Oscillations

NOTE
P H Y S I C S
SHM AND OSCILLATIONS

INTRODUCTION TO SHM
What you already know What you will learn
• Mechanics • Periodic and oscillatory motion

• Heat transfer • Introduction to SHM
• Thermodynamics • Basic equations of SHM
Periodic Motion
• If a body or a particle repeats its motion along a definite path after a regular interval of time,
its motion is said to be periodic motion.
• The path of periodic motion can be linear, circular, elliptical, or any other curve.
• Examples: The Earth’s motion around the Sun, the motion of the hands of a clock.
• A body performing uniform circular motion comes under the category of periodic motion.
• The fixed time interval after which the motion is repeated is known as the time period (T) of
periodic motion.
Oscillatory Motion
The periodic motion of a body which is to and fro about a fixed position is known as oscillatory
motion.
• The term oscillation refers to the to and fro motion
of a body about a fixed position along a fixed path.
• Examples: The motion of a simple pendulum, the
motion of a vibrating string, etc.
• In case of a simple pendulum, the bob of the
pendulum performs to and fro motion about the
equilibrium position. The bob reaches an extreme
position (where it stops momentarily, i.e., v = 0) on
both the sides of the lowest position.
© 2020, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

02
• All periodic motions are not oscillatory motions. In order to qualify for oscillatory
motion, the body must be moving to and fro about a fixed point. Example: The motion
of the Earth is a periodic motion but not an oscillatory motion.
• The motion of a spring-block system under ideal conditions is periodic as well as
oscillatory motion. In ideal conditions, an oscillatory motion is a periodic motion since
it repeats the motion after regular time intervals.
• However, in the presence of dissipative forces like viscous force, friction, etc., the
mechanical energy of the oscillating body decreases. Hence, oscillatory motion need
not always remain periodic.
Types of Oscillatory Motion
Oscillatory motion
Harmonic oscillation Non-harmonic oscillation
Harmonic oscillation
• The term harmonic oscillation means periodic oscillation.

• Harmonic oscillations are those whose equations of motion can be expressed as simple
trigonometric functions.
= y a sin ωt + b cos ωt
Or, y = a cos ωt
Or, y = a sin ωt
• The equations involving simple trigonometric functions become periodic in nature due to the
periodicity of sin θ and cos θ. We know that sin and cos have a period of 2π, and the values
oscillate between +1 and -1.
Non-harmonic oscillations
• Non-harmonic oscillations are those whose equations of motion cannot be expressed as simple
trigonometric functions.
Example:
= y a sin2ω1t + b cos2ω2t
Or, y = b cos2ωt
Or, y = b sin2ωt

03
Oscillatory Motion
In the case of a spring-block system, it is observed that when the block is pulled and released, it
moves to and fro about the mean position (where the net force is zero). This type of system is an
example of oscillatory motion.
In this case, the spring force is directly proportional to the negative of the displacement.
F = -kx
For the to and fro motion, we can use the positive and the negative sign to represent the direction
of vector quantities (displacement, velocity, force, acceleration, etc.).
  n
Let us examine the case when a particle is being acted upon by a force , F ∝ − ( x ) , where n is an
integer.
Case 1: n → Even integer (0, 2, 4,……….)
For negative as well as positive displacements of the body, the force will be always be directed
along the negative x-axis. This clearly indicates that the body cannot perform oscillatory motion
(to and fro motion) about its mean position. The motion of the particle is not oscillatory for even
integral values of n.
Case 2: n → Even integer (1, 3, 5,……….)

In this case, for the negative displacement (-x), the force x<0 x=0 x>0
will be directed towards the positive x-axis.
⇒ F ∝ − ( −x )
3
 
Or, F ∝ + ( x ) O
3
F F
Similarly, for the positive displacement (+x), the force will be directed towards the negative x-axis.
⇒ F ∝ − (+x )
3
Or, F ∝ − x 3
Hence, the force will always act opposite to the displacement and it will tend to bring the body back
to its mean position (x = 0).
The body will perform to and fro motion about x = 0.
The motion of the particle will be oscillatory for the odd integral values of n.
• In an oscillatory motion, the body moves to and fro about its mean position.
• A restoring force acts on the body such that it always tends to bring it back to the
mean position.
• The tendency of the body is to return to its mean position, because the mean position
is a stable equilibrium position, where the potential energy of the system is minimum.
• At the mean position, the net force on the body is zero (Fnet = 0); therefore, the
acceleration of the body is also zero.
• The mean position for an oscillating simple pendulum is the lowest position of the
pendulum bob.
• The mean position for a spring-block system kept on a horizontal surface is at the
natural length of the spring, when the spring force is zero.

04
NEET
Simple Harmonic Motion
x<0 x=0 x>0

Simple harmonic motion is a to and fro motion about a fixed
 
point (mean position) with the restoring force, F ∝ ( − x ) .
Here, the value, n = 1, has been taken for the simplest  
 
oscillatory motion. |F |=k | x | O |F |=k | x |
Here, the restoring force, F = kx, will act in a direction opposite to the displacement of the body and
will always be directed towards the mean position (x = 0).
A spring-block system performing SHM
x = -A O x = +A
The mean position has been taken at the origin (x = 0) for simplicity and the maximum displacement
of the block is A from the mean position on both sides; x = +A and x = -A are known as the extreme
positions.
The maximum displacement of the body from the mean position is known as the amplitude.
Types of SHM
(a) L
inear SHM: It is when a particle undergoes to and fro motion about an equilibrium position
along a straight line.
(b) A
ngular SHM: It is when a body/particle is free to rotate/oscillate about a given axis on a
curved path.
Summary of motion of a body performing SHM about its mean position:
• As the body is displaced from its mean position, the restoring force, F = -kx, starts to act on the
body.
• The restoring force is always opposite to the displacement of the body, hence the motion of
the body will get retarded. The magnitude of acceleration will be directly proportional to the
negative displacement, a ∝ –x.
• The velocity of the body will decrease at a higher rate with an increase in the displacement, and
the body will eventually come to rest (v = 0) momentarily. The position where the body comes to
rest momentarily is known as the extreme position. The extreme position for the body is, x = ± A.
• At the extreme position, the body is momentarily at rest because the restoring force is acting
at its maximum value (F = -kx = -kA). The acceleration of the body is maximum at the extreme
position and the direction of acceleration is towards the mean position.
• The body starts to move from the extreme position to the mean position and its velocity keeps
on increasing until it reaches the mean position.
• Once the body reaches the mean position, the net force on the body becomes zero. At the mean
position, the acceleration of the body is zero (a = 0) and its velocity is at the maximum, i.e., vmax.

