UNIT

PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING
2 TEACHING

2.1 Principles of Teaching According to Various Authors

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the unit, the student is expected to:
a) Explain the principles underlying teaching.
b) Discuss plans of utilizing the teaching principles.
c) Discuss how these principles may be applied and emphasized in the Philippine classroom
setting.

Teaching is a science as it involves a systematic process of instruction

guided by established theories, principles, approaches, strategies, methods,
techniques, and activities to make teaching effective. (de Ocampo-
Acero,2015). Here are Principles of Teaching from three authors.

James L. Mursell’s Six Principles of Teaching

Principle of Context.
 Applied to learning, this principle means that instruction can be effective if
learning takes place through situations and circumstances that provide setting
materials for the process of learning to go on. The Principle of Context is
categorized into six levels:

Level 1 - Context consists of the Textbook only

Level 1 sets instruction through the use of the textbook only. It is the
predominantly verbal in that responses are limited only to questions from the text.
This kind of learning situation is characterized by the absence of problem-
solving experience for the learners. Instruction revolves around interpretation
analysis of the content of the subject matter assigned.

Level 2 - Context consists of textbook, together with

collateral/supplemental materials
It is here where instruction from the text is expanded to include
supplementary materials for enrichment purposes. Discussion is no longer
confined to lessons from the basic text but is broadened to include
establishment of connections/relations from outside readings. This level
provides opportunities for more extensive readings.

Level 3 - Context consists of non-academic and current materials

(magazine articles, newspaper clippings)
This consists of materials both non-academic and current which include
magazine articles and newspaper clippings. It provides a situation for extensive
discussion. There is a likelihood of improvements in learning from increased
knowledge of theories and their application to reality. As learning theorists would
argue, much of their knowledge of learning comes from settings that are unlike
classroom and of the world outside - where learners face up to concrete, specific,
actual, and ummediate situation.

Level 4 - Context consists of multi-sensory aids

Context consists of the use of multi-sensory aids as an aid to effective
instruction. Learners react to situations or learning activities that appeal to their
senses (tactile, kinesis) in which case the learning process should include
structuring of the classroom environment to provide meaningful experiences.

Level 5 - Context consists of demonstration and presentation b y the

experts
Context is applied through demonstration and presentation by experts.
From meaningful verbal learning, knowledge is substantiated by lesson from
 experts and authorities. From the efforts to set materials indicated in the above-
mentioned levels about teaching, it can be assumed that effective instruction can
be produced by a variety of combinations of characteristics and conditions rather
than by one unique combination.

Level 6 - Field experiences: personal, social, and community

understanding
Context related to the use of field experience may be personal and social.
Even experience in the community is considered. This is a setting that goes
beyond verbalization but focuses on firsthand experiences. In the process,
learners are able to reflect on experiences and explore on possibilities about an
instructional environment apart from the needs of individual learners, thus
allowing teachers to minimize the mass classroom experiences altogether.

1. Principle of Focus

Instruction can be effective if there is a definite area of concentration. The

following are the four levels of focus:
Level 1 - Focus established by page assignment in textbook
This establishes focus by page assignments in textbook so that specific
lessons are identified along with a specific set of activities which is uniformly
structured.

Level 2 - Focus established by announced topic, together with page or

chapter references
Focus is established by announced topic, together with page or chapter
refences. An assignment given in advance, including chapters to read, will
affords full concentration on the subject matter at hand. Very likely, a better
understanding of the subject matter is achieved since concentrating on a definite
task will provide full attention to the lesson and, therefore, minimize confusion.
 Level 3 - Focus established by nbroad concepts to be comprehended or
problem to be solved
This provides for a school setting where learners are confronted with
broad concepts to understand or problems to be solved. This is intended to
develop their thinking skills. The varied learning patterns are envisioned to
enhance their learning capabilities as they go about doing activities aimed at
developing the learners’ mental processes.

Level 4 - Focus established as a concept or a problem to be solved, a skill

to be acquired to carry an undertaking
This focus is on the development of concept and acquisition of skill to be
able to carry out an undertaking. At this level, a learner is expected to draw
implications from experiences in the classroom environment and arrive at the
meaning of a situation based on acquired facts and information.

