HMEF5073_V2

TOPIC 1

1. How do you define curriculum?

Your answer: The curriculum is a route map for learning which has an objective to
be met. Curriculum like a race also has participant, teacher and judges as well as
rules and regulations to adhere to. For example, what students should know this
means knowledge, what students able to do this means skills, how its taught that
means the instruction that is teaching and learning process, how it is measured or
assess and how this education is organised. This refers to the context. The curriculum
is more than syllabus. A curriculum is a contract between society and those in power
because the curriculum state how young people to be educated. Public people are
very much interested in what's happening in school. Hence curriculum concern to
everyone parents, students, teacher, politician and professionalism because the
curriculum is a reflection of society and its value at a particular time.

Suggestion: You need to include not only knowledge, skills, instruction, assessment
and context. Then you elaborate.

2. Compare the differences between curriculum as content, process and product.

Dr Lim suggestion:
You need to explain the 3 approaches to curriculum: content, process and product.

Curriculum as content- emphasizes on a body of knowledge to be transmitted.

Curriculum as product- focuses on setting behavioural or instructional objectives to
achieve certain ends in students
Curriculum as process – stresses on interaction between teacher, students and
content

Then you need to contrast between the three by talking about the focus and
weaknesses. Please refer to my notes and the module.

GOOGLE
Fair is not alway equal. This is especially true in a classroom setting when you are dealing
with a group of students with different reading levels and academic skillsets. And then there
are other things to consider like their home life, educational background, and emotional
needs. All students do not need the exact same support in order to be successful in a
classroom setting, and that is where differentiation becomes critical.
Content is differentiated when students are given fewer vocabulary terms or
mathematical formulas to learn, or a different text to read. This type of differentiation can also
relate to the vertical alignment of standards. For example, if a third-grade student does not
understand the idea that multiplication is repeated addition, something they should have
learned in second grade, the current teacher will need to reteach that content before moving
on to grade-level content.
 Teachers differentiate their instruction when they work one-on-one with a student
needing extra help, or pull a small group. Even something as simple as repeating directions,
or offering written directions, is considered a way to differentiate instruction. For this type of
differentiation, like setting/environment differentiation, the academic standards are not being
changed or “watered down”, it is simply a method of scaffolding so that students can be
successful with grade-level content. This is what we called process.
(Product) Tasks are differentiated when you modify the length or scope or offer
extended time to complete it. When the scope of a task is modified, it may possibly include
lower-level thought processes, but only with the intent of scaffolding student learning so that
eventually, they are ready to meet grade-level content expectations.
But let’s be honest, it is not realistic or even feasible to differentiate content, process, and product for
every single lesson. So as a classroom teacher, our differentiation methods should be based on the
needs of our students and the purpose of the lesson. Consider the following examples:
1. If you have a student that is reading below grade level, you will likely need to regularly
differentiate content for him/her by offering a text at their instructional or independent reading
level.
2. If you have a student with dysgraphia, you may need to differentiate his/her
learning process to ensure that they have access to a word processing program, rather than
having to handwrite their assignments.
3. If you have a student with a learning disability and accompanying IEP that designates
reduced test length, then you will have to differentiate the product by shortening the
assessments you give.
 
As you consider the needs of your students, think about these six aspects:
1. Special Needs – This is probably the most important aspect to consider because it is often
legally required. If you have students on a 504 plan or with an IEP, any accommodations or
modification listed in those plans is a legal obligation you must meet. These methods of
differentiation are not optional and can include all three methods.
2. Level of Prior Knowledge – If a student has gaps in his knowledge from the prior year, you
will likely need to differentiate content in order to catch him up, before he is able to learn grade-
level content.
3. Reading Level – As mentioned in the example about, a student reading below level will need
access to appropriately leveled texts. The same can be said for students reading above grade
level. Remember, differentiation is not only to help struggling learners!
4. Student Behavior – If you have students with severe behavior issues or on a behavior
contract, often times their learning processes may need to be differentiated. This might include
having them work alone instead of in a small group or keeping them separated from a particular
student, or even ensuring that they always work alongside a teacher or aide.
5. Learning Styles – Do you have students that are strong visual learners, and always learn
best from graphs, illustrations, or graphic organizers? What about students who really only take
in information if they can talk it out themselves? Or maybe you have students that are very
tactile and need to manipulate objects in order to solidify concepts in their mind? All of these
examples represent different learning styles and might be a reason why you would differentiate
process (how they learn) or product (how they demonstrate their knowledge).
6. Lesson Purpose – Consider the purpose of your lesson. If the purpose is for students to
learn presentation skills such as public speaking and debate, then you can easily differentiate
the content to a topic that students are passionate about. However, if the purpose of the lesson
 is definitive content that MUST be learned, you would not be able to differentiate content, but
might allow some flexibility in the process or product.

