ARN O LD S G EO LO GICAL S ER I ES

Gen era l E d ito r ; DR .

J . E . M A RR , F R S . . .

TH E

GEO L O GY O F O RE

D E PO SIT S

H . H . T H O M AS, M A . .
,
B Sc
. .

AN D

D . A. M A C AL ISTE R, Asso c . R SM . . .

I L L U S T R A T ED

LO N D O N
E D WA R D A R N O L D
I 909
!A l l ig/i ts
r res erv ed !
 E D ITO R S P R E FA C E
’

TH E economic aspect of geology i s yearly receivin g

more atten tion i n our great educational centres and ,

t he b ooks of this series are designed i n the fi rst p l a c e

for student s of economic geology It is b elieved how
.
,

ever that they will b e found u seful to the student o f

,

general geology and also to mi ners surveyors and

, , ,

o thers who are concern ed with the practical application s

of the s cience.

‘
The G eology of Coal and C oal M ining by D r -
,
’
.

Walcot G i b son the first of this series of works on

,

economic geology u ndertaken b y experienced geologists ,

has already appeared The present work will shor tly

.

b e succeeded b y others dealing with the geo lo gy of

,

quarrying water supply an d precious stones

,
-
, .

The Authors of thi s b ook have w ide ge ological and

mineralogical knowledge a practical acquai nta nce with
,

metalliferous areas an d an exception al knowledge of

,

t he very exten sive litera t ure of the su bj ect Thi s ha s .

ena b led them to em b ody the important results obtai ned

of recen t years which have added so largely t o our
,

unders tanding of the ways in which ores o ccu r an d ,

of the condition s under which they have b een forme d .

J . E . MAR R .

236418
 A UT H O RS P R E FA C E
’

IN this work our chief aim ha s b een to present a

concise account of the origin mode of occurrence and
, ,

cla s sification o f metalli ferous deposits To keep the .

volum e to a small and convenient size has b een a task

fraught with much di fficulty fo r hardly any su bj ect
,

has gathered round itself a greater mass of important

literature t han the G eology of O re D eposits .

T he choice of suita b le illustrative examples drawn ,

from many countries has been made with considera b le

,

care an d at the same tim e we have avoided i n a great

,

measure mino r commerc i al detail s which are often only,

of transito ry i nterest But wh ile the geological features

.

o f the deposits form the main portion of the work their ,

close con nect i on with the economic aspect of the su bj ec t

ha s throughout been kept i n V iew .

The size of this work together with the vast and

,

s cattered literature with which we have had t o deal ,

ha s rendered it i mpossi b le to make special reference to

all the works and papers consulted or to mention b y ,

name the numerous writers to whom we are inde b ted .

We take this opportunity however of expres s ing our

, ,

obligations to a gre at n umber of well known authori ties -

,

and to the publications of several geological surveys and

learned societies .

H E R B E RT H T H O M A S . .

D O N A LD A M AC A L I ST E R
. .

LO N D O N , 190 9 .
 C O N TE N TS

C H AP T E R I
I NTRO D U CT I O N

C HAP T E R I I
O R ES D UE TO TH E D I FF E R E N T I AT I O N OF
I G N EO U S M AG M AS 2 1 —7 1

e e
S gr ga tio n o f N ativ e Metal s

G ld
o

P l a tin u m
I ro n
N ic k e l
e e a
S gr g tio n o f M t e all ic O x id es
e e
S gr ga tio n o f I ro n O re s a s O x id es
I ro n O res f ro m G a bb ro s a n d N o rite s

I ro n O res fro m S y e nite P o rp hy ries

I ro n O res fro m N e p h el in e S y en ite s

S egregatio n o f C h ro m e I ro n O re
S egrega tio n o f C a ssiterite
S egrega tio n o f Al u m in a a C o ru n d u m
s

S egrega tio n o f M e ta ll ic S u l p h id es
S egrega tio n s o f N ic k e l a n d C o b a l t
S egrega tio n s o f C o p p er a s P yrites
V 11
 CONTENTS

C HAP T E R I I I
P AG E S

P N E U M AT O L YS I S 72
—1 1
5
O re s o f P n eu m a to ly tic O rigi n co nn ec ted w it h Gr a n it e and

its A ie d ll Ro c ks
N a tu r e o f the V a p o u rs wh ic h E xtrac ted and e
D p o site d
th e M in era l s o f Cassiterite V ein s

N a tu re o f the Al teratio n in the W a ll s o f Tin L o d es

O rd er o f Arriv a l o f the M in er a l s in Tin L o d es
Asso c ia tio n o f Tin a n d C o p p e r O res with th e M eta
m o rp h ic R o c k s su rro u n d in g th e G ranite
Typ ic a l E xa m p l es o f D ep o sits o f P n eu mato lytic O rigin
c o n n e c te d w ith Ac id I n tru siv e R o c k s

O res o f P n eu m ato ly tic O rigin c o nn e c ted with Ga bb ro s a n d

ll
A ie d R o c k s

C HAP T E R I V
H Y DA T O G E N E S I S DE P O S I T S R M ED
FO BY
A F T E R E RU P T I V E A C T I O N S WH I C H AR E
N O T P N E U M A TO LYT I C 1 1 6— 2 36

l h
S u p id icV ein f H yd t g n ti O igin
s o a o e e c r

ary G o l d V ein
P rim s

Typ i l E xam p l e o f G o l d Vein

ca s s

P im ry C pp er V ein
r a o s

Typ i l E m p l e f P rima y C o p per L o d es

ca xa s o r

P rimary L e d n d Z in c V ein s a a

T y p ic l E m p l e f L d n d Z in c Vein
a xa s o ea a s

P rimary Silv er O re V ein s

T y p i l E am p l e o f S ilv er O r Vein
ca x s e s

V in f N ic k e l n d C o b l t O res
e s o a a

T y p ical E am p l es f N ic kel n d C o b l t V ein

x o a a s

B i m th O e
s u r s

An tim n y V in o e s

A e n ic l O r
rs a es
 CO N TE N TS ix
PA G E S

l h
S u p id ic Ve
in s o f H yd a to ge n etic O rigin— co n tin u ed .

Q u ic k si r O lv e re
s

T y p ical E am p l e x s o f Q lv e r D ep
u ic k si o sits

x
O id ic Vein f H yd a to ge n e tic O rigin
s o

O xid ic O r s o f I ro n a n d M a n ga n
e e se
y l
H d ro s i ic ate N ic k e O re s l

CH AP T E R V
O R E s D U E TO M E T AS O M A T I C R E P L A C E M E N T 2 37 — 300

M etaso m a tic I ro n O re s 2 40

C o n tem p o rane o u s M eta so m a tic I ro n O res 2 44

I ro n O res d u e to S u b seq u en t R ep l ac e m e n t 2 49

M etaso m a tic D ep o sits o f Al u m in a a s B a u x ite 2 62

L ea d a n d Z in c M etaso m a tic D e p o sits 2 64

M etaso matic L ea d O re s 271

M eta so m a tic Z in c O res 2

79
M etaso ma tic C a d m iu m D e p o sits 2 85

M eta so matic C o pp er D e p o sits 2 86

The S u p id es, Carb o n a te s,

l h e tc . 2 86

v e C o p p er
N a ti 2 90

M eta so matic An tim n y D

o e p o s its 2
9 1

M e taso m a tic Man ganese D e p o sits 2

9 2

G
Meta so m a tic o l d D ep o sits 2
94
M eta so matic Tin D ep o sits 2 98

M etaso matic U ran iu m a nd V a n a d iu m D ep o sits 2 99

C H AP T E R V I
B EDD E D O R ES D U E TO P R E C I P IT A T I O N
P rec ip itatio n as O x id e s
Iro n a nd M a n ga n ese
C o p p er
A l u m ina as B a uxit e
 C O N T EN T S
P re c ip itatio n as C a rb o nate s
I ro n a nd M a n gan e se
C o pp er
P re c ip itatio n asS u p id l h e s

I ro n as I ro n P rit s y e
C o p p er a s C o pp er P yrites
lv er L e d a n d Z in c
Si , a ,

N ic k e l n d C b al t
a P y rite
o as s , e tc .

G o l d in Sinter s

P re c ip it tio n
a S il ic te
as a s

C H AP T E R V I I
M ETAM O R P H I C O RE D E P OS I TS 33 1
— 35 8

Th e O re D ep o sits o f the C r sta in e S c ists y ll h

D ep o sits o f O x id es ( H ae matite a n d Magn e tite l
e
D p o sits o f S u p id s l h e
a e e
The L rg r O re B o d i s o f M t m o rp ic ea h C hara c ter
D e p o sits o f O x id es : I ro n O res ( Magnetite a n d H ae matite)
Mangan ese
C o ru n d u m
e
D p o sits o f S u l p id h e s

ea
M t m o rp ic h C o nta c t e
D p o sits
G ld i
o n M etam o rp h ic R o c ks

C HAP T E R V I I I
S E C O N D A RY C H AN G E S IN O R E DE P O S I T S APA RT
F R O M M E T AM O R P H I S M —
35 9 37 5

S ec o n d ar y C hange b y Asc en d in g S o l utio n

s s 360
S ec o n d a ry C h n e
g b y
a W ea t h esrin
g n d A c t o n a i o f M et
eo ric
Waters
 C ON TEN TS xi

C HAP T E R I!

DE T RI T A L AN D AL L U V I A L DE P O S I T S
D e trit al a n d All u v ia l G o l d
S ta n n ifero u s D e trita l D ep o sits
Typ i l E x
ca a mp l es o l
f S ta nn ifero u s D etrita D ep o sits
C o rn wa ll 399
The M a l yP
l a B an ka n d B ill ito n
a e n in s u a
40 1

Th S t n n ifer s All v i o f A tr l ia n d T sman i

e a ou u a us a a a a 40 3
Th S t n miter n s All v ia o f S a x n y n d B h emia
e a o u o a o 0
4 4
Mi c e llan e
s All v i l Tin O e
o us u a r s
4 5
0

P l tin m n d All ie d M t l
a u a e a s
4 5
0

Th Rare E th
e ar s
40 7
I r n n d th B a er M etal
o a e s s
40 8

I N DE!
 TH E

G E O L O GY O F O R E D E P O S ITS

C H A PT E R I

I N TRO D UCTI ON

AN ore deposit may be defined as a body O f rock which

contai n s metalli c compounds or native m etals i n su ffi
cien t quantity an d i n such a form as to b e of economic
—
i mportance that is to say from which O n e or more
,

metal s can b e profitably extracted .

The metals enter largely into the composition of the

earth s crust an d i t i s conj ectured on go o d grounds
’

that as a whole they occur i n in creasing proportion

, ,

toward s the interior ; for many of the richest ore

deposits occur intimately conn ected with certain ancient
ign eous rocks an d gneisses ; on which the oldest recog
n iz a bl e sediments were deposited Again a great
.
,

num b er of ore deposit s have thei r origin i n masse s O f

ign eou s rock which have been inj ected i nto t he solid
crust from the molten i nterior of the earth ; while
other s have been deposited from subterranean gases
and solution s .

A s a rule it is the i ntrusive ign eous rocks and the

,

detrital or sedi mentary rocks i n their immediate neigh

I
g . RI E; GE O LO GY O F O R E
! I
-
D E PO S I T S
b o u rho o dthat are th e richest in the com pounds of th e
heavier and more valuable m etal s but taking i nto con
sideration the average composition of the earth s crust ’

( see table below) it i s C lear th at i n order to form an

, ,

ore depo s it any particu l ar m etal or group of metals

,

must have un dergon e considera b le con cent ration The .

following table compiled by D r F W Clarke gives an . . .

i dea of the earth s average composition as far as can be

’

j udged from surface O b servation s

P er C en t .

Oxygen
Sili c on
Al u minium 8 °
I3

I ron
Cal c ium
M agne sium
P o ta ssi u m
So d i u m
Ti taniu m
Hy d rogen O I
°

T he percentages f
metals other than those men
o ,

tio n e d above are too small to be given only amount

, ,

i ng to thousandth s or millionths of 1 per cent C ertai n .

f resh igneous rocks from m ining districts in the U nited

States have been exami ned by P rofessor Kem p who
, ,

estimated that they contain the following m etals in

small quantities
P er C ent .

Copper 00 09

L ea d fro m 0 0 0 1 1 to 00 08

Z in c from O OO 4 8 °
to 0 0 09

Silver fro m 0 0 00 0 7 to
from 0 0 0 00 2 to O OOOO4
°

T he two tables given above make it quite obvious

that every ore deposit m ust be due to some natural
 I N TR O D U C T I O N 3

process of concentration b y whic h the metalliferous

,

material has b een collected and deposited withi n a

limited area ; for n o metal as origin ally distributed i n
any rock would exist i n su fficient proportion to be of
economi c value I n this work we have en deavoured to
.

explain the occurrence o f ore deposit s b y presenting as

concisely as possible the various processes N ature has
adopted to bring about th e local concentration of metal
l ife ro u s material .

The original sou rce of all ore deposits lay in the

primitive igneous cru st of the earth an d i n those
igneous rocks which su b sequently penetrated it from
the interior It may thu s b e said that t he source of all
.

ore deposits may ultimately be traced to rocks with

igneous ch aracteristics .

The ign eous rocks which carry or are an swerable for

, ,

the richest m etalli ferous masses a r

e mainly t hose o f the

larger intrusion s These are deep seated o r plutonic i n

.
-

C haracter, by which i s meant that they n eve r reached

the earth s sur f ace in a fluid state but were covered to
’

a considerable depth at the time of thei r con solidation .

G enerally speaking the older igneous i ntrusions— that

,

is to say those which belon g to th e pre Cambri an

,
-

—
and P al ae ozoic periods are richer i n ore deposits than
tho s e which have been intruded at a later da t e .

D eposits of considerable value are often a s sociated

with igneous rocks occurri ng as dykes and small
,

laccolites ( hypa b yssal ) but are seldom found to be

,

directly dependent on volcanic or extru s ive rocks This .

difference i n the ore bearing capacity of various ign eous

-

masses does not so m uch depend on any variation i n the

composition of the rocks them selves as on the greater ,

1 —2
4 TH E G EO LO GY O F O RE DE PO S I T S
facility which the plutonic rocks O ffe r for the c o n c e n
t ra t io n of metalliferous compounds .

O re bearing igneous rocks whether they belong to

-
,

the most ancient fundam ental complex of the earth s ’

crust or were intruded into sedimentary rock s of later

date generally exi st in the form of large m as se s to
, ,

which the name laccolites is given or as minor sheet

’

like intrusion s with approximately parallel b oundarie s

( sills and dykes .
) The ore depo s its i n the ca s e of
laccolite s are often marginal that is to say they fre
-

quently mark the boundary b etween the igneous mas s

and the country rock i nto wh ich it h as b een intruded ;
and the same is true i n the case of those a s sociated
with th e min or i ntrusion s but occasionally the ore
,

may exi st a s rich stri ngs or patches (schl ieren) any

where withi n the igneous rock an d not at its periphery
, .

The concent ration of ore material and the formation

o f ore deposits in general has been brought a b out by a
variety o f processes both physical a n d chemical
, .

I n th e case of those deposits formed b y s egregation

from plutonic igneous rocks ( p th e concentration of
.

ore ha s been determi ned by such factors as the cry s tal

l iz a t io n of on e m i neral b efore another ( fractional cry stal
l iz a tio n) or the separation O f a homogeneous fluid i nto
,

two immiscible fluids during th e fall of the temperature

towards th e solidifying poin t of th e whole O re de
-
.

posits formed i n thi s man ner are integral parts of the

rock masses i n which they occur All igneou s rocks in .

thei r mo s t fluid co ndition are regarded as bein g homo

!
n eo u s an d i n that state are known as magma s The
g e ,
.

separation from a magma of any definite substance or of

two im miscible magmas i s looked upon as part of the
process O f segregation or differentiation described later
 I N T R O D U C T I ON 5

( p . The separation of any mineral from a rock

magma i s analogous to the separation of a salt from its
solution and it i s a well known fact that many fluids
,
-

which mix perfectly with each other at an elevated

temperature separate from each other more or less
, ,

completely on cooling ,
.

M etal bearing gases and solution s may

-
b e given off
from the larger igneous ma s ses duri ng thei r so l id ific a
tion M etalli ferou s solution s may a l so be furnished b y
.

water charged with certai n solvents passing upward or

downward through rock s i n which m etallic ores are
fi nely di s s em inated These gases an d solution s may
.

su b s equently deposit their m etall iferous contents i n

fis sures ; or i n the country rock with or without C h em ical
i nterchange o f material ( pneumatolysi s hydatogenesi s , ,

and m etasomasi s ) .

All large sheets o f standi ng water receive dilute

metalli ferou s solution s from the surroun ding dry land ,

and may eith er prod u ce metasomatic C hanges in the

rocks which form thei r beds o r m ay on becomi ng , ,

sa turated b y evaporation or other causes deposit thei r ,

di s solved matter in the solid form ( precipitations

p. With such deposits are classed those which occu r
at the surface around S pring s cau s ed by th e evaporation
,

of the solven t or its removal b y some oth er n a t ural

agency .

S ince sedimentary rocks are detrital accumulation s

formed from pre exi sting rock m a s ses it happens that
-
,

finely divided sta b le m etallic com pounds or n ative

m eta l s p re se n t i n the older rock s often u n dergo a con
centration b y natural agencie s .
6 TH E G EO LO GY O F O R E D E PO S I T S
Th e above order of events— s egregation from igneous
rocks pneumatolysis hydatogenesis precipitation and
, , , ,

—
sedim entation seems to represent th e most logical and
scienti fic man ner i n which to group original ore
deposits on account of this being more or less the
,

sequence taken by the various processes in N a ture .

Types of deposit form ed i n these variou s ways may

undergo secondary changes i n th e description of which
,

i n the following pages precedence has been given to

metamorphosi s produced by thermal and dynamic
agencies .

O re deposits generally may be roughly divided i nto

two cla s ses : fi rst those which have been formed con
,

temporan eously with th e enclosing rock ( syngenetic ) ;

and secondly those which have form ed subsequently
, ,

( epigenetic )
The fi rst class i ncludes those deposits which form
in tegral parts of igneous rocks and many of those ,

either chemically deposited from solution s or m e c ha n i

cally as detritus .

The second class embraces the great e st variety and ,

includes th e ordinary veins and lodes mo s t m eta somatic ,

and pneumatolytic deposits an d all s econdary en rich

,

ment s .

The mode of occurrence of an ore m ass is often

dependent on the folds an d fractures resulting from the
movement s which have taken place in th e earth s crust ’
.

F or i n many cases the s e lines o f weakness an d d isl o

cation are connected with the i ntrusion of ign eous
m aterial and also perm it the easy access O f m i neralizing
,

solutions or vapours to the country rock O n the other .

hand movements of the earth s crust hav e often taken

,
’
8 TH E G E O LO GY O F O RE D EPO SI T S
such areas are i ntruded by igneous rocks differing ,

widely in composition there may be corresponding

,

different type s o f ore deposits formed Some region s .

appear to have b een disturbed several times and on ,

each occasion i nvaded by igneou s intrusion s which ,

s ucce s sively gave ri se to type s of ore depo s its di ffering ,

widely from on e another .

The lodes i n many metalliferous district s result from

the in fill ing O f fi s s u res formed S hortly after th e in
trusion and consolidation of the igneou s rocks with
which th e ores are connected T he fissures cru sh .
,

zones and faults are i n many region s parallel with one

another and have som e defin ite directional character
,

determined by the folding or cleavage of th e rocks and ,

consequently with the direction of the earth movements -

whic h developed these structures G enerally however .

, ,

such structures may be regarded as among the later

effects of these gen eral disturbances and con nected ,

with the fi nal movements of adj ustment i n the rocks .

I n regions where the rocks hav e not b een cleaved or

highly f olded as is the case in many districts composed
,

of the younger form ation s the u niform direc t ional ,

character of lodes is not so noticeable According to .

W O C rosby s theory of j ointing m any lodes were

. .
’

formed by earthquake S hocks and according to thi s , ,

writer whatever other agencies such as cooling or

, ,

de s iccation m ight have operated within th e rocks the

, ,

phenomena of parallel j oints or veins is best explained

by the assumption that they were created by earth
S hocks and that i f these take place slowly under bend
, ,

ing or torsional strai n s the di rection of the fissures will

,

be determin e d by th e strain while the time and mode

,
‘

of breaking i s determined by th e S hock E xten sive

’
.
 I N TR O D U C T I O N 9

fis s u rin g and brecciation of rock due to earthquake

S hocks is f ound i n m any volcanic plugs Such fi ssu r .

i ng is there fore intimately connected with the disturb

a n c e s produced duri ng a period of volcanic acti vity .

I t is proba b le that some fi s sures are formed by con

traction due to cooling or desiccation of the rocks .

Som e igneou s dyke s are traversed by m inute fi s sures

formed during the cooli ng of th e rock The calcite .

quartz vein s in albite diorite dykes i n the R eady

Bullion M ine Ala s ka appear to have been formed in
, ,

this way Some o f th e Cornish elvans (quartz

.

porphyry dyke s) are traversed at right angles b y in

n umera b le small veins vary i ng i n S ize from a thin film
,

to a quarter of an inch or more O ccasionally ti n ore .

is f ou nd along li nes of parting the direction o f which ,

was determined by the fl o w structures a s i n rhyolite i n -

,

Cornwall F issures formed by contraction due to cool

.

ing also occur in quartz p o rphyry in the Thii ringe rwa l d

-
,

where the vein s c o ntai n manganese ores I n Victoria .

( Australia ) gold vei n s are foun d in contraction fi s s u re s i n -

greenstone an d at th e H aile Mi ne South Caroli na in

, , ,

j oin t s traversing diorite dykes Although thei r origin .

has been di sputed th e numerous vein s traversing pro

,

py l it e at N agyag i n H ungary may be m entioned in

this connection .

At Berezov near Pyz hm in sk o ye i n the U rals greisen

, , ,

iz e d gran ite vein s known as bere s ite varying from a ‘ ’

, ,

few feet up to I 5 0 feet i n width are traversed at right ,

angles by num erous gold quartz vein s giving a remark -

,

able character to the auriferous mass .

The occurrence of argenti ferous C opper ore vei n s

at N asmark ( Telem arken N orway) traversing granite ,

dykes at right angles has been noted by Vogt .

10 TH E G EO LO GY O F O RE D EP O SI T S
The rem ar k able occurrence of tin ore veins in pseudo
bedding planes in granite i n the E rzgebirge has lon g
been known H ere there are horizontal fissures
.

parallel with the dom e like surface of the granite

-
,

and formed by co ntraction du ring cooling of the

m ass M ore i rregular con traction fissu res are foun d at
.
-

Altenberg .

A particular form of fissu ring conn ected with nickel

ife ro u s depo s its i s formed by expansion of th e parent
rock during its serpentinization but by far th e greater
,

number of lode fissu re s were form ed by external cau ses

-

connected with movements of adj u stm ent of the earth s ’

crust by which zones of S hearing and faulting as well

, ,

as S imple fracturing are produced, .

Where a district has been su bj ected to shearing the ,

m etalliferous solutions m ay have deposited thei r m aterial

i n a wide zon e or belt of crushed rock Such types of .

deposition are rep resented by som e of the large c u p rif

e ro u s sulphide ore bodies
-
H ere however not only has
.
, ,

there been deposition i n the region of the crushi n g but ,

gen erally much of the m aterial of the rock itself has

been removed by solutio n s and replaced by n ew minerals .

The structures of s u ch lodes or ore b odies is c o n se

quently varied but although often containing very low
,

gr a de ore the b ody as a whole which is often lenticular

, ,

i n form m ay be O f great commercial value L ike th e

, .

ordi nary fissure lodes produced eith er by earthquake

S hocks or m ovem ents of adj ustm en t at th e close of

regional di sturbances the s e impregnation zon es are

,
-

also seen to be m ore or less parallel the direction al ,

character b eing dependent partly on the di rection o f

earth stresses an d partly upon the structure s of the
-
,

rocks .
 I N TR O D U C T I O N 1 1

The original tructures of the cru sh or

s —
b reccia zones
are preserved i n the vein stones which are formed when
the mass i s mineralized .

T he variety of structures which vein ston es m ay

present i s i nfinite and depend s partly on the com
,

position of th e rock i n which the lode has been form ed ,

partly on the nature of the cru shed or broken m aterial

which filled the fis sures or lay between cru sh planes -

be fore i mpregnation an d partly on i nterm ittent deposi

,

tion from the mineralizing solution s I n open fissures .

the comby platy or banded structures are s een to

, ,

be due to the succes s ive depo s ition of m in erals arrivi ng

i n the fis sure at different periods Where the original .

fracture contained b recciated m aterial th e vein stones ,

con si st of strings an d m asses of ore penetrating and

envelop i ng the fragmentary material an d so giving ri se ,

to exceedingly complex s tructures .

I n rocks which can be deco mposed and replaced by

other sub s tances such as i n th e ca s es of th e replace
,

me nt dep osits of lead an d fl u o rspa r i n lime s tone

-
,

and of ti n a n d tourmali n e i n granite the vein stones ,

have a ma s sive appearan ce but frequently S how di mly

,

t race s of th e original structure of the rock .

I n some depo s its a s of smith s onite i n limeston e

, ,

a wonderful variety of concretion ary s tructure s are

O b s erved
, apparently a b stru s ely conn ected with the
C hange i n volum e which the rock s uffered during its

replacem ent .

I t has ofte n been rem arked that lodes are seldom

equally productive throughout an d that the ore occurs ,

i n patches chute s or b unches as if th e d eposition of

, , ,

mi neral s had been favoured by certai n places i n the

12 TH E GE O LO GY O F O RE D E PO S I T S
lode s It is thi s local concentration of the ore s that
.

makes m ining such a S peculative enterprise and renders ,

prospecti ng an d thorough sampli ng imperative The .

condition s favouring the local concentration of the

original ores i n lodes are many and i nclude pri marily
,

the proxim ity to the rock s from wh ich th e ores are

derived The country rock has an influence where its
.

compo s ition i s s uch that it can chemically react on the

metalliferous solutions which penetrate it The texture .

of the rock and the degree of porosity are also power

ful factors in m odi fyi ng the nature an d form of deposits .

I n lodes origi nating under pneumatolytic condition s ,

the mo s t favourable position for the pri ncipal ore bodies

is near the margin of the pluton ic igneous ma s s which
gave rise to them either i n the extern al portion of the
,

igneous rock itself or i n its m etamorphic aureole Thi s .

applies also to pegmatitic deposits O f ores form ed .

under pn eumatoly tic condition s some are complex , ,

and con si st of oxidic and sulphidic compounds In .

thi s case it n o t i n frequently happen s that the oxidic

,
.

compounds are depo s ited i n on e zone or horizon in the

lode while the sulphidic compounds owing proba b ly
, ,

to thei r m ore s olu b le nature are deposited at a greater

,

di stance from th e source .

I n depo s it s of hyd a to ge n e tic and metasomatic origi n ,

the solution s h ave often t ravelled con s i derable di stan ce s

from the parent rock an d the metalliferous s ub s tance s
,

have b een deposited i n favourable place s determined

partly by mechani cal condition s and partly by the ,

n ature O f the country rock I n such ca s es th e form of

.
,

the deposit is often i nfluenced b y the poro s i ty and

solubility of the rocks which allows the s olutions to
,

s eep th rough and i mpregnate the ma s s with ore .

 I N TR O D U C T I O N 1 3

I t S hould be remarked that the solution s which

percolate lode fissu re s are either of magmatic origin
-

( hydrothermal ) being di rectly derived from som e

,

igneous rock or of meteoric origin I n th e latte r case

, .

surface water percolating the lode s oxidizes and di s solves

certain mi nerals n ear the surface carrie s them down , ,

and cause s them to be depo s ited at lower horizon s ;

while in the former ca s e secondary action s are brough t
about b y magmatic water s as i n in stance s where the
,

nature of the solutions have ch a n ged and affected

min eral s deposited previously That thermal waters .

derived from deep s ea t ed sources contai n much di s

-

s olved mineral matter o f various kin d s capa b le of ,

chemically acting upon the rocks they com e i n con t act

with is proved by the nature of the dissolved com
,

pound s o f thermal spring s i n well known volcanic -

region s .

