Geologically Active – Williams et al.

(eds)
© 2010 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-0-415-60034-7

A review of symptoms and consequences of iron oxidizing

bacteria in ground engineering

A. Gillarduzzi
High-Point Rendel Ltd., London, UK

ABSTRACT: Iron oxidising bacteria (IOB) activity can detrimentally affect temporary and
permanent dewatering systems, civil engineering works, infrastructure, open-loop geother-
mal systems and construction materials. Although IOB are not conventionally considered
a geo-hazard, the construction industry often assumes that practicing ground engineers are
capable and responsible for identifying any hazards “arising” from the ground and ground-
water. This paper provides an overview and describes the symptoms and consequences of
IOB contamination with the scope to raise awareness of this problem. Once IOB have estab-
lished, they become extremely difficult to eradicate completely. This bacterial contamination
has the potentially to compromise the performance and lifespan of the infected systems often
causing the need for unforeseen monitoring, rehabilitation and maintenance to guarantee the
serviceability, integrity and aesthetics of the affected systems. IOB infestation may also cause
health & safety and environmental issues. The sooner this hazard is identified the easier,
cheaper and more effective it is to implement corrective measures.

1 Iron oxidising bacteria and their appearance

Iron oxidising bacteria (IOB) or ferrobacteria are a large group of miscellaneous aerobic
bacteria (often living in association) that either catalyse the oxidation of soluble iron, or alter
the water chemistry such that the conditions become favourable for iron oxidation (Ghiorse
1984, Cullimore 1986). Some species of IOB can also oxidise soluble manganese. The IOB
consume the dissolved iron and manganese available in the environment and excrete insolu-
ble iron incrustations and bio-products. IOB can occur in all sorts of anthropic and natural
environments where marine or fresh water is available, including both pristine and contami-
nated aquifers.
The appearance and composition of IOB concretions (often called “ochre”) and bio-
products (i.e. biomass and gel-like biofilms) is highly variable. However, concretions and
bio-products are generally easily recognisable due to the distinctive (but not exclusive)
colours, which include shades of white, yellow, buff, orange, red-brown, olive-brown, grey
and black.
Red-brown, orange and yellow colours are typical of “iron-bacteria” while dark brown to
blackish colours are often associated with “manganese-bacteria”. Black colours generally
dominate under low-oxygen conditions and they are associated with the presence of organic
material or “sulphur bacteria” (which cause the deposition of gelatinous black precipitates
of iron sulphide by reaction between ferrous iron and hydrogen sulphide). Whitish, yellowish
and grayish colours are common in environments with very low concentration of iron and
manganese.
A mixture of biofilms, living and dead bacteria, their stalks and sheaths and variable
quantity of amorphous and other minerals, trace elements, debris, soil, corrosion products
and impurities forms the biomass. These deposits have variable texture and consistency that
depend on the specie of bacteria, maturity of the contamination and environmental con-
ditions. The IOB deposits can be soft to hard, brittle, pasty or soft, feathery, filamentous

1135
(particularly in standing water) or slimy (generally becoming powdery when dry). “Biological”
iron concretions often differ from purely mineral ones due to their consistency and micro-
scopically by the presence of particular mineral types and bacterial structures.
IOB biofilms can include floating pigmented particulates in suspension in water, sludge
(thick biofilms), coating slime, mats, layers, films and small colonies (i.e. “biofilm”). However,
these phenomena may also be due to algal blooms and other micro-organisms or to the mix-
ing of water rich in dissolved iron with dissolved organic compounds (e.g. tannin or lignin)
derived from the decomposition of vegetation. In some cases, IOB are responsible for rain-
bow coloured, oil-like sheens on the water surface. These can be distinguished from an “oil
spill” by breaking them up on the surface of the water using a stick. If the sheen stays broken
up into pieces, instead of immediately joining back together, it is most likely to be associated
with IOB.
IOB growth and metabolism are often responsible for causing slight and intermittent
unpleasant taste of water and odours (especially following the death of bacteria) commonly
reported as “swampy”, “petroleum”, “cucumber”, “sewage”, “rotten vegetation”, or “musty”.

2 Symptoms and consequences of IOB contamination

Iron oxidising bacteria’s (IOB) activity can affect actively pumped and passive dewatering/
drainage schemes used in ground engineering in porous and fractured aquifers. Other sys-
tems and works that are more rarely affected by this problem are listed in Table 1.
When the development of IOB exceeds the capacity of a system, infrastructure, or part of
it, to cope with this issue (and to fulfill the scopes it was originally designed for), the problem
is named IOB biofouling. Groundworks and infrastructure systems may be contaminated
by IOB but are not necessarily biofouled because the IOB have not drastically compromised
their performance. In the case of simple contamination, the presence of IOB often remains
undetected or it is considered a minor nuisance. The following sections describe typical issues
related to the development of IOB.