3. How do the foundations of education influence curriculum?

Pg 12

TOPIC 2

1. Why might the study of philosophy be particularly important to educators?

Dr suggest:
You need to explain that philosophy guides the curriculum. Explain in what way- what to
teach and how to teach. Elaborate by giving examples.

Which branch or branches of educational philosophy would you want to emphasize in your
classroom? Why?
Your answer: PROGRESSIVISM - so students can understand that what did they learnt in
classroom going to be useful in the future
PERENNIALISM - to create a citizen that is brave enough to voice out their opinion using the
logic thinking and wise reasoning

You need to elaborate why you chose progressivism and perennialism. For example for
progressivism, you want students to be critical thinkers to solve problems because ....

In terms of content and methods, what are the differences among perennialism,
essentialism, progressivisim and reconstructionism?
PERENNIALISM - content: more on thinking, intellect and reasoning, focused on oral and
verbal interaction like seminar | Method: Teacher-centred
 ESSENTIALISM - content: basic knowledge, reading writing, measurement Method: Teacher-
centred

PROGRESSIVISM - content: what should pupils know to use it in real life | Method: Student-
centred

RECONSTRUCTIONISM - Content: focused on how to improve or solve society problems |

Method - Student centred

For this question you have to compare and contrast. It is not sufficient to just list the
characteristics of each.

Hope this helps!

2. Which branch or branches of educational philosophy would you want to emphasize in your classroom?
Why?
3. In terms of content and methods, what are the differences among perennialism, essentialism,
progressivisim and reconstructionism?

TOPIC 3

1. In what ways do psychological foundations enable curriculum workers to perform their educational
responsibilities?
2. How would you compare the major theoretical schools of learning?
3. Should schools teach students how to learn? Why?
4. How can you promote the constructivist perspective of learning in the classroom?
5. How can a teacher practice the humanistic approach to learning in the classroom?
6. How can a teacher practice cognitivism in the classroom?

TOPIC 4

1. How has the school curriculum in Malaysia responded to different societal demands?
2. How has the changing economy influenced curriculum?
3. What do you think should be included in a curriculum for an information society?
4. What are the guiding principles for knowledge selection?
TOPIC 5

1. Compare the Tyler and Taba models of curriculum development.

The Similarities and differences from both models

 Tyler's and Taba's models are both linear in design.

 Tyler's model is deductive and Taba's is inductive.
 Linear models are not curricular models that follow procedural steps.
 Both models can be used in school and national level. However, Taylor's model
is very time consuming and does not evaluate learning experiences. While
Taba's model is more student friendly and is less time consuming, integrates
standards and structure.

 Tyler's model is missing the most important piece of curricular design the
outcome and final evaluation, Is it effective in schools or not? The model is
difficult to evaluate and is time consuming.
 Taba's model can be incorporated into schools, has a structured sequence,
fosters critical thinking and implements new units and ideas.

Historical Context Based on Tyler's model

Tyler's Model Versus Hilda Taba's model 

 Curriculum development begins with an idea that fosters more exploration in the
field.
 Curricular planners focus on learning objectives, standards and evaluation
outcomes (Walker, 1971).
 When creating a curriculum the planners must ask themselves "What learning
outcomes will students be able to perform?" "Will they be able to think logically,
abstractly and made inductive or deductive reasoning responses?"
 Planners must also deliberate throughout the planning process to ensure
learning gains are effective.
 Together we will be investigating curriculum developers Ralph W. Tyler and Hilda
Taba's contributions to the field of education and curricular design.

Critical Perspectives on Tyler and Taba's model.