The alteration s effected i n this way have been class i

fi e d i nto certai n definite type s which may b e referred ,

to b y such term s as sil ic ific a t io n propylitization kao , ,

l in iz a t io n tou rm alinization a x in it iz a t io n grei s enization

, , , ,

s capolitization sericitization dolomitization z e o l itiz a

, , ,

tion etc according to the nature of th e alteration

,
.
,

effected b y the solution s or vapours on th e rock M any .

of the s e alteration s are complex and others might b e ,

i ncluded in which thermal metamorphi s m has acted i n

conj un ction with the solution s with the production of ,

such alteration types as garnet and epidote rock or horn ,

b lende and pyroxene rock I t i s un necessary h ere to

.

defin e all these term s as they are self explanatory but

,
-
,

it may b e mentioned th at some of them are particularly

characteristi c of th e rock i n the vici n ity of certain kind s
1
4 TH E G E O LO GY O F O RE D E PO S I T S
o f ores and con sequently also of the rocks from which
,

the o res were derived P ractically all tin lodes for

.
,

in stance a re C haracterized by a special ki nd of alteration

,

o f thei r walls known as greisenization The f elspar o f

,
‘
.
’

granite i s kaoli nized b y removal of the s ilicate o f potash

i n solution The same mi neral is also converted i n to
.

topaz lepidolite or gil b ertite th rough th e reaction s

, , ,

i nvolved B oron vapour s h ave the effect of converting

.

felspar to blue tourm ali n e and biotite may b e converted

,

to brown tourmalin e o r to chlorite .

Where the lode traverses shale the latter i s often ,

S il ic ifie d or to u rm a l in iz e d G rits are converted to

.

quartzitic rocks a n d th e ti n ore I S foun d i nterstitially

,

or i n minute cracks t raversing the mass .

I n calcareou s rocks and green stones the alteration s

effected by tin lodes con sist o f the development of
axin ite fl u o rsp a r garnet and other minerals T hrough
, , , .

out the rock cassiterite or pyritic ores may be f ound

among the alteration m inerals All these actions are
-
.

true metasomatic alteration s but as i n the m aj ority o f , ,

cases the principal part of the ore i s foun d i n or clos e

to the original fissures tin lodes are not regarded ,

as deposit s o f met a somatic origin si nce the meta ,

s o m a sis i s on ly a su b ordi nate phenomenon an d not the ,

principal action as it is i n the case of many lead ore

,

an d fl u o rsp a r deposits traversing lim e stones .

A large n umber o f ore deposits are i n some m an ner

chemically related to the rock i n which they lie whether ,

they form integral parts of igneou s masses or exist

as deposits from vapours or solutions T his relation i s .

most con spicuous i n deposits which occur as parts of

igneous masses where si milar metallic com pounds are
,
16 TH E G E O LO GY O F O RE D E PO S I T S
with gold ; tourm alin e topaz and lithia mica with
,
-
,

wolfram and tin ore are only a f ew i n stances

, .

F rom a study of many examples it h as been f ound ,

that the m in erals forming ore deposit s have a m ore or

le s s regular order of deposition the forma t ion of certai n,

m i neral s regularly precedi ng or following other s with

w hich they are associated .

This is especially true i n the case of s egregation s from

igneou s rock s i n which the formation of metallic
,

sulphides an d oxide s generally precedes that of the

silicates wh ich f orm the bulk of the rocks .

Again where similar co mpounds of two metals are

,

segregated i n on e deposit one will precede th e other , ,

as for in stance the case of the sulphides of nickel which

, , ,

are formed before those of cobal t .

Where an originally barren rock has b een replaced

by an ore deposit i t is again noticeable that the metallic
,

minerals have a defi nite sequence I n ores form ed .

u nder pneumatolyti c or hyd a to ge n etic conditions th e ,

sequence o f mineralization is gen erally readily m ade

out The order in which the mi nerals were deposited
.

i n the Cornish tin copper lodes has been re f erred to

-

i n th e following pages and serves to illustrate this

,

point .

Amongs t th e metallic minerals form ing ore depo s its ,

an d which occur as segregations from igneous rock s ,

are the native metals such a s platinum ; the oxides of

,

i ron with and without titanium and the sulphides of ,

i ron nickel cobalt and copper

, , ,
.

T he replacements i nclude c hiefly th e sulphides of

iron lead and zinc ; th e carbon ates of the same metals
, ,
 I N TR O D U C T I ON 17

with manganese in addition ; the oxides of i ron and

manganese and less frequently native gold
, , , .

The metamorphic deposits are especially noted for

thei r masses of magnetite and iro n and C opper pyrites .

P recipitation s
consi s t ch iefly of oxides and carbonates ,

as might b e expected from their mode of deposition .

Bedded detrital depo s its may contain gold platinum , ,

,
—
ti nstone i ron ores etc in fact any metal or compound
.
,
,

O f a metal which is su fficiently durable and in s oluble

to with stand th e long c o n tIn u e d action of m eteoric

-

agents .

T he changes which ore deposits may undergo after

thei r original formation may be divided into three
C las s es dynamic thermal and chemical
, , .

The dyn amic C hanges often included under the head ,

of metamorphosis consist chiefly in the deforma

,
’

tion of pre existing deposits their disruption breccia

-
, ,

tion and di s placemen t and the setting up of certain

, ,

structures due to shearing stresse s i n the earth s crust ’

.

The thermal changes produced by the heat of the

earth s interior or the i ntrusion o f ign eous rocks include
’

ch iefly the production of new mineral s or the re c ryst a l

l iza t io n of those which already existed but like the , ,

change s connected with dynamic agencies are inde ,

pendent o f the introduction of any new material from

outside the affected area .

Among the secondary Changes of ores brought a b out

b y chemical action s the mo st im portant i s that effected
,

by the oxidizing an d dissolving action of surface waters

which find their way into lodes and other kinds of
metallic deposits By these waters meteoric waters
.

2
18 TH E G E O LO GY O F O RE D E P O SI T S
not only are certain mineral s com pletely decomposed
and f r e sh minerals formed but a secondary concentra
,

tion o f the ores is effected b y th e reduction o f metal

l ife ro u s su b s tances b rought down i n s olution to depths
in the lode b eyond the reach of oxidizing i nfluences .

I n this way s econdary enrichment s are formed which ,

i n some di s tricts are the only parts of th e deposits worth

working The metalliferou s minerals which are u n
.

i nfluenced b y the surface waters com prise tinstone ,

wolfram scheelite and a few oth er compounds O thers

, , .

are not affected unless the water already contains some

s alt in solution as for i nstance i n the case of the
, , ,

s olution of metallic gold b y ferric sulphate and it s re p re

c ip ita t io n b y ferrous s ulph ate As a whole then the

.
, ,

chemical changes brought a b out i n lodes b y the action

of meteoric waters may be b roadly described a s those
of oxidation and solution near the surface followed b y ,

reduction at a varia b le depth in t he lode depending ,

upon the distribution of ground water which in turn is ,

largely dependent on the climate and structure of the

country The mi nerals mo st lia b le to the s e secondary
.

chemical changes are the sulphides and the i ron and ,

manganese ores The secondary minerals formed i n thi s

.

way comprise sulphides sulphates silicates carbonate s

, , , ,

and oxides . But some phosphates vanadates arse , ,

nate s and other compoun ds are also f ormed together

, , ,

with native metals s uch as copper S ilver and gold

, , ,
.

The distri b ution of ground water ha s been dealt with

i n the followi ng page s but it should here be remarked
,

that we do not accept i n its enti rety t he hypothesis

that mo st ore s are concentrated by the action of ci r
c u l a t in g water s
. According to some writers the m eteoric ,

waters are supposed to percolate th rough the rocks from

 I N T RO D U CT I O N 19

the sur face and t o descen d to great depths collecting

, ,

metalliferous minerals as they go With increasing depth.

thei r powers of solution are augmented by pre ss ure and

heat and on rea scending the m etalliferous minerals are
, ,

redeposited in fissure s I n the newer and porou s rocks

.

a redistri b ution of cer t ai n minerals b y such mean s doe s

not appear impro b able b ut i n the ca s e of the P al ae ozoic
,

and Arch aean rock s it appears more likely that the

meteoric waters have played only a subordinate part i n
the formation of ore deposits and in all ca ses the re
,

concentration of the ore s b y chemical action s is con

fined to s hallow depths .

The various classes of ore deposits as set out i n th is

work embrace most of th e b etter known occurrence s -
.

At the same ti me it mu s t be borne i n mi nd that any

clas sification of thi s ki nd can only b e ar b itrary an d ,

that there are m any instances o f an ore depo s it being

equally well a ssigna b le to two po s ition s i n the scheme
of classification This it i s true often arises from the
.
, ,

meagreness of the in formation obtain a b le but in other ,

cases there is a distinct overlapping of two classe s ,

and thus it b ecomes a m atter of some di ffi culty to

decide the proper place that certain ore deposits should
occupy .

I t often happens f or i n stance that a deposit may b e

, ,

classed equally well with the meta somatic or m eta m o r

phi o deposits M any o f the lodes formed under pneu
.

m a to l ytic condition s are characterized b y metasomatic

alterations i n thei r walls but as this is only an attend
ant phenomenon and not th e principal point of interest
,

i n conn ection with the origin and nature of the depo sit ,

thi s peculiarity i s sub ordinated i n the S ch eme of clas si

2 —2
20 TH E G EO LO GY O F O R E D E PO SI T S
fic a tio n
to certai n types of ores As in other case s the .
,

form of the ore b ody was determi ned s olely b y th e

extent of the meta s omatic replacement A special group .

of deposits i s t reated unde r the separate heading of

M eta som atism .

I t has been the endeavour o f the writers to present

the main geological feature s of metallifero u s region s a s
f ar as they bear on the origi n and nat u re of the parti
c u l a r deposits descri b ed and to cla ss ify them according
,

to the leading types F or m ore detailed account s of

.

thei r com mercial value the reader is referred to standard

textbooks and in particular to A Trea t ise on O re D e
,

posits b y P hillips and L ouis ; D ie E rzl a ge rst a tte n b y

,
’
,
’

S t el z n e r and B e rge a t ; G ite s Mé ta ll ifé re s b y Fuchs

‘
,
’

and D e L aunay ; The N ature of O re D eposit s b y

‘
,
’

B eck (tran slated by Weed) The Copper D eposits of

the World by Weed ; an d O re D eposits of the U n ited
,
’

States by Kemp O ther important source s of in fo r

,
’
.

m ation are the M emoi rs of the G eological Survey of

th e U nited States of America the Zeit s ch rift fiir ,
’

P raktische G eologie the Transactions of the I nstitute

’
,

of M in ing an d M etallurgy an d the Transaction s of ,

’ ‘

the American I n stitut e of M ining E ngineers .

’
 C H A PT E R II
O RE S D U E TO TH E D I F F E R E N T I AT I O N
OF I G N E OU S M AG M AS

A CON S I D E RA B L E num b er of ore deposits are inti

ma t ely associated with m asse s of igneous rock in such ,

a man ner a s to prove without po ss i b ility of dou b t that

they have b een deri ved from and formed part of an , ,

igneou s magma These depo s its must be regarded as

.

part of the igneous rock wi th which they are associated ,

for they stand petrographically related to the rock

masse s and there i s no evidence of the introduction of
,

material from out s ide s ources by solution s or pneum a

t o l yt ic p rocesses ( p .

I t has bee n clearly demonstrated that many igneous

mas se s are far from homogeneous i n character and that ,

t he chemical composition varies considerably from one

part of the m a ss to another Thi s lack of uniformity
.
,

which is regarded a s the result o f a p roces s or series of

’
proces s es to which the n am e magmatic differentiation
,
‘

has b een applied often takes place gradually an d is

, ,

chiefly noticea b le i n th e falling O ff of the amount of

S ilica in the rock towards it s margi n I n many ca ses it .

i s safe to as s ume that a magma prio r to its intru sion ,

i nto the upper region s of the earth s crust was p ra c ti ’

cally homogeneous b ut that as soon a s it commenced

, ,

t o cool certain di ffe rential proces s e s started to operate

,

2 1
22 TH E GE O LOG Y O F O RE D E P O S I T S
withi n the fluid resulting i n a local con centration of
,

certain mineral constituents .

A s tudy of any rock mass of igneous origin either

-
,

extru s ive or i ntru s ive i n character reveal s the fact th at ,

the vario u s minerals of which it is composed separated

out from the m other liquid at different times an d
-
,

generally i n a more or less definite sequence .

The earliest su b stances to separate out from a cooling

igneous magma are generally S peaking the native
, ,

m etals the metalli c oxides and the metallic sulphides ;

, ,

these a re us u ally te rm ed accessory mi nerals owing to ,

’

the fact that they form in most cases an insignificant

, ,

part of the rock m ass as a whole These are followed

-
.

closely b y those silicate s rich i n i ron and magnesia such ,

as olivi ne the py roxenes and amphiboles leaving the

, ,

last portion to con solidate richest i n silica an d poorest

i n the heavier basic co n stituents N or m ally the acce s
.

s ory m in eral s should b e distributed spari n gly and more ,

or less un i formly through the rock m as s ; but we

,
-

observe that they have often undergon e considerable

concentration i n m an y cases occurring i n su fficient
,

quantity to constitute an ore .

The p roces s e s which brought a b out the concentration

of the acce s sory minerals are exceedingly complex but ,

they were certai n ly i n itiated by various portion s of the

fluid magma being at different temperatures owing to
the cooling of the m a ss .

D i fferentiation is
th e outcome of either a fractional
crystallization of the various con stituent s of an igneous
magma or a separation of a magma into two or m ore
,

solutions which will not mix ; f rom which it follows

that the concentration of a m ineral depends primarily
2
4 TH E G E O LO GY O F O RE D E P O S I T S
gold osmium i ridium nic k el cobalt iron titanium
, , , , , , ,

copper etc o ccurr i ng In the f orm o f native metals

, .
, ,

oxides or sulphides as the case may be

, , .

To illustrate the result of the processes of differentia

tion i n a basic igneous rock magma we can not do better -
,

than take such a well known E nglish example as that

-

of the ga bb ro of Carrock F ell i n Cumberland de s cri b ed ,

by M r H arker . .

A large mas s of gabbro was i ntruded into L ower

P al aeozoic sediments ; the i ntrusion has a more or less
symmetrical outli ne and covers an area of about six
,

square miles There can be little doubt that the ga bb ro

.

was i ntruded as a homogen eous mass but th at as it , ,

came to rest and began to cool differentiation com ,

m e n c e d with crystallization an d concentration of the

more b asic minerals towards the margi n leaving the ,

S ilicious material more prevalent towards the centre .

The accompanying m ap based on the work o f ,

M r H a rker shows most clearly how various portions

.
,

of the mas s differ i n chem ical composition .

The margin of the gabbro consists of a rock very rich

i n ilmenite and also richer i n pyroxen e than that
,

toward s the centre ; it has a silica percentage of only

and th e i ron ores ilmenite an d magnetite con ,

s tit u t e 2 1 per cent of the total rock

. .

The centre of the mas s however i s a q u artz bearing , ,

-

ga b bro w ith a very small quantity of i ron ores not

, ,

more than 1 per cent an d th e relatively high silica

.
,

percentage of 5 3 5 .

These two extreme types pass th rough an i nter

mediate variety which may be styled a normal ga b bro
,

neither rich i n iron ores nor contain ing free silica i n the
form of quartz .
 D I F F E R E N T I AT I O N 2 5

The a b ove i s a mo st simple example of the differentia

tion of a rock mass i n place by which it is meant that
-
,

the differentiation took place i n th e area where it s

results can now be studied I n a great number of cases .
,

l g 15117 e

Qu a r t : Ga b b r a Gr a n op hy re

N o rm a l Ga b b r o S k id d a w S /a t e s et c .

l l m e n it e Ga b b r o

FIG . I .
-
CA R R O C K F E LL D I S TR I C T CU MB E RLA ND
IVIAP O F TH E , ,

TO I LL US TRAT E T H E D I F FE R E N T I AT I O N O F A G A BB R O M A SS -

A FT E R I N TRU SI O N (AF T E R A H AR K E R )
. . .

however it i s found that the prod uct s of differentiation

,

are not so sym metrically arranged a s in the above case ,

b ut the more b asic ore bearing material occurs as patches

-

or strings ( schlieren ) i n a less basic part of the rock .

26 TH E G EO LO GY O F O RE D E P O S I T S
It is supposed that these basic patches and schlieren
owe their origin to either convection current s or shearing
stre s ses acting on the magma d u ring the process of
con s olid a tion causing portion s of the already segregated
,

and partially con solidated basic m aterial to be carried

i nto the still fl u id mass by which it failed to be com
-

p l e t e l y reabsorbed .

As ha s been stated before there is good reason to ,

assume that in the m aj ority of cases the differentiation

FIG . 2 .
—V E IN OF N O R I T E T H I RT Y
,
TO SEV E N T Y YAR DS I N
W ID TH W I TH, S HL C IERE N OF T I TA N I F E R O U S I R O N O R E
.

( A FT E R J H . . L . VO GT ).

o f a rock m ass is closely con nected with an d pro b ably

-
,

dependent on the crystallization of its constituen t

,

min erals ; but certain banded ores which on account , ,

of the extreme type of differe ntiation they exhi b it ,

pr esent marked a ffinities to th e gnei sses seem to have ,

had a different genesis .

The ores —
ilmenite magnet i te etc in rocks of .
, ,

this type occur generally as narrow ultra b asic streaks

 D I F F E R E N T I AT I O N 2 7

separated by les s b asic material I t is moreover .

, ,

evident that these ore bearing layers and the le s s b a s ic

-

material b et ween them crystallized si m ultaneously and ,

that they existed together i n the fluid state .

I t is pro b able that the various layers are the result of

the i ntrusion of a m agm a which had differentiated ,

c
f
i
l
Mic a Sy en i t e
n Po rp hy ry
a
sI n
r g e o us Ve in s ho w ing
3
k m a r in a l
g se re
g g a tio n

FIG .
3.
—V E I N OF M I C A S Y E NI T E P O R P H Y R Y ,
S H OW ING M AR
-

G IN A L S E G R E G AT I O N O F F E RR OM A GN E SI A N M I N E RAL S A N D
I R O N O R E S ( A FTE R J H L VO G T )
. . . . .

b efore i ntru s ion into two or more magma s which did

,

not i nterm ingle That is to sa y that th e original

.
,

magma was in thi s ca s e h eterogeneous at t he tim e of

i ts intrusion and that th e differentiation wa s i n a
,

great measure i ndependent of the crystallization of

the i ndividual minerals .

With regard to the differentiation of sills and dykes ,

2 8 TH E G E O LO GY O F O RE D E PO SI T S
or the les s er intru s ive bodies generally the segregated ,

m i neral s are identical with those from S imilar m agm as

existing i n the larger ma sse s b ut the differentiation is
,

n ot often so well displayed .

I t has b een noticed that occasionally S ills and dykes

S how a concentration of ba si c min eral s on their lower

sur faces and it is here s upposed that th e differentiation

,

wa s largely b rought a b out by gravity acting on th e

partially s olidified magma cau s ing the early and heavier
,

products of consolidation to S ink i n the m other liquor -

and to form a b asic su b stratum .

R ocks erupted at the surface as lavas have in gen eral

cooled so rapidly that differentiation on anything like
a complete scale was next to impos s i b le .

SOfar we have been dealing chiefly with the differ

e n t ia t io n of a magma i n th e position in which we are

now a b le to study it b ut we can conceive many rock

,

mas s es existing i n reservoirs far b elow the surface of

the earth which have already been differentiated i nto
,

various rock type s an d po s si b ly with ore depo s it s

,

marking a zone .

Such a differentiated ma s s under the i nfluence of

i ncreased temperature an d earth movem en t m ight be
intruded into highe r and coo l er region s of the earth s ’

cru s t .

The intrusion of thi s rock mas s would take place i n

-

successive s tages an d each s tage would be characterized

,

b y a m agma of differen t chemi cal compo sition .

F rom these magmas would origin ate a group of rocks

differing widely from each other i n type but yet tied ,

together by som e com mon m ineralogical characteristic ,

s uch as the pre sence of hypersthen e for in stance ,

F IG 4 —G E N E RAL G E O L O GI C AL M A P O F TH E CHR IS T I A N I A
R E GI O N S H OW ING TH E D IS TR I B U T I O N O F VAR I O US R OC K
. .

,
T YP E S D E R I V E D F R OM A M A G M A DI F FE R E N T I AT E D B E F O R E
I N TRU SI O N (A FT E R W C B R OGG E R )
. . .
'

.
30 TH E GEO LO GY O F O RE D EPO S I T S

( p . The rock masses thus form ed although they

-
,

occur i n on e district an d are pos s i b ly i n contact with

,

each other will not graduate one into the other b ut

, ,

will be separated by hard and fast lin es Taken .

together they will form wh at i s known a s a petrological

complex or a group of cognate igneou s rocks
,
’
.

A study of such a group of rocks will show that th ey

were intruded in a m ore or less definite order and that ,

this order was usually one of basic to acid i n the case

o f th e larger plutonic masses and acid to basic i n the ,

later m in or intrusions .

These rock masses although they are them selves

-
,

products of differentiation before intrusion into thei r

present position have in mo st cases undergone fl irthe r
,

differentiation in place and h ave often given rise to a ,

series o f satellitic dyke rocks .

I n the more b asic rocks wh ich have thus undergone

a dou b le proce ss of differentiation marginal concentra ,

tion of ore m aterial is O ften exceedingly well displayed .

E xamples of such cogn ate group s of igneous rocks are

extremely numerous b ut perhaps the be s t known are ,

tho se of E ssex Co u nty M ass and of the Chri stiania , .

,

district of N orway where the rock s vary from an,

O livine ga b bro diabase with a silica percentage o f

- -
,

to a potash gran ite with 64 2 per cent of silica . .

P egmatites which are often the carriers of many rare

,

mineral s are highly S ilicious igneous rocks generally the

, ,

di rect re sult of the di fferen t iation of the less b asic plutonic

magma s and represent the most acid and unconsolidated
,

part of a differentiated mass squeezed out i nto the su r

rounding rock s I n a petrographical complex they are
.

u sually seen to b e the latest products of con solidation ,

32 TH E G E O L O GY O F O RE D E PO SI T S
trace the shades of difference i n the vario u s rock masses -

to which t hey owe th eir origin .

S E G R E G A TI O N ME T A L S OF N A TI V E .

There are many well authenticated example s of native

-

metal s occurring in as s ociation with igneou s rock s i n

a manner which prove s thei r igneou s origin but very ,

little is known concerning thei r segregation or o f th e ,

s tate i n which they were carried b y the igneous magma .

So far the chief me tals known to occur native in igneou s

rock s are gold platinum with osmium and i ridium
, ,

n ickel and iron a n d the s e all seem to be present a s

, ,

original constituents I n som e few ca ses it can be

.

proved that they have undergon e a certai n amount of

concentration during the solidification of the respectiv e
magma s b y which they are carried .

G o l d —T hat gold is an exten sively distributed con

.

s t itu e n t of igneous rocks is proved over and over again

b y its wide spread occurrence i n alluvium of all ages

formed f rom the wa ste of igneous rocks under the in
fl u e n c e of denuding agencies But apart from this .

i ndirect proof free gold has b een detected i n a great

,

variety of rock types amongst which may be mentioned

,

granites pegmatites diabase diorite and others of still

, , , ,

more basic character .

F rom a C hoice of many exam ples it may be stated ,

that free gold occurs in the granites o f B razil an d of

Sonora i n M exico The pegmatites and allied rocks
.

have yielded this m etal i n the D argo and O m eo dis

t ric t s of Victoria Au s tralia i n the Berezov district
, ,

of the U ral M ountains i n th e Silver P eak district of ,

N evada an d th e Y ukon di strict of Alaska The dia

, .

bases and diorites of B ritish G uiana the Appalachian ,

 D I F F E R E N T I A T IO N 33

region Queen sland and many other districts have been

, , ,

proved to be parent rocks of much gold n ow occur

ring in placers ( p . G old has been noted as an
original constituent of porphyritic syenite s in Briti sh
Colum b ia and other adj acent areas ; i n pitch stone i n
Chili ; and in peridotite from D amaraland I n the .

Australian plutonic rocks it has only been found i n

a s sociation with pyrites With regard to the occur
.

rence of gold i n N evada m e n tio n e d a b o v e a word or

'

two will not be out of place concernin g its mode o f

origi n
.

I t i s contai ned i n quartz f elspar rocks to which

-
,

the name a l askite has b een gi ven ; thi s rock graduates

i nto pure quartz which i s looked upon as the ultimate
,

product of differentiation of a granitic magma The .

Silver P eak district is one of abundan t granitic rocks ,

which are i ntrusive in t o the P al aeozoic s trata These .

muscovite bio t ite granites pass i nto aplitic and peg

-

m a tit ic types consisting of quartz and alkali f elspar -

.

The alaskite by the dimi nution of felspar passes i nto

, ,

pure quartz vei ns which are said to have the same

,

genetic relation to the alaskite as it has to the gran ite .

These quartz veins often o f lenticular form are the

, ,

s ource O f much gold and a figure showing their mode

,

of occurrence i s given below .

By f ar the greater n umber o f rich alluvial gold de

posits have b een derived from igneous rocks of an in
t e rm e d ia te to basic character and it can be proved that
,

the gold in the placers of certai n district s like B ritish

G uiana is dependent on the di stribution of diaba s e an d
diorite I n other cases of more rare occurrence alluvi al
.
,

gold has been derived from rocks of granitic character ,

includi ng pegmatites and aplites An exam ple may b e .

34 TH E G E O LO GY O F O RE D E PO S I T S
cited from the B l ago vye sc he n sk district on the b order s ,

of Siberia and M ongolia .

F ree gold i s found a ssociated with platinum i n the

chromite segregation s from basic and ultra b a s ic rock s ,

s uch as peridotite an d other olivi ne rich igneous ma s s e s -

( p . The gold placers of the G o ro b l a go d a t region

i n the U rals and of South West O regon have had -

thei r origin in rocks of this nature .

FIG .
5.
—S E CT I O N To I LL US TRAT E TH E M O D E O F O CC URR E N C E
OF A U R I F E R O US Q U ART Z L E NS E S I N A LA SKI T E .

P l a tinu m .
— As far as our knowledge goes
native ,

platinum as an origin al rock con stituent is re stricted

,
-
,

to the most basic igneou s rock s such a s peridotite s and ,

thei r altered equivalents serpentines With platinum

, .

are as s ociated the two allied metals o s mium and

i ridium which are usually com b i ned with each other to
,

form the alloys osmiridium and i ridosmium P latinum .

,
 D I F F E R E N T I AT I O N 35

with the m etals m e ntioned a b ove and some gold is ,

extracted from the more b asic parts of peridotite ,

dunite and serpentine m asses occurri ng i n the U ral

,

Mountains at N izhne Ta gil sk M ount S o l o v ie f and

, ,

other districts and placers have b een worked i n the

,

valleys o f the river s I ssa Wyj a Tura and N j a ssm a

, , , ,

which drain the peridotite and serpentine region .

Similar placers derived from S imilar rocks have b een

worked i n N orthern C ali fornia The dunite of th e
.

Tulameen R iver Briti sh Columbia contains plati num

, ,

a ssociated with C h romite A s ingle b ut un con firmed

.

record of platinum from the L izard P eninsula i n Corn

wall is interesting o n account o f th e parent rock b eing
of the u s ual type which bears this metal .

P latinum is almost always a ssociated with segre

g a t io n s of ch romite ( p and . though all chromite ,

s egregations do not carry platinum thi s mineral is an ,

important indicator of the rarer metals ; therefore th e

necessity of exami ning all alluvial deposits draining a
region of b asic ign eous rocks with ch romite segregation s
can not b e too strongly urged .

I on
r .
— The m ost striking occurrence of a native
metal of true igneous origin is that of the i ron m asses
of D isco I sland on the we s t coa st of G reenland
,
.

L arge blocks of almo st pu re i ron were fi rst detected

lying loose o n the hill s ides at O v ifa k and were originally
-
,

s uppo s ed to have a meteoric origin thei r re s em b lance to ,

meteoric masses being most marked b oth in appearance

and composition .

Su b sequently thi s i ron bearing rock wa s discovered

-

in place and was found to exist as ex t rem ely basic

,

patches occurring i n and differentiated from a b a s alt

, ,

porphyrite .
3 6 TH E G E O LO GY O F O RE D EP O S I T S
The porphyrite consist s of labradorite augite olivi ne , , ,

and titaniferou s magnetite set in a gla ssy ground mass

,
-
,

while the b a s ic patches consist chiefly of anorthite and

native i ron in grain s and lumps The ore has the .

following composition

Fe
Ni
Co

A curiou s feature is the relatively high percentage of

carbon ,
which pro b a b ly exi sts i n the form of
graphite .