05
• Due to the maximum velocity at the mean position, the body crosses its mean position. Once
again, the restoring force, F = -kx, begins to oppose its motion, and the body stops momentarily
at its second extreme position.
Some Important Terminologies in SHM
• Amplitude (A): It is the maximum displacement of

the particle from the mean position. It is the distance
between the mean position and the extreme position
on either side.
• Time period (T): It is the time taken to complete
one oscillation. One oscillation is counted when the -A O A
particle returns back to its initial position.
• Frequency (f ): It is defined as the number of oscillations completed by the body per unit time.
1
f =
T
Its SI unit is Hz, when the time period is in second (s).
Acceleration Equation of SHM
If force applied in SHM is denoted by the following equation:

 
F = −kx
Then the acceleration of the body,

 F
a=
m
 k 
⇒a= − x
m
Since to and fro motion is a type of one-dimensional motion, we can represent the direction of the
vector with positive and negative signs.
⇒ a =− ω 2 x
k
Where, ω 2 =
m
x = -A O x = +A

06
• The acceleration is maximum at the extreme position and the magnitude of the
maximum acceleration is, amax = ω 2 A .
• The acceleration of the body is always directed towards its mean position.
• Velocity is maximum where acceleration is zero, i.e., at the mean position.
Velocity Equation of SHM
Acceleration in SHM is given by the following equation:

a = −ω 2 x
By expressing acceleration as,
dv dx
a= ×
dt dx
dv
⇒a= v
dx
We get,
dv
v = −ω 2 x
dx
Substituting the limits of displacement and velocity as, x = +A, v = 0 to x = x, v = v.
v x
⇒ ∫ v dv =∫ − ω 2 x dx
0 x=+ A
v x
 v2   x2 
⇒  = −ω 2  
 2 0  2 A
v 2 ω 2 ( A2 − x 2 )
⇒=
⇒ v = ±ω (A 2
− x2 )
This equation gives the velocity of the body when its displacement from the mean position is x.
Here, positive and negative signs represent the direction of velocity along the positive and the
negative x-axis, respectively.
• Velocity is maximum at the mean position, where x = 0 (displacement from the mean
position is zero).
• On substituting x = 0 in the equation of velocity, we get the magnitude of maximum
velocity.
vmax = Aω

07
Graphical Analysis of SHM
Force vs displacement graph
From the relation between force and displacement,

F = -kx
It is similar to the format y = -mx. x = +A x
The graph of force vs displacement will be a straight line x = -A O
passing through the origin with a negative slope.
Slope = m = tan θ = −k
Slope = -k
Acceleration vs displacement graph
From the relation between acceleration and

displacement, a = −ω 2 x
It is similar to the format, y = -mx. x = +A
The graph of acceleration vs displacement will be a x = -A O x
straight line passing through the origin with a negative
slope.
Slope = -ω2
Velocity vs displacement graph
=
From the equation of velocity, v 2 ω 2 ( A2 − x 2 )
v
v2
⇒ = 2
ω
( A2 − x 2 ) (0, Aω)
v2
⇒ + x 2 = A2 x
ω2 (-A, 0) O (A, 0)
v2 x2
⇒ + =
1 (0, -Aω)
A2 ω 2 A2
X2 Y2
This equation is in this format, 2 + 2 =1, and represents an ellipse.
a b
The graph of velocity vs displacement will be an ellipse with the centre at ( 0, 0).
• At the mean position (x = 0), the particle will have velocity -Aω or Aω, depending on
its direction of motion.
• At the extreme position (x = +A, x = -A), the particle will have zero velocity.

08
Displacement x = -A x=0 x = +A
Acceleration |a| max |a| = 0 |a| max
Speed |v| 0 |v| max |v| 0
For any body executing simple harmonic motion

 
F = −kx
 
a = −ω 2 x
v= ±ω ( A2 − x 2 )
1
f =
T
Find the distance covered by a particle undergoing SHM in one time period (amplitude = A).
(A) 4A (B) 0 (C) A (D) 2A
Solution
x = -A x=0 x=A
In one time period (one complete oscillation), the A

particle covers 4 × (distance between the mean
position and the extreme position).
Total distance covered = 4A
2A
Thus, option (A) is the correct answer.
Find the average velocity of a particle executing SHM in one complete oscillation.
Aω 2 Aω
(A) (B) 0 (C) (D) Aω
2 2

09
Solution
In one complete oscillation, the displacement of the particle is zero.

∆x
vavg =
∆t
 ∆x = 0
⇒ vavg = 0
Thus, (B) is the correct answer.
A pendulum is moving like a simple harmonic oscillator. The acceleration of the bob of the
pendulum is 20 ms-2 at a distance of 5 m from the mean position. Find the time period of the
oscillation.
(A) 2π s (B) π s (C) 2 s (D) 1 s
Solution
Given, the magnitude of acceleration,

a 20= ms −2 at x 5 m
a = ω2x
a 20
⇒ ω= =
x 5
⇒ω =
2 rad s −1
2π
∴
=T = π s
ω
Thus, option (B) is the correct answer.
A particle executes linear simple harmonic motion with an amplitude of 3 cm. When the
particle is at 2 cm from the mean position, the magnitude of its velocity is equal to that of its
acceleration. Find its time period in seconds (s).
5 5 4π 2π
(A) (B) (C) (D)
π 2π 5 3
Solution
Given, A = 3 cm
And |v| = |a| at x = 2 cm

10
⇒ω (A 2
− x2 ) =
ω2x
ω2 (A − x 2 2
)
⇒ =
ω x
(3 2
− 22 ) 5
⇒ω = = rad s −1
2 2
Now, the time period will be,
2π
T=
ω
2π 4π
T
⇒= = s
 5 5
 
 2 
Thus, option (C) is the correct answer.
A particle is executing a simple harmonic motion. Its maximum acceleration is α and the
maximum velocity is β. Find its time period of oscillation.
2πβ β2 α β2
(A) (B) (C) (D)
α 2
α β α
Solution
Maximum acceleration = ω2A = α …...…(i)

Maximum velocity = ωA = β …….…(ii)
Dividing equation (i) by equation (ii),
α
⇒ω =
β
2π 2πβ
⇒T= =
ω α

NOTE
P H Y S I C S

EQUATIONS OF SHM
• Basic definition • Equations for displacement when a

• Periodic and oscillatory motion particle starts from various positions
• Basic definitions in SHM • General equation of SHM
• Basic equations in SHM • Graphical representations
Equation for Simple Harmonic Motion
Displacement (x) of a particle performing SHM
The displacement of a particle is always measured x = –A x=0 x = +A

from its mean position. The restoring force acting
on the particle is given by, F = –kx, where we
have considered x as the displacement from the
equilibrium position or mean position. P O Q
The particle may start its motion from the mean
position (x = 0), extreme position (x = ±A), or any other At t = t1 At t = t2 At t = t3
position, − A ≤ x ≤ + A. x = x1 x = x2 x = x3
Displacement (x) of a particle performing SHM
Case I
Case III
Particle starts from Case II
the mean position General equation
Particle starts from of SHM
the extreme position
At t = 0 At t = 0
At t = 0 At t = 0
x=0 x = –A
x = +A –A ≤ x ≤ +A

02
Case I: Particle starts from the mean position

When the particle starts from the mean position, it has the maximum velocity, vmax. The velocity of
the particle at any distance x from the mean position is given as follows:
± ω A2 − x 2
v= ( )
dx
⇒ v = =± ω A2 − x 2
dt
( )
dx At t = 0
Or, = ± ω dt
x=0
(
A2 − x 2 ) x = –A x = +A
On integrating both the sides to obtain the relation

between x and t,
x dx t
P O x, t Q
⇒∫ ∫ ± ω dt
=
0
(A 2
− x2 ) 0
t  
x x
x x dx −1  x 
⇒ sin   = −1
± ω [t ]0  ∫ =
sin   
 A 0  0 A2 − x 2  A  0 

x 0
⇒ sin −1   − sin −1   = ± ω (t − 0)
 A  A
x
Or, sin −1   = ± ω t
 A
⇒= x A sin ( ±ω t )
⇒x=± A sin ω t
he displacement equation, x = –A sin ωt, should be used when a particle is starting its
• T
motion from the mean position and moving towards the negative x-direction.
• The positive sign indicates that the particle is going towards the positive x-direction;
hence, x = +A sin ωt should be used when a particle is starting its motion from the
mean position and moving towards the positive x-direction.
Case II (a): Particle starts from the positive extreme position