2.1 Deposition of concretions

IOB can trigger the oxidation of reduced divalent ferrous iron (Fe2+), and occasionally manga-
nese (Mn2+), dissolved in the groundwater, into insoluble oxidised ferric iron and manganese
mineral phases triggering the deposition and growth of amorphous mineral concretions like
ferric iron hydroxide and goethite (Applin & Zhao 1989). These amorphous minerals, with
time, progressively re-crystallise to form harder and less soluble stable mineral encrustations

Table 1. Systems, works and materials typically detrimentally affected by IOB activity.

Drainage: pipework, plumbing fixtures, wells (e.g. borehole and screen casings, raising mains, filters),
pumps (e.g. valves, pump motors, impellers), siphons, ejectors, wellpoints, gravity drains, sand drains,
trenches, ditches, sumps, interception tunnels, drainage blankets and weep holes, land and highway
drainage, oily water separators and sedimentation ponds, basements, landfill leachate collection
system.
Civil engineering works: service and transport tunnels, retaining structures, sheet piles, basements,
architectural water features.
Other systems and works: groundwater level and pore-water-pressure monitoring installations
(e.g. dipmeter, electric contact sensors, pore-pressure transducers), water quality monitoring
systems, open-loop geothermal systems, earth dams, slopes and riverbanks stabilisation works, soil
improvement, remediation of contamination (e.g. permeable reactive barriers).
Materials: iron, steel, stainless and austenitic steel, metallic alloys (e.g. metal tunnel lining, sheet
piles, rail tracks, uncovered concrete reinforcement), concrete, geomaterials, resins (e.g. water filter
components), rubber.

1136
mainly consisting of hematite, magnetite and maghemite and often including bio-products,
other minerals, trace elements and impurities. The deposition of “iron encrustations” can
also be controlled by redox reactions and by particular water chemistry without the involve-
ment of IOB. However, in most pristine groundwater environments, these types of chemical
reactions are generally rare and concretions associated with bacterial activity can build up
tens or even hundred of times faster than those caused by purely chemical a-biotic reactions
(Bao-rui 1988). Sometimes the IOB activity modifies the water pH and the environmental
conditions enhancing the accelerated deposition of calcium carbonate concretions in envi-
ronments where this reaction would not otherwise naturally occur and therefore it had not
been considered as a problem to cater for.
IOB concretions can develop on a wide array of equipment including fixed parts exposed
to rapid flow rate and very fast moving parts (Fig. 1, Tab. 1). The build up of concretions
on hydraulic systems, generally progressively worsen their hydrodynamic characteristics
(Terzaghi & Leps 1958, Ford 1982, van Beek 1989, Forrester 1995). Typical negative con-
sequences include the reduction in open section and modification of the water pressure in
the systems, increase of roughness of pipeworks, broken or worn pumping equipment and
physical blockage. Encrustations also increase the resistance to heat flow across surfaces
causing operational problems and potential burnout of submersible pump motors.

2.2 Production and deposition of bio-products

IOB bio-products cause deleterious effects similar to those due to the growth of concretions.
They can also periodically break free from surfaces where they have deposited and are trans-
ported by water causing clogging and additional damage. The consequences of IOB activity
and their presence are related to the extent of the contamination and on the “sensitivity” of
the infested systems. For instance, the growth of IOB inside a siphon tube passive pump-
ing system dramatically increases its internal roughness causing the accumulation of concre-
tions and gas bubbles that easily break the siphon flow and consequentially stop the system
(Fig. 2). Other pumping systems, like submersible pumps, tend to be more robust and to
suffer less from this specific problem, although this not always the case (Fig. 1).
IOB bio-products and concretions tend to bridge, plug and occupy the small openings
and spaces available for the groundwater including porous structures of the (soil or bed-
rock) aquifers and the pores in the formation media (i.e. filter-pack of drains and boreholes),
(Ghiorse 1986, Cullimore 2000). IOB also generate gases like CO2 (i.e. microbial generation

Figure 1. Fast moving (3600 rpm) submergible pump parts blocked and damaged by hard iron
concretions deposited while the pump was in operation, New South Wales, Australia. (Photo Clearbore
Pty Ltd.).