I t ha s been sugge sted that the porphyrite was volcani c

or extru s ive in character but such an origin can not be
,

a ss igned to it without further evidence especially a s th e ,

character of the rock and the extreme differentiation

which has taken place point i n the direction of in
trusion.

The nickel in the above ore proba b ly exists as an

alloy with a small propo rtion of i ron similar to that ,

descri b ed below .

M any eruptive rock s and particularly the b asalts

,

I reland Spain Am erica G ermany) contain

, , , ,

m inute grain s of n ative iron in some cases enclosed by

,

magnetite .

N ic k e l — An alloy of nickel with iron in which

.
,

nickel preponderate s seems to be a product of the

,

differentiation of certain peridotites and olivine gab b ros .

The more usual alloy is that to which the name

awaruite has been given after the di s trict Awarua i n
,

N ew Zealand I n chemical com position it com p ares

.

very closely with som e nickel i ron s occurring as -

meteorites and contain s

, per cent of nickel .
,
 D I F F E R EN T IA T I O N 37

per cent of co b alt and

. per cent of i ron corre
, .
,

S p o n d in
g to the formula 2 N i + F e ,
.

I n N e w Zealand on the west coa st of the South

,

I sland large masses of peridotites have b een intruded

,

into th e crystalline schi st s of that region forming t he ,

H ope O livine and Redhill R ange s They are some

, ,
.

what variable in character and partially serpenti nized ,

but usually contain en statite Th ey occupy an area .

of 40 0 s quare miles th e greate st le n gth b eing twenty

,

five miles Awaruite is the chief product of differentia

.

tion b ut with it are segregated small quantities of th e

,

u sual accessory m inerals of peridotites ch rom e iron ore ,

-

( chromite ) an d chrome spinel ( picotite ) This alloy

-
.

was fir st recognize d i n the alluvial deposits of the

R iver G eorge which drains the peridotite country o f
,
-

the O livine R ange .

Amongst other localities nickel alloyed with som e ,

i ron is present i n the alluvium of the R iver E lvo i n ,

P iedmont I taly where it has proba b ly b een derived

, ,

from the nickel bearing serpentin es of the S outhern

-

Alp s ; it also presumably occurs i n thi s st a te in the

D isco i ron masses ( p -
.

S E G R E G A TI O N OF M E T A LL I C O ! I D E S .

O xidic segregation or the local concentration of ,

metallic oxides in igneous rock s i s on e of the most ,

marked phenomena con nected with s ome type s of

igneous intrusions .

To this clas s of ore d eposits belong the segregation s

—
of the titaniferou s i ron ore s existing as titan iferou s
—
magnetite an d ilmen ite chromite corundum and pos , ,

sib l y s om e ca s siterite ( tinstone ) All t he s e s egregation s .

,

with the exception of cassiterite are from basic igneous ,

38 TH E G E O LO GY O F O RE D E PO S I T S
magmas and exi st either as ultrabasic dykes and m asse s
,

due to di fferenti ation of the magm a b efore i ntrusion or ,

as ultra b a s ic margin s to pluton ic ma s ses and dyke s of

b a S Ic character di fferentiated in place .

I n the case of the titan iferous i ron ores mo st of th e ,

ore deposits form sharply defined ma sses which do not

graduate into the country rock and were evidently in,

t ru d e d a s dykes or small b os s e s sub sequently to th e

intrusion of the more acid m em b ers of the s eries to
which they b elong and within which they occur .

Dykes i n which marginal concentration of metallic

oxides has taken place are not uncom mon and oxidic ,

segregation s also occur i n t he parent rock as basic

patche s strings and schlieren The ch ief rock types
, , .
-

yieldi ng the s e ore deposits belong to the great ga b bro

and peridotite groups and i nclude such rocks as gabbros
,

with and without olivi ne O phitic dolerites with and

,

without olivine norites nep helin ites peridotite s an d

, , , ,

picrites.

I t is particularly n oteworthy that within certain

limits the rocks which yield a segregation of one oxide
differ in character and composition from those segre
gating a differen t oxide ; thus for instance we fin d , ,

titaniferous magnetite segregated by the olivin e gab b ro -

of Taberg ( p . ilmen it e b y the hypersthene gabbro -

an d nori t es of the E k e rsu n d ( p and chromite and

.

corundum by peridotites .

Together with these con cen tration s of oxides as has ,

been pointed out before there ha s b een a segregation

,

of th e b isil ic a te s such as olivi n e hypersthene etc an d

, , ,
.
,

often of phosphorus in the form of apatite ( chlor

apatite ) so that it is seldom found possible to obtai n
,

the ore unmixed with other m inerals .

4 0 TH E GE O LOGY O F O RE DEPOSITS
sm all quantities of m agnesium and m anganese The .

o rtho t ita n a t e is generally titan i f erous magnetite segre

gated by the olivine gabbro m agmas while the m eta

-
,

titanate is ilmenite associated with the hypersthene

b earing rock s .

The ilmenite segregation s may be said to bridge the

gap b etween segregation s of o rtho tita n a tes and segre
g a t io n s of metallic sulphides for ,
i n most of them we
meet with a fair percentage of sulphides With the .

segregation s of o rtho tita n a te s we most often get con

centration of the m etasilicate an exampl e of such a
,

combi nation b eing displayed b y the magnetite olivinite -

of T aberg while m e ta tita n a t es occur with o rtho

silicates in the ilmenite hypersthen e rocks of th e E k e r
-

sund S o gge n d a l district

-
.

T rue magnetit e deposits a re seldom i f ever met with

as segregati on s f rom igneous rocks The ore masses .
-

given rise to by th e more acid magmas S uc h as those ,

of the nepheline syen ites ( p . approximate more

n early to pure magn etites than any of th e ones from
the basic igneous masses At th e same ti me however
.
, ,

the percentage of phosphoric acid is lia b le to increase .

M agnetite ores without titan ium and with a low

,

percentage of phosphorus are almost always associated

,

with th e crystalline schists and other metamorphic

rocks ; and it is more or less evident that they have
been formed by th e m etamorphism of pre existing -

i ro n deposits o f sedimentary or metasomatic origin

( PP
I ro n O re s fro m G ab b ro s a n d N o rit es —In Southern .

N orway and Sweden occur num erous masses of igneous

rocks b elonging to the gabbro family and from these ,

have b een se gre gated so me o f the mo st fa mou s ir o n or es

 D I F FE RE N T I AT I O N 4 1

of the world They were studied b y Vogt and others

.
,

and as regards the origin of th e ore s are p ro b a b ly

, ,

b etter understood and have received more attention of

,

a s cientific nature than masse s of similar rocks i n any

,

other country The district of E k e rsu n d S o gge n d a l in

.
-
,

Southern N orway form s a well d e fi ne d petrographical

,
-

province of which the various rock members are

,
-

e s pecially characterized b y the occurrence of rhombic

pyroxenes (hypersthen e and were evidently derived
,

from a common magma basi n -

.

Thi s district furnishes us wit h a most typical example

of th e segregation of ilm enite from m agmas of a noritic
character differentiated before their i ntrusion i nto thei r
,

pre sent position The rock types occurring i n thi s

.
-

province ra n ge from a hypersthene b earing rock rich -

,

in labradorite th rough ilmenite norite which occurs

,
-
,

as dyke like masses i n the labradorite rock i nto an

-
,

almo st pure ilmenite rock containi ng varying amounts

of hyper sthene and perhaps a little felspar The pure
, .

ilmenite deposits when in th e f orm of dykes cut the

, ,

ore beari ng norites and are therefore the last to be

-
,

intruded The labradorite rock compare s very closely

.

with the a no rtho site of South E a st C anada and the -

Adirondack district ( p where th e i ron ores have

.

a S imilar origin .

The i ron ores of the E k e rsu n d S o gge nd a l occur partly -

as segregations from the norite dykes where they exist ,

as ilm enite norites an d partly a s vei n s schlieren or

-
, , ,

basic patche s which occu r in the labradorite rock

, ,

having well d e fin e d b oundaries

-
.

The ore i n the norite dykes such for in stance as that , ,

at S to rga n ge n where t he big ore occurs consists of

, ,

a n intimat e m ixtur e of ilmenite and hypersthene wit h ,

4 2 TH E G E O LO GY O F O RE D E PO SI T S
a little labradorite and makes up 40 per cent of th e
. , .

total rock .

I n the b asic string s and patches such as at B l a a fj e l d , ,

i lmenite predomi nates to such an extent that th e rock

l o se s its norite character and the percentage of i ron ,

ore ri s es to 9 0 or 9 5 The B l a a fj e l d ma s ses however.

, ,

are exceptionally pure the more usual percentage for ,

the pu rer ore s being 7 0 to 80 .

The magnetic i ron ore depo s it s of Taberg in S ma

land Sweden con si st of titaniferou s magnetite and
, , ,

differ chiefly from ore s of the E k e rs u n d S o gge n d a l type -

in this respect and in the fact that the parent rock is

,

F IG . 6 — SE
. CT I O N TO I LLU S TRAT E TH E MODE OF O CC U RR E N C E
OF I RON O RE S IN TH E E K E R S U N D S O GG E N D A L
-
D IS TR I C T .

1, L a b ra d o rite ro c k ; 2 , sc hl i e re n o l
f i m e n ite ; 3 , i m e n itel n
- it dyk
or e es .

rich i n olivin e i n stead of hypersthene The rocks form .

ing the Ta b erg complex con s ist of gneissose granite s ,

olivine gab b ro which has locally given rise to amphi b

,

o l it es and hornblende schists owing to the shearing -

stresses to which it has been subj ected and a magnetite ,

O livinite which i s the ore b earing ma s s There is reason -

.

to believe that they were all derived from the sam e

magma which probably differed but little from t he
,

O livine ga b bro in character

-
.

The gab b ro or rather the chief outcrop of gabbro

, , , ,

form s a lens S haped mass a b out a mile and on e fifth

- -

long and nearly half a mile in width I t completely

,
.
 D I F F E R EN T IA T I O N 43

surrounds the magnetite rock which ha s a maximum ,

length of four fifths of a mile a width of 4 85 yard s and

-
, ,

ri s es to abou t 40 0 feet ( F ig .

Ga b b ro d Ira n Or e
E
e /s s o s e
Gr a m t e Ho r n b l e n d e Ma gn e tit e
S c h is t s Ol i wm l e
'
‘

FIG .
7.
— M AP O F TH E TAB E RG D IS TR I C T .

( AF T E R TOR N E B O H M ) .

S ca l e, 3
25 in c h es to 1 mi l e .

The ore contain s 4 3 to 4 5 per cent of ferric oxide .

( Fe gO 3 ) with a relatively s mall percentage of titanium

,
44 TH E G E O LO GY OF ORE D E PO S I T S
oxide b eing only 6 3 as compared with 44 per cent in
, .

s ome of the E k e rs u n d S o n d l ores A most im

gge a -
.

portant feature of the Taberg ore i s the very small

percentage of phosphoric acid which only reache s ,

although occa s ionally going up to 1 5 per cent B etween °

1 8 1 and 1 8 8 per cent of the ore raised w mag

9 95 3 , a s .

n e t ite an d 1
, 7 per cent h aematite . .

The Ta b erg ore contains a small quantity of vanadic

acid segregated with the titanium and i n this character
, ,

is si milar to many other titaniferous magnetite deposit s ,

s uch ,for i nstance as those of R hode I slan d and the

,

Adi rondack region i n the U nited States .

I t was o ri gIn a l l y though t that the Ta b erg complex

was the result of differentiation of an olivine gabbro
magma i n place and that the b asic material had segre
,

gated towards the cen tre in stead of as is more u sually , ,

the case to the m argin of the intrusion H owever the

, .
,

extremely S harp b oundarie s which exist b etween the

various rock types i n thi s complex i n almost every
-
,

in stance di spo s es o f this idea for i f di fferentiation had

,

taken place to any great extent a fter intrusion the ,

margi ns of the different rock types would have been ill -

d e fi n e d on e rock passing more or less gradually i nto its

,

neighbours We must regard th e Taberg ore and th e

.

gabbro as separate i ntrusion s but drawn from the same ,

igneous reservoi r .

O res sim ilar i n composition a n d origin to those of

T a b erg and E k e rsu n d S o gge n d a l occur a t many localities
-

i n S outhern Scandinavi a such as at L a n gO G o m O etc , , ,

.
,

an d i n A rctic region s si m ilar occurrences are met with .

At L ofoten i n N orthern N orway and Valim aki in

, , ,

F inland a b a sic m agm a has yielded segregation s of

,

magnetite olivin ite similar to that described a b ove

- .
 D I FFE REN 45

I n South Africa i n the T ,

i s a great
igneou s complex known a s the d P lutonic
Serie s I t consi s ts of a great group of igneou s in t ru
.

sion s due to the differentiation of a magma before

,

intrusion which range from s erpentine s ( pro b a b ly

,

altered peridotites) to granite s ; olivine an d hyper sthene

gabbros have given rise to rich segregations of very pure
i ron ore while the ultra b asic rock s are a s sociated with
,

s egregations of ch romite ( p So far the study of

.

the relationshi p of these ore s to the parent rock an d ,

the various rock type s to one another is far from com

-
,

p l e t e
, and most i nteresti ng results m ay be expected i n
the future from a closer investigation of this serie s .

I n the N ew World i n the U nited States i n N ew

, ,

J ersey M inne sota Wyoming the Adi rondacks and i n

, , , ,

the N orian areas of Q uebec and O ntario i n C an ada ,

occur masses of gabbro and allied rocks of the gabbro

and norite families which h ave yielded segregation s of
titaniferous i ron ores due t o differentiation before or
after i ntrusion .

I n the Adirondack region the largest ore bodies are ,

met with in rocks chiefly com posed of lab radorite

,

felspar with a little hypersthene olivine or augite , , ,

which may b e regarded as ga bb ro s or norites very poor ,

i n the ferromagne s ian constituent s Thi s la b radorite .

rock to which the name anorthosite ha s been given

, ,

b ears a very close re s emblance b oth i n com po sition and

mode of occurrence to the la b radorite ore b earing rocks -

of Southern S candinavia .

M a s ses of a dark basic ga b bro are most numerous in

this region and have yielded segregation s of ore I t is
, .

proba b le that the ga bb ro s and the anortho s ite s were

derived from separa t e magma basin s and are themselves ,
46 TH E G E O LO GY O F O R E D EP O S I T S
n ot the p roducts of differentiation o f the same magma ,

although both are more than u s ually rich i n calcium

b earing s ilicate s The anortho s ite and gab b ro ma s se s
.

are int ruded chiefly i nto gnei s ses and cry s talline lim e
stones ; the ores occur in a man ner identical with those
of Ta b erg E k e rsu n d and o ther area s in Sweden an d
, ,

N orway either as b asic patches an d strings i n the

,

anorthosite as segregation s from the dark ba sic gabbros

,

or norites or as very rich basic dyke s like some o f

, ,

those i n S candinavia which were intruded subsequently ,

to the ga b bros .

The olivine hypersthene and augite in the la b radorite

, ,

rock and also i n the gabbro has almost always under

, ,

gone partial rea b sorption with the form ation o f a halo ,

of garnet .

The ores are titaniferous magnetite and ilmenite ,

chiefly the form er the percentage of iron varying ,

f rom 60 to 30 an d the titanium dioxide from 5 to I 4

, .

O f course som e of th e i ron exi sts as silicate i n the

,

hyper sthene etc and is not recoverable as metal

, .
, .

S ulphidic segregation ( p 6 1 ) i s generally not well dis .

played by these rock s e specially by the gab b ro mas s es ; ,

-

and i n thi s feature th e ores are more like the Taberg

segregation s than tho s e of E k e rsu n d S ulphur is i n .
,

fact hardly ever present in the ore i n a greater quantity

,

than 1 per cent .

Another point of re s em b lance between the Adirondack

gabbro ores and those of Ta b erg is that i n almost every
-

i nstance there has b een a s egregation of vanadium oxide

with the titanium the proportion of vanadic oxide ,

( V2 0 5 ) varying from O I to O 3 per cent

‘ ‘

The b est known of num erou s localities i n these

-

mountains where ga bb roic rock s occur are chiefly near

4 8 TH E G E O LO GY O F O RE D E PO S I T S
liquor When the ores had f ormed considerable a ggre
.

gates the whole was intruded i n higher region s of the

earth 5 cru s t and under these conditions the s egregated
,

ore bodies could take up any po s ition i n the re sulting

rock Almost the sam e result however could b e
.
, ,

brought about by the magma separating out into two

magma s of extreme types and this perhaps offers the , , ,

b etter explanation of the ultrabasi c ore bearing dykes -

(p
I ro n O re s fro m S ye ni t e i few cases P o rp hyr es .
—A
are known i n which valua b le i ron ores have been segre
gated by rocks o f this type The ore i s u sually .

magnetite with little or no titanium ; b ut the per

,

centage of phosphoric acid ri s es to a much higher figure

i n the s e rocks than i n the ga bb ro s and norite s already
described and th e amount of phosphorus is i n som e
,

i nstances s u fficiently high to render the ore of very

small value .

Two important areas o f i ron ores which are associated

with porphyries are the Swedish province of N o rb o tte n
an d the U ral Mountain s .

I n the province of N o rb o tte n which lies a b out ,

° ’
67 5 0 north latitude the chief ore deposits occur at ,

Kirun avaara an d L uossavaara They form two well .

marked parallel ridges rising i n a s triking manner from

,

the lower s urrounding country and running north and ,

south Kirunavaara b eing the more southerly of the

,

two and L uossavaara b eing a little to t he north and

,

east on the other side of the lake ( F ig .

The ore bodies are a s sociated wi th a quartz free -

syen ite porphyry in which they occur a s dyke like

,
-

masses and are presuma b ly the re s ult of extreme

,

differentiation before i ntru s ion i nto their presen t position .

 D I F F E R EN T I A T I O N 49

T he porphyry has been intruded i nto a variety of rock s

o sedimentary origin s uch a s conglomerates and
f ,

quartzites which form the s urrounding country

,
.

The southern mass of ore is one and a half miles i n

length an d has an average thickness of 2 30 feet The
,
.

L uo ssavaara mass a s far as is known is smaller b eing

, , ,

three quarters of a mile long an d 1 80 feet wide The

-
.

total ore expo sed a b ove the level o f the lake represent -
,

ing a b out ton s consists almost e n t ire l v of ,

F IG . 8.
— M AP O F TH E KI R UN A V AAR A R E GI O N .

S ca l e, y a rd s to 1 in c h .

magnetite practically free f rom titanium much of it i s

also almost free from phosphoric acid and s u lphur but ,

in s ome sam ple s th e percentage of pho sphorus rises as

high as 2 to 3 and in extrem e cases even 5 to 6 per
,

cent We see therefo re that i n these masses there ha s

.
, ,

al s o b een an i nten s e local concen trati on o f the pho s

p h o ric acid all of which exi s t s i n the form of apatite
, .

The percentage of magnetic oxide of iron ( F e3 O 4)

in these ore s reache s a s much as 9 6 2 5 per cent which .
, ,
 TH E GE O LO GY D E PO S I T S
'

50 OF O RE

with per cent of F e gO 3 represent s 7 0 8 per cent of

.
,
.

m etallic i ron .

The two ore masses described a b ove are extremely

-

i mportant they form two of the largest in Europe and ,

compare very favourably with any i n the U n ited States ,

b oth on account of their size and the general high value

of the ore they yield .

Another locality also in Swedish territory i s G e llivara

, ,

in N orth Sweden The ores are s imilar to tho s e of

.

Ki runavaara occuring a s magnetite with a varying

,

percentage of apatite ; they are evidently magmatic

dyke s and are a s s ociated with two other ro ck type s a — '

-
,

rock rich in soda which precede s them and a quartzose ,

s oda rich rock which follow s them

-
.

I n the U ral M ountain s t here are sev e ral well known -

dis t rict s i n which porphyritic rock s occur and which ,

are famou s for thei r i ron ore deposits Amongst these .

we may mention the N izhne Ta gil sk district i ncluding -

,

the Wysso k a ia Mountains and the G o ro b l ago d a t di s trict .

I n the Wysso k a ia region there are many intrusions

of quartz free porphyries consisti ng of orthoclas e plagio
-
,

C la s e and augite or augite converted i nto hornblende

,
.

T he segregation s from these m asses are largely magne

tite existing as i rregular patches an d vei ns which pass
,

insen si b ly into the surroun ding rock The ores there .

fore s eem to have b een form ed S imultaneously with the

igneous rock an d are not the re s ult of a su b s equent
,

i ntrusion of the more ba s ic part of a differentiated

magma They are distingui shed by their purity and
.

good m etallurgical qualities being practically free from ,

s ulphur and containing not too great a percentage

,

of phosphor i c acid The m agnetite of these ores has

’

generally undergone secondary changes resulting i n ,

 D I FF E R E N T IA T I O N 5 1

the mineral martite which i s abundant all through the,

Ta gil sk district .

The G o ro b l a go d a t dis trict offers very good exam ples

of iron ores existing a s s egregation s from syenitic
magmas The rocks of the M ount Blagodat region
.

are s imilar to those of Wysso k a ia b ut present a slightly ,

greater variety rangi ng from t rue augi t e syen ites to

,

fine compact orthoclase rocks The figure belo w sh ows .

the mode of occurrence of the ore bodies and it will be ,

s een th at they exist in s everal well marked dyke like - -

2 3 2 3 2

FIG .
9.
— D I A G RA MM AT I C S E C T I O N To I LLU S TRAT E TH E M O D E
OF O CC U RR E N C E OF I RON O RE S IN TH E M O U N T B LA G O D AT
R E GI O N .

1 , E p id o te ga rne t
-
ro c k ; 2 , p o rp hy y ; r 3 , iro n o re .

layers making a fai rly big angle with the horizontal

, .

They are separated from each other by the syenitic

rock s an d thei r m argin s are well defined The rock s
, .

a s a whole have undergon e a good deal of m e ta m o r

p hi s m giving rise
, to s uch mi nerals as garnet epidote , ,

etc and the district ha s been affected by many dis

.
,

placements su b sequent to th e formation of th e ore .

I n N orth America the i ron ores of I ron Co unty ,

Utah are partly due to segregation from igneous roc k s

, ,

a n d p a rtl
fl y to metasomatic replacements
, ( p 2 40 ) and .

4
— 2
5 2 TH E G EO LO GY O F O R E D E PO S I T S
secondary en rich ments i n the surrounding rocks The .

ore of igneous origin consi sts of magnetite with a low

percentage of phosphoric acid and occurs as nearly ,

vertical dykes i n a hornblende porphyrite I n mode o f .

occurrence these masses are si milar to those of the

G o ro b l a go d a t region .

I ro n O res fro m N e p he l in e S ye nites N epheline .

-

syenites and thei r satellitic differentiation products are

a dominant feat u re of some of the Continental coa sta l
ranges But as regards segregation s of i ron ore the
.
,

b est examples may be taken from B razil Two impor .

tant areas of i ron b earing rocks kno wn as J acupi ranga

-
,

and Ipan em a occur i n th e district o f S ao P aulo ; they

,

are separated from each other by the S erra do Ma r an d ,

are about ninety m iles di stan t from each other The .

ores owe thei r origin ch iefly to the differentiation o f

a magm a b efore i ntrusion b ut also i n a m easure to the,

further differentiat i on of some of the re sulting rock s i n

place The region of S ao P aulo i s o ne of clay S lates and
.

phyllites cut by a great variety of i ntrusive rocks all

,

rich in alkalies and i nclude such types as orthoclase

,

pyroxene orthoclase nepheline and plagioclase n ep he

,
-
,
-

line rocks with teschen ites vo ge sites etc F rom the

, , , .

fami ly resemblance presented by thes e i ntrusions and

other Considerations we are led to regard them as the
,

products of differentiation of a magma allied to that of

a nepheline syenite The chief ore beari ng rock is a
.
-

pyroxenite occurri ng in bos s es and dyke like masse s an d

,
-
,

consisting of a violet titaniferou s augite with m agn etic

and titaniferous i ron ores L ocally the i ron oxide s pre
.

dominate to such an extent that the pyroxen e practically

disappears and the rock becom es almost a pure ore
, .

S everal of the ore b earing pyroxenites contain n e phe

-
 D I F F E R E N T IA T I O N 53

line especially th at to which the nam e j ac u p ira n git e

,

has been given but with the prevalence of nepheline

,

m agnetite becomes less com mon while several other ,

acces s ory mineral s s u ch as perofskite and apatite

,

becom e les s rare .

A tantalo niobate occu rs associated with som e of the

-

ore s and i s i ntere sting as being analogous to the segre

,

t io n of the v a n a d in a t e s in the Taberg and Adirondack

g a

gab b ros .

F rom a consideration o f the above it will be seen ,

that the magnetite deposits of S ao P aulo and other

districts in B razil have a som ewhat different origin to
the i ron ores of other ar ea s an d that the parent m agm a , ,

through differentiation has given rise to a series of ,

rocks differing i n a great measure from those associated

with the i ron ores which we have previously dealt with .

A marked exam ple o f similar rocks yielding magnetite

depo sits may however b e cited f rom Aa
, i n the
, ,

G ulf of Bothnia where i ron ores have been segregated

,

by rocks having nepheline syenite a ffin ities .

S E G R E GA T I O N OF C H RO M E IRO N ORE .

Ch rome i ron ore or ch romite i n its m ode of occur

, ,

rence and gen eral ha b it i s closely allied to magnetite ,

but as far as is kn own i s only found as a segregation

, ,

from basic an d ultrabasic rocks I t may b e regarded as .

the mo s t ch aracteri sti c di fferentiation p roduct of th e

highly ba s i c ferromagne s ian S ilicate magmas s u ch as ,

those of the peridotites picrites and highly b asic ga bb ros

, , .

All these ferromagn e s ian S ilicate rocks a re m ost lia b l e

to alterations which re s ult i n the formation of se rp e n
,

tines and it is largely in masses of serpenti ne that

,

chromite is m ined .
54 TH E G E O LO GY O F O R E D E PO S I T S
Thi s m ineral i s widely di stribu t ed but it will su ffice ,

to mention a few localitie s P erhap s th e most i mpor

.

tant ch romite deposit s are those of the serpentin e

m a s s e s of Asia Minor especi ally tho se occurring i n the
,

n eigh b ourhood of D a gha rd y The ore exi s t s a s stock

.

or dyke like m as se s schli eren and ultra b asic patche s

-
, ,

in serpenti n e formed b y the alteration of perido t ite s

and picrites .

Similar depo s it s exist i n the region of Kra u b a t i n ,

U pper Styria where many peridotite ma s ses occur

, ,

as segregation s i n serpenti ne i n N ew Caledonia in the ,

ultrabasic mem ber s of the B o schveld P luton ic Series

i n South Africa i n fresh peridoti t es with in the N orth
,

P olar C ircle i n N orthern N orway N orth Carolina an d

, , ,

many other di s tricts .

An analysi s of th e Kra u b a t ore gives the following

percentages
S io 2
M gO
Ca o
Fe O
A 12 0 3
C r2 0 3

Although the B riti sh peridotites pi crites an d ser , ,

e n t in e s as well other ba ic rocks often conta in

p , a s s ,

chromite no deposits of economic value are known

, .

I n Africa some S outhern R hodes ian serpenti nes have

yielded chromite and picotite with trace s of plati num ,

and a s mall proportion of nickel and co b alt a s sulphides .

S E G R E GA T I O N OF CA SS IT E R I T E .

C assiterite ( ti n dioxide ) i s n ot usually met with i n

the oxidic segregation s from I gn eous rocks although it ,
5 6 TH E GE O LO GY O F O RE D E PO SI T S
the gran ite and consist of s tanniferous quartzose and
,

felspathic varieties ; near them the granite contain s

fl u o rsp a r .The copper lode is believed to b e connected
with the pegmatite phase of intrusion and consi sts of
-
,

quartz felspar m uscovite siderite calcite fl u o rs p a r

, , , , , ,

and copper and i ron pyrites The presence of specular .

i ron ore i n s mall quantitie s i n th e lodes an d separately ,

in quartz vei n s is of interest ,

The extreme hydro .

th ermal phase i s supposed to be an swerable for the

metasomatic replacem ents of quartzite b y tin ore de ,

scribed o n p 2 9 8 . .

The granitoid rock of E tta Knob i n South D akota , ,

which i s so rich i n cassiterite has been regarded as ,

S howing margin al segregation of thi s mineral We .

can not however accept it as an example of true

, ,

segregation such as we have con sidered previously .