2. Principle of Socialization

Classroom learning offers a socio-cultural phenomenon, a social process that

enconmpasses the ways of thinking, interacting, and problem solving. The
classroom is also viewed as a conventionalized setting in which rule-bound
interaction takes place between the learner and the teacher. Such interaction is
influenced by the physical set-up and the beliefs and values of the learners’
standards of classroom management that eventually lead to understanding of
role expectations within the group from lesson formats. Thus, teaching becomes
a way of modifying and redefining patterns of behavior.
Effectiveness of instruction depends upon the social setting in which it is
done. Socialization has three levels namely:
 Level 1 - social pattern characterized by submission
Level 1 is a setting where interaction, if at all, is limited to the teacher and
the learner. There is an absence of group undertaking so much that learners are
not provided with opportunities to interrelatemwith one another, nor are allowed
to work together and render judgment on solutions to problems presented. There
are no learner-initiated activities where they can show reactions to related
classroom events.

Level 2 - Social pattern characterized by contribution

This setting is more liberal. Learners enjoy a certain amount of freedom to
engage themselves in activities and work on theifr own. The learners, therefore,
are likely to participate actively with their teacher, adapting positive attitude
toward discipline.

Level 3 - Social pattern characterized by cooperation

In this setting, teacher assumes the role of an organizer. He divides the
class into groups or sub-groups to afford a more active learner involvement.
Independent seatwork is put aside to give way to group discussions which the
teacher keeps on target for best results. In this regard, instruction becomes
effective when there is evidence of relevant subject matter, organization, and
intellectualization. Whatever output the group produces accrues from a positive
team spirit and a positive reaction from the teacher in the form of recognition for
learners’ responses and achievements.

3. Principle of Individualization.

The effectiveness of instruction must progress in terms of the learner’s own

purposes, aptitudes, abilities, and experimental procedures. The following are the
scales of application of the principle of individualization:

 Individualization through different performance in uniform tasks.

 In this setting, the teacher sets the lesson format as part of his classroom
structuring and sees to it that while the task is the same to all, he offers varied
ways of doing the task according to the learner’s aptitude, interest, and
capabilities. While the objective for a particular lesson is aimed at skills
development, very likely, the skills developed or acquired may also vary
resulting from the difference between the learners’ attitudes and interests.

 Individualization through homogeneous grouping.

Learners vary in age, ability, and sex, and classrooms tend to lean
toward homogeneity. Except for some learners, variables like race or social
class, which educators find notb acceptable in the homogeneous grouping, are
acknowledged by educators and are considered an advanyage for effective
instruction. For instance, in a system called ability grouping, learners are
grouped according to intellectual ability. This has marked well in the matter of
providing adequate preparation for college life for whatever specialization is
asked for schools which have practiced this for years and were found to have
worked well in terms of achievement on the part of the learners.

 Individualization through contract plan.

One of the guiding principles of individualization asserts that the
individual must be the focus in the planning delivery of services and support.
Each person has the basic human rights to have his capabilities, needs, and
interests used as basis for planning, delivery of services, and support to the
individual.
Applied to effective instruction, a learner enjoys the right to have his
unique capabilities, needs, and interests recognized as basis for a contract plan.
A contract plan may be a plan of study where the learner is provided a
set of activities to do and a time limit to accomplish the specific tasks. The plan
may involve encounters between the learner and the teacher to evaluate the
progress of the assigned task which normally is structured according to the
learners’ interests and abilities. The concept of independent learning where
learners are provided self-learning kits or modules would amount to a contract
plan specifying what should be accomplished at a given time. The learner is
allowed to work alone by himself and the teacher acts as a facilitator. His
responsibilities include facilitating, monitoring, and evaluating what amount of
success in terms of output has been put into the work assignment. While the
task may be uniform to all the learners in the classroom, each learner is given a
chance to engage in independent learning.

 Individualization through individual instruction.

 This kind of instruction calls for a person-centered planning for learning
tasks normally adapted to the level of capability of the learner. The class is
usually limited in number to provide for close monitoring by the teacher who
acts as a facilitator. In some instances, individual instruction is done through
self-scheduled one-on-one encounter with the teacher-facilitator to check on the
progress of the work activity.
The remedial instruction given to low-performing learners outside of class
hours may also fall under individual instruction. The essence of an individual
instruction is to make sure that it becomes effective because instruction meets
the objectives set for a particular lesson based on individual abilities and
aptitudes. This kind of instruction is also open to experimental procedures in
instruction with the end in view of achieving the best possible outcomes in terms
of learning for the individual.