1137
Figure 2. Siphon tube, part of a slope stabilization system, blocked by IOB bioproducts (darker
colour) compare to slightly contaminated (yellowish colour) and un-contaminated clear tubes (white
colour), France.

of gases) that may be retained within the biofilms causing their volumetric expansion. These
processes detrimentally affect the water flow towards the drainage points and cause a sub-
stantial reduction of porosity, permeability, hydraulic conductivity, transmissivity and stor-
age coefficient of the aquifers. In extreme situations, the IOB contamination can completely
clog the drainage points.
In the author’s experience, direct observations of the surface of drains and wells (e.g.
CCTV inspections) may not fully reveal the extent of the problem and may be misleading.
This is because the bulk of the bacterial contamination often occurs behind these surfaces
within the soil pores or in the bedrock fractures.
Various case histories indicate that IOB have altered the drainage of slopes and earth dams
leading to an increase of the soil pore-water-pressure, instability of soil masses, alteration of
the natural water flow and development of soil piping (Mendonca et al. 2003).
The growth and deposition of IOB bio-products and of iron concretions sometimes
also affect permeable reactive barriers used for groundwater remediation and other similar
groundwater and leachate filtering systems (Czekalla et al. 1985, Gavaskar et al. 2000).
IOB bio-products can detrimental affect open-loop ground source heat pump systems
(Bloomquist 2000, Banks et al. 2009, Busby et al. 2009) by reducing the yield and flow rate
from the production well, causing an imbalance between the water injected in the ground that
extracted and reducing the flow section of the geothermal system.
Geo-materials (e.g. geo-textile filters, soil reinforcement geo-grids, geo-membranes)
generally have no nutritional value for IOB, but may provide a suitable colonising surface,
especially when these are installed at the aerobic/non-aerobic interface (Van Santvoort
1994, Mendonca et al. 2003, Mendonca & Ehrlich 2006). IOB can cause the deterioration
of the geo-materials’ permeability and potentially reduce their lifespan by causing biologi-
cal degradation (Mlynarek et al. 1990). Literature indicates that IOB have created physi-
cal problems to geomaterials installed in sand drains within earth dams, bank protection
works, earth dikes, slope stabilization works, and filters of drainage pipes (Infanti & Kanji
1974, Van Zanten & Thabet 1982, Puig et al. 1986, Mendonca & Ehrlich 1997). It is noted
that, although geomaterials are extensively used in ground engineering and land remediation,
these have not necessarily been manufactured to cope with the physical and chemical effects
of bacterial contamination.
1138
2.3 Bio-corrosion of metals and concrete
The physical presence of IOB (and their metabolic activities) on stainless steel, iron, cast-iron
and certain ferrous alloy surfaces can induce or enhance accelerated microbiologically influ-
enced corrosion (MIC), (Powrie et al. 1997, Tyrrel & Howsam 1997).
MIC occurs following relatively prolonged contact of exposed/unprotected metal sur-
faces with the IOB biomass and biofilms, sometimes in combination with other factors.
This creates localised corrosive microenvironments through various mechanisms, some of
which are described below. MIC is very often related to the development of patchy IOB colo-
nies on metal surfaces. The surfaces which lay under the bacterial colonies (and tubercles)
are normally depleted of oxygen and with time become anodic while the surrounding
non-contaminated surfaces (under aerobic conditions) remain cathodic (Ringas & Robinson
1987). The dissimilar oxygen concentration on a metal surface (i.e. differential aeration cells)
causes a difference in electrical potential and the consequent development of currents that
can initiate pitting corrosion.
Other typical, but not frequent, mechanism of MIC arise from the complex symbiotic
relationships between IOB and sulphur-reducing bacteria (Ghiorse 1984, Ringas & Robinson
1987). IOB bio-corrosion can also detrimentally affect stainless steel (Chamritski et al. 2001,
Starosvetsky et al. 2001) and austenitic stainless steel (Ringas & Robinson 1987, Borenstein
1994). The corrosion is often not evident for a certain period as it is concealed by “iron
concretions” and biomass.
IOB produce organic acids and favour the development of other types of acid-producing
bacteria (e.g. sulphur-reducing bacteria). The attack by organic acids of exposed surfaces of
Portland concrete is normally neutralised by the alkalinity of the concrete. The “quantity”
of concrete destroyed by this reaction is related to the “quantity” and aggressiveness of
organic acids and to the original alkalinity of the concrete. Without acid replenishment, this
reaction quickly stops resulting in limited damage of the concrete. However, in particularly
aggressive environments, where the total acidity and pH of groundwater is low, and depend-
ing on the rate of groundwater replenishment, this reaction continues over time leading to
appreciable deterioration of concrete.
Biczók (1972) reports a case of deterioration of concrete, due to carbon dioxide produced
by IOB, and Maeda et al. (1999) describe a case of corrosion where IOB acidification prob-
ably contributed to the deterioration of concrete.
IOB are also known to alter the characteristics of synthetic materials like resin beds and
components in water softeners and filters and to damage rubber. Therefore, the use of
these and other untested materials should be carefully considered if there is a risk of IOB
contamination.