The outer z on e o f the granitoid mass differs con

s id e ra b l y from the rest of the rock is highly altered ,

i n C haracte r and contain s a b undant fl u o rin e bearing

,
-

mi nerals such as S podumene etc Thi s deposit more

, , .

proba b ly results from pneumatolytic processes acti ng

on th e margi n of the rock mass during the later stage s-

of consolidation A similar coarse pegmatite occurs i n

.

Texas ( L lano C ounty ) an d contain s many rare radio

,

active m inerals such as gadolin ite but unlike the E tta

, , ,

Knob peg m atite i s non stann iferous

,
-
.

An intere s ting example of what appears to b e a true

oxidic segregation of cassiterite has lately b een de
scribed by the G eological S urvey from R oss shi re -
.

The ore occurs in a foliated granite gneiss as streaks

an d veins 1 00 to 2 5 0 yards in length and 1 0 to 1 5 yards ,

i n width ; it con sists chiefly of magnetite with from ,

to per ce nt o f c a ss i terite and a s we s hould ex ect

3 5 .
p , ,
 D I F F E R EN T I A T I O N 57

i n any true segregation of cas s iterite there i s a com ,

p l e t e a b sence of tourmalin e and other mi nerals o f

pneumatolytic Origin .

The relation of the ore mas s es to th e rest of the

-

gnei ss is O b scure on account of the shearing an d

faulting which the di strict ha s undergon e ; and although
magnetite occurs di s semin ated th rough the country
rock cas s iterite has as yet not been detected
,
.

Although the ore i s m ost probably a segregation we ,

m u s t not lose sight of the possibility that th ese veins

might have belonged to the s ediments of the M oin e
Series which as the result of pro found m etamorphism
,

have been converted into gran ulitic gneisses .

A somewhat si milar occurrence appears to be that

of N u ru nga in Bengal I ndia where tinstone i s asso
, , ,

c ia t e d with magnetite black m ica an d f elspar in

, , ,

lenticular beds i n gnei s s The origi n of th e ore i s

.

uncertain but the ti n may possibly b e con nected with

,

the pegmatite vein s which traverse the gneiss .

C assi t eri te occurs as a n original constituent o f a

few gran ites and acid volcanic rocks Banka an d
Billiton I slands ) diffused more or less uniformly
,

through the rock masses but particularly as inclusions

-
,

i n mica I t seldom occurs i n su fficiently larg e quan

.

tities to be of any direct economic value but suc h ,

rocks may yield rich alluvial deposits Tin bearing .

-

granites are usually characterized b y the presence of

tourmaline and lithia bearing m ica
-
.

S E GRE GAT I O N OF ALU M I NA AS C O RU N D U M .

Corundum can not truly be regarded a s an ore b ut ,

the mineral i s o f such economic importance as an

ab r a sive agent an d so well ill us trat e s the process e s o f
,
5 8 TH E GE O LO GY O F O RE D E PO S I T S
segregation a n d metamorphism that it has been found ,

desirable to i nclude it i n th is work .

Although many of the corundum depo s its of C entral

E urope I n dia an d South Africa are of m etamorphic
, , ,

origin ( p . a certai n n um b er i n other parts of th e

world result di rectly from the differentiation i n place
of basic igneous magmas and those of the U nited ,

States are especially i n s tructive True segregation s of .

corundum occur i n th e Appalachian region of the U n ited

States and are yielded in all cases b y rock s rich in
,

magnesi a and i ron and relatively poor i n silica

, .

The greater number o f corundum s egregation s are

from peridotites and serpen tines a fe w f rom norites , ,

and a still smaller num b er from amphi b olites formed

from the pyroxen e b earing rocks b y the processe s of
-

dynamic metamorphism The corundum forms an

.

integral part of oval and lenticul a r intrusions of these

rocks occurring i n a m etamorphic area largely composed
of gneisses and s chists The peridotite ma s ses of the
.

U nited States i n which corundum has b een found i n

,

quantity range from the central district of Alabam a

,

northwards to the G asp e P en in sula on th e G ulf of

St L awrence They are especially frequent i n N orth
. .

Carolin a and G eorgia ; others occ u r i n C onn ecticu t

and M assachusetts an d norites are mi ned in the neigh
,

b o u rho o d of P eekskill in the State of N ew Y ork In .

every case the concentration of the ore has taken place

,

at the margi n o f th e rock mass i n th e cooler zon e and

-
,

thu s occupies a position analogous to that of some of

the i ron ores described above an d mo st of the nickel ,

bearing segregation s of N orway and Canada to b e ,

described la t er T he figu re given below shows the

.

gen eral position occupied by the corundum ore with

 D I FF E R E N T I A T I O N 59

reference to the parent peridotite mass and is a c c o m ,

p a n ie d b y a s ection S howi n g the relation s i n depth .

FIG . Io .
-
M AP S H OW ING T H E O CC URR E N C E O F C O R UNDU M As
A D I FF E R E N T I AT I O N P R O D U C T O F P E R ID O T I T E .

F IG . II .
— S E CT I O N A C R O SS F IG . 10 .

1 , P e rid o tite ; 2 , c o ru n d u m ; 3, c o u n tr y ro c k .

The cor u ndum ore s of igneou s origin differ i n several

ways from those formed by the therm al m etamorphosis
60 TH E G E O LO GY O F O RE D E P O SI T S
of sediments and should be readily dis t i nguished ; for
,

besides the m arked differences i n th e mode o f occurrence ,

there i s usually a complete absence of true metam orphic

m inerals such as cyanite wh ich play such a prominent
, ,

part in the corundum rocks of Bu rma Siam and other , ,

di stricts I n the case of the peridotites there i s little

‘

.
,

dou b t that the alumi n a was di s solved i n the original

magma at the tim e of its intru sion i nto the country
rock and that it separated out together with other rather
,

in solu b le oxides such as chro m ite an d magnetite at an

, ,

early stage as the mass com menced to cool

,
.

I t ha s b een proved that alum i na i s soluble to some

extent in molten magnesium silicate and i f th e magma ,

has no exce s s of m agnesia then all the alumina crystal,

lizes as corundum I f on the other hand there i s a

.
, ,

S light exces s of magn esia over the m agnesium silicates ,

som e of the a lumin a will combine with that an d ,

c rystallize as spinel the remai n der forming corundum

, .

I t is therefore not surprisi ng to find spinel segre gra te d

from b asic magmas rich i n magnesia an d occurring as ,

a frequent associate of corundum .

I n C anada supposed original segregation s of c o ru n

,

dum occur i n O ntario and have b een derived from

,

rocks ranging from a normal syen ite to a mica horn ,

blen de or n epheline syenite But th ei r mode of origi n

, .

has as yet not been sati sfactorily proved an d it seems ,

that they p resent points of likeness to the deposits of

U pper Burma which are meta m orphic i n character .

I t is most probable that true segregations of corundum

will be found to be restricted to th e more basic plutonic
masses representing the magmas rich i n magn esium
silicates .

C orundum may be form ed in som e instances by the

 D I F F E R E N T I AT I O N 61

a b sorption of alum inou s material b y an ign eou s m agm a

on its passage through a sedimentary serie s of rocks ,

and the subsequent c ry s tallization of the exce ss of

alumin a on cooling T he action between th e igneous
.

rock and s edi ment i s however generally quite local

, , ,

and takes place withi n narrow limits ; it i s dou b t ful

whether the formation of corundum i n such cases should
b e regarded as a true segregation for i t seem s more
natural to regard it a s the outco m
,

e of a metamorphi c
proce s s identical with that which gives rise to the
corundum i n masses of sediment caught up and in cluded ,

without absorption in an igneous m agma

,
.

S E G R E G A TI O N OF M E T A LL I C S U L P H I D E S .

Segregations of sulphides o f certai n metals as well ,

as small quantities of arsenides are h ighly characteristic ,

of several types o f igneous rocks and are clearly the ,

di rect result of th e differentiation of th e magm a either

after or before intrusion By far th e greater number .

of sulphidic segregation s are yielded by basic igneous

rocks rich i n such ferrom agnesian minerals as hyper
,

s t hen e and oth er orthorhombic pyroxen es and with a ,

silica percentage of not more than 5 5 The sulphidic .

compounds are apparently s olu b le i n fused silicates at

high temperatures The m etallic sulphide s which
.

characterize thi s class of s egregations are those of

n ickel co b alt C opper and i ron ; there i s usually some
, , ,

titanium and occasion ally the percentage of oxi dic i ron

,

ores may reach a con siderable figure i n s egregation s

which form the connecting links b etween the oxidic
and sulphidic types Very occasionally som e of the
.

rare metals such as platinum i ridium rhodium and

, , , ,

palladium are found as s ociated with the metallic

,
62 TH E G EO LO GY O F O R E DE PO S I T S
s ulphides but th ey exist only as arsenide s as far as is
, ,

at present known I n the sulphidic segregations from

.

b a s ic igneous rocks there i s gen erally an absence of

lead zi nc S ilver anti mony bi s mu t h a n d tin and
, , , , , ,

arsenic is of rare occurrence M olybdenum Is not an

.

uncomm on con stituent of certai n granites .

Should several metals exist as sulphides in one an d

the same magma i t has been found that they have a
,

definite order of cry stallization and therefore a varying

,

degree of con centration for i nstance s uppose a magma ,

to contain nickel cobalt i ron copper i n th e form of

, , ,

sulphide s and some titanium on cooling pyrites rich

, , ,

i n co b alt would b e the fi rst mineral to crystallize and ,

would be segregated with the titanium The pyrite s .

would b e followed b y nickeliferous pyrrhotite pyrrhotite , ,

and copper pyrites P yrrhotite appears to favour those

.

rocks rich i n ferromagne s ian m i nerals while pyrites i s ,

not so restricted .

T he concentration o f sulphides i s gen erally best

displayed b y m agmas which h ave differentiated in place ,

and the segregations are almost always marginal i n

C haracter , thu s differi ng from so many oxidic segrega
tions which occur as ult rabasi c dykes and schlieren due
to differentiation of the magma before i ntrusion .

A nother difference of i mportance i s that i n the case

of sulphidic s egregation s there has b een no comple
m ent ary s egregation of the ferromagn esi an s ilicates ,

a s w a s such a conspicuous feature of many of th e

segregation s of oxides previously de s cri b ed .

R ocks with gabbro a ffinities may b e divided roughly

—
i nto two overlapping groups the one olivi ne bearing -
,

and the oth e r containi ng some orthorhom b ic pyroxen e ,

s uch as hypersth ene The olivine b earing rock s as well

.
-
,
64 TH E G E O LO GY O F O RE D E P O S I T S

S E G R E G A T I O NS OF NICKEL
CO B A LT AN D .

The n ickel and co b alt ores that occu r as segregation s

from norites and other hypersthene beari ng rock s m ay -
,

be divided into two group s :

( ) Sulphidic ores con sisting of the i ron nickel sul
a ,
-

p h id,e s pyrrhotite and ,

nickeliferous pyrites and the ,

n ickel sulphides millerite and polydymite .

( b) S ilicates con sisting of s everal nickel bearing

,
-

silicates formed by the alteration of sulphides and

arsenides subsequent to the segregation .

N ickel and cobalt invariably occur together but the ,

ratio of the two metals i s a most incon stant quantity ,

varying con sidera b ly according to the type of sulphide

whic hc a rrie s them and being governed to a great extent
,

b y the rate of cooling of the magma N ickel is segre .

gated chiefl y as nickeliferous pyrrhotite a double sul ,

p hi d e of iron and nickel and occurs with ,titaniferous

i ron ore and a fai r quantity of copper and i ron i n the
f orm of pyrites ( C u F e S z) .

P yrrhotite always contain s 2 to 5 per cent of nickel .

and co b alt taken together and should a pyrites cry stal

,

lize out before th e pyrrhotite it is generally richer in ,

cobalt than i n nickel thus while i n the pyrrhotite the

,

ratio of nickel to co b alt is as 1 0 to 1 in the pyrites it is ,

reversed .

The i ron su lphide s egregations containin g a high ,

percentage of n ickel an d co b alt ( 1 5 to 2 0 per do

not carry these metal s com b ined with pyrites b ut a s ,

the sulphides m illeri te and polydymite containing 5 to ,

1 0 per cent
,

of nickel intimately mingled with the

.
,

pyrites.

The average nickeliferous ores contain a b out 1 per

 D I F F E R EN T I A T I O N 65

cent of C o to
.
—
per cent of N i but i n s om e cases
6 8 .
,

the ratio is as 1 to 3 or as 1 to I O or 1 5 T his varia .

tion is due as be fore stated not so much to the original

, ,

content of the magma as to the degree of concentration

,

dependent on the rate o f cooling of the magma as a

whole .

N umerous examples of sulphidic segregation s o f n ickel

and co b alt from norites may be drawn from Southern
N orway and Sweden P iedmont in Ita l y Canada an d
'

, , ,

the U n ited States of America ; and other nickel ores are

m et with in M alaga N ew Caledon ia O regon and N orth
, , ,

Carolina associated with serpenti nes

,
.

I n the E rte l i district the ore b earing rocks form a -

transitional series f rom ordinary norite s which contai n ,

most o f the ore to an olivin e gabbro without ores and

, ,

present a m ost in structive exampl e of th e results of

differentiation The rock mass varies gradually from
.
-

an ordinary augite an d olivine free norite through a -

,

diallage beari ng but O livine free n o rite to a hypersthen e

- -
,

gabbro ; which gives place to an olivin e norite and ,

ultim ately to a hypersthen e free olivine gab b ro The -

.

olivine is segregated on the one hand and the rhombic ,

pyroxen e w ith the n ickel ores on th e other At Klefva .

,

in Smaland the rock masses vary f rom a hypersthen e

,
-

gabbro to a pyrrhotite norite an d are identical i n .

original character to those described above but su b se ,

quent changes have resulted i n th e transformation of

many of the rock s from gab b ro s to uralites .

G ood example s of the margin al segregation of nickel

ife ro u s pyrites from norite and gabbro magmas are al s o -

—
furnished by the f ollowi ng th ree localities the N ysten
and Bamle M ines the Me in kj a e r M i nes and the S ka ng
, ,

Mine .
66 TH E GEO L O GY O F O R E D E PO S I T S
The ore is magnetic pyrites with 5 to 6 per cent O f .

n ickel an d cobalt an d i s m et with at th e j unction of

,

the ga bb ro ma s ses with the hornblen de schi sts etc

- -
,
.
,

i nto which they are i ntruded .

Although the ore s almo st always exi s t at the peri

h of th e rock masses veins and patche i
‘

p er
y
-
s o c c u r n ,

some cases These patches are sometime s compo sed of

.

pyrrhotite norite som etim es of extremely pure pyri tes

, ,

and occur well withi n the gab b ro m asse s -

.

Another well known E uropean example is that of

-

Varallo i n P iedmont The mica schi st s and gn ei s ses

.

of the M onte Ro s a neighbou rhood are broken th rough

by m a ss e s of nori t e which are s ometimes without ,

olivine and au g ite but at other ti mes contai n the se two

,

m ineral s.

The ore con s ist s of a pyrrhotite norite as in the case ,

-

O f the S candinavian m a ss es ; it contain s 4 to 5 per cent .

of nickel and co b alt an d occurs at the contact of the

,

igneous rock s with the schists and gneisses into which ,

they have b een i ntruded Two well kn own mine s are .

-

the C e v ia an d the Sella B a s sa -

.

The nickel ores of Canada and the U nited States

—
occur i n th ree ways either a s mas s e s fringing the
intru s ions a s impregnation s th rough t he rock ma ss or
,
-
,

a s vein s filled by solutions s ub s equently to the i ntru s ion

of the magma The la st two types are not segrega

.

tions but b elong to a different category an d therefore

, ,

will not be di s cussed here b ut i n thei r place in a ,

s u b s equent part of thi s volume I n Canada the ores .

of Sud b ury have received the mo s t attentio n and ,

although several theories have b een propounded to

explai n thei r origi n non e seems S O satisfactory as ,

segregatio n .
 D I F F E R E N T IA T I O N
The ore b earing rock s without exception a re norites
-

or derivative diorites ( uralites ) and have b e en differen

,

tia te d from ophitic quartz bear i ng gab b ros and pegma

-

tite s .
T hese m asses throw off occasional norite dykes
,

—
5 2
68 TH E G E O LO GY O F O RE D E P O S I T S
which yield nickel ores on thei r margi ns and small ,

bosses of norite also occur The most i nteresting mass

.

i s the on e shown i n the accompanyi ng map as ranging

north east and south west o f Windy L ake H ere th e
- -
.

marginal position of the ores is well seen and the varia ,

tion in the rock mass may best be studied The interior

-
.

of the igneous mas s es con sist s of a pegmatite with a

silica percentage of 69 7 and a s pecific gravity o f
f ollowed towards the m argin th e silica falls to 49 9 and
, ,

the specific gravity rises to 2 8 5 as th e rocks loose their

,

pegmatitic character and pas s gradually i nto norites .

I n the ore itself the s ilica percentag e is less than 1 0 .

S im ilar masse s occur nearer to Sudbury itsel f and ,

several nickel b earing norite dykes m ay be noticed as

-
,

at S tobie and Worthington .

With the nickel i s segregated a fai r quantity of C opper

i n the form o f chalcopyrite and some magnetite so that
, ,

the chief ores are ch alcopyrite pyrrhotite and pent , ,

l a n d ite .The ratio of copper to nickel is most varia b le ,

an d taken against 1 0 0 parts of copper t he n ickel varies

, ,

f rom 2 1 5 to 1 7 0 .

I n consideration of the origin o f these ores it i s ,

i nteresting to note that there i s almost a com plete

absence of undergroun d water i n the mines m aking it ,

more or less eviden t that solution has played no part ,

and thi s i s still further b orne out by the f act that non e
of the minerals S how traces of hydration .

S udbury besides furnishi ng us with some of the best

,

examples of s ulphidic segregation s is also characterized ,

b y the comparatively rare segregations o f arsenides the ,

most remarkable o f which i s sperrylite essentially a ,

platinum arsenid e having th e t heoretical composition

,

P t As z .
 D I F F E R E N T IA T I O N 69

A detailed analysis gives the following figures an d ,

reveals the fact that other rare metals b esides platin um

are represented
P er C e nt .

Pt
Rh
Pd t ra c e
As 4 2 2 3
Sb
G old silver and some ti n have also been detected i n
, , ,

the Sudbury ores and plati num i n th e n ickeli f erous

,

ore s o f Kl e fva I n the U n ited States o n e of th e most

.

famou s n ickeliferous districts i s that o f L ancaste r G ap ,

i n P enn sylvania H ere we have a most beauti ful

.

example of di fferentiation i n place for the i ntrusion , ,

which is almost symmetrical in form rapidly b ecomes ,

more basic towards the m argin along which th e n ickel ,

ores form an almost continu ous zone The igneous .

mass con sists of amphi b olite a uralitized norite in , ,

t ru d e d into mica schists and the ores o f pyrites and

,

nickeliferous pyrrhotite Analogous to the segrega

.

tion of sulphides and arsenides from the S u d bu ry n o rit e s

mentioned above are the segregation s of nickel arsen ide
con nected with the Malaga serpentine s These rocks .

vary from t rue peridotites th rough picrites to norites

, , ,

and the ores change from nickel s ilicates near the

surface to ni ckel arsenide i n depth Th ey are associated .

with a good deal of ch rom ite which i n the richer o res

,

i s s een to have b een segregated at an earlier period than

th e nickel arsen ide which fill s th e i nterstices between
th e ch rom ite crystals The n ickel S ilicate ores contai n
.

from 1 to 2 0 per cent of n ickel and are evidently

.
,

derived from the arsenide which i s a true differenti atio n

,

product by the action of ci rculating waters

, .
 70 TH E G E O LO GY O F O RE D E PO S I T S
in N ew Caledonia O regon and N orth
D istricts , ,

C arolina all yield n ickel silicates associated with olivine

,

rocks such as peridotites now converted into s erpentine s

, , .

I t i s quite possi b le that the s e ores have been derived

from s egregated sulphides an d arsenides but as yet the ,

u naltered m in erals have not been m et with .

S E G R E G A T I O NS OF C O PP E R AS P Y R IT E S .

L ittle need b e said regardi ng the segregation of

C opper ores from igneous m agm as for their m ode of ,

origin is iden tical with that of nickel and cobalt and ,

they O ften accom pany those metals i n considerable

quantity C opper ores as sulphidic segregations are
.

n ot com m on however ; mo st of th e rich depo sits have

,

a different origin and exist either as precipitation s ,

from solution s o r as pneumatolytic an d metasomatic

deposits .

I t has been prev i ously stated that C opper i n the

segregation s almost always exists as the C opper iron -

sulphid e chalcopyrite ( C u F e S z) and i s usually as so ,

c ia t e d with basic pyroxenic ign eous rocks I n the .

N amaqualan d district of S outh Africa sulphidic copper ,

ores occur associated with igneous roc k s The district .

i s on e of granite gneisses an d schists capped locally

, , ,

by sediments an d pierced b y intrusion s of b a s ic igneous

,

rocks of gabbro a ffiniti es Th e ore deposits are irregular .

i n f orm and occur both i n the basic rocks and i n the

,

granite At N a b a tie p th e ore occurs chiefly i n th e

.

basic rock as streaks an d bunches an d seem s to be ,

a product of di fferenti ation .

I n the nickel bearing ores of Sudbury i n C an ada and

-
, ,

other regions the percentage of C opper i s occasion ally

,

large and according to some authors th e rich copper

, , ,
 C H A PTE R III

P N E U M AT O L Y S I S
A G R E A T many ore deposits are now recogn ized to be
directly connected with plutonic i ntrusive rocks and ,

to have been derived from them through the agency

o f magm ati c gases dis s olved in them at the time of

i ntrusion an d existing therefore at high pressure and

, , ,

above their critical temperat u re .

The condition s of pneum atolysi s are those of the

li b eration of magmatic vapours and steam during the
consolidation of the deep seated intrusive rocks The
-
.

action i s not thought to have ever occurred before

con solidation to any extent while after complete con
,

solidation the p rocess may be regarded as h aving

a ltogethe r ceased.

The vapours during the consolidation of the magma

played an i mportant rOl e i n the ext raction of the m etals
dis sem i nated th rough it so that in the abse n ce of such
,

vapour s pneumatolytic action except i n cases where

, ,

the metal itself is volatile i s im possible and ore deposits

, ,

of thi s nature could n ot be formed I n such a case any .

m etals present in the magm a would remain i n the rock

on consolidation as accessory oxides sulphides or , ,

silicates distributed th rough it like any other constituent

,

mineral ; or i f in large quantity would become essential

72
 P N E U M A T O LY S I S 73

constituents or e ven massive differentiation products

, ,

forming deposits known as segregation s ‘

The pneu .
’

m a to l ytic action is therefore a process of extraction of

metalli f erous mi nerals by active superheated gases in ,

the absenc e of which the sulphides or oxides of th e

metals would have remai ned i n the rock as ordinary
con stituents.

The assumption that superheated gases containing

metals as volatile compoun ds wer e th e mai n agents in
the formation o f certai n types of ores necessarily im
plies that in the maj ority o f cas es the deposits occur not far
from the plutonic rocks which gave ri se to them and i n ,

typical regions this so far holds true that the principal

deposits are found i n fissures and j oints i n the altered
rocks of the metamorphic zon e surroun ding the pluton ic
i ntrusion or i n the igneous rock itself
, .

Although the general pri nciples of pneumatolysis

were conceived n early a century ago the most i mportant ,

contribution s to the subj ect were m ade by P rofessor

Vogt i n a series of papers published between the years
1 89 4 and 1 8 I t i s m ainly upon Vogt s work that
“ ’

99 3
the classificat ion is based .

I n a general way the mode o f o rigin of the several

,

classes of ores un der this category is the sam e yet the ,

ores are quite distinct and are characteristic product s of

,

the type of rock giving ri se to them ; and it is now well

known th at the metals and m inerals of lodes associated
with basic rocks ( gabbros ) and acid rocks ( gran ite s)
indicate to a con siderable extent the n ature of the
magma f rom which they were extracted .

B roadly speaking the genetic classification of ore

,

Z eit
.
f P re ki G eo l
. .
,
1 89
4
,
1 89
5 , 18 8
9 , 1 89 9 .
74 TH E G EO LO G Y O F O RE D EP O S I T S
deposits form ed under pn eumatolytic conditions de
pends upon th ree thi ngs
1. The nature of the rock giving rise to the ore s .

2. The particular m etals of th e ores .

3 The minerals a ssociated with th e ores indicating

.
,

the n ature of the gases which extracted the metal s as

volatile compounds from the magma .

To the s e gases the term s carriers ‘

m ineralizer s, ,
’

and agen ts min era l isa teurs have been variou sly applied .

There are two broad C la s ses of ore s of pneumatolytic

— —
origi n the sulph ides an d the oxides one or both of
which m ay be s ecreted du ring the consolidation of
either the aci d or basic plutonic rocks ; but since each
magm a has its C haracteristic m etals and mineralizers ,
’

th e deposit to which it gives ri se will be oxidic or sul

p h i d ic according to the a ffin ities of the metals contained
in the magma an d to the presence or absence of sulphur .

Thus ti n practically always occurs i n the form of

,

oxide whether sulphur be present i n the magma or n ot

, .

I ron m ay occur either a s oxide or sulphide lead n early ,

always as sulphide .

I n a fused condition acid magmas such as those

, ,

giving rise to granites although i ntensely hot are con

, ,

sid e re d to have been very viscous or pasty since on ,

i ntru s ion among the overlying rocks they have assumed

m a s sive or b ulky i nstead of sheet like forms These
,
-
, .

i mm en se laccolites are generally of deep seated origin -

( b atholiths ) an d con sequently all th e conditions of slow

,

cooling were p resent .

I n basic magmas on account of thei r lower con

,

solidation poin ts th e liberation of m agmatic gases

,

takes place at lowe r tem peratures Thei r fusibility

.

affects to some extent th e f orm of the intrusion .

 P N E U M A T O LY S I S 75

D uring the cooling of th e igneous masses the rocks

surroundi n g them are therm ally metamorpho s ed for
distan ces varying from a few hundred feet to a mile or
m ore so that they too are i n a hea t ed condition
, , , .

Although the m etalliferou s m i nerals are very sparingly

distributed th rough the m agma they are n everthele s s ,

gradually withdrawn from it during cry s tallization b y

mean s of active m agmatic gases an d i n time are more ,

or less concentrated in t he not f ully con solidated parts

of the intrusion .

The n ext step in the process i s the escape of the

m etalli ferous gases an d concentration of the ores i n the
,

position s in which they are found I t is only necessary .

,

then th at the m ean s of escape should b e provided an d

, ,

i n deposits of this n ature this i s i nvaria b ly in fissures

f ormed by various causes i n the soli d parts of th e
ign eous rock an d in the older rocks b eyond .

I n traversing fissures i n the cooler rocks reactions

took place with th e liberation of m etallic oxides an d
sulphides and the formation of ch aracteristic minerals
,

th rough the action of the remaining ga s eou s material

on the country roc k
-
.

O nce th e magma was con solidated the condition s of ,

pn eumatolysi s ceased and in stead of vapours th ermal

, , ,

mineral waters were given off The change from the .

o n e condition to the other i s gradual but it appears ,

highly proba b le that under the cooler condition s i n

,

which liquid sol u tion s occur a set of substances m ay be ,

deposited i n fissures wh ich owing to thei r i nability to

, ,

form volatile compounds were not carried off in th e ,

earlier gaseous phase or at any rate were o nly carried

, , ,

O ff i n small quantity At th e same ti me many su b

.
,

stances which w ere readily volatilized u nder pneum a

7 6 TH E G EO LO GY O F O RE D E P O S I TS
to l yt ic condition s b ecame under cooler condition s
, ,

sta b le compounds no longer capable of extraction .

Thi s applies not only to the ores but also to the ,

m i neralizer s which likewise have to be taken into

,

accoun t i n treating of the origin of the deposits .

According to B rOgge r s researches th e stage at which

’
,

th e pneumatolytic action is most inten se i s t hat which

follows the first possible phas e of ore concentration ,

n amely that of magmatic s egregation ; b ut it p re

,

cedes or i s in part contemporan eou s with the third

, ,

phase at which zeolites m ay be formed th rough th e

action of magmatic waters contai ning minerals in solu
tion I n both th e pneumatolytic an d zeolitic phases the
.

already consolidated m inerals of the magma are lia b le

to be altered or deco mposed .

B efore discussin g a few typical cases it should be ,

noticed that o re deposits of pneumatolytic origin in v a ri

ably occur as in fil l in gs o f p re existing spaces and as -

i mpregnation s of the rock i n th eir vici nity so that the ,

shape of the deposit i s largely determi ned by j oints ,

i rregular fissures faults friction breccias partings alon g

, ,
-
,

be d d in g p l a n e s or ot her sp aces in the sedimentary

°

rocks of the m etamorphic zone or i n the igneou s rock ,

with which the deposits are genetically connected .