 Individualization through large units with optimal-related activity.

This is the kind of instruction where large topics or big blocks are divided
into smaller units which could be completed within a specific time frame.
The members of the group are given topics to engage in individual
activities for as long as these are related to the learning tasks at hand and that
the activities will contribute to the accomplishment of the assigned class activity.

 Individualization through individual undertakings stemming from and

contributing to the joint undertaking of the group of learners.
Instruction is done to ensure cooperative learning while the group works
on a specific learning activity. The task is divided among the members so that
each member has a particular activity to work on. In the end, the group output
becomes a product of the concerted effort of the individual member of the group.
Each member is also given the option to choose what specific task to do
according to his ability and interest and eventually contributes to the realization
of the objectives set for the assigned activity. Examples are cooperative
learning, group projects, group study and others.

4. Principle of Sequence
Successful instructions depend on the effective ordering of a series of learning
tasks. Sequence is a movement from meaningless to emergence of meaning,
from immediate toward remote; from concrete toward symbolic, from the crude to
the discriminating. Hence, sequence is a process of transformation.

Scales of application of the principle of sequence:

 Sequence through logical succession of blocks of content (lesson and

courses)
Learning sequence provides for a gradual increase in difficulty and
complexity. As it is, it is much simpler to find something than to do it; it is simpler
to look for models or prototypes than to think of variations and deviations.
Learning sequence calls for doing simpler tasks before moving on to more
challenging or complicated tasks.

 Sequence through knotting, learning lesson/course, together by

introductions, previews, pre-tests, reviews.
This is done by supplementing discussion/studies/analysis of lesson by
introductions/reviews related to the lesson. This will affect an easier
understanding of the lessons through the establishment of possible connections
between the current and the past lessons.
The pre-test or diagnostic test intended for evaluation of how well the
learners have absorbed previous materials taught will facilitate easy
adjustments on the learning process to be adapted by the teacher. Such will
provide a strong basis for the ordering of the learning tasks.

 Sequence organized in terms of readiness.

 Effective instruction is achieved if the teacher is able to order or set the
particular learning task according to the readiness of the learners to understand
or assimilate whatever material is to be given to them. It is, therefore, important
for the teacher to measure the level of readiness or preparedness of the
learners to understand simple to complex materials for instruction.

 Sequence organized in terms of lines emerging meanings.

This calls for planning specific learning tasks that will depend on the
ability of the learners to give meaning to specific situations, deduce impressions
from whatever is read to think of possibilities as an end result of doing the
activity.
In teaching poetry, for instance, teachers can focus at first on the simple
analysis of the prose content. It is seeing and reading the poem as it is and
drawing out the facts as presented. The second step will be more complicated
as in looking for the theme on the message the author wants to convey. The
third step will involve a second-level reading where the learner through his
analysis will generate his own meaning or his own interpretation of the piece
through the symbols used.
5. Principle of Evaluation

Evaluation is a component of effective instruction. It is necessary to determine

whether the objectives of instruction have been carried out, and learning or
understanding of lesson has taken place. It is only by knowing the effectiveness of
instruction that teachers can determine the value or worth of the lesson, as well as
the specific procedures that go with the teaching-learning process. It will also involve a
type of evaluation that requires the analysis of other factors that makes up the
educational system. At the classroom level, the contributions of learners, teacher’s
profiles, and even the physical resources are factors that can contribute singly or in
combination to the effectiveness of instruction.
 Types of Evaluation:

 Diagnostic evaluation
Evaluation is done at the beginning of the unit or course to determine the
different levels to where the students can be grouped whether slow, average, or
fast. In the process, the teacher is able to determine the inadequacies or
difficulties that learners are into and propose remedial measures to solve the
existing problems. Planning becomes more purposeful in that the teacher is
provided a ready reference for the planned remediation.

 Formative evaluation
This evaluation is intended to improve the delivery of instruction in the
classroom. This is the phase of evaluation where what the teacher does in the
course of his teaching and what he is to do next are given focus. In other words,
this is a process of quality control. It is designed to examine whatever
deficiencies there are in the process of instruction so that necessary adjustment
can be made for successful results. The teacher, therefore, evaluates where the
plan for the day is succeeding or carried out as planned.
A Formative evaluation is usually done in the pilot stage or at any point in
the various stages of the instruction process. This will help not only to determine
how much learning has been achieved through instruction, but also how to get
rid of unintended outcomes, if any. To this end, it becomes a very important
aspect of the monitoring process.