2.4 Chemical alteration of water

IOB often modify the chemical characteristics (e.g. ions concentration, pH, Eh, etc.) of water
passing through a contaminated aquifer or infrastructure (Walter 1997a, b). IOB have the
capacity of altering the original concentration of nitrogen, phosphorous, heavy metals and
other nutrients in solution (Banks 1992). For example, the soluble iron content of ground-
water entering a drain contaminated by IOB can increase due to the bacterial activity and
by the break up of biofilms (Legault 2000). However, in other cases, the IOB act as a natural
filter reducing the amount of iron dissolved in water (Walter 1997). Often these two proc-
esses occur at the same site, at different times, as a function of the biological life cycles of the
bacteria and in response to environmental changes like seasonal fluctuations in temperature
and water flow.
Another reported problem is the alteration of chemical constituents in water samples for
detection of contaminants leading to “false” negative readings for coliforms (Smith 1995).
All these consequences have obvious implications on the use of groundwater and on
its chemical and physical classifications for abstraction licensing and discharge consent
purposes.
1139
2.5 False water level readings
The author has experienced problems, in a number of different sites contaminated by IOB,
when using electrical contact sensors to detect the water level. This is because the slimy wet
biofilms tend to stick on the electric sensors triggering misleading electrical contacts, which
are not caused by immersion in water. The biofilms can retain water for very long periods
leading to false and unreliable high water level readings. When this problem affects pump
switches, it might cause the systems to operate in dry conditions and to over-run resulting in
severe damage, un-needed and un-wanted dewatering and rising operational costs.
For instance, IOB caused severe consequences at a specific site where groundwater
monitoring instrumentations (using electric sensors installed in wells) were adopted as part of
a landslide alarm system causing false high groundwater level readings. This situation led to a
number of incorrect warnings of the imminent risk of landslides. Similar problems occurred
when manual monitoring was carried out using electric dip-meters (which detect water level
by electric contact). In order to avoid cross contamination of the other monitoring points
it was necessary to systematically clean and sterilize the instrument after every use which
resulted in a substantial waste of time and additional costs. In a couple of occasions the
biofilm has clogged water pressure transducers, (which had been used to replace the electrical
sensors) requiring replacement.

2.6 Health and safety hazards

IOB can be a microbiological, chemical and physical health & safety hazard. IOB are
non-pathogenic (i.e. not health threatening) and the IOB biomass is natural and gener-
ally harmless as it is prevalently composed of water (usually >90%), polysaccharide matrix
(i.e. sticky carbohydrate compounds) and other minor compounds (i.e. proteins, nucleic
acids, lipids). However, IOB development increases the organic content of the water and soil
favouring the multiplication of other species of microorganisms (Cullimore 2000). The con-
sortium of microorganisms within the IOB biomass can include non-desirable, opportunistic
(e.g. Pseudomonas aeruginosa) and pathogenic microorganisms (e.g. Legionella). These may
cause health problems in people with suppressed immune systems if ingested (Cullimore
2000). These pathogens may be more dangerous when contaminated water is spread as aero-
sols into the environment by architectural water features, irrigation sprinklers, etc.
In very specific situations, IOB can be a chemical hazard. Various studies have identified
that, over time, IOB have the capacity to accumulate, in their biomass and incrustations,
considerable amounts of hazardous heavy metals (e.g. arsenic, aluminium, copper) from
extremely low concentration in the groundwater (Banks 1992, Thompson & Walting 1987,
Tyrrel & Howsam 1997). Therefore, there is a possibility that, in particular conditions, the
biomass and concretions can be toxic if ingested (Banks 1993).
IOB activity produces carbon dioxide, consumes oxygen and may favour the activity of
anaerobic bacteria and the consequent generation of other types of gasses (e.g. hydrogen
sulphide). In confined spaces, this can potentially cause dangerous working conditions.
Hydrogen sulphide is a corrosive, toxic, flammable colourless gas that is easily recognisable
by the typical foul odour of rotten eggs. To the contrary, carbon dioxide is a colourless and
odourless gas that is heavier than air and can act as asphyxiate in confined spaces. The author
has experienced both issues during the inspection of deep drainage manholes after they had
been heavily contaminated by IOB.
In particular situations, IOB should also be considered a physical health & safety hazard
because the wet biomass is extremely slippery (and freeze at low temperature) and can be haz-
ardous to people on walking surfaces, ladders in manholes and similar (Fig. 3). This problem
also affects roads and railways causing difficulties in the operation of vehicles and trains.

