrology in Hydraulics
• HYDRAULICS is defi ned as the study of the mechanical

engineering
Hydrology finds its greatest application in the design and
behavior of water in physical systems. In engineering terms,
hydraulics is the analysis of how surface, and/or subsurface
fl ows move from one point to the next. Hydraulic analysis is
operation of water-resources engineering projects, such as
used to evaluate fl ow in rivers, streams, storm drain networks,
those for (i) irrigation, (ii) water supply, (iii) flood control, (iv)
water aqueducts, waterlines, sewers, etc.
water power, and (v) navigation. In all these projects
hydrological investigations for the proper assessment of the
following factors are necessary:

1. The capacity of storage structures such as reservoirs.

2. The magnitude of flood flows to enable safe disposal of the
excess flow.
3. The minimum flow and quantity of flow available at various
seasons.
4. The interaction of the flood wave and hydraulic structures,
such as levees, reservoirs, barrages and bridges.

The hydrological study of a project should necessarily precede

structural and other detailed design studies. It involves the
collection of relevant data and analysis of the data by applying
the principles and theories of hydrology to seek solutions to
practical problems
ENGINEERING
HYDROLOGY

1 | Introduction to
Hydrology &
Weather Basics

1.2 | Hydrologic Cycle
and the Human Impact
Hydrologic
cycle
INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Describe the Hydrologic Cycle and
identify its different components
• Apply Water Budget Equation and
Balance in solving hydrological
problems
Earth's water is always in movement, and the natural water cycle,
also known as the hydrologic cycle, describes the continuous
movement of water on, above, and below the surface of the Earth.
Water is always changing states between liquid, vapor, and ice,
with these processes happening in the blink of an eye and over
millions of years.
Where does all the Earth's water come from? Ancient, primordial
Earth was an incandescent globe made of magma, but all magmas
contain water. Water set free by magma began to cool down the
Earth's atmosphere, and eventually the environment became cool
enough so water could stay on the surface as a liquid. Volcanic
activity kept and still keeps introducing water into the atmosphere,
thus increasing the surface-water and groundwater volume of the
Earth.
Each path of the hydrologic cycle involves one or more of the
following aspects: (i) transportation of water, (ii) temporary storage
and (iii) change of state.
Note: Our information only covers the natural water cycle, which
does not take human activities into account. In today's world,
humans have a major impact on many components of the water
cycle.

A convenient starting point to describe the cycle is in the
oceans. Water in the oceans evaporate due to the heat
energy provided by solar radiation. The water vapor moves
upwards and forms clouds. While much of the clouds
condense and fall back to the oceans as rain, a part of the
clouds is driven to the land areas by winds. There they
condense and precipitate onto the land mass as rain, snow,
hail, sleet, etc. A part of the precipitation may evaporate
back to the atmosphere even while falling. Another part
may be intercepted by vegetation, structures and other
such surface modifications from which it may be either
evaporated back to atmosphere or move down to the
ground surface.
A portion of the water that reaches the ground enters the
earths surface through infiltration, enhance the moisture
content of the soil and reach the groundwater body.
Vegetation sends a portion of the water from under the
ground surface back to the atmosphere through the
process of transpiration. The precipitation reaching the
ground surface after meeting the needs of infiltration and
evaporation moves down the natural slope over the
surface and through a network of gullies, streams and
rivers to reach the ocean. The groundwater may come to
the surface through springs and other outlets after
spending a considerably longer time than the surface flow.
The portion of the precipitation which by a variety of paths
above and below the surface of the earth reaches the
stream channel is called runoff. Once it enters a stream
channel, runoff becomes stream flow.
components of the water cycle:
transportation & storage
The main components of the hydrologic cycle can be broadly It is important to note that the total water resources of the earth
classified as transportation ( flow) components and storage are constant and the sun is the source of energy for the
components as below: hydrologic cycle. A recognition of the various processes such
as evaporation, precipitation and groundwater flow helps one
TRANSPORTATION STORAGE COMPONENTS
to study the science of hydrology in a systematic way. Also, one
COMPONENTS
realizes that man can interfere with virtually any part of the
Precipitation Storage on the land surface hydrologic cycle, e.g. through artificial rain, evaporation
Evaporation (Depression storage, ponds, lakes,
suppression, change of vegetal cover and land use, extraction
Transpiration reservoirs, etc)
Infiltration Soil moisture storage
Runoff Groundwater storage
Atmosphere

Schematically the interdependency of the transportation

components can be represented as in the figure on the right.
The quantities of water going through various individual paths
of the hydrological cycle in a given system can be described by
the continuity principle known as water budget equation or
hydrologic equation.
• EVAPORATION. Evaporation is the process by which water
changes from a liquid to a gas or vapor. Evaporation is the
primary pathway that water moves from the liquid state back
into the water cycle as atmospheric water vapor. Studies have
shown that the oceans, seas, lakes, and rivers provide nearly
90 percent of the moisture in the atmosphere via evaporation,
with the remaining 10 percent being contributed by plant
transpiration.
• CONDENSATION. Condensation is the process in which
water vapor in the air is changed into liquid water.
Condensation is crucial to the water cycle because it is
responsible for the formation of clouds. These clouds may
produce precipitation, which is the primary route for water to
return to the Earth's surface within the water cycle.
• TRANSPIRATION.
Transpiration is essentially
evaporation of water from
plant leaves. Studies have
revealed that transpiration
accounts for about 10
percent of the moisture in
the atmosphere, with
oceans, seas, and other
bodies of water (lakes,
rivers, streams) providing nearly 90 percent, and a tiny
amount coming from sublimation (ice changing into water
vapor without fi rst becoming liquid).
• PRECIPITATION. Precipitation is water released from clouds
in the form of rain, freezing rain, sleet, snow, or hail. It is the
primary connection in the water cycle that provides for the
delivery of atmospheric water to the Earth. Most precipitation
falls as rain.
• SURFACE RUNOFF. Surface runoff is nothing more than
water “running off” the land surface. Surface runoff is affected
by both meteorological factors and the physical geology and
topography of the land. Only about a third of the
precipitation that falls over land runs off into streams and
rivers and is returned to the oceans. The other two-thirds is
evaporated, transpired, or soaks (infi ltrates) into groundwater.
Surface runoff can also be diverted by humans for their own
uses.
• GROUNDWATER STORAGE. The upper layer of the soil is
the unsaturated zone, where water is present in varying
amounts that change over time, but does not saturate the soil.
Below this layer is the saturated zone, where all of the pores,
cracks, and spaces between rock particles are saturated with
water. The term groundwater is used to describe this area.
Another term for groundwater is "aquifer," although this term
is usually used to describe water-bearing formations capable
of yielding enough water to supply peoples' uses.
 move vertically and horizontally through the soil and
subsurface material. Some of the water may infi ltrate deeper,
recharging groundwater aquifers.
• PERCOLATION. Percolation is the movement of water
through the soil and porous or fractured rock.
• SUBLIMATION. Sublimation is the conversion between the
solid and the gaseous phases of matter, with no intermediate
liquid stage. For those of us interested in the water cycle,
sublimation is most often used to describe the process of
snow and ice changing into water vapor in the air without fi rst
melting into water. The opposite of sublimation is
"deposition", where water vapor changes directly into ice—
such a snowfl akes and frost.

• GROUNDWATER FLOW. Water moves underground

downward and sideways, in great quantities, due to gravity
and pressure. Eventually it emerges back to the land surface,
into rivers, and into the oceans to keep the water cycle going.
People have been using groundwater for thousands of years
and continue to use it today, largely for drinking water and
irrigation.
• INFILTRATION. Infi ltration is the process by which water on
the ground surface enters the soil. Some water that infi ltrates
will remain in the shallow soil layer, where it will gradually
Where and how
much water is there
on earth?
This image shows blue spheres representing relative amounts
of Earth's water in comparison to the size of the Earth. These
images attempt to show three dimensions, so each sphere
represents "volume." They show that in comparison to the
volume of the globe, the amount of water on the planet is very
small.

The largest sphere represents all of Earth's water. Its diameter

is about 860 miles (the distance from Salt Lake City, Utah, to
Topeka, Kansas) and has a volume of about 332,500,000 cubic
miles (mi3) (1,386,000,000 cubic kilometers (km3)). This sphere
includes all of the water in the oceans, ice caps, lakes, rivers,
groundwater, atmospheric water, and even the water in you,
your dog, and your tomato plant.

The blue sphere over Kentucky represents the world's liquid

fresh water (groundwater, lakes, swamp water, and rivers).