 Summative evaluation
This phase of evaluation calls for summing up all pertinent data related to
the performance of the individual learners. At the end of the year, the final
ratings of the learners will quantify how much learning is achieved to merit a
promotion. The focus of summative evaluation is the effectiveness of instruction
which is reflected by quantitative expressions in terms of grades. This is actually
the endpoint of the evaluation phase where a total picture of the teaching-
learning process can be projected. From there, baseline data on the quality of
instruction can provide measures or even decisions on how to effect change for
optimum results in instruction.

John Dewey’s Educational Philosophy on Principles of Teaching

(Gregorio & Gregorio 1979, as cited in Acero, Javier, & Castro 2000)

The following are acknowledged principles of good teaching.

 Teaching is good when it is based on the psychology of learning.

This is based on the concept that the child is made the center of the
educative process. The nature of the child and the nature of the learning process
and the laws that govern its operation determine the type of teaching to be done by
the teacher.

 Teaching is good when it is well planned.

The activities and experiences of the learner are continuously related and
interrelated into larger, more meaningful, more inclusive, relation patterns.

 Teaching is good when the learner is made conscious of the goals or aims
to be accomplished.
This concept calls for proper motivation.

 Teaching is good when it provides learning experiences or situations that

will insure understanding.
Good teaching requires a rich environment of instructional materials and
devices. Instructional materials and devices will challenge the attention of the
learner, stimulate thinking, and facilitate understanding which make learning more
meaningful.

 Teaching is good when there is provision to meet individual differences.

This is based on the psychological principle that individuals differ from each
other in their learning potential. To be effective, teaching must treat the learner as
he is, but at the same time with reference to what he might become.

 Teaching is good when it utilizes the past experiences of the learner.

This concept is based on the principle of appreciation. This means that
learning is easier when you start from what the pupils already know.

 Teaching is good when the learner is stimulated to think and to reason.

The best teaching method is that which liberates and encourages thinking.
Effective teaching involves differentiation and integration or analysis and synthesis.
Generalization of facts learned is important in teaching for transfer.

 Teaching is good when it is governed by democratic principles.

 In democratic teaching, social relationship is placed on a plane of natural
respect, cooperation, tolerance, and fair play. Teaching to be effective must be
governed by love and understanding. In other words, the learners are free from
emotional tension.

 Teaching is good when the method used is supplemented by another method and
instructional devices.
It is an accepted fact that a good method is a synthesis of many methods. This is
based on the principles that the best learning takes place when a greater number of senses
are stimulated and utilized in the process.

 Teaching is good when evaluation is made an integral part of the teaching process.
Evaluation is part and parcel of teaching. Evaluation measures the effectiveness of
teaching and learning and completes the function which is essential in teaching. Teaching is
meaningful only when the results of teaching are achieved.

 Teaching is good when drill or review is made integral part of teaching and learning.
The teacher must bear in mind that drill and review have different meanings and
functions. The purpose of review is to bring out relationships of facts learned to give
meaning.

Carnegie Mellon’s Teaching Principles

(Mellon 2013)

Teaching is multifaceted activity, involving multiple tasks and goals simultaneously and
flexibility. The following set of principles can make teaching both more effective and more
efficient through conditions that support student learning and minimal need for revising
materials, content, and policies. Implementation of these principles requires a commitment in
time and effort to the overall realization of the goals.

 Effective teaching involves acquiring relevant knowledge about the learners and
using that knowledge to inform the course design and classroom teaching.
When one teaches, he does not just teach the content, but he also teaches students
the content. A variety of student characteristics can affect learning. For example, learners’
cultural and generational backgrounds influence how they view the world and disciplinary
backgrounds that allow them to approach problems in different ways. Learners’ prior
knowledge (both accurate and inaccurate aspects) shapes new learning. Although these
characteristics cannot be adequately measured, gathering the most relevant information as
early as possible in course planning, and continuing to do so during the semester can:
a) Inform course design (decisions about objectives, pacing, examples, format),
b) Help explain student difficulties (identification of common misconceptions),
and
c) Guide instructional adaptations (recognition of the need for additional
practice).