B ut although the form of th e depos it is o f great

i m portance t o th e m ine r the natu re of the alte ration
,

which t he vapours once traversi ng the fissures have

, ,

effected i n the country rock at the sides of th e lode

-
, ,

i s of con siderable i nterest I n many cases the wall s of

.

t he lodes have been so entirely altered by th e vapours

that they are ren dered un recognizable as part of the
country rock ; an d it i s by the nature o f this alteration
-
,

an d by th e minerals in the lodes that th e origin of th e ,

 P N E U M A T O LY S I S 77

ores may be determi ned I n all classes of ore s of

.

pneu matolytic o rigin the roc k i n the vici nity of the

,

fissures i n addition to other secondary minerals in

, ,

varia b ly contain s som e of the ore im pregnating it to

more or less extent ; that i s to say some of the mineral s ,

of which the country rock i s composed are replaced by

-

the ore s while th e rest m ay not be al tered or affected

,

in any way .

Typical examples of pn eu matolysis m ay b e taken

from the ore deposits co n nected with ga bb ros and
granites respectively and a com parison o f one with the
,

other will show that while th e min erals taking part i n

,

the action in each case are different the gen eral mode ,

of origin i s the same .

O RE S OF P N E U MA T O LY T I C O RI G I N C O NN E C T E D WI T H
G R A N IT E AN D ITS A LL I E D R O C K S .

N ormal granites are holocrystalline rocks of hyp id io

morphic structure which con s ist of a ferromagne s ian
,

mineral generally biotite ( b ut occasionally horn blende )

, ,

muscovite felspar ( orthoclase an d sometim es acid

, ,

plagioclase ) an d quartz The percentage o f free an d

, .

com b in ed s ilica varies from 65 to 80 .

The principal allied plutonic rock i s syenite which is ,

of less sili ceo us character .

Th e family of fin e grained porphyritic rocks of sim ilar

-

chemical composition to norm al granite b ut occurring ,

i n the form o f dykes or sheet like i ntrusion s are not -

,

directly conn ected with ore depo s its o f pneumatolytic

o rIgIn owi ng to their small bulk and thei r consequent
,

inability to su pply enough m aterial for the production

o f ore deposits and to a certain extent to th e condi t ion s
,
7 8 TH E G E O LO GY O F O RE D E PO S ITS
of rapid cooling to which thei r fin e graine d C haracter -

is due . The pri ncipal amongst these are th e quartz

porphyries or elvan s I ndi rectly however thei r con
, .
, ,

n e c t io n with t he granite on the one h and and the ore ,

deposit s on the other i s of great i ntere st as it is a

, ,

common feature i n some of the typical regions for the

principal metalliferous deposits to occur i n an area
which had previou s ly been a focus for dyke intrusion s .

The ore s characterizi ng typical pneumatolytic deposits

i n granites are those of cassiterite and wolfram and ,

scheelite , any of wh ich may b e accompanied by

sulphidic ore s o f copper i ron and arsenic i n large
, ,

quanti ty . I n le ss quan tity but not uncom monly , ,

th ere may be ore s contai ning the m etals b ismuth or ,

even antimony zi nc cobalt occasional nickel man

, , , ,

ganese m olybde num uranium and gold ; s till rarer

, , , ,

mineral s containing tantalum and titanium I n some .

i n stances arge nti ferous galen a occurs with the tin ,

tungsten copper arsenic or other ores of undoubted

, , ,

pn eumatolytic origin an d its presence although ex

, ,

c e p t io n a l ,m ay be regarded as one of the types con

n e c tin g the fil o ns sta nnif éres or cassiterite vei n s,
and ,

the fil o ns pl o mbiféres or lead vein s si nce th e con di

, ,

tion s under which most lead veins are formed although ,

conn ected with after eruptive actions belong to the last

-
,

pha s e s of ign eou s co nsol idation I n Bolivia however .

, ,

the sulph ides of lead and som e other m etals occu r to

the exclusi on of C O pp e r ores and may b e contem ,

r a n e o u s with the tinstone

p o .

I t should be remarked there fore that according to ,

the metal s originally contai ned i n the eruptive magma ,

the lodes may contai n all or only one o f the afore

mentioned metals .
80 TH E G E O LO G Y O F O RE D E PO S I T S
chlorine T h e metals of this group of ore deposits exist
.

chiefly as oxides and sulphides .

N A T UR E O F TH E A L T E R A TI O N IN TH E WA LL S O F TIN

LO DE S .

H yd ro fl u o ric and boric vapou rs boro S ilico fl u o rid es ,

- -
,

togeth er with hydro fl u o silicic acid and other gaseous -

com pounds are able to decompose various con stituents

,

of the country rock with the production of n e w mineral s

-
, .

While some rocks are readily altered i n thi s way there ,

are others which are practically unaffected .

Where the country rock is not readily seen to b e -

traversed by cracks the microscope S hows that th e ,

alteration i n the walls commenced i n the first place

a l o n g m in u te cracks or li nes of ri f tin g C leavage cracks
‘

, ,

planes o f bedding and i n i nterstitial spaces The cor

,
.

ro sio n or alt e ration of the country rock begun i n this -

way is readily carried on The mi neral s which are .

particularly attacked are felspars m ica s and argil , ,

l a c e o u s and calcareous materials The mi nerals which .

are produced are topaz axinite tourmaline ( brown and , ,

b lue) chlorite kaoli n green and white mica an d fl u o r

, , , ,

spar ; and probably i ron pyrites as a result o f con

, , ,

version o f oxide of i ron into the sulphide by sulphur

vapours F i nally sil ic ific a tio n of the coun try rock is
.
,
-

so common as to con stitute an i mportant type of

alteration I n special ca s es garnet is al so form ed but
.
,

thi s must gen erally be regarded a s owing to a com b ina

tion of contact and pneumatolytic action s .

I t will be seen therefore that the type o f alteration

, ,

was determined b y the nature of the vapours or solu

tions which traver s ed the fissures while the minerals ,

f ormed depended on the composition of the country rock -

.
 PN E U M A T O LY S I S 81

Broadly speaking changes i n the country rock , the -

are brought about b y greisen action sil ic ific a tio n -

, ,

chloritization k a olinization etc and depend upon the

, ,
.
,

nature of the vapours .

I n granite the alteration is as follo ws : biotite by ,

loss of alumina oxide of i ron and magnesia is C hanged, , ,

to muscovite with occa s ionally som e epidote and

,

oxide of i ron I f boric acid b e present the mi neral i s

.
,

FIG .
— D I A G R A M S H OW ING TH E L O D E S TRU C TUR E
I 4. AN D
N ATUR E O F A LT E RAT I O N O F TH E C O UN TR Y R O C K A T -
TH E
B A L LE SWI D D E N M IN E S T J US T C O R N W ALL , .
, .

‘
G ry ,
’
a tin -
b ea rin g j o in t or v
H a rd wo rk, greise n c o n sis tin g o f
e in ;
‘ ’

h l q z z f l z
,

m ic a , a nd to p a ; G o o k , th e s o t k a o in i e d
’
u art
‘
sc or
b y h
, , ,

gran ite e o n d the a rd wo rk .

altered to brown tourmali ne Chlorite may be form ed .

from biotite by the action o f sulphides ( propylitization ) ,

carbonic acid ga s or carbonates and frequently i s ,

associated with metallic sulph ides .

T he alteration o f the f elspar commences along

cleavag e planes an d crack s with the production ,

of topaz (b y fluorin e ) m uscovite ( also gil b ertite and ,

zinnwaldite ) and quartz Cassiterite frequently occur s

, .

6
82 TH E GE O LO GY O F O R E D E PO S I T S
as pseudomorph s after the felspar of the groun d mass
or of phenocrysts Complete sil ic ific a tio n of the fel
.

S par is not uncommon while i n the presence of ,

boric acid vapours blue t ourmaline needles are formed -

.

Although topaz is con s idered to be occasionally altered

t o kaolin th e k aolinization of fel s pars is regarded as
,

b eing mainly due to th e action of carbonic acid ga s

which removes s om e of the potash and silica .

AI20 3 K2 O
. . 2
(3S iO 2) + 2 H 2
O + CO 2
O rth0 c l ase l
A12O 3 . 2 S iO 2 . 2 H 2O + 4 sio 2+
K2CO 2 .

The quartz o f granite frequently rem ain s unaffected ,

with the exception of slight corrosion and th e addition

of secondary quartz grown i n optic continuity .

M ine rals such as apatite and zircon remain u n

changed Titanite and other titanium minerals in
.
,

cluding titani f erous biotite are changed to rutile , .

I t should be observed then that the alterations are , ,

effected by several kinds of vapours of which fluor i ne ,

i nvaria b ly b elongs to the earliest em anations while ,

carbonic acid gas hydrogen sulphide and b oric acid

, , ,

m ay belong to either the earlier or later emanations .

T he extent of alteration in the sedimentary rocks of

the con t act zone depends partly on thei r compo s ition
-
.

I n finely banded rocks consisting of altern ations of

sandy and arg illaceou s films it i s the argillaceo u s ,

material which is principally affected b y the vapours ,

and i n particular by boric acid an d fluori ne The prin .

c ip a l alteration when boric acid was present is tour

m a l in iza tio n along the argillaceous film s for several ,

i nches away from the vein ( F ig The altered rock .

is extremely har d and as all th e previously formed

, ,
 P N E U M A T O LY S I S 83

folds or contortions i n the rock a re preserved it has a ,

remarkable appearance .

I n some of the t o u rm a l in iz ed sediments f rom the

neighbourhood of R oche R ock in Cornwall the tour , ,

maline of these mud film s i s of dirty brownish grey -

or blue colour with many impurities With it there

, .

frequently occurs cassiterite .

FIG . 15 . V E I N O F TIN S T O N E Q u AR Tz A N D T O U R M AL IN E
- -
, ,

TRA V E R SING P A LfE O Z O IC S LAT E S CO NSIS T ING O F A LT E R N AT E

B A NDS O F A R GI LLA C E O US A N D S I L IC E O US M AT E R I AL S ,

B E L O WD A B E A CO N C O R N W ALL , ( N AT U RAL S IZ E ) . .

The ll
a rgi a c eo u s b l
a n d s a re re p a c e d fo r se v e ra l in c h es o n e it h er s id e
by t o ur l
m a in e , w i hl e th e si li
c eo u s b a n d s a re u n a ffe c te d .

I n originally calcareous metamorphic rocks suc h as ,

c a l c s il ic a te horn f els
-
the production of axin ite instead
,

of tourmaline takes place This mineral occurs .

i n abundance i n the altered calcareous bands o f the

L ower D evonian rocks on th e north of the St Austell .

granite mass in Cornwall in wh ich locality ti n vein s

, ,

a re also found .
84 TH E G E O LO GY O F O R E D E PO S I T S

I n th e o l d e r basic i ntru s ive r ocks near the granite

r
‘ ’

th e effects of pneumatoly s i s are also well marked I n .

the Corn i sh green stone s axin i t e is developed and is ,

associated with vein s of garnet and epidote The .

occurrence of garn et vein s appears to b e due to con

tact alteration with addition of siliceous m aterials by
,

solutions O n a large scale i n Arizon a garnet an d

.

copper ore are found i n association at the contact of

li mestone with d iori tic and granitic rocks wh ile similar ,

occurrences are known i n H ungary an d Tran sylvania ,

Servia th e U ral s N ew South Wale s an d Queen sland

, , ,
.

I n the West of E nglan d numerous similar occurrence s

have been noticed ; at Botallack ti nston e is found ,

i n sheared garn etiferous green stone ; near L ostwithiel

copper and i ron pyrites occur with ma s sive garnet .

O n the northern margi n of Dartmoor the ore s are

seen i n connection with garnet at the B el ston e Con sols
M ine .

The ga rn etiza t io n of non calcareous rocks has been

-

n oticed i n I daho wh ere at White Kno b chimn ey like

,
-

masses of garn et have been formed along cracks i n

granite porphyry ; the garnet appears to have been
developed by the action of solution s contai n ing i ron
oxide an d lime on the rock .

S il ic ific a tio n of the walls of tin lodes is a common

phenomenon and the rock which result s from thi s
,

a lteration i s quartz which encloses C hlorite or t ourma

line n eedles I t i s thi s variety o f rock which is known

-
.

as peach i n C ornwall .

OR DE R OF A RR I V A L O F TH E M I N E RA L S IN TIN LO D E S .

I n ti n lode s characterized by the presen ce o f sul

h id e s it is of intere s t to know at what period s in the
p
(
P N E U M A T O LY S I S 85

2
M fio m M

Str ay P a r k E ngin e

S h af t

S ha f t

Go s s an S h a f t,

O
O
O
M
M
'

Dw d a n o S
G ra p p e b
'

8w 0 3
M
E as t a S ha f t,
z I
p O
ri l
'

H
Bo d B
un cu
y N

.
l
.

D o wn r cg h b S h af t
M a m E n g u w 3 mm .
N
O
Ha r v ey k S h a f t,
’

.
H
O
J
L .

N
I

N
3

H ug hb ar ro w
Wa t S ha f t

Htg hb a r ro w
'
86 TH E GE O LO GY O F O RE D E PO SI T S
building up of the veins the di fferent mi nerals arrived ;
or putting the question i n another way what were ,

the differen t con dition s governi ng th e emanation of the

several vapours which b rought the ores to thei r present
po s ition P
Where cassiterite and sulphidic ores occur in the
same lodes a s i n C ornwall thei r association with on e
, ,

another is frequently s o i ntimate as at once to sugge s t

a contemporaneous origin f or both classes of ores and ,

this V iew i s supported i n a still m ore general way by

thei r si milar geological distribution O n the other .

hand from the frequent occurrence of copper sulphide

,

deposited on previously f ormed cassiterite and from ,

the occasional i ntersection of lodes pri ncipally con

taining ti n by lodes prin c i pally contain i ng copper it
°

i s quit e cert ai n that while the ores were frequently

,

deposited simultaneo u sly the copper ores cont inued to

, .

be deposited after the arrival of ti n ore had ceased .

I t i s thus evident that vapours such as fluorine boron , , ,

s ulphur carbonic acid etc

, which conveyed the metals
, .
, ,

had a definite sequence o f emanation .

There is on e more f act however of particular in, ,

t e re st i n this connection and that i s the remarkable

,

zone like arrangement of the ore s of tin and copper i n

-

the lodes as showing a distinct tendency i n each case

,

to a preference for one horizon over another In .

C amborn e ( C ornwall ) the lodes in thei r upper parts were

rich i n copper but in depth are almo s t exclu sively tin
,

bearing ; thus it may be in ferred that much of the copper

ore was originally depo s ited from th e vapours under
condition s di ffering from those under which ti n ore
wa s readily formed .Where it happens th erefore that , ,

the ti n an d copper ores are i n i ntimate association ,

88 TH E G EO LO GY O F O R E D E P O S I T S
the last mi nerals to b e deposited Among these may be .

mention ed nickel anti mony m anganese and uranium

, , , ,

som e of which however were deposited also i n the

, ,

earlier phases of lode form ati on .

A SS O C I A T I O N O F TIN A N D C O PP E R O R E S WI T H TH E
M E T AM O R P H I C R O C K S S U RR O U N D I NG TH E G R A N IT E .

The principal bodie s of tin and copper ore nearly

always occur somewhere about the peripherie s of the
granite masses with which they are genetically con
n e c te d .

The distribution of the ores as a whol e is however , ,

not restricted to thi s position and they may be found ,

at considerable distances f rom the granite margins -

,

either i n the heart of the granite mass or near the -

li m its o f the metamorphic aureole and particularly in ,

the vicinity of elvan s or quartz porphyry dykes whose

, ,

presen ce i ndicates a direct communication with the

interior parts of the granite ( F ig T her e can b e .

no doubt that th e condition s near the j unction of the

granite and the contact rocks was more favourable to
-

the deposition of the metalli ferous minerals than else

where ; while fi s sures f aults and crush z ones o f con
, ,
-
,

s id e ra b l e size affording S paces for the building up of ore

,

bodies o f gr e at com mercial value are also com monly ,

found i n such situations .

T Y P I CA L AM P L E S O F D E P O S I T S O F PN E U MA T O LY T I C
E!

O RI G I N C O NN E C T E D WI T H AC I D I N TR U S I V E R O C K S .

C a s s i terite a nd W o l ra m —
Cornwall an d D evon
f In
.

the ti n an d C opper deposit s are intimately associated

with five large granite b atholiths two o f which i n , ,

West Cornwall are i ntruded among sedim ents o f

,
PN E U M A T O LY S I S
90 TH E G E O LO GY O F O RE D E P O S I T S
O rdovician age two i n Central and E a st C ornwall
,

among the D evonian rocks an d one i n D evonshire

,

among the Car b oniferous an d D evonian sedim ents .

H ere and there are smaller granite i ntrusions occur ,

ring as satellites of the larger m asses .

Con nected with th e same eruptive centres and par ,

t ic u l a rl y i n the region s i n which the mo s t celebrated

mines occur D o l c o a t h Cook s Kitchen Carn

’
, ,

B rea Wheal B asset the G wen nap U nited Mines etc

, , , .

there are a number of elvans or quartz porphyry dykes

, ,

whose intrusion clo s ely succeeded that of the granite ,

but which preceded the last phase of eruptive activity

n amely the emanation of metalliferous vapours from
,

the consolidati ng granit e m agma .

The prin cipal min eral centres are situated at one side
of the granite m a ss es wi t h which they are as sociated ,

an d generally i n the metam orphic aureole or in th e

granite not far f rom the peri phery .

T his peculiar localization at one S ide of the granite

i s illustrated in the ti n and copper districts of Camborne
and St Austell the latter of which i s shown i n th e
.
,

diagram ( F ig . The explanation appears to be

that there was excessive distur b ance in the sedi mentary
rocks at on e side of the mass during i ntrusion an d ,

this disturbed area s ub s equently became the centre for

b oth the i ntrusion of dykes and th e form ation of the
ore deposits . That thi s is so there can be but little
doubt si nce i n th e Camborne and S t A u stell mining
,
.

regions the lodes and elvans i n each ca s e h ave the sam e

direction while in the i nterior and on the O ppo s ite sides
,

of the granite m asses respectively th e elvans are fewer

, ,

and the lodes have a diffe rent direction .

T here is also a marked difference i n the structures

9 2 TH E GE O LO GY O F O RE D E PO S I T S
lying districts con sist of clean cracks or j oints of
remarkable straightness and a s already remarked
, , ,

have a different di rection .

Con sequently although the veinstones from various

,

parts of eith er of these mining regions have such well

d e fin e d differences i n structure it is probable that the
,

lodes all owe thei r origin to those di stur b ances which

m arked the close of the eruptive activity i n the region ,

so t hat the differences i n bearing of the lodes as well ,

as the structures of the veinstones i n different part s

of the same region must be regarded as having been
,

determined by local peculiarities .

I n no region i n the world is the association o f ti n

and C opper so well exhibited as i n the mi nes of Corn
wall where the evidence i ndicates that the tin an d
,

copper ores as well as such com mon mineral associates

,

as arsen ical pyrites wolfram and even small quantities

, ,

of z in c b l e nd e etc are of identical age

, .
,
.

E xamination of the lode materials however shows , ,

that the stanniferous portion s gen erally occur in what

are obviou sly the O lder part s of the vein s and ,

appear to have been form ed of the fi rst min erals de

posited .

O ther cases S how such an intimate assemblage of

cassiterite and sulphide ores a s to render the evidence
of successive deposition a matter for dou b t .

That the ti n was probably deposited from such an

active compound as fluoride of tin poi n t s to the con
c l u s io n that cassiterite would frequently occur as
replacements and impregn ations of the country rock i n -

position s inacces sible to other ores and so always ,

appear to have b een the fi rst mineral to be de

posited .
 PN E U M A T O LY S I S 93

Where the sulphides of c o pper do not occur alongside

the cas siterite they generally occupy a higher horizon in
,

the lode a peculiarity well exhi b ited i n th e C am b orne

,

FIG 20 —TH E TIN D IS TR I C T S

IN TH E E R ZG B I R G
E E .

T R D AL M ER )
. .

( AF E K. .

mines where excepting the outcrops the lodes i n

, ,
,

their upper parts yielded copper an d i n depth tin ore ,

.

This is particularly the case with lodes traversing killas

94 TH E G EO LO GY OF O RE D E PO S I T S
i n the upper part an d granite i n depth I t may b e .

assumed therefore that the temperature of the rocks

, ,

had much to do with the determination of the horizon

at which the ores were deposited .

Tourmaline and C hlorite accompany the ores T hey .

occur as alteration s of the country rock or as slender -

,

crystal s embedded i n quartz an d constitute the well ,

known peach of the lodes Topaz and wh ite mica .

are also foun d as products of th e altera t ion i n the

rocks en clo si ng the lode .

I n the E rzgebirge on the frontier of Saxony and

,

Bohemia the zonal distri b ution of the ore s near the

,

granite intru s ion s with wh ich th ey are a s sociated is again

well exh i b ited as was s hown by D almer ( F ig
, In .

th at region the P al aeozoic sediments have been broken

th rough b y successive acid igneous i ntrusion s the last ,

of which i n post Carboni ferous tim es i s i n th e form of

,
-
,

a number of granite masses or laccolites the largest , ,

bei ng that of the Sch e llerhau i n Saxony I t is with .

this and the smaller bosses of O bergraupen Zi n nwald , ,

Altenberg and B arenstein that the several tin di stricts

, ,

are connected I n th e Zin nwald a proof of the close

.

connection of th e ti n vein s with the consolidation of

the granite is certified by the occurren ce of dykes of
aplite cutting the vein s .

I n other parts of the E rzgebirge however as at , ,

G eyer E hrenfriedersdorf Sauberg and i n various places

, , ,

in the E iben stock granite mass near Karl sb ad ti n ore -

,

ha s been mi ned The other minerals characteristically

.

pres e nt are scheelit e and wolfram fl u o rsp a r schorl , , ,

arsenical compounds uranium ores with occasionally

, ,

oxide an d carbonate of i ron an d sulphides of tin lead , ,

and zinc etc

, .
96 TH E G E O LO GY O F O RE D E PO SI T S
rence They appear to be more or less connected with
.

the copper ores of the region .

At L ong H ill i n Connecticut wol f ram , ,

wolfram ochre an d scheelite are associated with fl u o r

,

spar quartz topaz an d white mica in such meta

, , ,

One Fo o t

F IG . 2 1 .
— T IN L O D E AT TH E B U NNY M I N E S T A U S T E LL ,
,
.

C O R N W ALL .

Th e v e in infil l in g is c o arse ca v e rn o u s q u a rt z h v ing a a d ista n t

bl b y tr v
,

re se m a nce to co m s u c tu re I t is a e
p g m a tite e in , c o n ta in

lf m fl v l z
.

ing t in o re a n d w o ra
-
S o m e e sp a r in the is k a o ini ed
e in
hl l l l
,

W i e the a d j a c e nt gra n Ite is a tere d to greise n . A itt e fi u o rsp a r

l
a n d to u rma in e a re p re se n t .

morphic rocks as quartz zoisite epidote hornblende - - -

rock occurring at th e j unction of diorite gn eiss with

,
-

crystalli n e li mestone T o p az occurs i n particular abun.

dance i n a separate lode containing wolfram and other

minerals S ome of the wolfram is pseudom orphous
.
 P N E U M A T O LY S I S 97

after scheelite The occurrence of pegmatite s with

.

min erals such as fl u o rs p a r topaz etc i ndicate s that , , .

,

the wolfram wa s formed under pneumatolytic conditions

from the same magm a as that which gave rise to the
pegmatites ( F ig .

O ne of the most rem arkable deposit s o f ti n ore from ,

the genetical standpoint is that occu rring at E tta ,

FIG . 22 .
—G E O L O GI C AL S TRU C T U R E
D IS TR I C T AT TH E O F TH E
T U N GS T E N M IN E N E AR L O NG H I LL C O NN E C T I C U T
, ,
.

( AF T E R W H H O BB S )
. . .

Mine near H arney s

, P eak i n the Black H ill s of South
,

Dakota H ere there i s an exceptional development of

.

pneumatolytic mineral s .

O f a roughly oval form measuring 1 5 0 feet b y 2 0 0 feet

, ,

the vein i s m ade up of layer s of quartz and felspar ,

with stan ni f erous albite an d mica ; then crystal s of

spodumen e of enormous size varying f rom 1 0 to 5 0 feet ,
9 8 TH E G E O LO GY O F O RE D E PO SI T S
i n length surrounded by i nterstitial albite and tinstone
, .

B etween thi s and the country rock is a complex

aggregate of muscovite a nd biotite ; tourmaline ; apatite .

triphylite autunite and other phosphates ; columbite

, ,

one crystal of which weighed a ton ; tantalite and

other rare mi nerals together with gold an d silver ; lead
, ,

ar s enic and other sulphides Th e large number of

, .

rare mi nerals considered i n con nection with the general

,

structure of the mass suggests that its origin is due to

,

segregation or intrusio n of a highly siliceo u s residual.

magm a containing rare earth s a n d ordinary pneuma

to l ytic gases s uch a s boron fluorine etc
, The deposit , ,
.

m a y be regarded as bridging over pure pneumatolysis

a nd dynami c s egregation ( magm atic segregation under

stre s s) .

Wolfram h as recently been di scovered i n n umerou s

stringers traversing mica schist at the villag e of Agar
gaon twenty fiv e miles south east of N agpur i n I ndia
,
- -
.

Th e geological condition s of the ti n lodes of M alay ,

described by the G overnment geologist M r Scrivenor , .

,

are analogous to those of Cornwall and the E rz

gebi rge There appears however to be a con sidera b le
.
, ,

num b er of deposits occurring i n the form of pegmatites ,

which have been exploited both b y ordinary mi ning

methods ( a s at B undi ) and by washing in the manner,

commonly employed i n the extraction of ti n from

alluvium I n Bolivia an d S outhern P eru the conditions
.

are somewhat different as in that region many of the ,

t in ore depos i t s found u p to an altitude of

,
feet ,

are closely associated with ores of silver i n addition to ,

pyritic min erals ; the tin ore i s found in m asses in

the gossan i n the secondarily en riched sulphides of
,

silver an d i n the unaltered lo de —

,
. ma terial i n depth .
1 00 TH E GE O LO GY O F O R E D EP O S I T S
rule principally developed n ear the margi ns of th e
,

gran ite masses The slates are also i nvaded by quartz

.

porphyry dykes and all the rocks have been extensively

,

altered I n th is alteration th e f elspar and mica have

.

been replaced by topaz tourmaline tin stone and , , ,

secondary quartz F luorspar pyrrh otite mispickel

.
, , ,

iron pyrites and carbonate of iron also occur as re

, ,

placements .

F IG . 23 .
—D I A G RA M M I C R O S L ID E S H O W ING T INS T O N E
OF -
, IN
B O L I V I A N Q UART ZI T E ( M A GNI F I E D I 4 D I A M E T E R S )
. .

A, Q ua rt z it l
the o rigin a gra ins a re e n e o p e d in
e : v l yq
sec o n d a r u a rt z
g y
ro wn in O p tic c o n tin u it ; B , tin sto n e , m ica a nd sec o n d a r y
q u a rt z in b l
e d d ing- p a n e .

I n the P retoria district (T ran svaal ) tin ore has been

fou nd i n brecciated vein s and as impregnation s i n ,

g ranite at Vlaklaagte twenty five mile s from the ,

-

capital M icroscopic examination shows that there was

.

m utual inter f erence i n the development of the cas

s it e rit e crystals and the secondary mica and quartz .

A good account o f the occurrence of cassiterite in

gra n ite at Z a a ipl a ats F arm Water b erg D istrict ( Sout h ,
 P N E U M A T O L YS I S y
4
,
J OL
’

Africa ) has been given by M r Kyn a ston of th e Tran s

,
.

vaal G eological S urvey The farm i s situated partly

.

on coarse R ed G ranite and partly o n a fin e grained -

variety which is separated from th e form er by pegma

,

t it e s
. The tin depo s it s occu r i n a zon e a quarter of a
mile in width extending from R oodepoort to G roen
,

fontein The ore bodies are com monly i n th e form of

.
-

pipes about 2 feet in width The i nner portion of the

,
.

pipe is an altered gran ite i m pregnated with cassiterite .

