HYAP 322 – INTRODUCTION  Philippine Atmospheric Geophysical and

HYDROLOGY Astronomical Services Administration

ENGR. JESSA MAE A. GOMEZ, CE
PART I - DESCRIPTIVE HYDROLOGY
OUTLINE
o HYDROLOGY (DEFINITION & IMPORTANCE)
o SCIENCE ALLIED TO HYDROLOGY
o HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
HYDROLOGY
o The science that treats of the waters of the
earth, their occurrence, circulation and
distribution, their chemical and physical
properties, their reaction to environment,
including their relation to the living things.
o Hydrology is an extremely important field of
study, dealing with one of the most valuable
resources on Earth: water. All aspects of the
Earth’s available water are studied by experts
from many disciplines,
from geologists to engineers, to obtain the
information needed to manage this vital
resource.
Hydrology is dependent on some Allied Sciences such as
the following:
1. Meteorology and Climatology
2. Physical Geography
3. Agronomy and Forestry
4. Geology and Soil Sciences
5. Oceanography
6. Hydraulics
METEOROLOGY
• The Science which deals with the atmospheric
phenomenon and the basic laws that produce
atmosphere, the agent through which many of
the hydrologic characteristics are brought
about.
CLIMATOLOGY
 The subdivision of Meteorology which deals
with the means and extremes of weather
phenomenon.
 The agency concerned with weather conditions.
Meteorology and Climatology are related to Hydrology
since weather of a region governs many of its hydrologic
features through rain, snow, evaporation, heat, cold
and wind.
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
• Hydrology is affected materially by the physical
features of the earth’s surface.
• From Geography, knowledge is obtained of
mountains that may increase or obstruct
precipitation, of steep slopes that may increase
run-off, and of lakes and swamps that may store
and retard run-off.
AGRONOMY AND FORESTRY
 Hydrology is also concerned with the character
and distribution of vegetable cover in a locality.
 Vegetation has an important effect on the rate
of run-off, the amount of water evaporated,
and the ability of the soil cover two infiltrate
water.
GEOLOGY AND SOIL SCIENCE
• The distribution of water on and within the
earth’s surface is greatly affected by the
composition of the earth’s crust.
OCEANOGRAPHY
 Oceans and great inland bodies are nature’s
reservoirs from which moisture is brought to
land surface by way of the atmosphere.
HYDRAULICS
 The Sciences (Hydrology & Hydraulics) overlap
to such extent that it becomes a matter of
opinion which procedure can be called purely
hydrology, and which purely hydraulic.
 The steady flow of water in river channels, the
transmission of flood waves, the infiltration of
water into the ground, etc. involve hydraulics
principles.