 Effective teaching involves aligning the three major components of instruction:

learning objectives, assessments, and instructional activities.
Taking the time to do this saves time in the end and leads to a better course.
Teaching becomes effective and student learning is enhanced when
a) Instructors articulate a clear set of learning objectives (the knowledge and
skills where students are expected to demonstrate by the end of a course),
b) The instructional activities (case studies, laboratories, discussions, readings)
which support these learning objectives by providing goal-oriented practice,
and
c) The assessments (tests, papers, problem sets, performances)
which provide opportunities for learners to demonstrate and practice the knowledge and
skills articulated in the objectives, and for instructors to offer targeted feedback that can
guide further learning. The alignment of the three major components of instruction is
shown in Figure 1.
Learning Objectives

Assessments

Instructional Activities
Figure 1. Alignment of the Three Major Components of Instruction
 Effective teaching involves articulating explicit expectations regarding learning
objectives and policies.
There is variation expected of learners across classrooms and within a given
discipline. For example, what constitutes evidence may differ greatly across courses; what
is permissible collaboration in one course could be considered cheating in another. As a
result, students’ expectations vary. Therefore, being clear about expectations and
communicating them explicitly help them learn more and perform better.
Moreover, articulating the learning objectives (the knowledge and skills that
learners are expected to demonstrate by the end of a course) gives the learners a clear
 target to aim for and enables them to monitor their progress along the way. Similarly,
defining the course policies (on class participation, laptop use, and late assignment) in the
syllabus and in class allows teachers to resolve differences early and tends to reduce
conflicts and tensions that may arise. Altogether, being explicit leads to a more productive
learning environment for all learners.

 Effective teaching involves prioritizing the knowledge and skills we choose to focus
on.
Coverage of the course must have focus. A single course must not have too many
topics that may work against student learning. It is necessary to make decisions -
sometimes difficult ones - about what to include in a course. This involves:
a) Recognizing and setting the parameters of the course (class size, learners’
backgrounds and experiences, course position in the curriculum sequence,
number of course units),
b) Setting priorities for student learning, and
c) Determining a set of objectives that can be accomplished at a given time.

 Effective teaching involves recognizing and overcoming blind spots.

As experts, teachers tend to access and apply knowledge automatically and
unconsciously (make connections, draw on relevant bodies of knowledge, and choose
appropriate strategies or techniques), and so teachers often skip or combine critical steps
when teaching. Learners, on the other hand, may not yet have sufficient background and
experience to make these moves and can become confused, arrive at incorrect conclusions,
or fail to develop important skills. They need instructors to break big tasks into smaller
component, explain connections clearly, and model processes in detail. Though it is difficult
for experts to do this, there is a need to identify and explicitly communicate to the learners
the knowledge and skills that are taken for granted so they will be able to see expert
thinking in action and practice to apply it themselves.

 Effective teaching involves adopting appropriate teaching roles to support our

learning goals.
The learners are supposed to be responsible for their own learning, but the
teachers’ roles are critical in guiding their thinking and behavior. Moreover, teachers
may take on a variety of roles in teaching - synthesizer, moderator, challenger, or
commentator. But these roles should be chosen in service of the learning objectives and in
support of the instructional activities. For example, if the objective is for the learners to be
able to analyze arguments from a case or written text, an instructor’s role may be to frame,
guide, and moderate a discussion. If the objective is to help them learn to defend their
positions or make creative choices as they present their work, the role of an instructor might
be to challenge them to explain their decisions and come up with alternative options. These
roles also vary according to the learning objectives.

 Effective teaching involves progressively refining our courses based on reflection and
feedback.
 Teaching requires adapting. Teaching involves making changes when appropriate
(when something is not working, try something new). Knowing what and how to change
requires the examination of relevant information on teaching effectiveness. Much of this
information already exists (student work, previous semester’s course evaluations, or
dynamics of class participation). It may also be necessary to seek additional feedback with help
from the university teaching center (interpreting early course evaluations, conducting focus
groups, or designing pre - and post-tests). there is a need to modify the learning objectives,
content, structure, or format of a course. Small purposeful changes driven by feedback and
priorities are most likely to be manageable and effective.

References:
Casinto, Carlos Domingo C.2009.Handbook on principles of teaching 1.Quezon City: Rex
Bookstore,Inc.
De Ocampo-Acer0, Victorina C., Sanchez-Javier, Evelyn J., Ocampo-Castro, Herminia C.
2015.Quezon City: Rex Bookstore

Compiled by:
Hygeia Mary M. Calumpong, January, 2023
College of Teacher Education