This is surrounded by a narrow zon e of tourmaline

rock and reddened granite b eyond which com es the ,

ordinary granite of th e coun try rock The ti n al s o -

.

occurs i n coarse quartz vein s along the j unction of the

red and fin e grained granite Sericite fl u o rsp a r chlorite
-
.
, , ,

and occasionally calcite with m i spickel copper pyrites

, ,

and i ron pyrites are associated m i nerals Wolfram i s .

recorded from G roenvlei .

I n Spain however near Malpartida de C aceres

, ,

( E strem adura ) and other places the stan ni ferous lodes ,

i n granite are character ized by an unu s ually large pro

portion of apatite sometim es accompanied by quartz
, ,

calcium carbonate i ron an d mangan ese hydroxide i ron

, ,

and C opper pyrites mi spickel copper carbon ate galena

, , ,

and uranium phosphate The walls are kaolinized

. .

T he apatite occurs in such quantity as to m ake it a

profitable product of the m ines The C o sta n a z a vein .

is at least two and a half m iles long and where worked ,

is from 1 0 to 2 0 feet in width I t will be seen later that .

this type of vein may be regarded as t ran sitional b e

tween normal tin veins on the one hand and apatite
vein s on the other .

The occurrence of ores i n pegmatite s appears to b e

more intimately con nected with the true differentiation
 1o GY OF D E POS ITS
353 ; THE 1
‘

39 2 GE 0 j
1 O RE

of igneous rocks than with after eru ptive actions 5 0 -

,

that su c h o c c u rre n c e s are referred to un der segrega

‘

tion s I n m any cases h owever particularly where the

.
, ,

pegmatite or giant gran ite is rotted or altered the ti n ,

ore is of subsequent origin .

I n the lim estone of L ower L iassi c age near Cam

p iglia M arittim a i n Tuscany vein s of tin s tone are ,

associated with quantitie s o f brown h ae matite which ,

occurs in vein s and also as metasom atic replacements ,

of the country rock -

.

Whether there i s any actual genetic association of

the v e ins o ff tin sto n e with the b rown and red h aematite
i

of metaso m atic Origi n or n ot it is certai n that the tin ,

s ton e was derived from the T ertiary acid eruptives of

the region M uch of the iron ore with which the tin
‘

stone i s associated i s a secondary product from pyritic

ores T here i s a total absenc e of minerals containing
.

lithium tungsten bismuth molybdenum fluorine an d

, , , , ,

boron ; but there i s a little copper ore principally as ,

malachite At a distance of a b out two and a half kilo

.

m etres north east of Campigli a a tourmaline bearing - -

granite of post Ju rassi c age or possibly of post E ocen e -

,
-

age occurs and i t i s probable that the ores are ex

, ,

traction products o f thi s mass .

Among the ti n and wolfram occurrences of D akota ,

there i s one which i s com parable to that of ti n i n li m e

—
ston e near C ampiglia viz the a s sociati on of wolfram .
,

an d scheelite with beds of im pu re dolomite grading i nto ,

quartzite of C ambrian age This same dolomite which

,
.

has been largely sil ic ified and impregnated with pyritic

gold ore con stituting the so called refractory s iliceous
,
-

ore of that region The wol fram occu r s i n flat hori .

,

z o n ta l b ut somewhat i rregular masses up to 2 feet i n

, ,
 19
4 TH E G E O LO GY O F O RE D EPOS I TS
places i n M exico granites rising through schists are
,

flanked by rhyolite rhyolite tuff an d o b s idian s of late

, ,

Tertiary age The cassiterite occurs b oth i n the granite

.

and i n the rhyolite I n the latter it is found as a ggre

.

gates along parting planes and faults i n the rhyolitic -

tuffs i n association with m agnetite h aematite quartz

, , , ,

fl u o rsp a r topaz and kaolin h aematite and chalcedony ;

, ,

i n som e di strict s with wolfram as well as ore s of lead , ,

moly b denum etc I t i s quite certain that th e m etal

,
.

l ife ro u s m ineral s of the rhyolites were derived from th e

magma that gave ri s e to the rhyolite itself but th e ,

condition s of thei r emanation an d th e pressure at ,

which the reaction s took place were quite exceptional .

I n M alacca a stan niferous siliceou s sinter contains

0 5 per cent of S n O z I n the provi nce of S atsuma in
. .

J apan ti n ore occurs i n quartzose vei ns t raversing soft

, ,

tuffs and M esoz oic sandstone s and shales with here and , ,

there quartzite bands Rhyolitic rock s are developed

, .

i n the region The tin ore is accompanied by galena

.
,

pyrites and z in c b l e n d e of secondary origin

, ,
.

O f th e rarer m etalli ferous and alkali ne earth minerals -

,

it is of particular significance that while some of the

depo s its appear to b e of pneumatolytic origin they ,

are allied to the dynam ic segregations already referred

to I n particular m ay be mention ed the occurrence of
.

minerals containing fluorine chlorine boron zirconium , , , ,

thorium and ti n i n pegmatites differentiated from

, ,

the augite an d n epheline syenite s of the igneous

complex of South N orway ; i n E astern L apland ( Kola
P eninsula) near the bay of Ka n ge rd l u a rsu a k i n G reen
land ; i n B razil etc These like the pegmatite s of E tta
, .
,

M ine appear to b ridge over the purely pneumatolytic

,

With the segre gated type s and th e m inerals such as , ,

 PN E U M A T O LY S I S 1 05

lavenite eucolite sodalite m elanocerite tourmalin e

, , , , ,

datolite n o rd e n sk io l d ite an d zircon bear the sam e

, , ,

relation to the n ephelin e and augite syenite that the -

pegmatites containing topaz beryl and tinstone do to , , ,

granite .

I n G reenland tin ore wolframite s ulphide s of lead

, , , ,

zinc and copper with mispickel are accompanied b y

, , ,

rich deposits of fl u o rin e bearing minerals i n connection -

with gran ite mas s es C ryolite fl u o r sp a r quartz micro .

, , ,

C line hydrated m ica carbonate of i ron and colum b ite

, , , ,

are the principal vei n associates ; while such minerals

as topaz tourmaline and phosphates are absent
, , .

r h d
Co pp e S u l p i e s — ‘

Sulphide ores unaccompanied .

,

by cassiterite have in some di strict s been regarded as

,

originating closely after th e intrusion of the igneous

rocks f rom which they were derived and to have b een ,

formed under conditions of pneumatolysis The very .

varied conditions under which sulphidic ores may be

concentrated owing to their solubility an d wide occur
,

rence in ign eous roc k s renders a classification of the ,

processes con nected with the f ormation s of pyritic

nature a matter of di fficulty .

The copper lodes of Cornwall and their association

with tin and tourmaline have already been referred to
( p
. 84) as cassiterite vein s characterized b y presence
‘

of copper but it would be equally correct to speak of

,
’

them as copper veins characterized by the presence of

cassiterite .
’

There are however el sewhere copper lodes of pneu

, ,

m a to l yt ic origin i n which tin ore does n ot occu r

,
In .

N orway copper vein s associated with greisen were

derived during the consolidation of acid plutonic rock s .

Su b ordin at e oc c urrences also exi st i n the Southern

106 TH E GE O LO GY O F O R E D E PO S I T S
Tyrol where copper sulphide is foun d i n vein s i n
, ,

augite andesite contain ing i n addition iron pyrites , ,

tourmaline scheelite apatite felspar an d quartz in

, , , , ,

s uch intimate association as to indicate c o n t e m o ra n e

p
o u s formation .

Tourmalin e copper veins al s o occu r in O regon -

,

M exico and G erman South West Africa C opper vein s

,
- .

characterized b y tourmaline rock and grei s en are well -

repre s ented in T elem arken i n S outhern N orway where ,

they exist as bodies o f various form s i n the gnei s ses , ,

schists and gran ites The other ores are pyrrhotite i ron
, .
,

pyrite s molybdena h aematite sulphide s of arsenic zinc

,
t

, , , ,

l ead b i smuth etc ; fahlerz uranium ore s magn etite

‘

.
, , , , ,

with titanite etc al s o native gold and silver in, .

, ,

association with quartz muscovite calcspar and dolo , ,

m ite fl u o rsp a r tourmali ne and occasionally beryl and

, , ,

apatite .

I n this locality Vogt studied the mineralogical changes

which took place i n th e count ry rock enclosing the
vei ns The granite con si sts of quartz microcline
.
, ,

orthoclase oligoclase and a little magnesia mica with

, , ,

accessory titanite zircon magn etite and apatite There , ,

.

i s practically no muscovite except where the rock has

b een altered and there it con sists m ainly of muscovite
,

and quartz with unaltered accessory min erals and a

,

little fl u o rsp a r and epidote .

I n N ew E nglan d the copper deposits of Vermont ,

S outh Strafford and othe r places are con n ected with , ,

gran ite At Vermont th e country rock consist s of

.
-

s chi sts with calcareous bands intruded b y granite and ,

pegmatite in which copper and i ron pyrites are found

with tourmaline At E l y ( near C opperfi eld ) and the .

E liz abeth M ine ( South Strafford) the ores are similar ,

108 TH E GE O LO GY O F O RE D E PO SI T S
i s found near the walls of the vein s which are altered ,

to quartz and muscovite T he carbonate appears to .

have b een the last of th e minerals to arrive in the

lode fi ssu re s
-
.

Some cassiterite vein s contai n gold associated with

mispickel a s at Vil l e d o r i n th e N orth of F rance ; while
, ,

the cassiterite tourmaline vei n s of Cornwall an d o f

-
,

E i b en stock i n the E rzge b i rge are slightly auri ferous , .

The pneumatolytic origin of some gold vein s i s agai n

proved by the occu rrence of the metal with wol f ram
an d other minerals I t is found associated with
.

wolfram i n Colorado and with scheelite and sulphides,

of i ro n copper an d arsen ic i n I daho ; with scheelite

, , , ,

quartz sulphides of i ron lead and zinc and carbonates

, , , ,

of lime and m agn esia at th e Val Toppa M i ne P ied , ,

mont ; in wolfram and scheelite at O tago ( N ew Zealand) ,

con nected w ith granite T he veins are of the true .

ca ssiterite type b ut are characterized by an unusual

,

amount o f gold .

I n B razil near O uro P reto an excessively siliceous

, ,

vein occurs between a hanging wall of hornblende schi s ts -

( some of which are h ae matitic an d when decomposed ,

produc e ita b i rite) an d a footwall of mica schist an d -

quartzite containing graphite staurolite garnet etc , , , .

The gold i s found prin cipally in the vein with ,

tourmaline and sulphide of arsenic and i ron but also ,

i n the quartz A bismuth and gold alloy occurs here

. .

A younger gen eration of gold occurs with calcite .

Sulphides exist i n small quantity while fin e grained ,

-

tourmalin e felspar biotite etc are f ound as n ests and

, , , .
,

streaks i n the vein quartz and in the country rock

- -
.

The b iotite copper vein s of R ossland ( B ritish

by L indgren appear to be of p n eu ,
 P N E U M A T O LY S I S 109

m a t o l yt ic origin The deposit s yield b oth gold and

.

S ilver value s particularly n ear the su rface The ores

,
.

occur either in single or com pound reticulated fi s sure s

, , ,

in shear zon es or as i rregular impregnations in horn

,

b l e n d ic intrusive rock s .

The ores con s ist of auri ferous pyrrhotite and mis

pickel replacing the wall s of fi s sures which are now
,

composed largely of b iotite with hornblende chlorite , , ,

mu s covite calcite quartz and garn et The b reakdown

, , , .

of the horn b lende and felspar of the country rock -

result s in it s replacement b y b iotite and pyrrhotite .

T i ta nife ro u s I ro n O re M o l yb d e ni te etc — Accord , ,

ing to H u ssa k the origin of th e gold deposits of

,

P assagem in the province of M inas G eraes near O uro

, ,

P reto ( B razil ) is a s follows : The vein i s an u ltra

,

s iliceous apophysi s of a granite and has been intruded ,

along a series of schi sts which it has thermally ,

metamorphosed The intrusive nature of the vein i s

.

said to b e indicated by th e presence i n it of al b ite ,

zircon mon azite xenotime etc B ut although thi s view

, , ,
.

has b een com b ated the gold an d associated metal

,

l ife ro u s minerals ( auriferous mispickel pyrites etc , ,

.
,

with quartz and tourmalin e ) may at all event s b e , ,

regarded as of pneumatolytic origin .

O f S pecial i ntere st is the occurren ce of tita n iferous

i ron oxide i n vein s in the G ros svenediger granite and ,

al s o i n the granitic rock s of the Aa rm a ssif ( C entral

Switzerland ) where although o f no economic impor
, ,

tance as ore s they are of signi ficance as constituting

,

a type of vein i ntermediate b etween tin vein s of

g ranite and titani ferous mas s e s in gab b ro Although .

titan i ferous minerals are not very prevalent i n tin lodes ,

there are some place s as at E hren f riedersdorf in the , ,

1 10 TH E G E O LO GY O F O RE D E P O SI T S
Western E rzge b irge ,
where titanium is associated
with the normal con stituents The a b ove localities .
,

however are remarkable for contai ning it in unu sual

,

amount I t generally occurs as rutile occasionally as

.
,

anatase and brookite and i n titaniferous i ron ores i n ,

paragenetic association with quartz fl u o rsp a r calcite , , ,

apatite ( fl u o r b earing ) tourmaline chlorite muscovite

-
, , ,

( with an d without fluori ne ) albite and rarely beryl , ,

and molybdena The alteration of the granite i n the

.

n eighbourhood of the veins is as follows : B iotite has

disappeared an d i n the cavities so left an addition
,

o f secondary quartz an d felspar ( albite ) has taken place

on that of th e rock .

According to We insc he n k the muscovite of the granite ,

n ear the contact with the slates is replaced by chlorite ,

while i n the schists and slates b eyond zeolites occur at

a moderate distance from the contact ; b ut near th e
contact the place of the zeolites i ncluding preh nite is , ,

taken by augite epidote asbestos and occasionally

, , ,

garnet Along with these occur magn etite h aematite

.
, ,

titaniferous i ron ore and scheelite O th er veins in the

, .

district of t he source o f the R iver Aar occasionally

contain molybdena leadhillite and other pl o m b ife ro u s
,

minerals an d b orn ite in association with the s ulph ides

,

and minerals already mentioned F rom th e occurrence .

of small quantities of carbonates of the metals in the

Swiss localities it appears pro b able that there was a
,

sequence of depos i tion and that the car b onate s were ,

form ed at the close of the true pneumatolytic phase .

The general mode of occurrence of molybdenum

m inerals suggests thei r pneumatolytic origin The .

principal ore molybdenite i s commonly found in quart z

, ,

veins or as impregnation s i n pegmatites derived from

112 TH E GE O LO GY O F O RE D E PO S I T S
as for in stance i n some gold
, , vei ns
deposit s may be —
designated by the name of a m etal or mi n eral which
occurs i n them i n quite s ubordinate amo u nts ‘

B ut a well marked type of deposit i s exemplifi ed b y

-

the occurrence of titaniferous m inerals and apatite wi th

ga bb ro which in Scandin avia (on the west of Christiania
,

Fj ord) has been well descri b ed by B rOgge r and Vogt ,

and in Canada by S terry H unt an d others .

The gabbros givi ng rise to these veins are olivine

norite ( or olivi ne hyperite ) and olivi ne ga bb ro which
- -
,

form two great groups in which the olivi ne and hyper

,

sthene appear to be interchangeable This family of .

rocks is som ewhat incon stant as regard s its structure

an d composition and while different names have been
,

given to the variou s deviations from the general type ,

the rock as a whole may be described as a ho l o c rysta l

line plutonic intru sive m ass con sisting of augite or oth er
pyroxen e and a li me soda f elspar -
The con stituent
-
.

min erals are felspars ranging from labradorite to anor

,

t hit e ; augite with acce s sory b ronzite and hypersthen e ;

,

hornblende and brown b iotite as rare accessorie s ;

olivine ; quartz occasionally ; and ilmenite magnetite ,

and apatite as accessories .

The principal agent i n the extraction of titanium and

most of the metalli ferous min erals of the lodes is
chlorine which plays the sam e part i n the gabbro
,

magma that fluorine does i n granite so that titanium ,

is proba b ly extracted as a chloride and deposited , ,

according to the equation

TiC l 4 2 H 2O Tio g 4 H C 1 ;

and similarly i ron ,

F e 2 C I6 H
3 2 O F e2O 3 6 H C 1,
 P N E U M A T O LY S I S 1 1
3

and other min erals form solu b le compounds which i n

-
,

the presen ce of ste am are capa b le o f extraction and ,

secretion I n addition to these however Vogt b elieve s

.
, ,

that the phosphorus of th e a b undant phosph ate s i n the

vein s was extracted according to the equation
P C I5 11
4 2 0 5 H C 1 + H 3
P O 4
.

The phosphoru s of the magm a uniting with chlori ne

is extracted and in presen ce of steam is decomposed
,

and carried away as pho s phoric aci d F luorine and .

b oron are seldom present in th e basic rocks .

I n addition to elements extracted as chlorides there ,

are some m etals which were possi b ly extracted at

an early stage as sulphides or were extracted as ,

chlorides and sub s equently reacting with s ulphuretted

, ,

hydrogen changed to sulphides

,

P b c 12 1125 P bS 2 H C1 .

Car b on dioxide was proba b ly evolved at a late stage .

The mineral s o f the titanium apatite vein s are as -

follows : Chlor apatite wagnerite ( Mn l P O 4) titanite

-
, , ,

rutile titaniferous iron specular h aem atite magnetite

, , , ,

anata s e pyrrhotite i ron and copper pyrites lead sul

, , ,

p hid e
, magn esia mica enstatite augite
-
actinolite , , , ,

asbe stos scapolite orthoclase al b ite oligoclase quartz

, , , , , ,

tourm aline epidote prehnite talc chlorite and calci t e

, , , , , .

F luorspar does not occu r .

The ga b bro in the n eigh b ourhood of the vein s i s

changed to scapolite rock The hydrochloric acid of -
.

the fissures together with s odium an d calcium chloride

, ,

reacting upon labradorite with the small addition of ,

chlorine up to 3 per cent and of lim e results in the .

, ,

formation of scapolite This commences along twinning .

8
11
4 TH E G EO LO GY O F O RE D EP O S I T S
planes an d cracks and at the mar gin s of the crystals
,
.

The diallage goes to hornblende while iron ore is partly ,

dissolved and th ere i s also the f ormation of enstatite

, ,

magn esia mica and rutile

-
,
.

I n Southern N orway two types of gabbro are re p re

sented an d in the phosph ate deposits of th e L au
,

rentian and Cambrian rock s of O ntario the condition s

FIG . 24 .
—T I TA NI F E R O U S A P AT I T E VE IN IN GA BB R O .

( A F T E R J
. H L
. V O
. G T ) .

are S im ilar with the exception that the ga b bro is pro b

,

ably more basic than the N orwegian types Magnesia i s .

not so a b undant an d there is less rutile but more zi rcon

,
.

I n addition to this th e apatite i s fl u o r beari n g so that -

,

fluorine appears in the Canadian deposits to have re

placed the chlorine o f th e N or wegian I n Canada .

crystals of apatite weighing 7 0 0 pounds have been found .

M ica i s extracted and sold Sphene crystals 1 foot .

 C H A PT E R IV

H D TOG
Y A E N E SIS — DE P OS ITS FORM E D BY
A F T E R E R U P T I VE AC T I O N S
-
WH IC H
AR E N O T P N E U M AT O L Y T I C
TH E lodes formed under condition s le s s active than
those o f pneumatolysis but nevertheless con nected with
,

the intrusion o f igneous rocks may b e divided into two

,

classes comprising th e sulphidic and the oxidic ore s

, .

O f these b y far the larger class is the sulphidic in

, ,

cluding a s it does many copper argen tifero us lead zinc

, , ,

b ismuth and antimony gold and other ore s

, , .

S ome of the deposits have close affinities with those

of pneum atol ytic origin i n the nature of the minerals ,

i n thei r connection with plutonic igneous m asses etc , .

An d others although descri b ed under the s eparate head

,

i ng of m eta s omasis ( or metasomati sm are ge n e ti

cally connected with thi s gro u p O wing to the fact that
.

many of the minerals in thi s group are decompo s ed

with comparative ease by un derground waters and under ,

suitable condition s recon s tructed it is som etim es d iffi

,

cult to definitely assign the exact mode of origin to them

but fortunately the general circumstances of thei r occur
, ,

rence assist i n thi s determination ; th e question whether

these deposits a re m ainly original or secondary o r ,

wh ether as i n cases of metasomatism they are of direct

, ,

origin or result from th e secondary action of ground

1 16
 H YD A T O G E N E S I S 11 7

waters is usually readily dispos ed of As a general

,
.

rule however the deposits o f this class are not confined

, ,

to the aureole of metamorphism o f the igneous rock

from which they are derived ; and if th ey happen to occur
i n the metamorph ic zone or in the igneous rock itself ,

the formation did not take place until th e m etamorphism

was complete an d the I gneous rock con solidat ed .

B riefly hydatogenesis i s generally post pneum ato

,

lysis or if it happens to be contem poran eous then it

°

must take place beyond the influence o f the heated

igneous mass an d outside its metamorphic aureole .

These condi tion s may b e diagrammatically illustrated ,

as i n F ig 2 5 . .

I n some deposits o f th e hyd a to ge n e tic class th e con ,

d itio n s of deposition appear to have commenced with

pneumatolysis and ended with hydatogen esis This i s .

o b viou s where th e g reater part o f the vei n m aterial was

deposited i n the final phases of lode form ing activity ; -

the pneumatolyti c phase bei ng in dicated b y certai n

alteration types of the country rock near the vein o r by
- -
,

pneumatolytic minerals occurring i n su b ordinate

amounts I ndeed i n the absence o f min erals i ndi
.
,

cative of the m i neralizers characterizing veins of pneu

m a to l ytic origin the lodes may gen erally be con sidered
,

to belong to the hyd a to ge n e tic cla s s It should be re .

collected o f cour s e that the solutions were at fi rst

, ,

extremely hot and mineral s deposited from them are

,

said to be of hydrothermal origin F rom thi s point of .

view the hydrothermal phase of deposition from under

ground water may be regarded as bridging over th e
pegmatitic and ordinary hyd a to ge ne tic types of ore
formation .

There is a thi rd class with which som e of these

1 18 TH E GE O LO GY O F O RE D E P O S I T S

D IS TAN C E FR O M IN TR US I VE R O CK
In d ic a t i ng the rm a l c o ns e /y b‘re
u en t
q
in t en s ity of con tac t Me t a m o rp hl s m .

were

IgneousRo c /t S ed imen ta ry Ro cks .

120 TH E G E O L O GY O F O RE D E PO S I T S
mineral association s with a reference to the parent
-
,

magm a where this can b e made This method i s

.

identical i n principle with the arrangement proposed

by B reithaupt as far back as 1 85 2 and with the e x c e p
, ,

tion that it has undergon e revision an d am plification ,

it holds good i n its essential particular s to day -

.

Thi s mode of classification can not be said to be strictly

genetic and i n itself is l ia b le to fail here and there
, ,

owing to the numerous que s tiona b le occurrences in

which a b norm al developments of one type of vein
may appear to have closer a ffinities with some other
type .

I t must be observed also that there i s a tendency

, ,

i n ordinary classifications to ignore the economically

le s s i mportant minerals I t is frequently the ca se with
.

gold for i nstance to designate a deposit as being

, ,

a gold ore when it might more accurately have been

,

placed in th e category of pyritic ores characterized by

the pr e sence of gold or other m inerals .

With tran sitional or mixed types the case is often

peculiarly i nvolved and the genesis a m atter fo r sp ec u
,

lation only ; as several of the veinston e a c c o m p a n i -

ments of th e metalliferous minerals are capa b le of

b ei ng transported b y differen t carriers o r m i neralizers
i n addition to water alone the alteration of the country
,

rock does not generally supply the key to th e origi n of

th e deposits U n der these circumstances therefore the
.
, ,

description of ore deposits of hyd a to ge n e tic origin under

certain h eads i s som ewhat arbitrary and generally ,

confined to a m ere a ccount of apparently independent

and transitional types without S pecial ie fe re n c e to th ei r
,
‘

genetic connection with the igneous rocks .

 H Y D AT O G E N E S I S 12 1

S U L P H I D I C VE I NS OF H Y D ATO G E N E T IC O RI G I N .

I n this group of mineral vei ns the modern writers

recognize certain classes con nected by transitional
types in which the disti nction s are i n some cases
,

quantitative only and i n others are o f doubtful value

,
.

P R I MA R Y G O L D V E I NS .

A large class o f vein s which carry gold i n

i mportant quantity is found i n rocks of all ages b ut ,

principally i n the O lder formation s i n proximity to acid

and i nterm ediate intrusive rocks I n particular thes e .

veins occur largely i n gneisses an d schi sts b eing ,

fre quently associated with granite and its modification s .

I n some ca s es the gold occurs i n what appears to

‘

be the ultra acid modifications of pegmatites i n which

-
,

the various phases between true quartz vein s and

true pegmatites are said to be traceable S uch vei ns .

are regarded as differentiation products of ig n eous

m agmas .

O ther igneou s rocks which m ay give rise to gold

veins appear to comprise practically the whole series
of acid and b asic i ntrusive and extrusive rocks b ut ,

among tho s e to be particularly mentioned are gra n ite ,

diorite augite syenite and other allied p l u to n ic s ; dykes

,
-
,

of porphyry an d lamprophyre ; and among the lavas

andesite t rachyte an d rhyolite
, , .

G old has a wide distribution occurring i n a pp re c i

,

a b le or mi nute quantities i n most if not all sulphide s ;

it is gen erally found i n S ilver compoun ds and with ,

the rarer metals rhodium palladium etc I t is known

, , .

to occur widely i n the form of com pounds with silver

and tellu riu m .
122 TH E GE O LO GY O F O RE D E PO S I T S
I t is com monly present i n i ron pyrites and i n work ,

a b le quantities i s frequently associated with other sul

p h id e s such as those of zi nc lead antimony and
, , , ,

co pp e n

I t i s also frequen tly accompanied b y z in c b l e n d e ,

galena antimonite an d mispickel and occasionally

, , ,

by compound s of manganese molybdenum bismuth , , ,

tung sten and other metals

, .

In California ( S an Andrea s) u ran ium och r e ha s been

found characterizing som e deposits of gold ; while i n
Arizona ( Y avapai an d Y uma ) vanadates of lead are
di stingui shing features o f argentiferous gold ores I n .

N evada and A rizon a molybdate of lead in association

with vanadates occurs in the C omstock and other g old
mines .

It has been remarked that th e gold obtain ed from

lodes i n the P al aeozoic rocks of the Tran svaal Australia , ,

N ew Zealand Cali f ornia and other parts of the world

, , ,

i s high g rade while that derived from lodes conn ected

-
,

with the latter eruptive roc k s such as andesite is , ,

alloyed with a con siderable p roportion of s ilver .

M Oric k e recognizes three type s of lodes : ( 1 ) Tho s e con

n e c t e d with syenites granite s and gneis s es as i n
, , ,

B ohemia ; ( 2 ) tho se with trachyte and andesite ; and

( 3) those connected with basic eruptives contain ing ,

i n s tead of quartz such minerals as calcite and b arytes

, ,

and characterized by high percentage of silver A .

fourth clas s may be added where as i n Queen sland an d ,

the U rals gold i s found i n serpenti nous rock s

,
.

The pri ncipal non m etalliferou s vei n material i s

- -

quartz which m ay occur alone or with car b onates of

,

li me i ron mangane s e etc B arytes and fl u o rsp a r are

, , , .

someti mes disti ng ui shi ng features while tourmaline , ,

12
4 TH E G EO L O GY O F O R E D E PO S I T S
n o doubt f or the precipitation o f many sulphide s
,

and go l d .

The original solution s which deposited pyritic gold

ores contained i n addition to the dissolved sulphides
, ,

tellurides carbon dioxide and sulphuretted hydrogen

, ,

together wit h compounds o f silica lime i ron manga , , ,

nese etc , .

T he presence of quartz and of i ron pyrites i n gold

vein s characterize s an i mportant group I n addition .

there may be presen t sulphide s of copper zinc and , ,

lead sometimes occurring i n such i mportant amounts

,

as to m ake it mor e proper to descri b e them as auri ferous ,

C opper zinc or lead lodes as i ndeed they are so called

, , , , ,

when the gold i s n ot the most valuable part of the lode .

Compounds of arseni c are also f requent associates of

gold .