Do you notice the "tiny" bubble over Atlanta, Georgia? That

one represents fresh water in all the lakes and rivers on the
planet.
Water budget
equation
For a given problem area, say a catchment, in an interval of
time Dt, the continuity equation for water in its various phases
is written as
Mass inflow mass outflow = change in mass storage
If the density of the inflow, outflow, and storage volumes are
the same
Vi - V0 = ΔS (1.1)
where: Vi = inflow volume of water into the
problem area during the time
period
V₀ = outflow volume of water from the
problem area during the time period
ΔS = change in the storage of the water
volume over and under the given area
during the given period
In applying this continuity equation [Eq. (1.1)] to the paths of
the hydrologic cycle involving change of state, the volumes
considered are the equivalent volumes of water at a reference
temperature. In hydrologic calculations, the volumes are often
expressed as average depths over the catchment area. Thus,
for example, if the annual stream flow from a 10 km² catchment
107
is 10⁷ m³ , it corresponds to a depth of ( ) = 1 m = 100
10 × 106
cm. Rainfall, evaporation and often runoff volumes are
expressed in units of depth over the catchment.
While realizing that all the terms in a hydrological water
budget may not be known to the same degree of accuracy, an
expression for the water budget of a catchment for a time
interval Dt is written as
P - R - G - E - T = ΔS (1.2-a)
where: P = precipitation
R = surface runoff
G = net groundwater flow out of the
catchment
E = evaporation
The storage S consists of three components as

S = Ss + Ssm + Sg

where: Ss = surface water storage

Ssm = water in storage as soil moisture

Sg = water in storage as groundwater

Thus in Eq. (1.2-a) S = ΔSs + ΔSsm + ΔSg

All terms in Eq. (1.2-a) have the dimensions of volume.

Note that all these terms can be expressed as depth over
the catchment area (e.g. in centimeters), and in fact this is a
very common unit.

In terms of rainfall-runoff relationship, Eq. (1.2-a) can be

represented as

R=P-L (1.2-b)

where: L = Losses = water not available to runoff

due to infiltration (causing addition to
soil moisture and groundwater
storage), evaporation, transpiration and
surface storage.
World water considered are the equivalent volumes of water at a reference
temperature. In hydrologic calculations, the volumes are often
expressed as average depths over the catchment area. Thus,

Balance for example, if the annual stream flow from a 10 km² catchment

is 10⁷ m³ , it corresponds to a depth of (

107
) = 1 m = 100
For a given problem area, say a catchment, in an interval of 10 × 106
time Dt, the continuity equation for water in its various phases cm. Rainfall, evaporation and often runoff volumes are
is written as expressed in units of depth over the catchment.

Mass inflow mass outflow = change in mass storage While realizing that all the terms in a hydrological water
budget may not be known to the same degree of accuracy, an
If the density of the inflow, outflow, and storage volumes are expression for the water budget of a catchment for a time
the same interval Dt is written as

Vi - V0 = ΔS (1.1) P - R - G - E - T = ΔS (1.2-a)

where: Vi = inflow volume of water into the where: P = precipitation

problem area during the time
period R = surface runoff

V₀ = outflow volume of water from the G = net groundwater flow out of the
problem area during the time period catchment

ΔS = change in the storage of the water E = evaporation

volume over and under the given area
T = transpiration
during the given period
ΔS = change in storage
In applying this continuity equation [Eq. (1.1)] to the paths of
the hydrologic cycle involving change of state, the volumes
• RESIDENCE TIME. The average duration of a particle of
water to pass through a phase of the hydrologic cycle is
known as the residence time of that phase. It could be
calculated by dividing the volume of water in the phase by
the average fl ow rate in that phase. For example, by
assuming that all the surface runoff to the oceans comes
from the rivers, the volume of water in the rivers of the
world = 0.00212 M km³, the average fl ow rate of water in
global rivers = 44700 km³/year. Hence residence time of
global rivers, Tr = 2120/44700 = 0.0474 year = 17.3 days.

1.2 | Hydrologic Cycle
and the Human Impact
human
impact
INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Identify and examine human
activities that impact the
Hydrologic Cycle
Human activities that
impact the hydrological
cycle
• DEFORESTATION. Forests transport large quantities of water into the
atmosphere via plant transpiration. This replenishes the clouds and
instigates rain that maintains the forests. When deforestation occurs,
precious rain is lost from the area, fl owing away as river water and
causing permanent drying.
• URBANIZATION. Impervious surfaces associated with urbanization
alter the natural amount of water that takes each route. The
consequences of this change are a decrease in the volume of water
that percolates into the ground, and a resulting increase in volume
and decrease in quality of surface water.
• REFORESTATION AND AFFORESTATION. Tree growth can consume
more water than other shorter vegetation. According to the mass
balance principle, if more water is used by trees, less water will fl ow
into rivers and lakes or recharge the groundwater that people can
directly use.
• IRRIGATION. Irrigation is the artifi cial watering of land that • CLOUD SEEDING. Cloud seeding is a weather modifi cation,
does not get enough water through rainfall. ... Unfortunately it where you change the amount or type of precipitation that
removes water from rivers and can cause surface run-off and falls from clouds through the usage of harmful substances.
leaching. The problem with irrigation is that it removes water During this process, the substances that fall from the clouds
from its natural source and often causes leaching and run-off are dispersed into the air, causing cloud condensation which
where it is used. further affects climate conditions.
• AGRICULTURE. Causes reduced vegetation cover and soil
compaction from machinery use can reduce the amount of
water that drains into the soil and therefore increase run off.
this can increase soil erosion and the need for irrigation.
• INDUSTRY. Industries cause enormous water pollution: By
directly discharging their untreated effl uents into water
bodies like rivers and lakes. By letting their polluting effl uents
fl ow onto land so that they get absorbed into the soil and
pollute underground water.
• TRANSPORT. Air pollution caused by transportation have a
direct effect on water pollution. When particles like sulfur
dioxide get high into the air they can combine with rain to
produce acid rain. Acid rain can turn lakes acidic, killing fi shes
and other animals.
• DAMS. Dams change the timing, amount and chemical
composition of a river's fl ow, leading to dramatic changes to
groundwater-storing fl oodplains and wetlands. Such changes
can lead to the destruction of forests, which among other
things help regulate local climate.
ENGINEERING
HYDROLOGY

1 | Introduction to
Hydrology &
Weather Basics
 WATERSHED

• “A body of land bounded above by a ridge or water divide

1.3 | Philippine
and below by the level at which water drains from it.” (Bruce,
Watersheds 2017)

philippine • A high area of land where rain collects, some of it flowing

down to supply rivers, lakes, etc., at lower levels.

watersheds
• An area of land on a slope which drains its water into a stream
and its tributaries.

• It is also called as catchment area or drainage basin.

INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES

• Discuss the different definitions of

watershed according to Philippine
legislature

• Discuss the important properties

of watershed and its significance
in hydrologic analyses

• Identify the stream order using

Horton’s Law

• Draw a watershed’s boundaries

Philippine
watersheds
• According to the River Basin COntrol Office (RBCO), the
philippines has 142 critical watersheds.

• The watershed referred to under the IRR of RA 7942 is

“critical watershed,” which means a drainage area of a
river system, lake or water reservoir supporting existing
and proposed hydroelectric power, domestic water
supply, geothermal power and irrigation works that
need immediate rehabilitation and protection to
minimize soil erosion, improve water yield and prevent
possible flooding.

• PD 705 defi nes watershed as “a land area drained by a

stream or fi xed body of water and its tributaries having
a common outlet for surface run-off.” Moreover, the
same law defi nes watershed reservation as “a forest
land reservation established to protect or improve the
conditions of the water yield thereof or reduce
sedimentation.”
Watershed
Delineation
All watershed delineation means is that you’re drawing line on
a map to identify a watershed’s boundaries. These are typically
drawn on topographic maps using information from contour
lines. Contour lines are lines of equal elevation, so any point
along a given contour line is the same elevation.

INFORMATION SOURCES:
NAMRIA - National Mapping Resource Information Agency
DENR - Department of Environment and Natural Resources
Local Government

DIGITAL ELEVATION MODELS (DEM’s)

DEM’s store topographic data in the form of grid cells.
Typically, these grid cells have a resolution of 30 meters and
elevation intervals of 1 meter. Using a DEM within a
Geographic Information System (GIS), digital terrain analysis
(DTA) such as calculating slopes, fl ow lengths, and delineation
of watershed boundaries and stream networks can be
performed.
Delineation STEps
STEP 1: Mark the outlet. This is generally our point of
interest for designing a structure or monitoring
location.

STEP 2: Mark the high points adjacent to the water body.