Particle is at x = +A at t = 0.
dx
= ± ω dt
( A2 − x 2 )
Again integrating both the sides with suitable limits, i.e., x = +A to x = x and t = 0 to t = t,
x dx t
⇒∫ ∫ ± ω dt
=
+A
(A 2
− x2 ) 0
x
x
± ω [t ]0
−1 t
⇒ sin   =
 A + A
x +A
sin −1All rights
⇒BYJU'S.
© 2020,
 − sin −1   =
reserved ±ωt
 A  A 
03
x dx t
⇒∫ ∫ ± ω dt
=
+A
(A
2
− x2 ) 0
x
x
± ω [t ]0
−1 t
⇒ sin   =
 A + A At t = 0
x +A x = –A x=0 x = +A
⇒ sin −1   − sin −1   = ±ωt
 A  A 
π 
⇒ x A sin  ± ω t 
=
2  P O x, t Q
⇒x= + A cos (ω t )
If we put t = 0 in the displacement equation, x = +A cos ωt, we get the position of the particle as
x = +A. This justifies that the particle started from its positive extreme position.
Case II (b): Particle starts from the negative extreme position

Particle is at x = –A at t = 0.
dx
= ± ω dt
( A2 − x 2 )
Again integrating both the sides with suitable limits,
i.e., x = –A to x = x and t = 0 to t = t,
x dx t
⇒∫ ∫ ± ω dt
=
−A
(A
2
− x2 ) 0
x
x
± ω [t ]0
t
⇒ sin   = −1
At t = 0
 A − A x = –A x=0 x = +A
x  −A
⇒ sin −1   − sin −1   = ± ωt
 A  A
 3π 
⇒ x A sin 
= ± ωt  P x, t O Q
 2 
⇒ x =− A cos (ωt )
If we put t = 0 in the displacement equation, x = –A cos ωt, we get the position of the particle as
x = –A. This justifies that the particle started from its negative extreme position.
Case III: General equation of displacement

When the position of the particle is anywhere between its mean position and the two extreme
=
positions, then the displacement from the mean position is given by, x A sin (ω t + φ ).
=
Here, ϕ is the initial phase of the particle andxthe A sin (ω t + φ ) is known as the phase of the particle.
term
The initial phase of a particle performing SHM is important in determining the initial position from
where the particle started its motion.

04
Graphical representation of a particle performing SHM
The graphical representation of the general x

equation of SHM is a sinusoidal curve, and the
starting point of the graph is decided by the O t
initial phase of the particle. If the initial phase is
π
, the graph takes the form of a cosine curve.
2
The phase of a particle reveals some of the
important features of the motion of a particle. It x=0
becomes crucial to understand the status of the
motion of the particle.
x = –A x = +A
Note
If a particle is undergoing a uniform circular P O Q
motion with a constant angular speed ω, then
the motion of the projection of particle on the
diameter of the circle represents a simple P Q
harmonic motion.
x = –A x = +A
Summary of the displacement equation of particle
Case I
Case III
Particle starts from Case II
the mean position General equation
Particle starts from of SHM
the extreme position
x = ±A sin(ωt) x = A sin(ωt + ϕ)
x = ±A cos(ωt)
Points to be noted regarding the phase of a particle
• If the phase of a particle is zero at a certain instant of time, it represents that the particle is
crossing its mean position and moving towards the positive direction.
sin (ω t + φ=
) sin 0°= 0
⇒ x A sin (ω=
= t + φ) 0
Aω cos (ω t + φ ) =
And, v = + Aω ( cos 0° =
1)

05
imilarly, if the phase of a particle is π at a certain instant of time, it represents that the particle is
• S
crossing its mean position and moving towards the negative direction.
• If the phase is

π , it represents that the particle is at x
2
its positive extreme position.
π
sin (ωt + φ=
) sin = 1
2
⇒ x =A sin (ω t + φ ) =+A
π
And, cos (ω t + φ=) cos = 0
2
= ⇒ v Aω cos (= ωt + φ ) 0 t
O P O Q
3π Extreme Mean Extreme
• Similarly, if the phase is , it represents that the
2 position position position
particle is at its negative extreme position. x = –A x=0 x = +A
• The change in phase of the particle by integral multiples of 2π, i.e., (ω t + φ ± 2π ) , (ω t + φ ± 4π ) ,

(ω t + φ ± 6π ) etc., brings the particle to the same motion state.
he change in phase of the particle by integral multiples of π reverses the motion state of the
• T
particle.
Equations for Simple Harmonic Motion
Velocity of a particle performing SHM
The general equation for the displacement of a particle performing SHM is given by,
=x A sin (ω t + φ )
On differentiating the displacement with respect to time, we will get the general equation for the
velocity of the particle, and further differentiating the velocity with respect to time will yield the
general equation of acceleration of the particle.
dx d
= A cos (ω t + φ ) ×
v= (ω t + φ )
dt dt
⇒ v Aω cos (ω t + φ )
=
Note
Here, we can see that the magnitude of velocity is maximum, vmax = Aω, when the phase of the
particle is zero or π.
Acceleration of a particle performing SHM
dv d
a= = − Aω sin (ω t + φ ) × (ω t + φ )
dt dt
⇒ a =− Aω 2 sin (ω t + φ )

06
Substituting x = A sin (ω t + φ), we get, a = –ω2x

From the equation of acceleration, it is evident that a ∝ − x. The magnitude of the maximum
acceleration is ω2 A at the extreme positions.
dv d 2 x d2x
a
Substituting = = in the equation of acceleration, we get, + ω2x =0
dt dt 2 dt 2
The equation of motion of a particle in this format will always represent a simple harmonic motion.
If a simple harmonic oscillator has a displacement of 0.02 m and an acceleration equal to

2 ms–2 at any time, find the angular frequency of the oscillator.
(A) 10 rad s–1 (B) 0.1 rad s–1 (C) 100 rad s–1 (D) 1 rad s–1
Solution
The relation between acceleration and displacement for a particle performing SHM is,
a = −ω 2 x
a
⇒ ω2 =
x
2
ω2
Or,= = 100
0.02
∴ω =
10 rad s −1
The oscillation of a body on a smooth horizontal surface is represented by the equation, x

= A cos(ωt). Which of the following graphs correctly shows the variation of a with t (where
symbols have their usual meaning)?
a a a a
(A) (B) (C) (D)

O O O O
T t T t T t T t

07
NEET
Solution
On differentiating the given displacement equation twice with respect to time, we will get the
equation of acceleration.
dv d2x
a
= =
dt dt 2
dx
= − Aω sin ωt
dt
a
d2x d
⇒ a= = ( − Aω sin ωt )
dt 2
dt
⇒a = − Aω 2 cos ωt
Putting t = 0, we get, a = –Aω2 = –amax O

T t
2π
The time period of SHM, T =
ω
Substituting t = T in the acceleration equation, we get,
 2π 
⇒ a =− Aω 2 cos  ω ×  =− Aω 2
 ω 
i.e., a = −amax
Hence, from the given graphs, we can see that the value of acceleration is at its negative maximum
at t = 0 and t = T in option (C).