Tyler's model versus Hilda Taba's model
The similarities and differences between both models

 Tyler and Taba's models are both linear in design.

  Tyler's model is deductive and Taba's is inductive.
 Linear models are not curricular models that follow procedural steps.
 Both models can be used in school and national level. However, Taylor's model
is very time consuming and does not evaluate learning experiences. While
Taba's model is more student friendly and less time consuming integrates
standards and structure.

Prescriptive Versus Descriptive curriculum Models

 Tyler's model is primarily Prescriptive.
 Prescriptive models are classical models that define what the curriculum should
aim for in regards to precise objectives.
 Taba's model is considered Descriptive due to the organization of the model.
Based on a platform, deliberation and it's design. (Olivia and Gordon, 2013) pg.
105

Hilda Taba

 Created her curriculum model based on a grassroots approach.

 Inductive approach and focused on specifics. Building up to a general design.
(Olivia and Gordon, 2013) pg. 111
 Taba's model follows a five step model. (Olivia and Gordon, 2013) pg. 111


 He conducted an eight year study.

 Formed the Tyler Rational.
 Discusses the nature of the learner, society aims and subject matter knowledge.
 Became an advisor for the University of Chicago.

Hilda Taba's Historical Context

Ralph W. Tyler

 In 1949 Tyler Published his book titled "The Tyler Rationale." He created a
comprehensive curricular model or schools based on objectives. (Olivia and
Gordon, 2013) pg. 106
 Tyler demonstrated his learning experiences as "the interaction between the
learner and the exterior learning experiences that impact student learning".
(Olivia and Gordon, 2013) pg. 109
 The model consists of the linear approach and focuses on educational objectives
and directed learning outcomes for student achievement. (Pinar, W., Reynolds,
 W. Slattery. P., and Taubman, P. (Eds) (1995). Understanding Curriculum . New
York: Peter Lang.)

 Hilda Taba belived teachers should be at the heart of curriculum development.

(Olivia and Gordon, 2013) Pg. 110
 Teachers should be able to design specific learning units. (Olivia and Tyler,
2013) pg. 110
 Curriculum should be designed based on concept formation, being able to
interpret data and evaluate students learning by applying the learned principles.

2. What are the differences between the levels of educational goals?

3. What are the learning outcomes of the following domains:
 Cognitive domain
 Affective domain
 Psychomotor domain?

TOPIC 6

1. What are the criteria for selection of content?

2. What are the principles of content organisation?
3. What are the criteria for selection of learning experiences?
4. Compare and contrast subject-matter centred, learner-centred, and problem-centred
curriculum designs.

Topic 7

Please try to answer these questions:

• What is curriculum implementation?
Curriculum implementation is the interaction between creator and implementor. It is
involving changes in the knowledge, action and attitude of people. It is also known as the
process of professional development and growth involving ongoing interaction, feedback
and assistance. Implementation of the curriculum is clarification between stakeholders who
come to understand and demonstrate a change in attitudes and behaviours as well as often
involving the use of the new resource of material.

Implementation requires efforts thus useful in organise manageable events and to set
achievable goals. This process also needs supportive from administrator, teachers and
educators where risk-taking is encouraged.

Implementation of new curriculum involving a large amount of money and sometimes this
effort have failed. This is because of the failure of a lack of understanding between both
experts outside school. The implementors (administrator, principal, teachers, district
education officers). The stakeholders must be very clear with the real and potential benefits
of the innovation.

As conclusion teachers as an implementor of the curriculum should be appreciated and

internally motivated.

p/s: dr lim comment

Great! You have listed the points but you also need to elaborate. For example if you say it is
an interaction between the stakeholders, you need to explain who these stakeholders are.
E.g. the teachers, students, parents, headmaster etc... Elaboration is the key here Vani.

• Describe Lewin's change model.

Seems curriculum is a changes process and people are generally reluctant to changes
because they are comfortable with what they are currently doing. So, recognising the need
for change if they understand change and how its work.

Lewin's is a father of social psychology suggested a model explaining changes. He has

stated that a person usually faces 2 types of competing forces namely driving forces and
restraining forces. Driving forces refer to forces that drive you to do something/change
while restraining Forces means forces that prevent you from doing something/ change.
Equilibrium is when both driving and restraining forces are equal, the status quo is
maintained like no effort toward change.