STEP 3: Connect the marks. Always cross a contour line

at right angles (perpendicular).
watershed geomorphology:
Principal watershed
characteristics
• DRAINAGE AREA. The drainage area (A) is the probably the single
most important watershed characteristic for hydrologic design. It
refl ects the volume of water that can be generated from rainfall. It is
common in hydrologic design to assume a constant depth of rainfall
occurring uniformly over the watershed. Under this assumption, the
volume of water available for  runoff would be the product of rainfall
depth and the drainage area. Thus the drainage area is required as
input to models ranging from simple linear prediction equations to
complex computer models.
• WATERSHED LENGTH. The length (L) of a watershed is the second
watershed characteristic of interest. While the length increases as the
drainage increases, the length of a watershed is important in
hydrologic computations. Watershed length is usually defi ned as the
distance measured along the main channel from the watershed outlet
to the basin divide. Since the channel does not extend to the basin
divide, it is necessary to extend a line from the end of the channel to
the basin divide following a path where the greatest volume of water
would travel. The straight-line distance from the outlet point on the
watershed divide is not usually used to compute L because the travel
distance of fl oodwaters is conceptually the length of interest. Thus, the
length is measured along the principal fl ow path. Since it will be used
for hydrologic calculations, this length is more appropriately labeled
the hydrologic length.
WATERSHED GEOMORPHOLOGY refers to the physical
characteristics of the watershed. Certain physical properties
signifi cantly affect the characteristics of runoff and as such are of
great interest in hydrologic analyses.
• WATERSHED SLOPE. Flood magnitudes refl ect the momentum of the
runoff. Slope is an important factor in the momentum. Both watershed
and channel slope may be of interest. Watershed slope refl ects the
rate of change of elevation with respect to distance along the principal
fl ow  path. Typically, the principal fl ow path is delineated, and the
watershed slope (S) is computed as the difference in elevation (∆E)
between the end points of the principalfl ow path divided by the
hydrologic length of the fl ow path (L):
S = ∆E / L
• WATERSHED SHAPE. Basin shape is not usually used directly in
hydrologic design methods; however, parameters that refl ect basin
shape are used occasionally and have a conceptual basis. Watersheds
have an infi nite variety of shapes, and the shape supposedly refl ects
the way that runoff will “bunch up” at the outlet. A circular watershed
would result in runoff  from various parts of the watershed reaching the
outlet at the same time. An elliptical watershed having the outlet at one
end of the major axis and having the same area as the circular
watershed would cause the runoff to be spread out over time, thus
producing a smaller fl ood peak than that of the circular watershed.
• LAND USE AND SOIL CHARACTERISTICS. Land use and soil
characteristics affect both the volume and timing of runoff. During a
rainstorm, fl ow from an impervious, steeply sloped, and smooth,
surface make a little retardation and no loss to the fl ow. In comparison,
fl ow along a pervious grassy hill of the same size will produce
retardation and signifi cant loss to the fl ow due to infi ltration. A lot of
information about land use has been gathered over the years and is
available from maps or as GIS data sets. In some cases, a fi eld survey is
necessary to determine the various land uses within a watershed. Many
hydrological analyses deal with assessing the effect of land use
changes on runoff. For example, the development of a new residential
neighborhood is likely to have signifi cant impact on runoff
characteristics. Surface roughness, soil characteristics such as texture,
soil structure, soil moisture and hydrologic soil groups also affect the
runoff in various ways. For example; Soil properties affect the
infi ltration capacity. Soil particles are usually classifi ed as clay (d<0.002
mm), silt (0.002<d<0.02), or sand (d>0.02 mm). A particular soil is a
combination of clay, silt, and sand. Generally, soils with a signifi cant
portion of small particles have low infi ltration capacity, whereas sandy
soils have high infi ltration capacity.
Channel
so on. In general, an nth  order stream is a tributary formed by two or
more streams of order (n-1) and streams of lower order. For a
watershed, the principal order is defined as the order of the principal

geomorphology:
channel. The figure below gives an example of stream ordering.

• CHANNEL LENGTH. The distance measured along the main channel

from the watershed outlet to the end of the channel, which is denoted
as Lc.

• CHANNEL SLOPE. (Sc = ΔEc / Lc), where ΔEc is the difference in

elevation between the points defining the upper and lower ends of the
channel and Lc is the length of the channel between the same two
points. If the channel slope is not uniform, a weighted slope may
provide and index that better reflects the effect of slope on the
hydrologic response of the watershed.

• DRAINAGE DENSITY. (D = Lt / A).The drainage density, D, is the ratio

of the total length of streams (Lt) with in a watershed to the total area of
the watershed; thus D has units of the reciprocal of length (1/L). A high
value of the drainage density would indicate a relatively high density of
streams and thus a rapid storm response. Values typically ranges from
1.5 to 6 mi/mi2.

• HORTON’S LAWS. Horton (from Horton’s infi ltration equation fame)

developed a set of “laws” that are indicators of the geomorphological
characteristics of watershed. The stream order is a measure of the
degree of stream branching within a watershed. Each length of stream
is indicated by its order (for example, fi rst-order, second-order, etc.). A
fi rst-order stream is an unbranched tributary, a second-order stream is
a tributary formed by two or more fi rst-order streams. A third-order
stream is a tributary formed by two or more second-order streams and
ENGINEERING
HYDROLOGY

1 | Introduction to
Hydrology &
Weather Basics
Meteorology
METEOROLOGY is the science of the atmosphere. With
t h e i n c re a s i n g t e n d e n c y t o w a rd s p e c i a l i z a t i o n
characteristic of our time, the subject matter under the
general  heading of meteorology may be referred to
various subdivisions, or branches, depending partly on the
theoretical approach and partly on the application of
meteorology to human activities. 

PHYSICAL METEOROLOGY deals with processes of a

purely physical nature, such as radiation, heat, evaporation,
condensation, precipitation, ice accretion, and optical,
acoustical and electrical phenomena.

CLIMATOLOGY or STATISTICAL METEOROLOGY

determines the statistical relations, mean values, normals,
frequencies, variations, distributions, etc., of the
meteorological elements.

H Y D R O M E T E O R O LO GY i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h
meteorological problems relating to water supply, fl ood
control, irrigation, etc.
The hydrologic characteristics of a region are determined
largely by its climate and its geological structure. Among
the climatic factors that establish the hydrologic features of
a region are the amount and distribution of precipitation;
the occurrence of snow and ice; the effects of wind,
temperature and humidity on evaporation and snowmelt.
Hydrologic problems in which meteorology plays an
important role include determination of probable
maximum precipitation for spillway design, forecasts of
precipitation for reservoir operations, and determination of
probable maximum winds over water surfaces for
evaluating resulting waves in connection with the design of
dams and levees.
Weather vs climate

The difference between weather and climate is a measure of time.

Weather is what conditions of the atmosphere are over a short
period of time, and climate is how the atmosphere "behaves" over
relatively long periods of time.

What Weather Means What Climate Means

Weather is basically the way the atmosphere is behaving, mainly
with respect to its effects upon life and human activities. The
difference between weather and climate is that weather consists of
the short-term (minutes to months) changes in the atmosphere.
Most people think of weather in terms of temperature, humidity,
precipitation, cloudiness, brightness, visibility, wind, and
atmospheric pressure, as in high and low pressure. In most places,
weather can change from minute-to-minute, hour-to-hour, day-to-
day, and season-to-season.
There are really a lot of components to weather. Weather includes
sunshine, rain, cloud cover, winds, hail, snow, sleet, freezing rain,
flooding, blizzards, ice storms, thunderstorms, steady rains from a
cold front or warm front, excessive heat, heat waves and more.
Climate is the description of the long-term pattern of weather in a
particular area. Some scientists defi ne climate as the average
weather for a particular region and time period, usually taken over
30-years. It's really an average pattern of weather for a particular
region.
When scientists talk about climate, they're looking at averages of
precipitation, temperature, humidity, sunshine, wind velocity,
phenomena such as fog, frost, and hail storms, and other measures
of the weather that occur over a long period in a particular place.
For example, after looking at rain gauge data, lake and reservoir
levels, and satellite data, scientists can tell if during a summer, an
area was drier than average. If it continues to be drier than normal
over the course of many summers, than it would likely indicate a
change in the climate.
 the heat engine
If our planet were just a polished rock, with no air or oceans, the sun would
1.4 | The Atmosphere heat up the surface to very high temperatures on the lit side, while the dark
side’s surface would fall to very low temperatures. Fortunately, the
atmosphere, a gaseous blanket that traps heat and lets it go slowly, keeps

The the earth at a reasonable temperature, but also turns the planet into a
genuine, although not very efficient, heat engine.