NOTE
P H Y S I C S

PHASE AND ENERGY OF SHM
• Displacement of particle in SHM • SHM as uniform circular motion

• Velocity of particle in SHM • Phase of particle in SHM
• Equation of SHM • Energy in SHM
Recap
1. Restoring force acting on the body, F = − kx

⇒ ma = − kx
−k
2. Acceleration of the body, a = x= − Aω 2 sin (ωt + φ )
− ω 2 x or, a =
m
3. Velocity of the body, v = ± ω A2 − x 2 or,
= v Aω cos (ωt + φ )
1
4. Frequency of SHM, f =
T
5. Differential equation of SHM is given as follows :
d2x
+ ω2x =
0
dt 2
BOARDS
SHM as Uniform Circular Motion
Let us assume a particle moving in a uniform circular t=0 ω

motion along a circular path, having the origin as the
centre and a radius A.
t=t
At time t, the particle has an angular displacement θ.
We know , θ
θ x = –A x = +A
Angular velocity of the particle, ω = P Q
t x=0 A sin θ
⇒θ = ωt
Projection of the particle on the x -axis , x = A sinθ
⇒x=A sin (ωt )

02
x = –A x = +A
P x=0 Q
Although the body is moving in a uniform circular
motion, the projection of the particle along the
diameter in any direction follows simple harmonic
motion.
x = –A x=0 x = +A
P O Q
Extreme Mean Extreme
position position position
Phase of the Particle Performing SHM
Let us assume two different particles moving in a uniform circular motion, one having phase ϕ1 and
the second one having phase ϕ2.
We know , x = A sin (ωt )
Phase difference is as follows:
(ωt + φ1 ) − (ωt + φ2 ) =
φ1 − φ2 =∆φ
t=0 ω
∆ϕ
1 t=t
x
2
ϕ2
∆ϕ
ϕ1
x = –A x = +A
P x=0 Q
}
O t ∆x
NEET
Energy of the Particle Performing SHM
Energy of a particle performing SHM is as follows:

Energy = Potential energy + Kinetic energy

03
Potential energy
Potential energy of a particle in SHM is as follows:

∆ U =− Wc
⇒ ∫ dU =
− ∫ dW
 
⇒ ∫ dU =
− ∫ F . dx
⇒ ∫ dU =
− ∫ kx dx cos 180°
⇒ ∫ dU =
∫ kx dx
Potential energy is directly proportional to displacement x; so, at the extremes, the potential energy
has to be maximum and at the mean position, the potential energy should be zero.
Applying the limits, we get the following:
U x
⇒ ∫ dU =
∫ kx dx
U0 0
kx 2
⇒ U − U0 =
2
1
⇒ U = U0 + kx 2
2
1
⇒ U =kx 2
2
Potential
Different forms of the equation are as follows:
energy
1  k
=mω 2 x 2   ω 2
1. U
2  m 
1 1
= 2. U mω= A sin2 ωt
2 2
mω 2 A2 ( 1 − cos 2ωt )
2 4
Potential energy is maximum at the extreme positions.
1 1 Position
Umax = kA2 = mω 2 A2 ( Where, x = ± A )
2 2 1  1 
Potential energy is minimum at the mean position. U = mω 2 x 2  or, U = mω 2 A2 sin2 ωt 
2  2 
=Umin 0= ( Where, x 0)
Kinetic energy 1
K = mω 2 ( A2 − x 2 )
2
Kinetic energy of a particle in SHM is as follows: Energy
1
KE = mv 2
2 KE
We know, at extreme positions, v = 0
∴ KE = 0
PE
Also,velocity is maximum at the mean position ( x = 0) .
∴ KE =
Maximum Kmin = 0 Position

04
Different forms of the equation are as follows:
1
1. KE =
2
mω 2 A2 − x 2 ( ) ( v =
±ω A 2
− x2 )
1 1
2. KE =mω 2 A2 cos2 ωt =mω 2 A2 (1 + cos 2ωt ) (v =Aω cos ωt )
2 4
Total energy
1 1
= E mω 2 x 2 + mω 2 ( A2 − x 2 )
Energy TE 2 2
1 1
E = m ω 2 x 2 + m ω 2 A2 − x 2
2 2
( ) PE
1  1
U = mω 2 x 2  or, U = mω 2 A2
2  2
1
⇒ E =m ω 2 A2 KE 1
2 K = mω 2 ( A2 − x 2 )
2
Position
Kmin = 0
A particle executing simple harmonic motion has a kinetic energy, K0 cos2 ωt. The values of
the maximum potential energy and the total energy are _______, respectively.
K0
(A) and K0 (B) K0 and 2K0 (C) K0 and K0 (D) 0 and 2K0
2
Solution
Given,
KE = K0 cos2 ωt
We know that kinetic energy is maximum at the mean position.
KEmax = K0 (Since cos2 ωt = 1)
Also, potential energy is zero at the mean position.
The total energy is constant in SHM.
x = –A x=0 x = +A
Total energy = Kinetic energy + Potential energy
⇒ TE = KE + PE
⇒ TE =K 0 + 0 P O Q
∴ Total energy = K0
Now,
The total energy at the extreme position is also K0.

05
At x = ±A,
Total energy = PE + KE = K0
We know that kinetic energy is zero at the extreme positions.
Also, potential energy is maximum at the extreme positions.
⇒ TE = PEmax + 0 = K0
Therefore, PEmax = K0
What is the potential energy of a simple harmonic oscillator when a particle is halfway to its
endpoints? (Here, E is the total energy)
2 1 1 1
(A) E (B) E (C) E (D) E
3 8 4 2
Solution
A
Let us assume a particle in SHM which travels a distance from the mean position.
2
Given,
1
=
Total energy of the harmonic oscillator =mω 2 A2 E
2
Potential energy of the partice at any position is as follows:
1
⇒ PE = mω 2 x 2
2
A
At x = , x = –A x=0 x = +A
2
2
1  A
⇒ PE = mω 2  
2 2 A
P O x= Q
1 1 2
⇒ PE = × mω 2 A2
4 2
1
⇒ PE = E
4

06
A particle of mass m oscillates in simple harmonic motion between points x1 and x2, with the
equilibrium position being point O. What will its potential energy vs displacement plot look
like?
(A) U (B) U (C) U (D) U
x1
x x x x
x1 O x2 x1 O x2 x1 O x2 x2
O
Solution
Energy
The potential energy is zero at the
mean position and maximum at the
extreme positions with a parabolic
variation. 1  1
U = mω 2 x 2  or, U = m
Thus, option (A) is the correct 2  2
answer.
x1 O Position x2