PAG-ASA HYDROLOGY AND ITS RELATION TO WATER

RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT
The most important use of Hydrology in Water
Resources Engineering is in the structural and hydraulic
design of water control structures, municipal and
industrial water supply, irrigation structures, power
development, flood control, river navigation, erosion
control and in pollution abatement.
HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
The hydrologic cycle is the unending circulation of water
from the seas to the atmosphere, to the ground surface
back to the seas again.
The process of water circulation may be discussed in the
following steps:
o Evaporation of water from the surface of seas
and oceans, lakes, swamps; from the surface of
the soil, and from the leaves of plants through
transpiration.
o Lifting of the moisture to the atmosphere and
its condensation. Lifting may be orographic,
cyclonic or convective.
o Falling of water to the earth’s surface as
precipitation.
o Part of precipitation after interception of the
foliage evaporates to the atmosphere.
o Part of precipitation runs-off the ground
surface going to the rivers and streams.
o Part of precipitation soaks into the ground,
some infiltrates to the deeper zones which may
join the groundwater, while some may flow as
spring to streams and eventually lead back the
water to the seas and oceans from it originated.
To summarize, the following are the processes that
composed the Hydrologic Cycle:
1. Evaporation – the transfer of water from liquid to
vapor state.
2. Lifting – the process of bringing to the atmosphere
the evaporated water.
3. Condensation – the change of moisture from vapor
to liquid state.
4. Precipitation – the fall of moisture from the
atmosphere to the earth’s surface.
5. Interception – the suspension of a portion of the
precipitation by vegetation.
6. Run-off – the flow of water on the earth’s surface due
to the action of gravity.
7. Percolation – the downward movement of water into
the ground.
8. Infiltration – the underground movement of water to
the deeper zone to join groundwater.
9. Transpiration – the process wherein moisture is
released into the air by the leaves of the plants.
10. Storage – the accumulation of water in the oceans,
seas or in man-made reservoirs.
PART II – PRECIPITATION
OUTLINE
o FORMS & KINDS OF PRECIPITATION
o OCCURENCES & DISPOSAL OF PRECIPITATION
o RAINFALL MEASUREMENTS
o COMPUTATION OF AVERAGE RAINFALL
PRECIPITATION
o Includes all water which fall from the
atmosphere to the earth’s surface.
o It is always expressed as the depth of liquid
water on a horizontal surface in a day, in a
month, or a year, and so designated as daily,
monthly or annual precipitation.
FORMS OF PRECIPITATION
Depending upon meteorological conditions,
precipitation occurs mainly in two forms:
1. Liquid precipitation - which runs-off to the
streams soon after it reaches the ground. It is
the cause of most floods.
2. Frozen precipitation - that remains where it
falls for a long time before it melts.
A BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF VARIOUS FORMS OF
PRECIPITATION ARE AS FOLLOWS:
1. Rain – when the water droplets are over 0.5
mm in diameter.
2. Drizzle – when the water droplets are under 0.5
mm in diameter and of intensity less than 1 mm
per hour.
3. Dew – it is found by the condensation of water
vapor present in the air due to the cooling of
the ground surface and of the air immediately
 above it. Dew are tiny drops of water that form
on cool surfaces at night, when atmospheric
vapor condenses.
4. Fog – consists of water droplets so small and
with negligible fall velocities that they stay in
the atmosphere at or near the earth’s surface
which obscures or restricts visibility. Fog
particles which come in contact with vegetation
may adhere and coalesce with other droplets
that they eventually form a large drop to fall on
the ground and is called fog drips.
5. Glaze – it is drizzle or rain frozen as it comes in
contact with cold objects at water surface.
6. Sleet – it is frozen raindrops cooled to ice stage
while falling through air at sub-freezing
temperature.
7. Snow – it is precipitation from the atmosphere
in the form of branched hexagonal crystals,
often mixed with simple ice crystals, which fall
more or less continuously from a solid clout
sheet.
8. Snow Flakes – it is the form of a number of ice
crystals fused together.
KINDS OF PRECIPITATION
Precipitation is often classified according to the
factor responsible for the lifting of air masses, as the
following:
1. Convective Precipitation
• It results from the upward movement of the air
that is warmer than its surroundings. The effect
maybe caused by the difference between hot
bare fields and cool woods; between land and
lake; or between streets and roofs of the city
that is warmer than the surrounding
countryside.
• Convective precipitation is spotty, and its
intensity varies from light showers to cloud
burst, depending on the temperature and
moisture condition. This process accounts for
the formation of most thunderstorms.
2. Orographic Precipitation
• Precipitation caused by dynamic cooling of air
as an air current rises over a mountain barrier is
termed as orographic or mountain type
precipitation.
• When moisture-bearing winds, usually blowing
from oceans to land surface are forced up by
the influence of coastal mountain ranges the
cooling and condensation processes take place
and precipitation occurs at the windward slopes
of the mountains.
• Precipitation is heavier on the windward slopes
than on the leeward sides. Orographic
precipitation is ordinarily of low intensity unless
it is associated with cyclonic or convective
action.
3. Cyclonic Precipitation
• It is the precipitation associated with the
passages of depressions or cyclones. It results
from the lifting of air converging into a low-
pressure area, or cyclones (circular are of low
atmospheric pressure in which the wind blow
counterclockwise).
• Intense cyclonic circulation causes a
concentration or converge of moisture-bearing
air which may result in heavy and prolonged
precipitation.
PRECIPITATION OCCURENCE
• Water vapor, from which precipitation is
derived, is present in the atmosphere as a gas,
in varying amount at all times.
• About one-half of the total moisture in the
atmosphere is located below an altitude of 2000
meters. The moisture content decreases with
the altitude.
• The amount of water vapor which a given
quantity of air can hold varies with
temperature. Warm air can retain a large
amount of moisture without this moisture
tending to condense, bit if the temperature is
lowered, a certain point is reached when the
moisture tends to separate out, generally in the
form of cloud or condensed particles of vapor.
• Air at this temperature, called the dew point,
the air is said to be saturated.
• The wetness of the air under any condition is
known as the relative humidity.
•
DISPOSAL OF PRECIPITATION
Precipitation that reaches the surface of the earth is
disposed off by the following processes:
1. Run-off
2. Evaporation
3. Percolation
 percolation, and run-off is affected by
the condition of the land surface such
THE FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE DISPOSAL OF
as whether it is bare, vegetated or
PRECIPITATION ARE CLASSIFIED AS FOLLOWS:
cultivated.
1. Meteorological Conditions
3. Storage Characteristics
o Precipitation. Precipitation disposal
Lakes, artificial reservoirs, swamps, etc.,
depends on the amount, intensity,
tend to increase water losses due to greater
occurrence, on the area covered and
evaporation from water areas compared to land
seasonal distribution of precipitation
areas.
throughout the year.
Water losses comprise the difference
o Temperature. The disposal of
between run-off and precipitation. They take
precipitation is affected by the place from water surface as well as land areas.
temperature because evaporation and
transpiration losses increased with Evaporation from water areas is the process
temperature, being the minimum under which a portion of water near its surface
during winter and maximum during is changed to gaseous state or water vapor. This
summer. changed is affected by the following factors:

o Relative Humidity. It also affects 1. Vapor pressure difference

evaporation which is more less inversely 2. Temperature of the air and water
proportional to humidity. 3. Relative humidity
4. Atmospheric pressure
o Wind. Wind velocity affects the amount 5. Wind velocity
of evaporation and interception losses. 6. Water depth
2. Drainage-area Characteristics 7. Water surface area
8. Water quality
Drainage area, or river basin, or The water losses on account of the evaporation of
catchment, or watershed is the area tributary rainfall at or just below the ground surface is termed
to a given point of a stream and is separated soil evaporation. It depends upon the following:
from adjacent basin by a divide or ridge. 1. Land surface condition
Some of its characteristics that affect disposal of 2. Soil & subsoil characteristics
precipitation are: 3. Temperature
4. Relative humidity
 Topography. The disposal of 5. Wind velocity
precipitation is greatly affected by the 6. Slope of the ground
slopes of the land surface.

 Size and Shape of catchment. The size

and shape of the drainage area also
determine the rate of disposal of
precipitation.

 Geology. The disposal of precipitation is

influenced by the character of the
surface and subsurface conditions such
as perviousness, depth of strata,
presence of faults, fissures, etc.
Water losses per annum due to evaporation of rainfall
 Conditions of surface area. The rate of
caught and held in suspension by vegetation which is
disposal of precipitation by evaporation,
evaporated before reaching the ground is known as
interception.
It varies with the kind of storm and the kind of
vegetation.
The percentage of interception losses is highest, nearly
100% in light showers and about25% under heavy rains.
Interception is measured by instruments called
interceptometers.
Potometer
RAINFALL MEASUREMENT
• Rainfall is described as the total liquid product
or condensation from the atmosphere as
received and measured in a rain gage (the
instrument used for measuring rainfall).
• The amount of precipitation is expressed as the
depth in inches or millimeters which falls on a
level surface.
The following causes are favorable to abundant rainfall
1. Proximity to the ocean or large areas of water
2. Mountain formations
3. Winds
4. Location on or near the tract of cyclones
TYPES OF RAIN GAUGES
1. Standard rain gauge. - It consists of a funnel
200 mm (8”) in diameter and discharging into a
tube having an area of one-tenth of the funnel
and a measuring stick used to determine the
height of water in the tube. The reading divided
by 10, is the rainfall. Precipitation in excess of
50 mm (2”) overtops the inner tube and collects
in the overflow can.
2. Storage gauge - These are large rain gages used
in remote areas to catch and store rain fall for
periods of 30 days or more.
3. Self-recording Rain Gauge - These are used to
determine rates of rainfall over short period of
time.
- They give continuous records of rainfall in the form of
a pen trace on a clock-driven chart.
THE KINDS OF RECORDING RAIN GAGE ARE:
a). Weighing Bucket Rain Gauge – the most common
type. It has a bucket supported by a spring or lever
balance.
- Movement of the bucket is transmitted to a pen which
traces a record of the increasing weight of the bucket
and its content on a clock driven chart.
b) Tipping Bucket Rain Gage – consists of a pair of
bucket pivoted under a funnel in such a way that when
one bucket receives 0.25 mm (0.01”) of rain, it tips
discharging its contents into a reservoir and bringing the
other bucket under the funnel. A recording mechanism
indicates the time of occurrence of its tip.
- Consists of 30 cm dia. sharp edge receiver.
- At the end of receiver funnel is provided.
- Under the funnel a pair of buckets are pivoted (the
central point which balances) in such away that when
one bucket receives 0.25 mm (0.01”) of rainfall it tips (to
fall or turn over), discharging its contents into reservoir
bringing another bucket under funnel.
- Tipping of bucket completes an electric circuit causing
the movement of pen to mark on clock driven revolving
drum which carries a record sheet.
c) Float type Rain Gauge – it has 127 mm funnel, a
rectangular float chamber containing at its bottom a
light, hollow float. As the water level rises, in the
chamber, the float also rises. The movement is
transmitted through a suitable mechanism to a pen
when moves a revolving chart to give a mass diagram of
the rainfall.
ADVANTAGES OF SELF-RECORDING RAIN GAUGE
1. Automatic recording of rainfall obviates he
necessity of attendant.
2. It indicates intensity as well as the total amount
of rainfall.
3. Very useful in obtaining the data from the
inaccessible places.
4. The elements of human error is eliminated.
 5. The capacity of the gages is big.
6. It also measures the time duration of rainfall.