The earth as a whole receives incoming solar radiation and emits it back as

atmosphere
INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES
terrestrial radiation. The globally averaged net radiation is zero in the long‐
term mean. However, the net solar radiation drops off by about a factor of
four between the equator and the poles. The poles emit more radiation than
they receive from the sun, while the tropics receive more radiation than they
emit back (see fig. 1.1)
• Discuss the composition,
characteristics and structure of the
atmosphere

• Define atmospheric stability

This difference causes the atmosphere to heat up more at the
equator than at the poles. It sets up an atmospheric conveyor
belt that transports the warm moist tropical air from its heat
source to a colder drier polar heat sink. The work done by the
atmospheric heat engine maintains the kinetic energy of the
general circulation against frictional dissipation, just as in a
Carnot cycle. The efficiency of this heat engine is rather small
and can be calculated using the following equation:
where η is the thermal efficiency and Tn the temperatures of
the source (H) and sink (C).
Assuming the polar temperature to be ‐30 oC (243 K) and the
tropical temperature to be 30 oC (303 K), then ΔT is 60 K, and
ΔT/TH would give about 20 %. In actual fact, and all considered,
the efficiency is really only about 1 %.
The earth being made of oceans and mountains, as well as
being a rotating body, the simple assumption of a direct
thermal circulation transporting heat towards the poles
straight from the tropics is a gross oversimplification. In reality,
energy is transported in the atmosphere in many ways and at
different scales. This transfer of energy is responsible for the
occurrence of weather
composition
The atmosphere (below 100 km) is roughly 78 % nitrogen and
21 % oxygen, by volume. Argon makes the remaining 1 %.
Other constituents are only present as traces and include, in
decreasing order of amount: Water vapour, Carbon dioxide,
Neon, Helium, Krypton, Hydrogen, Ozone.
Oxygen is a colorless, odourless, and tasteless element. It is
mostly seen as an inert diatomic gas at standard atmospheric
temperature and pressure. Nitrogen has the same
characteristics. Although scarce compared to nitrogen and
oxygen, water vapour, carbon dioxide, and ozone play an
important role in the thermal structure of the atmosphere as
they absorb radiation and trap heat.
In addition to gaseous substances, the lower levels of the
atmosphere contain quantities of solid particles. These
particles can reduce the visibility through the air, and are also
important in the process of condensation (gas to a liquid) and
sublimation (gas to a solid). If no solid particles were in the air,
it would be very difficult for cloud droplets to form and thus for
weather to occur.
thermal structure
The vertical distribution of temperature for the standard
atmosphere is shown in fig. 1.2. This profile is
representative of typical conditions in the middle latitudes.
Day to day or latitudinal variations will show a different
profile, but the main characteristics will remain.

The profile is divided into four distinct layers roughly

located at the heights listed below:

• Troposphere (0 to 10 km)

• Stratosphere (10 to 50 km)

• Mesosphere (50 to 80 km)

• Thermosphere (80 to 100 km)

The troposphere accounts for more than 80 % of the mass

of virtually all water vapour, clouds, and precipitation in the
earth’s atmosphere. In the troposphere, the temperature
decreases with increasing height, but temperature
inversions (temperature increasing with increasing height)
are possible near the surface.
The layer above, of constant or increasing temperature, is
called the stratosphere. Its vertical temperature profile
makes it very stable and dampens vertical motion. This
particular profile is due to the presence of ozone
absorbing ultraviolet rays. Very little mixing occurs
between the troposphere and the stratosphere. Due to the
extreme stability of the stratosphere, particles that are
emitted directly into it (from volcanic eruptions, nuclear
explosions, etc.) will remain there for a long time. Even the
strongest thunderstorms will only penetrate the
stratosphere to a few kilometres before their updrafts are
capped. The stratosphere therefore acts as a reservoir for
certain types of atmospheric pollution.
The transition between the two layers, called the
tropopause, is marked by abrupt changes in water vapour
and ozone concentration. Water vapour decreases and
ozone increases as one moves closer to the stratosphere.
The average height of the tropopause (or depth of the
troposphere) is about 11 kilometres. It can vary
considerably, however, and be of the order of 17
kilometres over the equator and about 8 kilometres over
the poles. The tropopause is generally higher in the
summer than in the winter.
The mesosphere and thermosphere are so high up and
so devoid of air and water, that their effect on the weather
is practically non‐existent. Consequently, this course will
only cover tropospheric phenomena
THE TROPOSPHERE
The troposphere is characterized by rather strong vertical
mixing and is where most weather phenomena take place.
It is further divided into two layers: the planetary
boundary layer and the free atmosphere.
The planetary boundary layer (PBL) is defined as the part of
the atmosphere that is strongly and directly influenced by
the presence of the surface of the earth. It responds to
surface forcings (solar heating, friction, evapotranspiration,
etc.) with a timescale of about an hour or less. The PBL is an
important part of the atmosphere, because it is where
almost all human activities take place, where most heating
gets into the atmosphere and where the ground affects
weather the most.
The daytime boundary layer is usually very turbulent, due
to ground level heating and winds. It can reach depths of
about 1500 m. At night‐time, surface cooling dampens the
turbulent activity of the boundary layer and its depth can
reduce to a few hundred metres.

The characteristics of the PBL greatly influence the

behaviour of atmospheric dispersion. Sunny summer
afternoon conditions will generally lead to a well‐mixed
and deep PBL. This will lead to the rapid and extensive
dilution of any pollutants released at the surface. On the
other hand, early morning, clear winter conditions will
often result in a very shallow boundary layer, resulting in
relatively high pollutant concentrations.

The free atmosphere is right above the boundary layer and

is not directly influence by local surface forcings. Although
air does flow between the boundary layer and the free
atmosphere, at night‐time or under special circumstances
the exchange can be very limited. Table 1.1 shows the
main differences between the two layers.
general variable that influence
characteristics the atmosphere
• The lower atmosphere contains varying amounts of water 1. TEMPERATURE
vapor, which determine its humidity.
2. PRESSURE
• Condensation and sublimation within the atmosphere
3. HUMIDITY
cause clouds or fog, and the resulting liquid water
droplets or ice crystals may precipitate to the ground as 4. CLOUDINESS
rain, sleet, snow, hail, dew, or frost.
5. WINDS
• Because of the pull of gravity the density of the
atmosphere and the pressure exerted by air molecules
are greatest near the earth's surface.
ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY
• Stability refers to a condition of equilibrium.

• When the atmosphere is stable, a parcel of air will want

to return to its original position after being raised or
lowered.

• Vertical motions are inhibited.

• Atmospheric stability is a measure of the atmosphere's

tendency to encourage or deter vertical motion, and
vertical motion is directly correlated to different types of
weather systems and their severity.

• The atmosphere is absolutely stable when the

environmental lapse rate is less than the moist adiabatic
lapse rate.
ENGINEERING
HYDROLOGY

1 | Introduction to
Hydrology &
Weather Basics
 Cloud physics is the study of the physical processes that lead to
the formation, growth and precipitation of atmospheric clouds.
1.5 | Introduction to Clouds consist of microscopic droplets of liquid water (warm
Cloud Physics clouds), tiny crystals of ice (cold clouds), or both (mixed phase
clouds). Cloud droplets initially form by the condensation of water

cloud vapor onto condensation nuclei when the super saturation of air
exceeds a critical value according to Köhler theory.

physics
INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES

• Describe how clouds are formed

and distributed

• Identify the different types of

clouds
cloud formation extratropical cyclones tend to generate mostly cirriform and
stratiform clouds over a wide area unless the approaching
Terrestrial clouds can be found throughout most of the
warm airmass is unstable, in which case cumulus congestus or
homosphere, which includes the troposphere, stratosphere,
cumulonimbus clouds are usually embedded in the main
and mesosphere. Within these layers of the atmosphere, air
precipitating cloud layer. Cold fronts are usually faster moving
can become saturated as a result of being cooled to its dew
and generate a narrower line of clouds, which are mostly
point or by having moisture added from an adjacent source. In
stratocumuliform, cumuliform, or cumulonimbiform depending
the latter case, saturation occurs when the dew point is raised
on the stability of the warm airmass just ahead of the front.
to the ambient air temperature.
Another agent is the convective upward motion of air caused
by daytime solar heating at surface level. Airmass instability

ADIABATIC COOLING
Adiabatic cooling occurs when one or more of three possible
lifting agents – cyclonic/frontal, convective, or orographic –
cause a parcel of air containing invisible water vapor to rise
and cool to its dew point, the temperature at which the air
allows for the formation of cumuliform clouds that can produce
showers if the air is sufficiently moist. On moderately rare
occasions, convective lift can be powerful enough to penetrate
the tropopause and push the cloud top into the stratosphere.
A third source of lift is wind circulation forcing air over a

becomes saturated. The main mechanism behind this process physical barrier such as a mountain (orographic lift). If the air is

is adiabatic cooling. As the air is cooled to its dew point and generally stable, nothing more than lenticular cap clouds form.

becomes saturated, water vapor normally condenses to form However, if the air becomes sufficiently moist and unstable,

cloud drops. This condensation normally occurs on cloud orographic showers or thunderstorms may appear.

condensation nuclei such as salt or dust particles that are small

enough to be held aloft by normal circulation of the air.