NOTE
P H Y S I C S

SIMPLE PENDULUM
• Equations of SHM • Graphical analysis of SHM

• SHM as uniform circular motion • Simple pendulum
• Phase of a particle in SHM • Simple pendulum placed in a lift
• Energy of SHM • Simple pendulum placed in a liquid
NEET
Graphical Analysis of SHM
We will analyse the graphical representation of displacement, velocity, acceleration, kinetic energy,
potential energy and the total energy of SHM with respect to time.
Graph of Position vs Time
Case 1:
The general equation of displacement for a particle executing SHM is given by,
x = A sin(ωt + 𝜙)
At time t = 0, assuming the particle has no initial phase, we get,
x = A sin ωt
By substituting t = 0, we get the following:
⇒ x= A sin (ω × 0)= A × 0 ( sin 0°= 0 )
⇒x=
0
T
At time t = ,
4
 2π T  π 
= x A sin  ×=  A sin  
T 4 2
⇒x= A
T
At time t = ,
2
 2π T 
= x A sin  ×= A sin (π )
T 2 
⇒x= 0
3T
At time t = ,
4
T
At time t = ,
02 2
 2π T 
=x A sin  ×= A sin (π )
T 2 
⇒x= 0
3T
At time t = ,
4
 2π 3T   3π 
=x A sin  × =  A sin  
T 4   2 
⇒x= −A
At time t = T ,
 2π 
=x A sin  = × T  A sin ( 2π )
T 
⇒x= 0
t ωt x
If we plot the position of the particle executing SHM with
respect to time, it is given as follows: 0 0 0
T π
Graph of x vs t A
x 4 2
A T
3T π 0
2
4 t
O
T T 3T 3π
T –A
4 4 2
2
–A
T 2π 0
x = A sin(ωt)
Case 2:
The general equation of displacement for a particle executing SHM is given by,
x = A cos(ωt + 𝜙)
At time t = 0, assuming the particle has no initial phase, we get,
x = A cos ωt
By substituting t = 0, we get the following:
⇒ x= A cos (ω × 0)= A × 1 ( cos 0°= 1)
⇒x=A
T
At time t =
,
4
 2π T  π 
=x A cos  = ×  A cos  
T 4 2
⇒x= 0
T
At time t = ,
2
 2π T 
= x A cos  ×  A cos (π )
=
T 2
⇒x= −A
3T
At time t = ,
4
 2π 3T   3π 
T
At time t = ,
03 2
 2π T 
=x A cos  ×  A cos (π )
=
T 2
⇒x= −A
3T
At time t = ,
4
 2π 3T   3π 
=x A cos  ×=  A cos  
T 4   2 
⇒x= 0
At time t = T ,
 2π 
=x A cos  = × T  A cos ( 2π )
T 
⇒x= A
t ωt
If we plot the position of the particle executing x
SHM with respect to time, it is given as follows:
0 0 A
T π
Graph of x vs t 0
x 4 2
A T
T π –A
2
2
O t 3T 3π
T 3T T 0
4 2
4 4
–A T 2π A
x = A cos(ωt)
Graph of Velocity vs Time
For getting the velocity vs time graph, we differentiate the displacement with respect to time.
General equation of SHM is given as follows:
x = A sin ωt
dx
Velocity, v =
dt
d
⇒ v = ( A sin ωt )
dt
⇒v= Aω cos ωt
T T 3T
If we substitute t = 0,, , and T in the given general expression for velocity, we get, v = Aω,
4 2 4
0, –Aω, 0 and Aω, respectively.

04
The velocity of the particle will be maximum at the mean position

since v = Aω and v = –Aω. If we plot the velocity of the particle t ωt v
executing SHM with respect to time, it is given as follows: 0 0 Aω
Graph of v vs t T π
v 0
4 2
Aω
T T
π –Aω
2 2
O t
T 3T T 3T 3π
0
4 4 4 2
–Aω
v = Aω cos(ωt) T 2π Aω
Graph of Acceleration vs Time
For getting the acceleration, we differentiate the velocity with respect to time.
v = Aω cos ω t
dv
Acceleration, a =
dt
d
⇒ a = ( Aω cos ω t )
dt
⇒ a =− Aω 2 sin ω t
T T 3T
If we substitute t = 0, , , and T in the given general expression for acceleration, we get,
4 2 4
a = 0, –Aω2, 0, Aω2, and 0, respectively.
The acceleration of the particle will be maximum at the extreme
positions, as a = Aω2 and a = – Aω2. If we plot the acceleration t ωt a
of the particle executing SHM with respect to time, it is given as
follows: 0 0 0
Graph of a vs t T π
–Aω2
a 4 2
Aω2 T
T π 0
2
4 t
O
3T T 3T 3π
T Aω2
4 4 2
2
–Aω2
T 2π 0
a = –Aω2 sin(ωt)

05
Graph of Kinetic Energy vs Time
The general expression for the kinetic energy of SHM is as follows:

1
KE = mv 2
2
By substituting v = Aω cos ωt , we get the following:
1 2 2
⇒ KE = mA ω cos 2(ωt ) t ωt KE
2
If we plot KE of the particle executing SHM with respect to time, 1 2 2
0 ⇒0KE = mA ω cos 2(ωt )
it is given as follows: 2
T π
KE Graph of KE vs t 0
4 2
1 2 2
⇒ KE = mA ω cos 2(ωt )
2 T 1 2 2
⇒πKE = mA ω cos 2(ωt )
2 2
3T 3π
0
t 4 2
O
T T 3T T 1 2 2
T ⇒2πKE = mA ω cos 2(ωt )
4 2 4 2
Graph of Potential Energy vs Time
The general expression for the potential energy of SHM is as follows:

1 2
U (x) = kx
2
By substituting x = A sin ωt, we get the following:
1
PE = mA2ω 2 sin 2(ωt )
2
t ωt PE
If we plot the PE of the particle executing SHM with respect to
time, it is given as follows:
0 0 0
Graph of PE vs t
PE
T π 1 2 2
1 2 2 ⇒ KE = mA ω cos 2(ωt )
⇒ KE = mA ω cos 2(ωt ) 4 2 2
2
T
π 0
2
3T 3π 1 2 2
t ⇒ KE = mA ω cos 2(ωt )
O 4 2 2
T T 3T T
4 2 4 T 2π 0

06
Graph of Total Energy vs Time
The total mechanical energy of the particle E

executing SHM = Potential energy + Kinetic
energy
TE
Thus, the total mechanical energy is given by,
E= K + U
1 1 PE KE
⇒E
= k ( A2 − x 2 ) + kx 2
2 2 t
1 O
⇒ E =kA2 T T 3T T
2
4 2 4
Time Period and Frequency of SHM
To find the time period and the frequency of a particle, the following steps have to be followed:
Step 1:
Locate the equilibrium position mathematically and balance all the forces acting on it.
Step 2:

From the equilibrium position, displace the particle slightly by x and find the expression of the net

restoring force F acting on it.
Step 3:
 
Express the net restoring force as F = −kx in order to identify the proportionality factor k between
 
F and x.
Step 4:
k 2π
using, ω
Calculate the time period of oscillations= = and T , and then find out the
m ω
1
frequency using, f = .
T
NEET
Simple Pendulum
The conditions for an ideal simple pendulum is given as follows:

• Heavy point mass (bob of mass m).
• Weightless and inextensible string of effective length l.
• Rigid support about which the string is free to oscillate.