For example, when a headmaster effort for changes and use autocratic system towards the
teachers in making the goals to be achieved than the restraining force take in count major
and reducing the power of the driving force. This condition will lead to a lack of cooperation
and contribution from teachers and results in slow down of changes.
Lewis emphasized to bring about changes is better to reduce restraining forces rather than
increasing driving force. For example, the headmaster could instead encourage more group
discussion in problem-solving and trained the teachers upon new ideas before
implementing the process.

p/s: Dr comment
you need to talk about the driving forces and the restraining forces. Distinguish between the
2 and give examples. Give examples of driving forces and restraining forces.

• Differentiate between the types of curriculum change.

There 5 types of curriculum changes namely substitution, alteration, perturbations,
restructuring and value orientation.

Substitution is an element that may be a substitute for one another for example the
substitution of a new textbook of CEFR for English subject in all primary and secondary
school.

Alteration is a change made in minor and thus be already adopted into existing material. For
example, using a graphing calculator in the mathematic subject.

Perturbations is a disruptive change like principal adding teaching hours in the time table.

Restructuring is a modification in the whole system such as the introduction of integrated

curriculum requiring team teaching in deciding what is to be taught.

Value Orientation is a fundamental value orientation of school personnel. For example, new
posting teacher emphasizes more on the personal growth of students than academic
performance.

As a result, these 5 stages of changes are not exactly fit, however, as an educator should
aware of changes.

• Why do people tend to resist change?

As we know well, it's not easy to bring changes among people because they prefer to
remain as what are they and what are they doing. They might have a question, “why should
fix it if it's not broken”. They have the misconception that, bringing changes meaning
adding more works. The situation will be worse when the programmer himself not clear as
to the intent and the content of the programme are poorly planned. The below explanations
are the main reasons why people resist to change.

1. People resist because they do not understand and follow what is being introduced and
the requirement of themselves. This is maybe because of the lack of communication
between the stakeholder and implementors. The most important things we have to know is
a communication means not a message sent but the message received. So as a solution
programmer should explain to implementor on 5W H question regarding the new ideas and
changes clearly.

2. Lack of ownership because people normally unable to accept the changes come from
outside especially from the level of national, state or district. The stakeholder should
convince the teachers that even though it’s come from outside but their view and opinion
have considered at the design stage of panning curriculum. The teacher will feel that they
are given important when involving them in exploring new skills in implementing the
curriculum.

3. Resist with competencies if they do not cope with the changes. People usually refuse to
agree that they are incompetent because they are lack of upgrading with current
knowledge. On the other hand, the implementation of new curriculum sometimes has been
rushed due to budgetary constraints and training period has been reduced greatly. So, the
teachers are not adequately equipped. As the way of solution, the creator should adequately
time and set enough resources aside for the training of teachers involves in implementing
new curriculum to achieve the primary goals of the curriculum changes.

4. Resit lack of incentives and benefits. Lack of incentives (recognition, promotion, financial
reward) and unconvinced they are likely to resist the changes. The stakeholder (Ministry of
education, administrator, principal, teachers, district education officers) should appreciate
and reward the teachers who are actively involved in the curriculum changes not necessarily
in form of cash but their effort needs to be given recognition.

5. Resist if they do not have time to engage with the changes. Teachers are extremely
having terrible challenges to juggle with the changes and current responsibilities. Focusing
their energy to the changes may cause them to neglect their current responsibilities. The
programmer and administrator should lighten their work load as they can actively involve in
the curriculum changes at the same time, they can make it meaningful and effective to the
learning process.

• What are the most successful/productive ways for making  people more receptive to
change.
• What roles can people play in the process of  curriculum change?

TOPIC 8

1. Describe the phases of evaluation.

2. Why is it necessary to engage in both formative and summative evaluation?
3. Explain the major features of at least two models of curriculum evaluation.
4. Discuss some data collection methods for curriculum evaluation.

TOPIC 9

1. What are the knowledge and skills that students need for the future?
2. How can teachers cater to individual differences in the classroom?
3. How can teachers cultivate the culture of thinking in the classroom?