Frontal and cyclonic lift occur when stable air is forced aloft at
weather fronts and around centers of low pressure by a
process called convergence. Warm fronts associated with
NON-ADIABATIC COOLING
Along with adiabatic cooling that requires a lifting agent, three
major non-adiabatic mechanisms exist for lowering the
temperature of the air to its dew point. Conductive, radiational,
and evaporative cooling require no lifting mechanism and can
cause condensation at surface level resulting in the formation
of fog.
ADDING MOISTURE TO THE AIR
Several main sources of water vapor can be added to the air as
a way of achieving saturation without any cooling process:
water or moist ground, precipitation or virga, and transpiration
from plants
cloud DISTRIBUTION stability characteristics of the various air masses that are in
conflict.
CONVERGENCE ALONG LOW-PRESSURE ZONES

Although the local distribution of clouds can be significantly

influenced by topography, the global prevalence of cloud DIVERGENCE ALONG HIGH PRESSURE ZONES
cover in the troposphere tends to vary more by latitude. It is
most prevalent in and along low pressure zones of surface Divergence is the opposite of convergence. In the Earth's

tropospheric convergence which encircle the Earth close to the troposphere, it involves the horizontal outflow of air from the

equator and near the 50th parallels of latitude in the northern upper part of a rising column of air, or from the lower part of a

and southern hemispheres. The adiabatic cooling processes subsiding column often associated with an area or ridge of

that lead to the creation of clouds by way of lifting agents are high pressure. Cloudiness tends to be least prevalent near the

all associated with convergence; a process that involves the poles and in the subtropics close to the 30th parallels, north

horizontal inflow and accumulation of air at a given location, as and south. The latter are sometimes referred to as the horse

well as the rate at which this happens. Near the equator, latitudes. The presence of a large-scale high-pressure

increased cloudiness is due to the presence of the low- subtropical ridge on each side of the equator reduces

pressure Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) where very cloudiness at these low latitudes. Similar patterns also occur at

warm and unstable air promotes mostly cumuliform and higher latitudes in both hemispheres.

cumulonimbiform clouds. Clouds of virtually any type can form

along the mid-latitude convergence zones depending on the
stability and moisture content of the air. These extratropical
convergence zones are occupied by the polar fronts where air
masses of polar origin meet and clash with those of tropical or
subtropical origin. This leads to the formation of weather-
making extratropical cyclones composed of cloud systems that
may be stable or unstable to varying degrees according to the
TYPES OF CLOUDS
HIGH CLOUDS

1. CIRRUS. Detached clouds in the form of white, delicate

fi laments, mostly white patches or narrow bands. They may
have a fi brous (hair -like) and/or silky sheen appearance. Cirrus
clouds are always composed of ice crystals, and their
transparent character depends upon the degree of separation
of the crystals. As a rule when these clouds cross the sun's disk
they hardly diminish its brightness. Before sunrise and after
sunset, cirrus is often colored bright yellow or red. These clouds
are lit up long before other clouds and fade out much later.

2. CIRROSTRATUS. Transparent, whitish veil clouds with a fi brous

(hair -like) or smooth appearance. A sheet of cirrostratus which
is very extensive, nearly always ends by covering the whole sky.
A milky veil of fog (or thin Stratus) is distinguished from a veil of
Cirrostratus of a similar appearance by the halo phenomena
which the sun or the moon nearly always produces in a layer of
cirrostratus.

3. CIRROCUMULUS. Thin, white patch, sheet, or layered of clouds

without shading. They are composed of very small elements in
the form of more or less regularly arranged grains or ripples. In
general Cirrocumulus represents a degraded state of cirrus and
cirrostratus both of which may change into it and is an
uncommon cloud. There will be a connection with cirrus or
cirrostratus and will show some characteristics of ice crystal
clouds.
MID CLOUDS

1. ALTOSTRATUS. Gray or bluish cloud sheets or layers of striated

or fi brous clouds that totally or partially covers the sky. They are
thin enough to regularly reveal the sun as if seen through
ground glass. Altostratus clouds do not produce a halo
phenomenon nor are the shadows of objects on the ground
visible. Sometime virga is seen hanging from Altostratus, and at
times may even reach the ground causing very light
precipitation.

2. ALTOCUMULUS. White and/or gray patch, sheet or layered

clouds, generally composed of laminae (plates), rounded
masses or rolls. They may be partly fi brous or diffuse. When the
edge or a thin semitransparent patch of altocumulus passes in
front of the sun or moon a corona appears. This colored ring
has red on the outside and blue inside and occurs within a few
degrees of the sun or moon. The most common mid cloud,
more than one layer of Altocumulus often appears at different
levels at the same time. Many times Altocumulus will appear
with other cloud types.

3. NIMBOSTRATUS. The continuous rain cloud. Resulting from

thickening Altostratus, This is a dark gray cloud layer diffused by
falling rain or snow. It is thick enough throughout to blot out the
sun. The cloud base lowers into the low level of clouds as
precipitation continues. Also, low, ragged clouds frequently
occur beneath this cloud which sometimes merges with its
base.
LOW CLOUDS

1. CUMULUS. Detached, generally dense clouds and with sharp

outlines that develop vertically in the form of rising mounds, domes
or towers with bulging upper parts often resembling a caulifl ower.
The sunlit parts of these clouds are mostly brilliant white while their
bases are relatively dark and horizontal. Over land cumulus develops
on days of clear skies, and is due diurnal convection; it appears in the
morning, grows, and then more or less dissolves again toward
evening.

2. STRATUS. A generally gray cloud layer with a uniform base which

may, if thick enough, produce drizzle, ice prisms, or snow grains.
When the sun is visible through this cloud, its outline is clearly
discernible.Often when a layer of Stratus breaks up and dissipates
blue sky is seen.

3. CUMULONIMBUS. The thunderstorm cloud, this is a heavy and

dense cloud in the form of a mountain or huge tower. The upper
portion is usually smoothed, fi brous or striated and nearly always
fl attened in the shape of an anvil or vast plume. Under the base of
this cloud which is often very dark, there are often low ragged clouds
that may or may not merge with the base. They produce
precipitation, which sometimes is in the form of virga. Cumulonimbus
clouds also produce hail and tornadoes.

4. STRATOCUMULUS. Gray or whitish patch, sheet, or layered clouds

which almost always have dark tessellations (honeycomb
appearance), rounded masses or rolls. Except for virga they are non-
fi brous and may or may not be merged. They also have regularly
arranged small elements with an apparent width of more than fi ve
degrees (three fi ngers - at arm's length).
ENGINEERING
HYDROLOGY

1 | Introduction to
Hydrology &
Weather Basics
 The main source of energy at the Earth’s surface is radiant energy
from the Sun, termed solar radiation or insolation. It is the solar
1.6 | Solar Radiation radiation impinging on the Earth that fuels the heat engine driving
the hydrological cycle.

solar
radiation
INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES

• Discuss the sources of radiation

• Discuss the earth’s energy balance

radiation sources
All matter radiates energy in the form of electromagnetic
waves. The amount of energy and the wavelengths emitted are
dependent on the temperature of the matter. The hotter a
substance is, the greater the amount of emitted energy, and
the shorter the wavelength of the emission.

When it comes to fuelling the atmospheric heat engine, the

only source of energy that counts is the sun. The sun, a huge
nuclear reactor, emits electromagnetic radiation in all direction,
and the earth intercepts a small fraction of it. Radiation emitted
by the sun is referred to as short wave radiation. It ranges
from ultraviolet (0.12 µm) to near infrared (4 µm) and includes
visible light (0.34 to 0.7 µm). The earth, on the other hand,
being many times colder than the sun, emits long wave
radiation (i.e. infrared or IR). Except for the effect of distance,
radiation from the sun reaches the outer limit of the
atmosphere undepleted.

Electromagnetic radiation is not heat. Only if a substance

absorbs the radiation will it heat up and raise its temperature.
For a substance or a body to remain at constant temperature,
the heat absorbed must balance the heat emitted. As we will
see in the next section, the earth and its atmosphere radiate
back as much as they take in
earth’s energy budget
Gases are selective in the wavelengths that they absorb and
permit certain bands of wavelengths to pass through
unhindered in what are called windows. Other bands of
wavelengths are absorbed and cause the temperature of the
substance to rise. Air molecules, haze, dust, cloud particles
scatter and absorb radiation so that only a part of the energy
actually reaches the earth’s surface, either directly or indirectly
(see fig. 2.1).