07
Time period of simple pendulum
Step 1:
l
Locate the equilibrium position mathematically and balance all T = mg
the forces acting on it.
mg
Step 2:

From the equilibrium position, displace the particle slightly by x θ
 l x
and find the expression of the net restoring force F acting on it.
Let us displace the bob by a small deviation x subtending a
small angle θ. From the FBD, we can observe that mg sin θ is the mg sin θ mg cos θ
restoring force acting on the bob. mg
Step 3:
 
Express the net restoring force as, F = −kx , in order to identify the proportionality factor k between
 
F and x.
F = − mg sin θ
Assuming θ is infinitesimally small,
x
sinθ ≈ θ ≈
l
⇒F = − mgθ
x  x
⇒F =− mg
l  θ =l 
  mg
By substituting k = in the expression of ω ,
 mg  l
⇒F =− kx  By assuming k =l 
  we get the following:
g
Step 4: ⇒ω =
l
Calculate the time period of oscillations using, The time period of the simple pendulum is
k 2π as follows :
ω = and T , and then find out the
m ω
2π l
1 T
= = 2π
frequency using f = . ω g
T
mg The frequency of the simple pendulum is
By substituting k = in the expression of ω ,
l as follows :
we get the following: 1 1 g
f= =
g T 2π l
⇒ω =
l
The time period of the simple pendulum is
as follows :
2π l
T
= = 2π
08
The time period of a simple pendulum does not depend on the mass of the bob.
Time period of simple pendulum placed in an upward moving lift
Step 1:
If the non-inertial frame (moving lift) moves with an upward acceleration ‘a’, then the pseudo
acceleration will be in the downward direction. Hence, the effective acceleration will be,
geff = (g + a)
By balancing the forces along the vertical direction, we get the following:
T mg + Pseudo force
=
⇒ T = mg + ma
a T
⇒ T= m ( g + a )
⇒T =mgeff
Where, geff= g + a mg + ma
Step 2:

From the equilibrium position, displace the particle slightly by x , and find the expression of the net

restoring force F acting on it.
Let us move the bob by a small displacement x. Since the acceleration
acting on the bob is not g but geff, so the restoring force is given as
follows:
F = − mgeff sinθ
θ
⇒ F =− mgeff θ ( Assuming θ → 0 ) l
a x
x
⇒F =− mgeff
l
x
⇒F =− m( g + a )
l
Step 3:
 
Express the net restoring force as, F = −kx, in order to identify the proportionality factor k between
 
F and x .
x
− m( g + a)
Restoring force, F =
l
⇒F =− kx
m( g + a)
Where, k =
l

09
Step 4:
k 2π
Calculate the time period of oscillations= using, ω = and T , and then find out the
m ω
1
frequency using, f = .
T
m( g + a)
By substituting k = in the expression of ω , we get the following:
l
⇒ω =
( g + a)
l
The time period of the simple pendulum is as follows :
2π l
T
= = 2π
ω g+a
The frequency of the simple pendulum is as follows :
1 1 g+a
f= =
T 2π l
Time period of simple pendulum placed in a liquid
Step 1:
Density of the liquid = σ
Density of the bob = ρ (ρ > σ)
Since the bob is submerged into the liquid, there will be an upward thrust acting on the bob.
By balancing the force acting on the bob, we get,
mg= U + T ...... ( i )
Where, U is the upthrust acting on the bob and T = mgeff is upward force
acting on the bob due to the string.
The upthrust acting on the bob is given as follows:
U =Vσ g
The weight of the bob is given as follows:
mg = V ρ g Thurst T
By substituting the values of U and T in equation ( i ) , we get the following:
⇒ mg= mgeff + Thrust
mg
⇒ mgeff =mg − Thrust
⇒ mgeff =mg − V σ g
Vσ g
⇒ geff =g −
Vρ
 σ
⇒ geff = g  1 − 
 ρ

10
Step 2:

From the equilibrium position, displace the particle slightly by x, and

find the expression of the net restoring force F acting on it.
Let us move the bob by a small displacement x. Since the acceleration
acting on the bob is not g but geff, so the restoring force is given as l
follows: x
F = − mgeff sinθ
⇒ F =− mgeff θ ( Assuming θ → 0 )
x
⇒F =− mgeff
l
 σx
⇒F =− mg  1 − 
 ρ l
Step 3:
 
Express the net restoring force as, F = −kx , in order to identify the proportionality factor k between
 
F and x.
 σx
Restoring force, F =
− mg  1 − 
 ρ l
⇒F = − kx
mg  σ
=
Where, k 1 − 
l  ρ
Step 4:
k 2π
=
Calculate the time period of oscillations using, ω = and T .
m ω
The time period of the simple pendulum is as follows :
2π l l
T
= = 2π = 2π
ω  σ geff
g1 − 
 ρ
The frequency of the simple pendulum is as follows :
 σ
g1 − 
1 1  ρ
f= =
T 2π l

11
l
he time period of oscillation of a simple pendulum is given by, T = 2π
• T .
geff
1 geff
he frequency of oscillation of a simple pendulum is given by, f =
• T .
2π l
Two masses, MA and MB, are hung from two strings of lengths lA and lB, respectively. They
are executing SHM with a frequency relation, fA = 2f B, then which of the following equations
is correct?
lB lB MB
(A) l A = (B) lA = 4lB (C) lA = 2lB and MA = 2MB (D) l A
= = and M A
4 2 2
NEET
Solution
The frequency of the simple pendulum is as follows:

1 g
f =
2π l
The frequency of the first mass is as follows:
1 g
fA =
2π lA
The frequency of the second mass is as follows:
1 g
fB =
2π lB
Also, f A = 2 f B
1 g 1 g
⇒ =
2×
2π lA 2π lB
1 1
⇒ =4 ×
lA lB
lB
⇒ lA =
4

12
A simple pendulum is suspended from the roof of a trolley that moves in a horizontal direction
l
with an acceleration a. Here, the time period is given by, T = 2π , what is the value of g′
equal to? g '
(A) g (B) g – a (C) g + a (D) (g 2

+ a2 )
Solution
The net force acting on the bob is given as follows: a

  
mg= eff mg + ma
  
⇒ geff = g + a = g2 + a2
l l ma g
= π 
T ' 2= 2π
geff g 2 + a2
⇒ g '= g 2 + a2 mg
Thus, option (D) is the correct answer.

01
NOTE
P H Y S I C S

SPRING BLOCK SYSTEM IN SHM
• Equations of SHM • Spring-block system

• Phase and energy of SHM • Series and parallel combination of springs
• Simple pendulum • Problems on springs.
Spring-Block System
For a spring-block system, consider a block of mass m attached

to a spring at its natural length (i.e., neither stretched nor Vertical spring-block
compressed). If the spring is stretched or compressed by an system
amount x from its natural length, then a restoring force d evelops
in the spring. It is the same force which is responsible for the SHM
of the block. The force acting on the block is directly proportional Horizontal
to the displacement of the block. spring-block
F ∝ –x system
I.e., F = –kx
Where, k is the spring constant. The restoring force is the force that brings the block to its initial
position. This force acts towards the direction of the mean position.
L x
The negative sign in the force equation
shows that the displacement takes place
opposite to the applied force. The stiffness
of the spring decides the value of the spring
constant k. Higher the stiffness, the tougher
it is to bring change in the spring. If the stiffness is lower, it is easy to make changes to the spring.
It means that if the value of k is more, one needs more force to stretch or compress it.
For example, to stretch or compress two springs having different spring constants, k1 and k2,
through the same length, if k1 > k2, then F1 > F2.
NEET
Time Period of Spring-Block System
L
k
At the natural length of spring, the net force on the
m
body is zero; this is known as the equilibrium position.