MEASUREMENT OF RAINFALL BY RADAR

 Radars are versatile instruments for measuring
rainfall.
 Estimations are made by photographic or
electronic integration of echoes ware then
correlated with the measured rainfall. The
amount reflected is dependent on the raindrop
size and the distance from the transmitter.
 One radar is capable of measuring rainfall to a
range of about 100 km with the accuracy as is
obtainable with 100 rain gages with network
commonly used for climatological purposes.
Thiessen polygon method
COMPUTATION OF AVERAGE RAINFALL OVER A BASIN - It is also called the weighted mean method. It
• The rainfall measurements, recorded at various consists of constructing a Thiessen Network by
rain gauge stations are then converted into connecting adjacent stations on a map by
aerial area. straight lines and erecting perpendicular to each
• If one rain gauge is used, the rainfall is applied connecting line.
over the area. - The polygon formed by the perpendicular
• Where more than one rain gauge is used, the bisectors around a station encloses area which
following methods may be employed to is everywhere closer to that station than to any
determine the average rainfall over a basin: other station.
 Arithmetic Unweighted mean Method - This area is assumed to be best represented by
 Thiessen Polygon Method the precipitation at the enclosed station, often a
 Isohyetal Method reasonable assumption, but may not always be
correct.
Arithmetic Unweighted Mean Method
- It is the simplest method of working out the - To compute the average rainfall, multiply the
equivalent average depth of rainfall over the area of each polygon by the rain gage value of
catchment area by taking simple arithmetic the station enclosed, find the total area of the
mean of the rainfall records at various gage watershed, and determine the average rainfall
stations irrespective of the area covered by from the equation:
each station. A 1 P1 + A 2 P2 + A 3 P 3 … … .+ A n Pn
- The results obtained by this method involve - Pav =
A1 + A2 +… … .. A n
large errors if the rain gages are not distributed
uniformly over the area and if there are
differences of topography or rainfall rates also
in actual storm situation.
P 1+ P2 + P3 +… … ..+ Pn
Pav =
n
Continuation:
Sample problem

In a catchment area with given boundaries, area (km 2)

covered by each station and precipitations (cm) for
every station, determine the average precipitation by
Thiessen method by completing the table.

Isohyetal method

- It is perhaps the most accurate method of

determining the average depth of precipitation.
- This method consists of preparing isohyetal map
of the area using the rainfall reading at various
rain gauge stations, finding the areas enclosed
between successive isohyets (lines connecting
points of equal rainfall) by means of a
planimeter or graphing paper, and multiplying
these areas by the average precipitation
between the isohyets.
- The sum of these products divided by the total
area is the average precipitation over the basin.