Ozone is concentrated in a layer called the ozonosphere

extending from about 10 km up to 50 km. It absorbs most of
the solar ultraviolet (UV) radiation. If this ultraviolet radiation
were to reach the surface it would kill all life on earth.
The absorption of ultraviolet radiation by ozone raises the
temperature of the high atmosphere to near zero Celsius. As
the radiation penetrates further into the ozonosphere,
absorption gradually depletes the ultraviolet rays and the
temperature of the atmosphere steadily falls to a minimum at a
height that averages around 11 km (the tropopause). The
remainder of the solar radiation continues through the
atmosphere with only a small amount of it being absorbed by
other atmospheric constituents. Some of it is reflected back to
space from the atmosphere, cloud tops, or the earth’s surface.
The remainder is absorbed by the earth, which heats up and
radiates back in longer, infrared (IR) wavelengths.
Some of the outgoing IR radiation from the earth’s surface is
absorbed by the carbon dioxide and water vapour of the
atmosphere. The amount of heating that this creates decreases
with altitude as the radiation is depleted. Cloud, if present,
absorbs a great deal of terrestrial radiation and radiates it both
back to earth and out to space. Some of the terrestrial radiation
passes directly out to space through windows, and the
atmosphere itself radiates out to space. The outgoing radiation
balances the incoming radiation from the sun, so that the
earth’s average temperature remains nearly constant.
Because the atmosphere is transparent to solar radiation
(except for UVs) but absorbs long wave radiation from the
earth, the earth’s surface has a higher temperature on
average than it would have if there were no atmosphere.
Although a bit of a misnomer, this heating mechanism is
called the greenhouse effect. It is estimated that, without
this effect, the mean global surface temperature would be
about 30 degrees colder than the current average
temperature (~15 degrees). The addition of so‐called
greenhouse gases into the atmosphere would likely
change this balance and could produce a rise in the
average temperature of the earth.
ENGINEERING
HYDROLOGY

1 | Introduction to
Hydrology &
Weather Basics

1.7 | General Circulation
general
circulation
INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Discuss the general and thermal
circulations
A spatial imbalance between radiative inputs and outputs exists for the
earth-ocean-atmosphere system. The earth loses energy at all latitudes
due to outgoing infrared (IR) radiation. Near the tropics, more solar
radiation enters than IR leaves, hence there is a net input of radiative
energy. Near Earth’s poles, incoming solar radiation is too weak to
totally offset the IR cooling, allowing a net loss of energy. The result is
differential heating, creating warm equatorial air and cold polar air (Fig.
11.1a).
A spatial imbalance between radiative inputs and outputs exists for the
earth-ocean-atmosphere system. The earth loses energy at all latitudes
due to outgoing infrared (IR) radiation. Near the tropics, more solar
radiation enters than IR leaves, hence there is a net input of radiative
energy. Near Earth’s poles, incoming solar radiation is too weak to
totally offset the IR cooling, allowing a net loss of energy. The result is
differential heating, creating warm equatorial air and cold polar air (Fig.
11.1a).
A spatial imbalance between radiative inputs and outputs exists for the
earth-ocean-atmosphere system. The earth loses energy at all latitudes
due to outgoing infrared (IR) radiation. Near the tropics, more solar
radiation enters than IR leaves, hence there is a net input of radiative
energy. Near Earth’s poles, incoming solar radiation is too weak to
totally offset the IR cooling, allowing a net loss of energy. The result is
differential heating, creating warm equatorial air and cold polar air (Fig.
11.1a).
Consider a hypothetical rotating planet with no contrast
between continents and oceans. The climatological average
(average over 30 years; see the Climate chapter) winds in
such a simplified planet would have characteristics as
sketched in Figs. 11.3. Actual winds on any day could differ
from this climatological average due to transient weather
systems that perturb the average flow. Also, monthly-
average conditions tend to shift toward the summer
hemisphere (e.g., the circulation bands shift northward
during April through September).

NEAR THE SURFACE

Near-surface average winds are sketched in Fig. 11.3a. At

low latitudes are broad bands of persistent easterly winds
(U ≈ –7 m s –1 ) called trade winds, named because the
easterlies allowed sailing ships to conduct transoceanic
trade in the old days.

These trade winds also blow toward the equator from both
hemispheres, and the equatorial belt of convergence is
called the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ). On
average, the air at the ITCZ is hot and humid, with low
pressure, strong upward air motion, heavy convective
(thunderstorm) precipitation, and light to calm winds except
in thunderstorms. This equatorial trough (low-pressure belt)
was called the doldrums by sailors whose sailing ships were
becalmed there for many days.

At 30° latitude are belts of high surface pressure called

subtropical highs (Fig. 11.3a). In these belts are hot, dry, cloud-
free air descending from higher in the troposphere. Surface
winds in these belts are also calm on average. In the old days,
becalmed sailing ships would often run short of drinking water,
causing horses on board to die and be thrown overboard.
Hence, sailors called these miserable places the horse
latitudes. On land, many of the world’s deserts are near these
latitudes.

In mid-latitudes are transient centers of low pressure (mid-

latitude cyclones, L) and high pressure (anticyclones, H). Winds
around lows converge (come together) and circulate
cyclonically — counterclockwise in the N. Hemisphere, and
clockwise in the S. Hemisphere. Winds around highs diverge
(spread out) and rotate anticyclonically — clockwise in the N.
Hemisphere, and counterclockwise in the S. Hemisphere. The
cyclones are regions of bad weather (clouds, rain, high
humidity, strong winds) and fronts. The anticyclones are
regions of good weather (clear skies or fair-weather clouds, no
precipitation, dry air, and light winds).
The high- and low-pressure centers move on average from west to
east, driven by large-scale winds from the west. Although these
westerlies dominate the general circulation at mid-latitudes, the
surface winds are quite variable in time and space due to the sum
of the westerlies plus the transient circulations around the highs
and lows.
Near 60° latitude are belts of low surface pressure called subpolar
lows. Along these belts are light to calm winds, upward air motion,
clouds, cool temperatures, and precipitation (as snow in winter).
Near each pole is a climatological region of high pressure called a
polar high. In these regions are often clear skies, cold dry
descending air, light winds, and little snowfall. Between each polar
high (at 90°) and the subpolar low (at 60°) is a belt of weak easterly
winds, called the polar easterlies
UPPER-TROPOSPHERE
The stratosphere is strongly statically stable, and acts like a lid to
the troposphere. Thus, vertical circulations associated with our
weather are mostly trapped within the troposphere. These vertical
circulations couple the average near-surface winds with the average
upper-tropospheric (near the tropopause) winds described here
(Fig. 11.3b).
In the tropics is a belt of very strong equatorial high pressure along
the tops of the ITCZ thunderstorms. Air in this belt blows from the
east, due to easterly inertia from the trade winds being carried
upward in the thunderstorm convection. Diverging from this belt
are winds that blow toward the north in the N. Hemisphere, and
toward the south in the S. Hemisphere. As these winds move away
from the equator, they turn to have an increasingly westerly
component as they approach 30° latitude.
Near 30° latitude in each hemisphere is a persistent belt of strong
westerly winds at the tropopause called the subtropical jet. This jet
meanders north and south a bit. Pressure here is very high, but not
as high as over the equator.
In mid-latitudes at the tropopause is another belt of strong westerly
winds called the polar jet. The centerline of the polar jet meanders
north and south, resulting in a wave-like shape called a Rossby
wave (or planetary wave), as sketched in Fig. 11.1c. The
equatorward portions of the wave are known as low-pressure
troughs, and poleward portions are known as high-pressure ridges.
These ridges and troughs are very transient, and generally shift
from west to east relative to the ground.
Near 60° at the tropopause is a belt of low to medium pressure. At
each pole is a low-pressure center near the tropopause, with winds
at high latitudes generally blowing from the west causing a cyclonic
circulation around the polar low. Thus, contrary to near-surface
conditions, the near-tropopause average winds blow from the west
at all latitudes (except near the equator).
VERTICAL CIRCULATIONS
Vertical circulations of warm rising air in the tropics and descending air in
the subtropics are called Hadley cells or Hadley circulations (Fig. 11.4).
At the bottom of the Hadley cell are the trade winds. At the top, near the
tropopause, are divergent winds. The updraft portion of the Hadley
circulation often contains thunderstorms and heavy precipitation at the
ITCZ. This vigorous convection in the troposphere causes a high
tropopause (15 - 18 km altitude) and a belt of heavy rain in the tropics.
The summer- and winter-hemisphere Hadley cells are strongly
asymmetric (Fig. 11.4). The major Hadley circulation (denoted with
subscript “M”) crosses the equator, with rising air in the summer
hemisphere and descending air in the winter hemisphere. The updraft is
often between 0° and 15° latitudes in the summer hemisphere, and has
average core vertical velocities of 6 mm s –1 . The broader downdraft is
often found between 10° and 30° latitudes in the winter hemisphere,
with average velocity of about –4 mm s –1 in downdraft centers.
Connecting the up- and downdrafts are meridional wind components of
3 m s –1 at the cell top & bottom.
The major Hadley cell changes direction and shifts position between
summer and winter. During June-July-August-September, the average
solar declination angle is 15°N, and the updraft is in the Northern
Hemisphere (Fig. 11.4a). Out of these four months, the most well-defined
circulation occurs in August and September. At this time, the ITCZ is
centered at about 9°N, but varies with longitude.
During December-January-February-March, the average solar
declination angle is 14.9°S, and the major updraft is in the Southern
Hemisphere (Fig. 11.4c). Out of these four months, the strongest
circulation is during February and March, and the ITCZ is centered at
roughly 6°S, but varies with longitude. The major Hadley cell transports
significant heat away from the tropics, and also from the summer to the
winter hemisphere.
During the transition months (April-May and October-November)
between summer and winter, the Hadley circulation has nearly symmetric
Hadley cells in both hemispheres (Fig. 11.4b). During this transition, the
intensities of the Hadley circulations are weak.
When averaged over the whole year, the strong but reversing major
Hadley circulation partially cancels itself, resulting in an annual average
circulation that is somewhat weak and looks like Fig. 11.4b. This weak
annual average is deceiving, and does not reflect the true movement of
heat, moisture, and momentum by the winds. Hence, climate experts
prefer to look at months JJA and DJF separately to give seasonal
averages.
In the winter hemisphere, one or more jet streams circle the earth at mid-
latitudes while meandering north and south as Rossby waves (Fig. 11.1c).
When averaged around latitude bands, the net effect is a weak vertical
circulation called a Ferrel cell. At high latitudes is a modest polar cell.
In the summer hemisphere, all the circulations are weaker. There are
minor Hadley and Ferrel cells (Fig. 11.4). Summer-hemisphere
circulations are weaker because the temperature contrast between the
tropics and poles are weaker.
MONSOONAL CIRCULATIONS