02
Now, the block is displaced by distance x0 due to an L x0

external force (Fext). Because of this extension in the spring, k
there will be a restoring force, Fr = –kx0. Since the spring is m
ideal (massless), the net force on the spring will be zero.
Therefore, Fext = kx0 as the external force and the restoring –kx0 Fext
force are opposite to one another
The block is again displaced from this position by x amount. k
This increases the restoring force. This restoring force will m
act opposite to the external force.
− k ( x0 + x )
Fr = x0 x
The net force on the body is defined as, F=
net Fext + Fr
By putting the expression of Fext and Fr , we get,
Fnet =kx0 − k ( x0 + x )
⇒ Fnet = kx0 − kx0 − kx
⇒ Fnet =
− kx
Now, if m is the mass of block and a is the acceleration, then Fnet can be written as,
Fnet = ma = − kx
k
⇒ a =− x
m
 k 
⇒ a =− ω 2 x  Where, m =ω 2 = Constant 
 
k
Therefore, angular frequency , ω =
m
2π m
T
and the time period,= = 2π
ω k
From the equation, it is clear that the time period of oscillation of the block is directly proportional
to the square root of m (mass) and inversely proportional to the square root of k (spring constant).
Vertical Spring-Block System
Since the block is hung by spring vertically, the constant

gravitational force mg acts downwards on the block, which
pulls the block by y0 distance downwards. Because of
this extension in the spring, there will be a restoring force, ky0
Fr = –ky0, acting upwards on the block. Eventually, the block
comes to rest at equilibrium position.
Balancing the forces acting on the block, we get, y0
ky0 = mg
Time period of SHM executed by the block is given by,
m
T = 2π
k mg

03
Now, if the spring is stretched through a distance y, then the net force on the block is,
mg − k ( y0 + y ) 
Fnet =
⇒ Fnet = mg − ky0 − ky
k(y0 + y)
We also know that at equilibrium, ky0 = mg
⇒ Fnet = ky0 − ky0 − ky
⇒ Fnet =
− ky y0 + y
Now, if m is the mass of block and a is the acceleration, then Fnet can be written as,
ma = − ky
k
⇒ a =− y
m
mg
 k 
⇒ a =− ω y 2
 Where, m = ω = Constant 
2
 
k
Therefore, angular frequency , ω =
m
2π m
T
and the time period,= = 2π
ω k
At equilibrium,
mg = ky0
m y0
⇒ =
k g
y0
2π
∴T=
g
Spring constant (k)
So, for constant force, the time period of oscillation

can be calculated even if we know the extension in the
spring. k∝ 1
l
The spring constant is inversely proportional to the
length of the spring. The following graph represents
the relationship between k and l.
The SI unit of spring constant k is Nm–1 and CGS unit is
O
dyne cm–1. Length of the spring (l )
NEET
Combination of Springs
There are mainly two combinations of springs, namely series and parallel.
When one end of one spring is connected to another end of the second spring, it becomes a series
combination. In a parallel combination, one end of the spring is connected to a rigid support, and
the other end is connected to a block; the second spring also has the same configuration.

04
Series combination
In a series combination of springs, the extension in the springs is

different for the force of the same magnitude. The extension in the
springs depends on the stiffness. k1
k1 k2
m F
k2
keq
m F
m
For the same force F, the extensions will be x1 and x2 for the springs having spring constants k1 and
k2.
Let x be the extension when both the springs are joined together.
F
F= keq x ⇒ x =
keq
F
Also, F= k1 x1 ⇒ x1=
k1
F
Also, F= k2 x2 ⇒ x2=
k2
 x= x1 + x2
F F F
⇒ = +
keq k1 k2
1 1 1
⇒ = +
keq k1 k2
kk
⇒ keq =1 2
k1 + k2
The same formula is applicable for n number of springs connected in series. The formula is
analogous to the equivalent resistance of resistors in parallel combination.
The spring constant of series combination (ks) of n springs is given by,
1 1 1 1
= + + ...... +
k s k1 k2 kn
The time period of oscillation for the series combination is given by,
m m
= π
T 2= 2π
keq ks

05
Parallel combination
In a parallel combination, the extension in the springs is the same for different forces.
k1 k1 k2
keq
m m
x
k2 m
F=
ext k1 x + k2 x
⇒ keq x =k1 x + k2 x
⇒ keq =k1 + k2
For n springs in parallel combination, equivalent k is given by,
kp = k1 + k2 + ..........+ kn
The formula is analogous to the equivalent resistance of resistors in series combination.
The time period of oscillation for the parallel combination is given by,
m m
= π
T 2= 2π
keq kp
For a spring cut into two equal halves, the spring constant becomes 2k for both the parts of the
spring. This is derived from the relation, kl = Constant.
Now, if the same springs that are cut into two halves are connected in parallel, the equivalent
spring constant becomes, keq = 2k + 2k = 4k.
A body of mass m is attached to the lower end of a spring

whose upper end is fixed. The spring has negligible mass.
When mass m is slightly pulled down and released, it
oscillates with a time period of 3s. On increasing the mass
by 1 kg, the time period of oscillation becomes 5s. Find m kg m kg
the value of m in kg.
1 kg
(A) 9 (B) 3 (C) 4 (D) 16

16 4 3 9

06
Solution
m
We know that the time period of oscillation of a spring-block system is, T = 2π .
k
This implies T ∝ m .
Therefore,
T1 m1
=
T2 m2
Given that, T=
1 3 s, T=
2 5 s, m=
1 m, and m2= m + 1
Thus,
3 m1
=
5 m2
3 m
⇒ =
5 m+1
9 m
⇒ =
25 m + 1
⇒ 25m =9m + 9
9
⇒ m = kg
16
A spring of spring constant k is cut into lengths of ratio 1 : 2 : 3. They are connected in
series and the new spring constant is k’. Then, they are connected in parallel and the force
constant becomes k”. Find k’ : k”.
(A) 1 : 6 (B) 1 : 9 (C) 1 : 11 (D) 1 : 14
Solution
Given that, l1 : l2 : l3 = 1 : 2 : 3 l, k
1
Since we know that k ∝ , implies, lk = l1k1 =
l2k2 =
l3k3
l
and l1 : l2 : l3 = 1 : 2 : 3 has to be satisfied.
l 2l 3l
lk
Hence,= = k1 = k2 k3
6 6 6
∴ k= 6k , k= 3k , and k= 2k
1 2 3 k1 = 6k k2 = 3k k3 = 2k

07
For a series combination,

1 1 1 1
= + +
k ' k1 k2 k3
1 1 1 1
⇒ = + +
k ' 6k 3k 2k
1 1+2+3
⇒ =
k' 6k
1 6
⇒ =
k ' 6k
⇒ k' =
k
For a parallel combination,
k " = k1 + k2 + k3
⇒ k " = 6k + 3k + 2k
⇒ k "=
11k
k' k 1
Therefore,= = or, k ':=
k " 1 : 11
k " 11k 11

01
NOTE
P H Y S I C S

FREE, DAMPED AND FORCED OSCILLATIONS
• Displacement, velocity and acceleration in • Free, damped and forced

SHM oscillation
• Energies (kinetic, potential, and total) in SHM • Resonance
Free Oscillation
• The oscillation of a particle with a fundamental frequency under the influence of a restoring
force is defined as the free oscillation.
• The frequency of free oscillations is known as the natural frequency since it depends on the
nature and structure of the body.
• The amplitude, frequency, and energy of free oscillations remain constant.
• In general, the free oscillations occur in vacuum. The only forces acting on the particles are
restoring forces.
The displacement vs time graph for free oscillations is shown below:
+A
O
t
–A
Damped Oscillation
• The oscillation of a body whose amplitude is decreasing with time under the resistive force is
known as the damped oscillation.
• The force producing resistance to the oscillations is known as the damping force. Friction and
viscous forces are examples of damping forces. However, they do not necessarily have to be
contact forces or non-conservative forces.
• The amplitude and total energy of oscillations decrease exponentially.
The damping force is proportional to the velocity ‘v’ of the oscillator and acting in the opposite
direction.