P yrrhotite , molybdena b ism u sthin e an d tellurides are

, ,

p resent in many gold quartz vein s I n th e typical gold

-
.

quartz veins carbonates are present only i n Small

,

amounts and generally as alteration p roducts of the

,

country rock Barytes and fl u o rsp a r are also rare but

-
.
,

i n some districts the gold quartz is accompanied by -

tourmali ne felspar an d white mica indicating close

, , ,

a ffinities with ores of pneumatolytic origin These gold .

quartz vein s when contai ning S ilver i n appreci a b l e

quantities fall i nto the group o f gold s ilver veins i n -
,

which the S ilver i s one of th e principal workable

products AS a group however the essential com
.
, ,

p o n e n t s are quartz i ron pyrites an d gold

, ,
.

The next important subgroup i s that contai ning

C opper i n con sidera b le quantity an d so may be d e sig ,
 H Y D A T OG EN E S I S 125

n a te dcupri ferous gold quartz vein s S ilver i s present

-
.

only i n su b ordi nate amounts but tourmalin e and bis ,

muth sulphide are typical accompaniment s L ike most .

other group s of gold vein s this i s not very defin ite as , ,

it has a ffinities with th e tourmali ne copper gold group - -

,

the bi s muth gold group and other su b types I n som e

-

,
.

places the country rock i s greisen ized Pyrites galen a

-
.
, ,

fahlerz z in c b l e n d e with arsen ical manganiferous and

, ,

other compounds al s o occur in su bordinate amount s

,
.

The vein stones con si st mainly of quartz accompanied ,

b y small quantities of tourmalin e and calcite .

Auriferous arsenical pyrites characterizes another s u b

group allied to the pyritic gold quartz vein s I n addition -
.

to mi s pickel an d quartz there are s ulphides o f copper

, ,

iron lead an d zi nc in small quantities

, , , .

S u b groups i n which sulphide o f anti mony on th e

,

one hand and o f bismuth on the other are character

, ,

istic con stituents are recognized i n some parts of the

world but the distin ction is somewhat arbitrary
, .

I n the anti monial gold ore the gold occurs mai nly in
pyrites but also occurs as free gold in quartz I n the
, .

case of bismuth gold quartz vein stone its speci fication

- -
,

of a subgroup is s carcely warranted as it has close ,

relation s hip with tourmaline gold copper veins tin - -

,

ore s etc I n particular b ismuth sulphide and telluride

, .
,

is associated with gold quartz rich in copper .

An as s ociation of gold with a particular type of

alteration fi r st noted by J H L Vogt of Chri stiania
, . . .
,

has recently b een described by F L R an some I n . . .

N evada the gold ore s occu r partly i n Tertiary rhyolites ,

andesites and other lavas which for the most part

, ,
1 26 TH E G EO LO GY O F O R E D EPO S I T S
overlie P al aeozoic
’
sedi ments and granite The char .

a c t e ris t ic a l te ra t io n s of the intrusions of dacite are of

t hree types i ndicating that the auriferous solution s

,

con sisted of acid and sulphidic compound s with carbon

dioxide There i s no direct evidence of carbon dioxide
.

having been present but its p resence i s inferred The

,
.

three types are ( 1 ) S ilic ific a t io n ( 2 ) alteration to soft

rock con sisting of quartz kaolin alunite and pyrites ; , , ,

(3 ) alteration to propylite in which the rock con sist s ,

of quartz calcite epidote and chlorite with pyrite s

, , , , ,

but n o alunite I n som e of the se changes it i s seen

.

that the i ron from m agnetite and ferromagne s ian

silicates has given ri s e to pyrites while alunite ,

and kaolin have been f ormed from the potash an d

alumina .

The foregoing types as a whole con stitute a class i n

, ,

which the gold occurs with pyrites or as native gold i n

quartz associated with s pecial minerals distingui shing
the subgroups .

The type descri b ed below has features which contrast

it with the foregoing b oth i n the m an n er of occurrence
of th e gold min eral s an d i n thei r commercial treatment
-

for the extraction of the m etal .

The group referred to is that known a s the gold ‘

telluride group I n t he telluride ores the gold occurs

.
’

a s a definite telluride of gold with s ilver lead and ,

antimony ; or it may also occur as native gold a c c o m

a n ie d by various tellurides The vei nstone i s pri ncipally
p .

quartz and fl u o rsp a r with which there may be some

,

car b onate ; while as at Boulder County ( Colorado )

,

an d Kalgoorli e th e vanadium mica roscoelite is found

,
-
, ,

i n as s ociation with tellurides The tellu ride ore s in .

12 8 TH E GE O LO GY O F O R E D E P O S I T S
and quart z ose schists slates an d quartzites known as , ,

the Swaziland series is i ntruded by granite Both of ,

’
.

th ese are traversed by diorite .

The lodes con sist o f quartz with free gold pyrites , ,

and rarely tellurides

, , O ther minerals such as pyr.
,

rho t it e arsenic and copper sul phide and rarely galena

, ,

and antim ony are also foun d i n s mall amounts At

, .

L yd e n b e rg farther north the vei n s b elong to th e c u p ri

, ,

ferou s gold quartz group-

They occur i n sandstone s .

and i n dolom ite The dolom ite contain s the mo s t i mpor

.

tant deposits N ear the vein s the dolomite is silic ified

.
,

while i nterbedded green s tone i s kaolinized The vei n .

stones have been affected by secondary actions which

have brought about a secondary en rich ment of gold ;
th ey consist of friable quartz with cavities containing
S pecks of gold secondary copper ores and bismuth
, ,

compounds ( See p . .

At U m R us i n the eastern desert o f E gypt veins of

, ,

quart z occu r i n gran ite The gran ite is intersected by .

dykes of green ston e and porphyry The lodes in .

ancient times were worked for gold .

I n Australia there is a wide di stribution of gold i n

various districts I n B endigo an d Ballara t the lodes
.

are very numerous som etimes con stituti ng stockworks

,
.

They occur principally in S ilurian sedi ments and con ,

si st o f quartz i n which gold can often be seen G old .

also occurs i n pyrites and i n mispickel while galena and ,

z in c b l e n d e are also found I n the Bendigo region the .

quartz vein s traverse at right angles beds i n which , ,

there are small persistent pyritous and bitum inous

seam s k nown to the miners as in dicators
,
Where ‘
.
’

the lodes cross the indicators they are generally rich .

T he Bendigo district i s also noted f or its saddle r e e fs -

.
 H YD A T O G E N E SI S 129

T he Sil urian sandstones and shales in this district are

th rown into a s eries of sharp anticlin al folds extending ,

for several miles ; at the apices of the folds there are

bedded quartz veins i n the form of saddles I n some .

cases there is a succession o f as m any as ten of these

saddles There are three pri ncipal anticli nal axes
. .

T he district i s traversed b y dykes of monchiquite ,

while a post Silurian granite occurs in the south o f

-

F IG . 26 . S TR U C TURAL
— A RRA NG E M E N T OF TH E S I LU R I A N
S LAT E S AN D SANDS T O N E S AT B E NDIG O , IN WH ICH TH E
A U R I F E R O US SADD L E R E E F S A R E F O U ND
-
.

the region Albite is occasion ally found i n intim ate

.

as soci ation with the gold quartz of th e saddle reefs but

-
,

lime soda felspar s are absent and i n thi s respect the

-
,

lodes are genetically connected with the type represented

by the G reat M other L ode of California the q u art z vein s ,

of Victoria and the lodes of D ouglas I sland ( Alaska)

,
.

I n Queensland the C arboniferous sandstones coal ,

bearing sh ales and conglomerates with intrusive green

, ,

stone s are traver sed b y quartz vein s containing gold

,

9
1 30 TH E G E O LO GY O F O RE D E PO S I T S
principally where they occur In the sediment s and ,

m ore particularly where these are pyritous or car

bo na c eo us ( H ornblende granite is m et with and the
.
,

allied type kn own as ton alite ) .

At the M ount M organ M ine the backs of the lodes

con sist of s econdary oxidized mi nerals B elow the lode .
,

consists of quart z with auriferous pyrites The pyritic .

quartz vei ns occur as a stockwork i n the neighbour ,

hood o f which th e country rock i s S il ic ifie d -

.

I n N ew South Wales the veins are of very varia b le

width occurring i n schist s and S lates and al s o in
, ,

altered hornblende granite .

L ike most pyritic vein s th e upper parts O f the N ew,

S outh Wales vein s are oxidized and contai n such ,

m in erals a s quartz limon ite gold and secondary com

, , ,

pounds of manganese copper an d lead I n depth th e

, , .

veins consist of quartz with sulphides of i ron zinc

, , ,

lead copper and ars en ic

, , .

I n the H awkins H ill M ine N ew S outh Wales , ,

situated between the Turon R iver an d G reen Valley ,

the gold is richest i n the lodes wh ere they cross black

slates The hill it s elf consists of S ilurian c o n gl o m
.

e ra t e s sand s tones and slates

, , The lodes are principally.

quartz which i n place s is displaced i n favour of musco

,

vite . Calcite z in c b l e n d e galen a and m arcasite are

, , , ,

also present as vein mineral s -

.

The L ucknow district i n N ew South Wales is

s ituated 2 0 0 m iles from Sydn ey There gold occurs in .

calcite vein s i n serpentinized basic igneous rock The .

deposits occu r m ainly at the j unction of the se rpe n

t in iz e d and unaltered rock .

I n the N orthern C elebes ( Malay Archipelago) the ‘

gold vei ns are con nected with highly f elspathic diorite

1 32 TH E G E O LO GY OF O RE D E PO S I T S
The G reat M other L ode o f Cali f ornia in particular
is a large belt of vein s o f post J urassic age I t is -
.

1 1 4 miles i n length stretching th rough several counties

, .

I n width it varies from a few hundreds to many h undreds

of feet and con sists of numberless rami fying vein s and
,

brecciated m asses I n its neighbourhood the country

.

rock is extensively sil ic ifie d and traversed by quartz

ve i n s .

FIG . 27 — A LT E R E D S E R P E N T IN E , I DAH O M I N E G RA SS VALL E Y

.
, ,

CAL I F O R NI A ( M A G N I F I E D I 5 D I A M E T E R S ) (AF T E R W
. . .

L I N DG R E N ) .

M M agn e tite
, ; Q q , z;
ua rt S , se rp e n tine y
; P , p rite s .

T he quartz i s eit he r pure white banded or a , , d ar k

subtransparent variety containing sulphides The .

green ish potash mica called mariposite occurs with ‘ ’

it As might be expected i n a serie s of lodes of such

.

extent th ere i s great vari ation i n the m ineral contents

,

o f the different parts I n E l Dorado fo r i n stance the

.
, ,

porphyrite dykes are traversed by albite vein s contain

i ng gold ( Compar e wit h the occurrence o f gold at
.

Treadwell Alaska p , I n N evada the auriferous

, .
 H YD A T O G E N E S I S 13
3

pyritic quartz in the granite and diabase is associat ed

with epidote and tourmaline .

At G rass Valley and N evada C ity th e lodes are con

n e c te d with tonalite diorite diabase ga bb ro an d, , , ,

serpentine The vein material con sists of q u artz with

.

occasional calcite an d potash mica O pal and c ha l c e .

dony also occur .

The metalliferous contents i n addition to gold are , ,

sulphides of i ron bi smuth C opper lead zi nc arsenic

, , , , , ,

FIG . 28 .
—P IN E H I LL G O L D D E P O SI T S CAL I F O RN I A ,
.

( AF T E R W . L I NDG R E N ) .

S ca l e, 2 in c h es ! 1 l
mi e .

silver antimony and m ercury Scheelite i s found and

, ,
.
,

molybdenite is also p resent .

At P inehill ( C ali fornia ) gold occurs i n veins t raversing

C retaceous rocks The minerals appear to favour those
.

position s where the sedimentary rocks are i n contact

with i ntrusive rock s b ut seldom occur i n the diabase
,

and porphyrite I n serpenti n e and gabbro on the east

.

of P i nehill th ere are a few veins H ere the gold occurs .

in association with quart z sulphides of i ron copper , , ,

 13
4 TH E G E O LOGY O F O RE D E PO SI T S
lead and zinc al s o with arsenical sulphides and some
, , ,

tim es in combination with tellurides D olomite and .

calcite are occasion al accompani ments .

At the top of P inehill i s a m ass of diabase porphyrite

much kaolinized and traversed by vein s of barytes con
,

taining gold N o sulphides are present but S ilver is

.
,

an i nvaria b le accompan i ment and occurs separately ; ,

th e ratio of gold to silver varies from 1 1 to 2 0 : 1 .

( C hloride of silver i s found ) L indgren b elieves that .

th e barytes acted as a carrier to the gold .

I n the Arch man schists of the R ainy L ake region on ,

the west of L ake Superior there are two types of veins ,

.

I n the O lder gneiss and mica schist gold occurs ,

sparingly i n interbedded pyritous quartz len ses rangi n g

up to 30 yards i n length an d 4 f eet i n width I n si milar .

lenticles in the newer sericitic slates the gold i s mor e

abundant T hese quart z lenticles enclose fragm ents of
.

th e country rock A secon d type o f vei n occu rs i n

.

gran ite and con sists of q u art z with auriferou s sulph ides
,

and fre e gold galena and blen de i n particular the

, , ,

gra n ite on each side of the vei ns having been m odified

to a sericitic rock .

I n G eorgia auriferous schists and gneisses

occu r . The lodes proper are i n hornblende gn eiss ,

which i s altered in some places to a rotten auri f erous

material kn own as S aprolite i n which are found small
‘
,
’

quartz vei n s contain i n g pyrites galena copper pyrites , , ,

an d free gold .

I n N ova Scotia aurifero u s q uartz of a peculiar form

occurs i n metamorphosed shales The quartz Is In .

the form of barrel sh aped masses often like a series of

-
,

logs laid side by side These m asses are really con .

n e c t e d together and it seems t hat they owe thei r form

,
1 36 TH E GE O LO GY O F O RE D E P O S I T S
calcite i s also found but proba b ly it i s a decomposition
,

p roduct f rom the igneous rocks The vein s sometimes .

cut across the dyke like intrusions from wall to wall

-
.

There i s a series o f these somewhat brecciated dioritic

i ntru s ion s in D ouglas I sland occurring through a belt,

of ground th ree miles long an d half a mile wide N o .

ore i s foun d i n the gabbro of th e region The gold i s .

b elieved to have been i ntroduced by carbonated an d

m ineral b eari ng solution s which attacked th e diorite
-
, ,

replacing ferrom agn esian m i nerals by pyrites and th e ,

more basic f elspar by secondary albite .

A well known gold region in the U nited States is

- -

that of the eastern side of th e A lleghany M ou ntains ,

between N orth Caroli na and Ala b ama including South ,

Carolina and G eorgia The di strict geologically is

.

made up of crystallin e schists and gneiss of Arch aean

age penetrat e d by dykes of diabase These formation s .

are covered towards the coast b y Triassic deposits com ,

prising sandstones and gold b earing conglomerates ; -

while owing to the fact that the count ry here has not
,

been glaciated it i s covered by a mantle of rotted rocks

, ,

the so called f rost drift or head compri sing clays

-
‘
-
’ ‘
,
’

and other materials in which gold i s often found .

The p rincipal gold deposits i n this range are con fin ed

to a belt i n the Arch aean rocks extending from Virginia
to Ala b ama T he b elt reaches a width of seventy
.

miles i n N orth C arolina .

The gold occurs both free and in pyrites ; either i n

interbedded segregation vein s of gold quartz traversing
- -

the metamorphic rocks associated with diabase dykes ,

or i n ordinary veins cutting slates gneisses etc The

, , , .

pyritous slates show some resemblance to the N orwegian

fahlbands .
 H Y D AT O G E N E S I S 1 37

I n addition to this the gold has been found in the

,

pyrites contained in the diaba s e dykes alt hough there ,

are grounds for believing that these intrusive s were

merely pyritized after intrusi on an d assisted i n som e ,

way i n stimulating th e lode forming action s - .

I n some part s of the gold belt the lode s are a c c o m

n ie d by other sulphides such as b lende and galena
p
°

a ,

and from the occurrence of tellurium b ismuth tin ore , , ,

molybdenum wolfram fl u o rsp a r e pidote etc i n con

, , , , .
,

n e c t io n with s lates and eruptive rocks it is ro b a b l e that

p , .

som e of the deposits belong to th e pneu m atolytic class .

E l Callao gold district of Ven ezuela was once

.

phenomenally rich in gold ores The lode from a few .

,

feet to 9 feet wide is situated in a hornblende rock and

, ,

consists of pyrites quartz and free gold , ,

.

Although most of the ore s of the desert of Atacama ,

Chili are secondarily deposited reference may be made

, ,
‘

to the origin of the gold deposits at G uanaco The .

gold occurs i n numerous c racks fissures and shattered , ,

masses i n quartz trachyte which has been much altered

,
-
.

The b iotite i s changed to viridite an d original oxides of

i ron have been converted to Sulphide which contains
gold N ear the surface this s ulphide has been oxidized
.
,

with liberation of free gold and also formation of ,

atacamite from cupri ferous min erals The deposits are .

S imilar i n origin to those of H ungary p

( .

The district north of R io de J an ei ro ( B razil ) near ,

D iamantina and O uro P reto i s composed of Arch man ,

gneisses and schi sts with younger slates quartzites

, , ,

ita b i rite ( pp 1 0 8
. and sandstones
, .

Th e gold veins of hyd a to ge n e t ic origin here consi st

of quartz pyrites and mi spickel I n partic u lar the
, , .
,

veins in the so called j acutinga- — a very friable fe rru

1 38 TH E G E O LO GY O F O RE D E P O SI T S
in ita b i rite —
are associated with impregnation s in
g o u s

th e country rock for considera b le di stances on either

side of the actual veins These have b een worked i n .

many cases a s open cuts .

G reat B ritain has b een only a s mall producer of gold

compared with t he colonial go l d fie l d s b ut a con sider ,

a b le output has b een m aintained from mines i n

M erioneth such as the C l o ga u and Vigra mines , and
,

B ritish G old Mining C ompany The lodes are situated

-
.

i n older P al aeozoic rock s ( mainly C am b rian ) and con sist ,

of vertical quartz veins varying from a f ew i nches to

9 feet i n width G ranular and coarsely c rystalline
.

calcite which i s som etimes auri ferous pyrites pyrrho

, , ,

tite sulphides of telluriu m and bismuth are also of

, ,

common occu rrence as vein mi nerals -

.

The gold vei ns of S axony Bohem ia S ilesi a and the , , ,

Tyrol appear to b e connected with granite The classes

, .

of ores and thei r modes o f occurrence vary ; the vein s

are generally quartz containing pyrites with su b ordinate ,

an d varyi n g am ounts of sulphides of copper lead zinc , , ,

and arsenic C alcite and carbonate of iron with b arytes

.
, ,

occur i n some places while some deposits are charac

,

t e riz e d by antimony and others by scheelite tour

, ,

maline etc , .

The gold vein s of Kooten ay B ritish Columbia are , ,

connected with intrusion s of diorite or monzonite and ,

while falling into the group of cu pri ferous gold quartz -

veins they might possibly be regarded as metasomatic

,

deposits They were form ed after the con solidation of

.

the intrusive rock b ut be fore the intrusion of a series of

,

dykes of lamprophyre ( F ig The condition s were

.

those accompanying dynamic metamorphism under ,

which head the vei ns might have been described .

1
4 0 TH E G E O LO GY O F O RE D E P O S I T S
to a greisen consisting mainly of quartz and musco
vite ; it is i mpregnated with pyrites and i s known as ,

b e re z ite I n the adj acent district of Pyzhm in sk o ye

‘ ’
.

th e quartz veins traverse diorite and serpentin e i n a

similar manner .

The vein materials consist O f tourmalin e and quartz ,

which appear to have been the first of the mineral s to

arrive in the vei ns and m ay be ascri b ed to pneuma
,

to l yt ic action ; of calcite and zinc blende ; finally of ,

quartz with sulphides of i ron lead antimony and

, , , ,

C opper associated with th e gold and constituting the

, ,

hyd a to ge n e t ic phase The outcrops of the lodes are

.

oxidized and contain mi nerals concentrated by secondary

,

reactions .

At Ko t sc hk a r n ear Zlatoust are deposits having

, ,

much the same features as those at B erezov with the ,

exception that the lodes o f Ko tsc hk a r characteristic .

ally contai n thei r gold in association with arsenical

pyrites T he district con sists of metamorphic schists
.
,

with intrusion s of granite pegmatite etc The gold , , .

vein s occur exclusively i n the granite and are parallel ,

with th e strike of the schists and crush zones i n the -

granite Th e vein s contain sulphides of i ron lead

.
, ,

copper and antimony while the granite near them con

, ,

tains suc h secondary minerals as biotite chlorite epidote , , ,

quartz and carbonates Th e lodes hav e go od gossan s

,
.
,

contain ing iodide bromide and chloride of silver

, , .

At Tse l ia b insk 1 0 0 m iles north of Zlatoust a u rif

, ,

e ro u s quartz occurs in kaolinized masses of rock with ,

vein s of b e re z ite in association with sulphides

, .

G o l d with A rse nic — As an example of the occur

“

rence of con siderable am ounts of arsenic among auri

ferous sulphides the Champion R eef i n th e D harwar
,
 H Y D A T O GE N E S I S 1
4 1

region i n Mysore may b e taken The famous Champion .

R eef occurs i n the Kolar G o l d fie l d and is worked by ,

the gold m ines of Champion R ee f Mysore O o regu m , , ,

N a n d id ru g and Balaghat , I t has a north and south .

strike governed b y planes of o v e rthru stin g i n a series

of b asic lavas which have been dynamically m e ta m o r
,

p h o s e d into hornblende schists O n the eastern m argi n .

of these schists is a series o f crush conglom e rates -

derived from gran ite vein s while on the west is a ,

fringe of schistose and ferruginous sandstones and

quartzites beyon d which lies a series of b anded gran itic
,

gneisses P arallel with the Champion R eef and S ituated

.
,

a b out feet from it i s the so called O riental R ee f

,
-
,

which also marks a lin e of thrusting and like the , ,

C hampion R eef consists of a number of i rregular

,

lenticles Of dark bluish quartz which on the Champion ,

have been mined to over f eet from surface The .

m ineral associates of th e gold are sulphides o f i ron ,

C O pp e r arsen ic zin c a n d lead

, ,
P yrrhotite also occurs
,
.
,

and some strings o f tourmaline These ree f s occurring .

along planes of o ve rthru stin g are the most an cient of

the gold deposits of th e district an d are intimately
connected with its dynamic m etamorphism .

A later series of gold quartz veins i n the districts of -

Kolar H utti and G arag are found traversing the

, ,

schist s tran sversely and are associated with dykes of,

diorite dolerite an d dia b ase

,
They are observed to
,
.

cut and displace the Champion R eef .

I n the province of O n tario not far from O ttawa , ,

gold bearing arsenical pyrites occur s i n quartz vei n

-

stone with a little calcite i n connection with syen ite

, , .

I n the L ake of Wood s district in N orth West O ntario ,

-
,

gold is found i n fissu re vein s i n L aurentian rocks and -

1
4 2 TH E GEO LO GY O F O RE D E PO S I T S
later granite also i n lenticles of quartz and i n fahl
, ,

bands i n Arch aean schists I n association with the gold

.

are molybdenite i ron and C opper pyrites b ornite galena

, , , ,

and z in c bl e nd e rarely tetrahedrite and mispickel

, .

G o ld with Antim o ny o r B i s m u t h — G old vei ns

characterized b y considerable amounts of antimonite ,

with smaller quantities of other sulphides with arsenic ,

occur i n N e w South Wales ( Aru n d a l e ) and in the

Tran svaal ( Murc hison R ange ) .

The antimonial gol d ore group i s however well , ,

typified i n G oldkron ach near Bayreuth i n Bavaria, , ,

where veins of quartz with auriferous antimonite ,

native gold an d antimony and sulphides of lead zinc , , ,

and copper traverse the sericitic Cambrian slates I n

,
.

smaller quantities calcite an d barytes are foun d but ,

also more abundantly carbonate o f iron .

O n th e south o f P rague i n Bohemia th ere occurs , ,

a numbe r of lam p rophyre dykes con nected with

granite T he anti monial gold quartz veins of this
.
-

region traverse both th e dykes an d the granite The .

m e ta l ife ro u s associ ates are arsenical mi n erals and

pyrites with abundant anti mon ite contai ning a p p re c i
,

able amounts o f gold and silver Secondary en rich .

ments o f native gold associated with oxidized ores also

occur in the gossan .

N ear Stavanger i n Kristian sand ( N orway ) the island

, ,

of B Om m e l O affords examples of gold quartz vei n s -

characterized by the presence of b ismuth .

Th e veins trave rse the older di abase dykes and

diorite and also th e younger acid dykes of quartz
,

porphyry .

I n the schists the gold occurs i n lenticular quartz

veins of i rregular dimensions which on the whol e
, ,
 1
44 TH E GE O LO GY O F O RE D E P O S I T S
T he veins occur as fissu re -
z ones varying from a foot
to 1 00feet i n width .

The in fil lings o f th e vei n s consist of quart z with a

little calcite and pyrites The gold occurs native in .

i ron pyrites and as tellurides There are also fre .

quently sulphides o f lead z inc b i smuth an d even , , ,

copper ; fahlerz and scheelite and occasionally tour ,

m aline are found According to W L indgren meta

, . .
,

somatic replacem ents o f the walls of the lodes took

place th rough the action o f solutions containing car
b o n ic acid an d sulphur with the development of ,

carbonates o f lime magnesia and iron derived from

, , ,

ferromagnesian mi n erals and of s ulphide of iron from ,

i ron oxides An amphibole chlorite z oisite albite rock

.
- - -

has i n thi s way been converted to a quart z se ricite -

albit e carbon at e rock ; gold mercury and tellurium

-
, ,

were deposited at the sam e time .

At the outcrops of the vein s the tellurides are not

fo u nd and they appear to have been decomposed ; but
,

i n thei r place is sponge gold or a fine yellow deposit -

,

of gold k nown as mustard gold -

.
’

I n Colorado the well known telluride ores of C ripple

-

C reek are connected with volcanic rocks and dykes ,

intrusive i n the granite of the district ; the most pro

d u c tive ore i s restricted to a ci rcular area about three ,

miles radius around G old H ill

,
.

There i s i n this district a distinct seq u ence of

eruption showing changes from acid to basi c rock s
,
.

The oldest o f the intrusives are porphyrites These .

wer e f ollowed by phonolite which occurs as vein s ,

th roughout the district and finally by basic rocks such

, ,

as nephelin e basalt limburgite and teph rite Volcanic

-
,
.

tu ffs an d breccias with i nterbedded lavas form the

 H Y D A T O GE N E SI S 1 45

principal rocks i n the n eighbourh o o d of C ripple

C reek .

All th e rocks a re traversed by narrow vein s b oth ,

simple and compo sit e in the neigh b ourhood of which ,

they are often brecciated an d exten sively altered to

kaolin and m icaceou s min eral s and impregnated with ,

opal and quartz fl u o rsp a r dolom ite secondary potash

, , ,

FIG .
3I .
— S M AL L
V E IN IN A ND E SI T I C B R E CC I A I ND E P E ND E N C E ,

M IN E CR IPP L E
,
C RE E K C O L O RA D O ( M A GNI F I E D
, .

I I D I AMETE RS ) ( AF T E R W L INDG R E N )
. . .

A n An d e sitic b rec c ia ; P , p rite s y F fl u o rsp a r ; Q q u art2

°

h l
, , ,

V, v a l en c ia n Ite (o rt o c a se ) .

felspar pyrites an d tellurides ( F ig

, , O f the la st .

the principal is calaverite which occurs as a coating ,

on walls of fissures MO l yb d e n ite argenti ferous tet rahe

.
,

drite and stibnite are present

, ,
.

O ther sulphides are uncom mon but z in c bl en d e , ,

galena an d chalcopyrite have been noticed R oscoe

, , .

lite rhodochro site celesti ne and calcite are seen i n

, , , ,

the breccia M olybdenum ores are also met with

. .

10
1 46 TH E G E O LO GY O F O RE D E PO S I T S
I n the granite the narrow vein s are accompanied ,

by considerable alte ration on eithe r side giving rise ,

to repl acement deposits i n which occu r C hlorite -

,

derived from mica fl u o rS pa r and other m inerals , ,

.

P orphyritic microclin e crystals remai n unaltered but ,

the microcline o f the grou nd m ass oligocla s e quartz -

, , ,

and biotite have been recrystallized i nto a porous

,

FIG .
32 .
— G RA NI T E
‘
O RE,
’
I ND E P E ND E N C E M IN E
C R I PP L E
,

CR E E K C O L O RA D O
,
.
( M A GN I F I E D 20 D I A M E T E R S ) ( A FT E R .