2.7 Impact on the environment

The development of IOB can have an impact on the environment and it is a significant fac-
tor to take into account particularly in environmentally special designated sites and in terms
1140
Figure 3. Railway tunnel, Japan. IOB contamination had caused corrosion of the tunnel lining, fit-
tings and rail tracks, clogging of the drainage system and oily water separators. The IOB also posed and
health & safety hazard during inspection due to the slippery nature of the biomass and the presence of
ponding water. In this specific case the slimy biomass causes heavy staining of the trains which is consid-
ered a major aesthetic issue, a source of continuous complaints from the public and it causes additional
maintenance costs. (Photo Dr. Sakai, R.T.R.I., Tokyo).

of sustainability. IOB have various effects on the microbiological activity of the aquifer
environment (Mansuy 1999). IOB consume dissolved oxygen creating conditions unfavour-
able for most flora and fauna. Bacterial oxidation of dead IOB organic biofilms often exac-
erbates this problem.
IOB can also alter the chemical characteristics of the groundwater causing shifts in the
reduction-oxidation state, changes in the dissolved ions content, release of biochemical com-
pounds associated to their growth (e.g. enzymes) and odorous chemicals (Cullimore 2000).
IOB often increase the cloudiness or give colour to water due to the high density of pig-
mented bacterial cells and particulates in suspension in water. This can reduce the amount of
sunlight available to plants and algae therefore interfering with their development and their
related food chains. These particulates can sometimes be directly unfavourable to aquatic
fauna, for example, by lacerating and clogging fish gills causing suffocation. Very large
amounts of IOB biomass are often detrimental to aquatic life (e.g. bottom-dwelling inverte-
brates) and, in extreme cases, can clog lakes and streams.
Overhead and sprinkler irrigation water contaminated by IOB is known to cause bluish
bronze sheens and black spots on plant foliage, which detrimentally affect photosynthesis,
respiration and transpiration (Bailey et al. 1999).
In extreme cases, the development of IOB can be indirectly potentially hazardous to
the environment, for instance, by compromising the efficiency of oily water separators or
sedimentations ponds (Fig. 3). The prevention and remediation of IOB contamination can
severely impact the environment when it is carried out using chemical products (e.g. sur-
factants, acids and bases, disinfectants, biocides and oxidising agents) and physical methods
(e.g. heated water, steam).

2.8 Aesthetic issues

IOB often cause aesthetic damage and unpleasant environmental conditions due to its odour,
appearance and staining potential (Fig. 3). A frequent problem related to IOB) is the litter-
ing and permanent or semi-permanent staining of surfaces fixtures and appliances causing
aesthetic damage. In civil engineering works, permanent staining is more likely on porous
surfaces like marble and stone cladding and porous concrete. This problem can be caused
1141
by IOB but also by soluble iron and manganese in concentrations as low as 0.3 mg/l and
0.05 mg/l respectively.
Soaps and detergents often do not remove these coloured stains and chlorine bleach and
alkaline builders (such as salts of carbonate) can intensify them. Proprietary products are
generally quite effective on most surfaces, however, these might be corrosive and toxic.

3 Conclusion

This paper describes the detrimental consequences of IOB contamination on specific elements
and functionalities of potentially affected systems. These consequences, if taken separately,
might appear negligible and relatively straightforward to address. Unfortunately, experience
proves that once IOB biofouling has developed, it becomes extremely difficult to eradicate
completely and it causes additional maintenance, monitoring and operational costs to guar-
antee the performance, serviceability, integrity and aesthetics of the entire affected system.
In extreme cases, the damage caused by IOB might lead to the abandonment of schemes
due the technical impossibility of repair or due to excessive maintenance costs. Economical,
legal, health & safety and other issues, including public perception, often come into play too.
Therefore, a comparatively small hazard can result in a large risk due to the severity and
complexity of its consequences. The sooner this hazard is identified the easier, cheaper and
more effective it is to implement corrective measures. For these reasons, it is considered that
the possibility of IOB contamination should be included in the standard checklist of pos-
sible “ground-related” hazards and its potential consequences routinely evaluate using a risk
assessment approach.

Acknowledgments

The author would like to acknowledge the assistance of Mr. John Stokes (Clearbore Pty Ltd.)
and Dr. Hiroyuki Sakai (Railway Technical Research Institute, Tokyo) and many colleagues
at High-Point Rendel Ltd. and in particular Mr. Steve Fort and Mr. Nigel Somers.

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