02
Fd ∝ −v
Or,
Fd = −bv, where, b = Damping constant
The net force on the particle oscillating in the x-direction under the influence of restoring force FR
and damping force Fd is,
Fnet = Fd + FR
Or,
ma = − bv − kx
Or,
d2x dx  d2x dx 
m 2 + b += kx 0 = a and=v 
dt dt  dt 2
dt 
This differential equation represents the motion of a damped oscillator. The displacement of the
damped oscillator can be obtained by solving the equation. The small damping solution of the
equation is as follows:
bt
−
x A0e 2m
sin (ω 't + φ )
Where, ω’ is the angular frequency of the damped oscillator. It is given by,
2
 b 
ω'
= ω −
2
0 
 2m 
Or,
2
k  b 
ω'
=  m  −  2m 
   
The displacement vs time graph of a damped The amplitude vs time graph of a damped
oscillator is shown as follows: oscillator is shown as follows:
x
Amplitude
bt
−
A = A0e 2m
O t
O t
rd
1
When an oscillator completes 100 oscillations, its amplitude is reduced to   of its initial
3
value. What fraction will its amplitude be reduced to when it completes 200 oscillations?
1 1 1 1
(A) (B) (C) (D)
5 6 9 100

03
Solution
 2π 
Time taken by the damped oscillator to complete 100 oscillations, t100 = 100T, where  T =  is
the time period of the damped oscillations.  ω ' 
A
Given, A(t100 ) = 0 , where A0 is the amplitude of the damped oscillator initially (t = 0).
3
From the expression of the amplitude of a damped oscillator, we get,
bt
−
A ( t ) = A0e 2m
b( t100 )
−
⇒ A(t100 ) =
A0e 2m
b(100T )
A0 −
⇒ A0e
= 2m
3
b(100T )
− 1
⇒e = 2m
3
t t 200
After 200 oscillations, time,= = 200T ,
b( t200 )
−
A(t200 ) = A0e 2m
b( 200T )
−
= A0e 2m
= A (e )
2
b(100T )
−
2m
0
2
1
= A0  
3
or,
A0
A(t200 ) =
9
NEET
Forced Oscillation
• The oscillation in which a body oscillates under the influence of an external periodic force is
known as the forced oscillation.
• The energy lost due to the damping force is compensated by this external periodic force such
that the amplitude of the oscillation remains constant.
• The frequency of the damped oscillator is equal to the frequency of the external periodic force.
If the external driving force is represented by F(t) = F0 cos ωt, then the particle oscillating in the
x-direction is now under the influence of one more force F(t) on the top of restoring force FR and
damping force Fd.
Hence,
Fnet = Fd + FR + F(t)

04
ma = − bv − kx + F0 cos ωt
Or,
d2x dx
m 2 +b + kx − F0 cosωt =
0
dt dt
This differential equation represents the motion of forced oscillations. The expression of
displacement for a forced oscillation is obtained by solving the equation and is given as follows:
x = x0 cos (ωt + ϕ)
Where the amplitude of the forced oscillations, x0, is given by,
 F0 
m
x0 =  
2
 bω 
( )
2
ω − ω0 +  
2 2
m
k
Where, ω0 =
Natural frequency of the oscillator
m
and, ω = Frequency of the external periodic force
Resonance
When the frequency of the external force (ω) is equal to the natural frequency (ω0) of the oscillator,
the state is known as the state of resonance and this frequency is known as resonant frequency.
F
At resonance (ω = ω0), the forced oscillator oscillates at the maximum amplitude given by, x0 = 0 .
bω0
A body of mass 600 g is attached to a spring of spring constant, k = 100 Nm−1, and it is
performing damped oscillations. The damping constant is, 0.2 kg s−1, and the driving force is,
F = F0 cos ωt, where, F0 = 20 N. Find the amplitude of the oscillations at resonance.
(A) 4.1 m (B) 0.57 m (C) 7.7 m (D) 0.98 m
Solution
Given,
Mass of the body, m = 600 g = 0.6 kg
Damping constant, b = 0.2 kg s−1
Spring constant, k = 100 Nm−1
F0 = 20 N
Since the body is oscillating in the resonance condition,
k
ω
= ω=
0
m
100
=
0.6
1000
=
6
= 167 ≈ 13 rad s −1
k
ω
= ω=
0
05 m
100
=
0.6
1000
=
6
= 167 ≈ 13 rad s −1
The amplitude of the forced oscillations is given by,
 F0 
m
x0 =  
2
 bω 
(ω )
2
2
−ω 2
+ 
m
0
 20 
 0.6 
=  
 ( 0.2)(ω0 ) 
2
(ω )
2
2
0 −ω 2
0 + 
 0.6 
 200 
 6 
=  
 2(ω0 ) 
 
 6 
100
= m
13
⇒ x0 = 7.7 m

Oscillations

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NOTE

SHM AND OSCILLATIONS

What you already know What you will learn

• Mechanics • Periodic and oscillatory motion

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Types of Oscillatory Motion

Harmonic oscillation Non-harmonic oscillation

• The term harmonic oscillation means periodic oscillation.

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Case 2: n → Even integer (1, 3, 5,……….)

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x<0 x=0 x>0

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Some Important Terminologies in SHM

• Amplitude (A): It is the maximum displacement of

Acceleration Equation of SHM

If force applied in SHM is denoted by the following equation:

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Velocity Equation of SHM

Acceleration in SHM is given by the following equation:

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Graphical Analysis of SHM

Force vs displacement graph

From the relation between force and displacement,

Acceleration vs displacement graph

From the relation between acceleration and

Velocity vs displacement graph

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Acceleration |a| max |a| = 0 |a| max

Speed |v| 0 |v| max |v| 0

For any body executing simple harmonic motion

(A) 4A (B) 0 (C) A (D) 2A

In one time period (one complete oscillation), the A

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In one complete oscillation, the displacement of the particle is zero.

(A) 2π s (B) π s (C) 2 s (D) 1 s

Given, the magnitude of acceleration,

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Maximum acceleration = ω2A = α …...…(i)

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SHM AND OSCILLATIONS

What you already know What you will learn

• Basic definition • Equations for displacement when a

• Basic definitions in SHM • General equation of SHM

• Basic equations in SHM • Graphical representations

Equation for Simple Harmonic Motion

Displacement (x) of a particle performing SHM

The displacement of a particle is always measured x = –A x=0 x = +A

Displacement (x) of a particle performing SHM

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Case I: Particle starts from the mean position

On integrating both the sides to obtain the relation

Case II (a): Particle starts from the positive extreme position

Case II (b): Particle starts from the negative extreme position

Case III: General equation of displacement

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Graphical representation of a particle performing SHM

The graphical representation of the general x

Summary of the displacement equation of particle

Points to be noted regarding the phase of a particle

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• If the phase is

• The change in phase of the particle by integral multiples of 2π, i.e., (ω t + φ ± 2π ) , (ω t + φ ± 4π ) ,

• Basic definition • Equations for displacement when a

• If the phase is

• The change in phase of the particle by integral multiples of 2π, i.e., (ω t + φ ± 2π ) , (ω t + φ ± 4π ) ,

• Displacement of particle in SHM • SHM as uniform circular motion

• Equations of SHM • Graphical analysis of SHM

For a spring-block system, consider a block of mass m attached