Monsoon circulations are continental-scale circulations driven

by continent-ocean temperature contrasts, as sketched in Figs.
11.5. In summer, high-pressure centers (anticyclones) are over
the relatively warm oceans, and low-pressure centers
(cyclones) are over the hotter continents. In winter, low-
pressure centers are over the cool oceans, and high-pressure
centers are over the colder continents.

These monsoon circulations represent average conditions over

a season. The actual weather on any given day can be variable,
and can deviate from these seasonal averages.

Our Earth has a complex arrangement of continents and

oceans. As a result, seasonally-varying monsoonal circulations
are superimposed on the seasonally-varying planetary-scale
circulation to yield a complex and varying global-circulation
pattern.
THERMAL CIRCULATIONS
THERMAL CIRCULATION a circulation generated by pressure
gradients produced by differential heating. They tend to be shallow
and do not extend up through the depth of the troposphere.
Examples of thermal circulations are: sea breeze, land breeze,
monsoons, mountain and valley breezes.
Sea and land breezes are types of thermal circulation systems that
develop at the interface of land and ocean. At this interface, the
dissimilar heating and cooling characteristics of land and water
initiate the development of an atmospheric pressure gradient
which causes the air in these areas to fl ow.
At sunset, the land surface stops receiving radiation from the Sun
(Figure 7-5). As night continues the land surface begins losing heat
energy at a much faster rate than the water surface. After a few
hours, air temperature and pressure contrasts begin to develop
between the land and ocean surfaces. The land surface being
cooler than the water becomes a thermal high pressure area. The
ocean becomes a warm thermal low. Wind flow now moves from
the land to the open ocean. This type of localized air flow is called a
land breeze.

During the daytime land heats up much faster than water as it

receives solar radiation from the Sun (Figure 7-4). The warmer air
over the land then begins to expand and rise forming a low. At the
same time, the air over the ocean becomes a cool high because of
water's slower rate of heating. Air begins to flow as soon as there is
a significant difference in air temperature and pressure across the
land to sea gradient. The development of this pressure gradient
causes the heavier cooler air over the ocean to move toward the
land and to replace the air rising in the thermal low. This localized
air flow system is called a sea breeze. Sea breeze usually begins in
midmorning and reaches its maximum strength in the later
afternoon when the greatest temperature and pressure contrasts
exist. It dies down at sunset when air temperature and pressure
once again become similar across the two surfaces.
Mountain and valley breezes are common in regions with great
topographic relief (Figure 7-6 and 7-7). A valley breeze develops
during the day as the Sun heats the land surface and air at the
valley bottom and sides (Figure 7-6). As the air heats it becomes
less dense and buoyant and begins to fl ow gently up the valley
sides. Vertical ascent of the air rising along the sides of the
mountain is usually limited by the presence of a temperature
inversion layer. When the ascending air currents encounter the
inversion they are forced to move horizontally and then back down
to the valley fl oor. This creates a self-contained circulation system. If
conditions are right, the rising air can condense and form into
cumulus-type clouds.

During the night, the air along the mountain slopes begins to cool
quickly because of longwave radiation loss (Figure 7-7). As the air
cools, it becomes more dense and begins to flow downslope
causing a mountain breeze. Convergence of the draining air occurs
at the valley floor and forces the air to move vertically upward. The
upward movement is usually limited by the presence of a
temperature inversion which forces the air to begin moving
horizontally. This horizontal movement completes the circulation
cell system. In narrowing terrain, mountain winds can accelerate in
speed because of the venturi effect. Such winds can attain speeds
as high has 150 kilometers per hour.
Monsoons are regional scale wind systems that predictably change cooling rapidly as longwave radiation is emitted to space. The
direction with the passing of the seasons. Like land/sea breezes, ocean surface retains its heat energy longer because of water's
these wind systems are created by the temperature contrasts that high specific heat and subsurface mixing. The winter monsoons
exist between the surfaces of land and ocean. However, monsoons bring clear dry weather and winds that flow from land to sea.
are different from land/sea breezes both spatially and temporally.
Monsoons occur over distances of thousands of kilometers, and
their two dominant patterns of wind fl ow act over an annual time
scale.

During the summer, monsoon winds blow from the cooler ocean
surfaces onto the warmer continents. In the summer, the continents
become much warmer than the oceans because of a number of
factors. These factors include:
• Specific heat differences between land and water.
• Greater evaporation over water surfaces.
• Subsurface mixing in ocean basins which redistributes heat
energy through a deeper layer.

Precipitation is normally associated with the summer monsoons.

Onshore winds blowing inland from the warm ocean are very high
in humidity, and slight cooling of these air masses causes
condensation and rain. In some cases, this precipitation can be
greatly intensified by orographic uplift. Some highland areas in Asia
receive more than 10 meters of rain during the summer months.

In the winter, the wind patterns reverse as the ocean surfaces are
now warmer. With little solar energy available, the continents begin
ENGINEERING
HYDROLOGY

1 | Introduction to
Hydrology &
Weather Basics
 general distribution
If the Earth was a homogeneous body without the present land/
1.8 | Temperature and
ocean distribution, its temperature distribution would be strictly
Humidity latitudinal ( Figure 7m-1). However, the Earth is more complex than

temperature
this being composed of a mosaic of land and water. This mosaic
causes latitudinal zonation of temperature to be disrupted
spatially.

INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES

• Describe the general distribution

and variances of temperature on
earth

• Apply statistical treatment on

temperature measurements
The following two factors are important in influencing the
distribution of temperature on the Earth's surface:
Mainly because of specific heat, land surfaces behave quite
• The latitude of the location determines how much solar differently from water surfaces. In general, the surface of
radiation is received. Latitude influences the angle of any extensive deep body of water heats more slowly and
incidence and duration of daylength. cools more slowly than the surface of a large land body.
Other factors influencing the way land and water surfaces
• Surface properties - surfaces with high albedo absorb
heat and cool include:
less incident radiation. In general, land absorbs less
insolation that water because of its lighter color. Also, • Solar radiation warms an extensive layer in water, o n
even if two surfaces have the same albedo, a surface's land just the immediate surface is heated.
specific heat determines the amount of heat energy
• Water is easily mixed by the process of convection.
required for a specific rise in temperature per unit mass.
The specific heat of water is some five times greater than • Evaporation of water removes energy from water's
that of rock and the land surface (see Table 7m-1 below). surface.
As a result, water requires the input of large amounts of
energy to cause a rise in its temperature.
AIR TEMPERATURE AIR TEMPERATURE
TEMPERATURE VARIATION
DIURNAL VARIATION is the change in temperature from
day to night brought about by the daily rotation of the
Earth. The Earth receives heat during the day by solar
radiation and warms up. During the night, the Earth loses
energy and cools down even until sunrise.
SEASONAL VARIATION is the change in temperature due
to seasonal variation of the angle of incident solar radiation
between hemispheres brought about by the tilting of the
Earth‟s axis during its orbit around the sun. The Northern
Hemisphere is warmer in June, July, and August because it
receives more solar energy than does the Southern
Hemisphere. During December, January, and February, the
opposite is true; the Southern Hemisphere receives more
solar energy and is warmer.
VARIATION WITH LATITUDE is the change in temperature
due to the variation in the angle of incident solar radiation
in contact with the geographical surface profi le of the
Earth. Since the Earth is essentially spherical, the sun is
more nearly overhead in equatorial regions than at higher
latitudes. Equatorial regions, therefore, receive the most
radiant energy and are warmest.
VARIATION WITH TOPOGRAPHY is the change in
temperature not related to movement or shape of the
earth are temperature variations induced by water and
terrain. Water absorbs and radiates energy with less
temperature change than does land. Large, deep water
bodies tend to minimize temperature changes, while
continents favor large changes. Wet soil such as in swamps
and marshes is almost as effective as water in suppressing
temperature changes. Thick vegetation tends to control
temperature changes since it contains some water and also
insulates against heat transfer between the ground and the
atmosphere.
VARIATION WITH ALTITUDE. Temperature varies as one
move vertically upward from the Earth‟s surface.
Temperature normally decreases with increasing altitude
throughout the troposphere. This decrease of temperature
with altitude is defined as lapse rate. An increase in
temperature with altitude is defined as an inversion, i.e.,
lapse rate is inverted.
An inversion often develops near the ground on clear, cool
nights when wind is light. The ground radiates and cools
much faster than the overlying air. Air in contact with the
ground becomes cold while the temperature a few
hundred feet above changes very little. Thus, temperature
increases with height. Inversions may also occur at any
altitude when conditions are favorable. Inversions are
common in the stratosphere.
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
Temperature is measured with thermometers that may be mean of the daily minimum and maximum readings). The
calibrated to a variety of temperature scales: world‟s average surface air temperature is about 15ºC.

• Celsius scale – measure temperature using the Celsius

scale

• Kelvin scale – measure thermodynamics temperature

• Rankine scale – a shifted Fahrenheit scale, used when

working in thermodynamic related disciplines such as
combustion.

A thermometer is an instrument that operates on the

principle of thermal expansion of the material used, e.g.
liquids like mercury and alcohol, metallic materials, etc.

The global temperature records and measurements are

typically acquired using the satellite or ground
instrumental temperature measurements, the usually
compiled using a database or c The true daily mean,
obtained from a thermograph, is approximated by the
mean of 24 hourly readings (which is not the same as the
 general distribution
The most humid cities on earth are generally located closer to the
1.8 | Temperature and
equator, near coastal regions. Cities in South and Southeast Asia
Humidity are among the most humid. Kuala Lumpur, Manila, Jakarta, and

humidity
Singapore have very high humidity all year round because of their
proximity to water bodies and the equator and often overcast
weather. Some places experience extreme humidity during their
rainy seasons combined with warmth giving the feel of a lukewarm
sauna, such as Kolkata, Chennai and Cochin in India, and Lahore in
Pakistan.

INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES

• Describe the general distribution

and types of humidity on earth

• Identify the devices that measures

humidity
types of humidity
ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY is is the total mass of water vapor present in
a given volume or mass of air. It does not take temperature into
consideration. Absolute humidity in the atmosphere ranges from
near zero to roughly 30  grams per cubic metre when the air is
saturated at 30 °C (86 °F).
Absolute humidity is the mass of the water vapor (mH20), divided by
the volume of the air and water vapor mixture (Vnet), which can be
expressed as:
mH2 0
AH = . dew, or fog. In hot summer weather, a rise in relative humidity
Vnet
The absolute humidity changes as air temperature or pressure
changes, if the volume is not fixed. This makes it unsuitable for
chemical engineering calculations, e.g. in drying, where
temperature can vary considerably. As a result, absolute humidity in
chemical engineering may refer to mass of water vapor per unit
mass of dry air, also known as the humidity ratio or mass mixing
ratio (see "specific humidity" below), which is better suited for heat
and mass balance calculations. Mass of water per unit volume as in
the equation above is also defined as volumetric humidity. Because
of the potential confusion, British Standard BS 1339 suggests
avoiding the term "absolute humidity". Units should always be
carefully checked. Many humidity charts are given in g/kg or kg/kg,
but any mass units may be used.
RELATIVE HUMIDITY of an air-water mixture is defi ned as the ratio
of the partial pressure of water vapor (pH2 0) in the mixture to the
equilibrium vapor pressure of water (p* ) over a fl at surface of pure
H0 2
water at a given temperature:
pH2 0
RH =
p*
H2 0
Relative humidity is normally expressed as a percentage; a higher
percentage means that the air-water mixture is more humid.
Relative humidity is an important metric used in weather forecasts
and reports, as it is an indicator of the likelihood of precipitation,
increases the apparent temperature to humans (and other animals)
by hindering the evaporation of perspiration from the skin. For
example, according to the Heat Index, a relative humidity of 75% at
air temperature of 80.0 °F (26.7 °C) would feel like 83.6 °F ±1.3 °F
(28.7 °C ±0.7 °C).
SPECIFIC HUMIDITY or moisture content is the ratio of the mass of
water vapor to the total mass of the air parcel. Specifi c humidity is
approximately equal to the mixing ratio, which is defi ned as the
ratio of the mass of water vapor in an air parcel to the mass of dry
air for the same parcel. As temperature decreases, the amount of
water vapor needed to reach saturation also decreases. As the
temperature of a parcel of air becomes lower it will eventually reach
the point of saturation without adding or losing water mass.
measurement
A device used to measure humidity is called a psychrometer or
hygrometer. A humidistat is a humidity-triggered switch, often
used to control a dehumidifier.

There are various devices used to measure and regulate humidity.

Calibration standards for the most accurate measurement include
the gravimetric hygrometer, chilled mirror hygrometer, and
electrolytic hygrometer. The gravimetric method, while the most
accurate, is very cumbersome. For fast and very accurate
measurement the chilled mirror method is effective. For process on-
line measurements, the most commonly used sensors nowadays
are based on capacitance measurements to measure relative
humidity, frequently with internal conversions to display absolute
humidity as well. These are cheap, simple, generally accurate and
relatively robust. All humidity sensors face problems in measuring
dust-laden gas, such as exhaust streams from dryers.

Humidity is also measured on a global scale using remotely placed

satellites. These satellites are able to detect the concentration of
water in the troposphere at altitudes between 4 and 12 kilometres.
Satellites that can measure water vapor have sensors that are
sensitive to infrared radiation. Water vapor specifically absorbs and
re-radiates radiation in this spectral band. Satellite water vapor
imagery plays an important role in monitoring climate conditions
(like the formation of thunderstorms) and in the development of
weather forecasts.
types of humidity
ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY is is the total mass of water vapor present in
a given volume or mass of air. It does not take temperature into
consideration. Absolute humidity in the atmosphere ranges from
near zero to roughly 30  grams per cubic metre when the air is
saturated at 30 °C (86 °F).
Absolute humidity is the mass of the water vapor (mH20), divided by
the volume of the air and water vapor mixture (Vnet), which can be
expressed as:
mH2 0
AH = . dew, or fog. In hot summer weather, a rise in relative humidity
Vnet
The absolute humidity changes as air temperature or pressure
changes, if the volume is not fixed. This makes it unsuitable for
chemical engineering calculations, e.g. in drying, where
temperature can vary considerably. As a result, absolute humidity in
chemical engineering may refer to mass of water vapor per unit
mass of dry air, also known as the humidity ratio or mass mixing
ratio (see "specific humidity" below), which is better suited for heat
and mass balance calculations. Mass of water per unit volume as in
the equation above is also defined as volumetric humidity. Because
of the potential confusion, British Standard BS 1339 suggests
avoiding the term "absolute humidity". Units should always be
carefully checked. Many humidity charts are given in g/kg or kg/kg,
but any mass units may be used.
RELATIVE HUMIDITY of an air-water mixture is defi ned as the ratio
of the partial pressure of water vapor (pH2 0) in the mixture to the
equilibrium vapor pressure of water (p* ) over a fl at surface of pure
H0 2
water at a given temperature:
pH2 0
RH =
p*
H2 0
Relative humidity is normally expressed as a percentage; a higher
percentage means that the air-water mixture is more humid.
Relative humidity is an important metric used in weather forecasts
and reports, as it is an indicator of the likelihood of precipitation,
increases the apparent temperature to humans (and other animals)
by hindering the evaporation of perspiration from the skin. For
example, according to the Heat Index, a relative humidity of 75% at
air temperature of 80.0 °F (26.7 °C) would feel like 83.6 °F ±1.3 °F
(28.7 °C ±0.7 °C).
SPECIFIC HUMIDITY or moisture content is the ratio of the mass of
water vapor to the total mass of the air parcel. Specifi c humidity is
approximately equal to the mixing ratio, which is defi ned as the
ratio of the mass of water vapor in an air parcel to the mass of dry
air for the same parcel. As temperature decreases, the amount of
water vapor needed to reach saturation also decreases. As the
temperature of a parcel of air becomes lower it will eventually reach
the point of saturation without adding or losing water mass.