W L INDG R E N )
. .

Q Q u a rt z; V v l a e n c ia n ite ( sec o nd a ry o rt h l
o c a se ) ; 0, o rigin a l
h l bi v v l y
. ,

o rt o c a se ; B o tite co n e rte d to a e n c ia n ite and rite s

p
p y it
,

P, r es .

mél a nge o f valen cianite ( secondary orthoclase ) quartz , ,

fluorite pyrite calaverite or sylvan ite with occasional

, , ,

z in c bl e n d e and galena The basalt dykes are traversed .

by mi nut e fissures run n i ng parallel to the walls wh i ch , ,

ordinarily contai n calcite in thi n strings .

W hen the dyke coincides with a z on e o f fissu ring ,

th e fissures contain q u art z fl u o rsp a r an d gold te l l uride , ,

( F ig . T here i s this di fference however the ores , ,

1 48 TH E GEO LO GY O F O RE D E PO S I T S
I n South D akota the ores o f the so called S iliceou s ,
-

gold belt came origin ally through more or les s vertical

-

fi ssures from which the much fractured s late s an d

,
-

sandston es were mi neralized along a zon e over s ix miles

long and four miles wide The mi n eral content s of .
-

the impregn ation s are mainly quartz wi th a little

fl u o rsp a r calcite pyrites an d tellurides
,
Sylvanite
, .
,

an d occasion ally thorium and uranium mi neral s are

—
found Th e eruptive rocks trachyte an d ph onolite
.

are sil ic ifie d .

I n M ontana State ( Judith M ountai n s) the gold ore s

are found i n decompo s ed c a l c a fe o u s rocks which are i n
contact with porphyry The vei n materials are mainly .
-

pyrites with fl u o rsp a r and quartz Below th e gos san

,
.

the lodes contai n gold tellurides an d a little silver ore -

.

The eruptive rock s of the di strict comprise granite

and syen ite -porphyry syenite and diorite porphyrite , ,
-
,

with as sociated minor i ntrusions of el mo l ite syenite

and tinguaite all o f which are com paratively young
,

i n age .

P yritous gold quartz veins with a littl e copper and

-
,

tellurium occur i n N evada The eruptiv e rocks of the

,
.

district are granite porphyry and minette but there is ,

some doubt as to their con nection with the ores a s ,

non e of the veins occu r i n them .

T elluride gold ore s are known from E astern B razil .

Among the E uropean gold telluride localities the -

,

well known v ein s of the D acian go l d fie l d in Tran

-

sylvania in cluding those of N agyag O ffe n b a nya Veres

, , ,

patak etc have been described by several Continental

,
.
,

writers .

T he mountain s near N agyag consist of intrusive

andesitic and trachytic rocks of M iocene age ( F ig .
 H Y D AT O GE N E S I S 1 49

T he se rocks break th rough the M iocene sand stone s ,

conglomerates and clays ; and i n the mining area large

,

inclusions of sedimentary rocks are found i n the igneous

material .

The andesitic rocks comprise normal hornblend e

ande s ite and quartz ande s i te or dacite with augite
-
,

hornblende and biotite ,

.

T hese rocks have been altered by various actions .

At the surface they a re weathered and decomposed ,

Vl
o c a n ic l k l
p u g o f d a c it e , a o in ize d
a nd p ro p yl
it ized in t he v ic in it y
ll
o f fissu re s c o n ta in in g t e u rid e s
o f go dl .

FIG .
34 .
—I D E AL IZ E D S E C T I O N O F V O L C A NI C M O UN TA IN AT
N A GY A G H UNG AR Y ( A F T E R VO N IN K E Y )
,
. .

while lower down they are propylitized and kaoli nized .

The kaoli nization is ext rem e near the actual vein s .

The ferromagnesian min erals are changed to C hlorite

and car b onate s and m agn etite is changed to pyrites
, .

The veins i n the dacite of N agyag are formed of

num b erle ss small inter s ecting fis sures with a general ,

paralleli s m in a north and s outh di rection These are .

intersected b y a s erie s of b arren cru sh zones of diffe rent -

1 50 TH E G E O LO GY O F O R E D EP O S I T S
ages contai ning clayey and sandy material and brecci
, ,

ated fragments of the country rock - .

T he vein materials vary i n different parts o f the

-

district I n one part th ey are characterized by telluride s

.

( nagyagite associated with carbonates o f lime i ron

, ,

magnesia and mangan ese with some tetrahedrite and

, ,

pyrite ( M oun t S z e k e re m b ) i n another b y tellurides , ,

quartz with sylvanite f ahlerz an d a little free gold

, , ,

( Mount H a tj o ) an d i n a thi rd part by sulphides of lead,

zin c an d i ron with carbonate s and argenti f erou s tetra
, ,

b edrite this may be regarded as an i ntermediate type .

I n smaller quantities gypsum arseni c and antimonial , , ,

and arsenical m inerals occur principally i n th e upper ,

parts o f the vei n s A study of the mineral paragenesis

.

show s that the minerals arrived i n a defi n ite order T he .

quartz is the oldest but it reappears at later stages , .

The next in fill in g com prises most of the common sul

p hi d e s after
, whi ch come the tellurides and native
gold followed b y carbonates a nd finally by s ulphides
, ,

o f antimony and arsen ic with barytes and gypsum ,

.

The telluride gold ores of the ancient mining di strict

-

of Ve re sp a ta k occur i n rock s con sisting of dacite ,

rhyolite and volcani c breccias i nterbedded with E ocen e

, ,

and C retaceous sandstones .

The vein s contai n qu a rtz with f ree gold further ,

characterized by the presence of carbonates of lim e and

manganese th e s ulph ides of lead zinc C opper and
, , , ,

i ron an d tellurides
, .

At O ffe n b a n ya th ere are two modes of occurrence of

the ores I n one case the deposit s exi st at the contact
.

of crystallin e li meston e bands in the garnetiferou s mica ,

schi st with Tertiary an desite and dacite and i n the

, ,

other ca s e as veins .
152 TH E G E O LO GY O F O RE D EP O S I T S
°

O OOI to per cent and o f the silver f rom.

, to
per c ent .

T he lodes of the San J uan Mountains and other

places i n Colorado ( O uray Telluride as well as , ,

n ear R osita are con nected with T ertiary eruptives At

,
.

O uray the gold ores occur i n vein s traversing quartzite ,

the richest portion s being near overlying bituminous

shales ( 60 feet thick ) which in turn are overlain by
,

T ertiary volcanic rocks .

The gold occurs i n clay i n vei n s containing quartz ,

secondary oxides sulphate and carbonate of lead i ron

, ,

pyrites and a little barytes

, .

N ear T elluride th e famous Smuggler Vein is mor e

regular in ch aracter than the Comstock lode and is ,

i n a f ault traversing augite andesite an d andesitic t u ffs ,

and breccias its width ranges up to 5 feet or m ore .

The m ineral paragenesis i s quartz carbonate o f man ,

ganese an d li me dolomite and fl u o rsp a r with some

, ,

barytes The ores are rich in silver and con sist of

.
,

proustite polybasite with sulphides of i ron copper

, , , ,

lead an d zinc an d some n ative gold the content of the

, , ,

last being O O O 1 6 per cent and of silver

'

per cent .
, .

At R osita th e vein s are i n gnei ssose an d granitic

rock s overlain by a series o f T ertiary eruptive m ica
,

hornblen de andesites agglomerates and ashes the , , ,

lodes occurring sometimes as at the B a s sic k mine i n , ,

volcanic plugs The mineral association is S imilar to

.

that men tioned above .

F or th e auri f erous silver ores o f P inehill C a l ifo rn Ia -

, ,

see p 1 33. .

The M exican examples are pri ncipally remarkable

for the connection o f the rich secondary ores o f silver
and gold i n the colorados ( or mi neral s of the
 H YD A T O GE N E S IS 153

upper parts of the lodes ) wi t h the Tertiary e r uptive

rocks .

I n the State of O aj aca f or e xample the vein s are in

, ,

andesite and consist of quartz with various carbonates

,

and fl u o rsp a r I n the colorados occur chloride an d

.

bromide of silver with other secondary ores of S ilver and

,

gold while i n depth i n the negros or unaltered zon e

, ,
’
,

are s ulphides of zinc lead copper and i ron , , ,

.

T he veins of the famous R osari o mine in C entral

Am erica ( H onduras ) are i n connection with rhyolitic
intrusions traversing Triassic sandstones and lime
ston es ; the m ineral paragenesis is similar to that men
t io n e d on the opposite page .

The well known gold mines o f th e Thames district and

-

Coromandel Coast i n N orth I s lan d ( N ew Zealand ) have

peculiarities si milar to th ose of C omstock for they are ,

connected with propylitized andesite s dacites andesitic , ,

tuffs and conglom erates of Ter t iary age The di strict com .

prises the H auraki gold region Waihi and other m ines ,

.

The Tham es district i s i ntersected by two large

P liocene faults which divide th e region i nto three
,

s ection s The lodes con si st m ai nly of quartz an d they

.
,

are associated with num erous strings of the same

mineral The gold occurs i n sugary quartz i n the form
.

of thread foil an d grai n gold The other minerals .

are mainly pyrites sulphides o f C opper zin c arsenic

, , , ,

and anti mony while galena an d tellurides of gold also

,

occur in subordinate quantity .

The E uropean examples of gold S ilve r vei n s have -

received much attention from C onti nental geologi s ts ,

and as i n th e ca s e o f the sulphidic silver lead vei n s

,
-
,

it is on their wo rk that the present classi fication of

th ese types o f ore s i s largely based .
154 TH E G E O LO GY O F O RE D EP O S I T S
I n the a stern Tyrol n ear G astei n n arrow quartz , ,

vein s or strings traverse gneisses and schi sts and con ,

tai n i n addition to gold and the c ommon sulphides

,

of baser metals stibnite molybden ite and rich ores of

, , ,

S ilver . P yrites i s the com monest sulphide I n addition .

,

some localities show the p resence of calcite and fl u o r

spar and al s o zeolites
, .

I n the H ung a rian ore m ountain s the deposits of -

,

Schemnitz Kremnitz H o d ritsc h and other places

, , , ,

occur i n vein s cutting rocks of so recent a period as the

M iocen e T he region is m ainly com posed of Triassic
.

limeston es an d quartzites overlain by E ocene shales , .

These rocks are penetrated by a series o f ign eous

rocks commen cing with pyroxene andesites followed
, ,

by diorite aplit e b iotite and hornblende andesite and

, , ,

finally by felsite the last of which i s the most abun

,

dant of the eruptives accompanying the building of the

Carpathian M ountain s T he andesites have been pro .

py l it iz ed s i
,
l ic ifl e d and i mpregnated by pyrites The .

lodes which are composit e in form and ill d e fin e d

,
-
,

consist of quartz calcite dolomite barytes carbonate

, , , ,

of i ron and manganese and gypsum , .

The metalliferous minerals comprise various s ulphides

of silver ( argen tite stephanite pyrargyrite polyba s ite )
, , , ,

an d n ative silver an d gold the vei n s being further ,

characterized b y stibnite fl u o rsp a r C innabar copper , , ,

sulphide pyrrhotite an d felspar G alena z in c b l e n d e

, ,
.
, ,

and auriferou s pyrites are i mportant con stituents

,
.

I n the P iedmon tese Alps auriferous s ilver lea d ores -

with carbonates quartz an d sulphides of the baser

, ,

metal s are foun d i n lodes and as i nterbedded vei ns i n

, , ,

crystallin e slates wh ich are traversed b y basic i ntrusions .

I n Chi Ii P rovince ( Chi n a ) the gold vei ns are of the

-
1
5 6 TH E G E O LO GY O F O RE D E P O S I T S
it include the rich copper ores form ed in the upper
parts of ve i ns by decomposition and redepositio n of the
original ores wh ich still exist i n depth .

The most important o f the C opper ores is copper

pyrites b ut from its decomposition there arises par —
,

tic u l a rl y in the upper parts of lodes — a series of secon

d a ril y developed m i neral s compri s ing copper glance ,

n ative C opper oxide carbonate silicate sulphate and

, , , , ,

phosphate of C opper and other compounds The other

,
.

ore s consist of compounds of copper with antimony ,

arsenic and selenium form ing complex m inerals Wi t h

, , .

these ore s there occur quartz carbonates of lim e i ron , , ,

an d someti mes mangane s e and more rarely barytes , , ,

and fl u o rsp a r .

The subdivision s of the copper group depen d solely

on the relative am ounts of the copper beari n g minerals -
,

so that b etwe e n on e type and anoth er there are transi

t io n a l forms ; By far the mo s t abundant of these su b
types is that ch aracterized pri ncipally by the presen ce of
copper pyrite s i ron pyrites and quartz with the su b
, , ,

ordinate presence of selen ium and antimonial compounds

of copper and carbonate of i ron These lodes occur
, .

under condition s which can b e precisely paralleled

with those under which the ores of lead and zinc are
found and this applies not only to the vei ns but to
, ,

metasom atic deposits referred to on p 2 86 . .

When carbonates fl u o rsp a r or baryte s are i n abun

, ,

dance t he vei n type belongs to on e of th e subgroup s

,
-

of copper vein s while with fur t her addition s of the s e

,

min eral s o r s u b ordinate ores the transitional types to

other group s are form ed F ahlerz with calcite and
.

baryte s or cobalt and nickel with siderite are such

, ,

examples .A copper ore of restricted occurren ce i s

 H YD A T O G EN E S I S 1 57

that which has owing to its obj ectiona b le nature only

, ,

b een worked exten sively i n recent years by an im

proved proce s ses o f s melting The mineral is known a s .

enargite and occurs i n vein s containing ,

i n addition fahlerz and other C opper m ineral s

,
.

Th e occurrence of native C opper as an original deposit

i n vein s constitutes a very remarkable and exceptional
type found i n exten s ively developed deposits i n the
Keweenaw peninsula i n th e L ake S uperior region .

N a tiv e Co p p er — In th e L ake Superior region th e

.

deposits belong m ainly to a peculiar type of m e ta so

m a tis m and are described under that heading ( p 2 9 0 )
,
.

but i n a s sociation with them are true fi ssu re infil l in gs

of low grade native C opper and other minerals B roadly
-
.

descri b ed the central part of the Keween aw penin sula

,

i s a thick series of conglomerates sandstones an d bed s , ,

of lava ( m elaphyre s e e p which at the upper sur

, .

faces o f the flow s are vesicular an d known as ash ,

beds .
’
As the vesicles con t ai n nativ e C opper and other
mineral s such as calcite quartz an d zeolites these
, , , ,

portions of the lavas are called lodes or a m ygd a ‘ ’ ‘

loids.
’
The rest of th e rock i s considera b ly altered ,

the ferromagn esian silicate s being c hl o ritiz e d while ,

there is a development of epidote which is also found

among the quartz porphyry pe bb les forming th e con
glomerate The native C opper also occurs between the
.

pe bb le s .

I n the Calumet an d H ecla M ine the ore i s principally ,

w o rked in the conglom erate .

I n addition to the occurrence of native copper in th e

conglomerate and the amygdaloid the copper ores exi st ,

in fi s sures a few to many feet in width which cross

, ,

the bedding from conglomerate to amygdaloid Where .

1 58 TH E GEO LO GY O F O RE D EP O S I T S
they cross the latter they are e x c ep tio n at el y rich The .

ore is found i n ordin ary j oints breccia s and stock , ,

works the pri ncipal vei n material b eing native C opper

,

and calcite Various zeolites are among th e minerals

.

associated with the ores The m i neral s present are .

largely quartz prehnite an d native copper from grain s

, , ,

up to mas s e s several tons i n weight ; a little native

A C LC A K A M A L A

F IG .
35
—S.E C T I O N C O PP E R V E IN IN TH E L A K E
OF A SU P E R IO R
D IS TR I C T (AF T E R H C R E D N E R )
. . .

A , Am gd a y l o id ; L , l au mo n tite ; Q q
,
u a rt z; E e p id o te ; C , l
c a c ite
h hyll it
,

K, co pp e r ; P , p re n ite ; M, ap o p e .

silver i s found an d orthoclase analcim e datolite

, , , ,

laumontite apophyllite epidote chlorite and a little

, , , ,

copp er sulphide ( F ig .

The origin of the deposits is believed to be as follows

Th e ancient lava was much decomposed and the o fe s ,

of copper were secreted from this rock it s elf The .

native copper wa s precipitated from the solution s b y

oxide of i ron in the rock .

Similar amygdaloidal C opper deposits occur i n the

1 60 TH E G EO LO GY O F O RE D E PO S I T S
con sist of quart z with red copper ore which i n dept h ,

gives plac e to sulphide of copper .

I n N ew South Wales the G reat Cobar mines are the

most im portant C opper producers of the region The s e
-
.

occur i n the district s of Cobar M ount H ope N ymagee , , ,

and oth er places situated in a di strict poor in water .

The rocks are slates and sand s tones of S ilurian age ,

an d the deposits occur as inter b edded veins The ore is .

m ainly cupriferous pyrrhotite with 1 6 per cent of silica , .

an d up to 4 per cent of C opper There i s a little C opper

. .

pyrite s C opper glance and m agn etite while bismuth

, ,

occurs i n some q u antity .

I n the M ount H o p e region about 1 0 0 m iles from ,

C obar th e ores are con nected with diorite and an desite

, .

The C opper deposits o f Californi a occ u r i n four

groups Those of Shasta County are the most im
.

portant while the other districts are thos e o f the f oot

,

hills o n the west of the Sierra M adre those on th e ,

coastal range an d thos e i n the south eastern d e sert

,
-
.

The deposits of Shasta County are situated near the

town of R edding at the northern end of the Sacramento
,

Valley where the ores occur largely in Triassic and

,

P e rm o Carbon iferous lava s and tuffs ( rhyolite an d

an desite ) which are older than the gran ite i ntru s ions of
,

the region L ike the sedimentary series the lavas have

.
,

been much folded and sheared an d the ore s occur as ,

i rregular sulphidic deposit s varying from a few inches ,

to several hun dred feet in width T he C opper deposits .

i n the I ron Mountain b elt are the most important i n

this region an d con sist of C opper and i ron pyrites
, ,

z in c b l e n d e a little born ite and C opper glance They

,
.

sometimes occur a s i mpregnation s of crush breccias in -

rhyolite etc , .
 H YD A T O G E N E S I S 161

I n the Bully H ill district the ores a re met with i n

a shear zone following a basalt dyke ; they occur either
-

in the dyke or at its contact with rhyolite The prin .

c ip a l ores are C opper an d i ron pyrites z in c b l e n d e a

, ,

little quartz an d b arytes N ear th e s urface secondary

.

ore s with li monite and galena are foun d i n abundance

, , .

I n the foothills of the S ierra M adre the lodes occur

i n metamorphic schists and slates s ometim es ac c o m
,

p a n ie d by quartz porphyry The o f e s.exi s t as a series

of lenticular masses of C opper and i ron pyrites with a ,

little zinc ore .

I n B ea v e rhe a d County Montana th e copper ores

, ,

occu r in crush zones between granite and contact

-

altered li mestones i n association with much clay and

, ,

con si s t of copper and i ron pyrites and copper glan ce .

I n Alaska ( C opper Mountain region ) deposits of

C opper occu r in metamorphosed garneti f erous lime
stones in the neig hbourhood o f green stones an d gran ite .

The ores exist as bands i n the a ltered limeston e in

association with quartz garnet epidote and magnetite ;
, , ,

they consi st o f C opper a nd iron pyrites pyrrhotite and ,

other sulphides I n the r égion o f P rin ce William Sound

.
,

lenticular deposits o f copper pyrites i ron pyrites and , ,

pyrrhotite with quartz and pieces of the country rock -

,

occur i n schi stos e rocks i n the vicinity of gran ite ,

aplite an d schistose altered basi c dykes an d lava fl o ws

,
-

( F ig
.

I n the C opper R iver district near Mount Wrangell ,

the ores of copper are found as disseminations of

bornite and as vein s of copper glance associated with
magnetite and pyrrhotite i n masse s of greenstone which
,

extend for nearly 30 0 m iles in length The green .

stone together with P ermian limestone which sur

,

11
1 62 TH E GE O LO GY O F O RE D E P O S I T S
rounds it is lifted up and form s part of the Alaskan
, ,

range .

The igneous rock w hich i s i ntrusive consi sts of fel , ,

spar pyroxene chlorite with a little serpentin e and

, , ,

l —l
I
-I
2 3 4 Mil es

l im e s to n e S c his t Gr a n i t e
t! Qu a r tu t e Gr e e ns t o n e

FIG .
36 .
—S K E T C H C O PP E R M O UN TA I N D IS TR I C T
-
M AP O F TH E ,

P R I N C E O F WAL E S I S LA ND A LA SK A ( AF T E R F E AN D , . . .

C W WR IG HT )
. . .

magnetite N ative copper and oxide o f copper occur

.

in shear zones while dissemination s and shoots of

-
,

born ite and black sulphide of C opper are met with at

the j unction of the limeston e with th e greenstone I n .
1 64 TH E G E O LO GY O F O RE D E PO S I T S
granites an d are i nvaded b y granite porphyry
,
The -
.

ores con sisting mainly of C opper glance C opper pyrites

, ,

and secondary basic sulphates o f C opper occur as ,

contact deposit s containing large amounts of oxidized

ores as veins and impregnation s i n rocks near or i n
,

the porphyry or a s veins i n dolerite dyke s The con

, .

tact depo s it s i n limestone s are referred to on p 3 5 4 . .

Th e ore s of the vein s i n addition to C opper pyrites

con sist s of z in c b l e n d e m olybdenite and iron pyrite s
, , .

These ores occur al s o a s pyritic i mpregnation s i n the

granite porphyry an d much of the ore in the upper
-
,

levels i s oxidized .

The C opper ores of Y avapai C ounty consist of C opper

pyrites and z inc bl e n d e with a good silver and gold
,

content in a carbonate vein stone They are found in

,
.

sheared diorite near its contact with Algonkian schists .

A variety O f s econdary ores are also met with in ,

cluding carbon ates of C opper i mpregnating chert ;

ch rysocolla is also found and C opper ores occasionally ,

form th e matrix of limestone b reccias -

.

Th e copper deposits of Wyoming are mainly o f

i nterest on account o f the forms taken b y the deposits .

The region con sists of Cambrian quartzites con ,

glomerates shales and lim estones with granite an d

, , ,

hornblende schists i ntersected by dykes of diorite .

At the j unction of the schi sts with quartzites occur

deposits o f copper pyrites copper glance covellite , , ,

and other m inerals The quartzite is brecciated an d

.

t raversed by n um berless intersecting j oi nts so that , ,

while the ore has a well d e fi ne d wall agai nst the schi sts
-
,

it i mpregnates the quartzite i n the form of i nterlacing

strings and gives the ore body a most i rregular
,

boundary ( F ig .
 H Y D A T O GE N E S I S 1 65

Chili is one of the important C opper countries of the -

world but mainly a s regards secondary ores which

, ,

are de s cribed later in Chapter V I I I B riefly the copper

.
,

ores of northern Ch ili consist of siliceous C opper

pyrites vein s cutting through syenite porphyry an d , ,

FIG .
37
—FOR M
. OF C O PP E R O R E L O D E I N F E RR IS H A GG E RT Y
M IN E , W Y OM ING ( AF T E R S P E N C E R )
. .

basic intrusive s C opper pyrite s i n the lower portions

.

of th e vein s is a ss ociated with b ornite which carrie s ,

a small proportion of gold ; b ut in the upper oxidized , ,

zones carbonate s and silicates of copper are the most

prod u ctive ores the sulphides bei n g only low grade
,
-
.

I n Central Chili the ores are mixed sulphides of

1 66 TH E G E O LO GY O F O R E D E PO S I T S
C opper lead and zi nc wit h veinston es o f j asper and
, , , ,

sometimes calcite traversing augite porphyry , T he .

same general condition s as regards th e secondary

nature of the b ulk of the ores h old good f or the
p rincipal P eruvian mines ( C erro de P asco ) which have ,

also b een among the m ost famous o f S ilver producers - .

I n P eru however a type o f copper deposit occurs i n

, ,

which i ron and coppe r pyrites are f ound i n association ,

with m anganiferous s iderite i n lodes traversing schists , ,

quartzites and limestones .

The Italian copper deposits a re confined to the

district of Tuscany and L iguria The deposits of th e .

M as s a M arittima occur filling late T ertiary fault fissure s -

of considera b le width The country rock i s sil ic ifie d

.
-

or i n its calcareous portion s altered to pyroxene

, ,

epidote rock an d impregnated by C opper and i ron

,

pyrites galena and z inc b l e nd e ; the o re carries 3 per

, ,

cent o f C opper
. .

T he deposits app e ar to b e con nected with intrusions

of granite but the granite does not occur in the dis
,

t ric t itself th e nearest mass being som e m iles away

,
.

G abbro an d diabase form s ubordinate i ntrusion s Th e .

rocks i n which the deposit s are situated are dolomitic

lime stones of R h ae tic and L owe r and M iddle L iassic
,

age ; also U pper L ia s shales overlai n by E ocen e

( num mulitic ) lim estones sandstones shale s and marls ; , ,

th e remarka b le veinstone is a di rect product of

the alteration of th e calcareou s beds M eta so m atic .

deposits of argentiferous galena z inc bl e n d e S ilver , ,

bearing fahlore an d copp er pyrites with calamin e

, , ,

quartz calcite fl u o rsp a r and gyp sum have been worked

, , , ,

i n the past i n the L iassic limestones .

The copper deposits of M onte Cati n i occur in the

1 68 TH E G E O L O GY O F O R E D EP O S I T S
obtained from quartz veins in a m i neralized zon e ,

traversing volcanic breccias interbedded with lavas .

T he ores con sist of i ron pyrites and C opper pyrites ,

frequently coated with covellite i n a siliceous vein ston e ,

.

O ther kinds of deposits occur i n zones of fissu ring

and crushing i n serpentin e but thei r i mportance i s less
,

than those described above .

T he islan d of H ayti i n the West I ndies contain s a

few deposits of copper con nected with basic igneous
i ntrusion s The vei ns are i n dykes of diorite and i n
.

contact altered limestones near the dykes Born ite and

-
.

C opper pyrites with some gold and silver con stitute

, ,

the p ri ncipal ores E lsewhere i n the island copper

.

pyrites i s f ound in pockets small masses and im , ,

re n a t io n s or dissem i nation s i n garn et rock near ande

p g
-

s it ic and dioritic i ntrusion s The presence of C opper

.

glance an d copper carbonate in melaphyre and o f plati ,

num and osmi ridium i n the ores of copper ma k es the ,

deposits somewhat an alogous to the covellite deposits

of Wyoming .

At Keda b ek i n Tra n sc au c a sIa deposits of C opper ore

, ,

are m et with at an elevation o f nearly feet i n the

copper moun tai n of M io D agh ; the ore is i n the form
-

of lenticles i n a quartz porphyry which i s cut by ,

dioritic dykes I n more i m mediate con nection with

. ,

the deposits i s the rock known as k e d a b e k ite a ,

’

garn etiferous felspar pyroxen e rock -

.

The ores are pyritic but some copper glance and

,

covelli ne occur the o re bodies fadi ng o ff at the sides

,

i nto the country rock i n th e form of vei n s Zi nc

- .

blende is also presen t and very little galena The

,
.

most characteri stic vein ston e m in eral i s b arytes but ,

quart z i s also r e p resented .

 H YD A T O G EN E S I S 1 69

L odes of copper and i ron pyrites tetrahedrite b orn ite , , ,

an d native copper with galena an d zin c sulph ide are , ,

found between the Caspian and the B lack S ea i n ande

site and dia b ase in the form of i mpregn ations of cru sh
,

and b recciated zones .

There are m any large C opper districts i n the U ral s -

and Siberia The principal R us s ian localities are on the

.

we stern side of the U rals in the neighbourhood of P erm ,

and N izhn e Ta gil sk The ores are m ainly low grade

-
.
-

oxides and carbonate s i n vei n s traversi ng P ermian an d ,

D evonian slates and limestones I n depth the ores are .

pyritic O n the eastern side of the U rals pyritic copper

.

ore with calcite and quartz is found i n lenticular masses

, ,

at the j unction o f diorite with pyroxene garnet rock -

and limeston e .

I n Thuringia n ear Saal f eld copper ores occur in

, ,

veins which f ault the P ermian limeston e and th e Carbon

ife ro u s rocks The vei n s tones con sist of barytes and
.

siderite with a little quartz an d are richest in those

, ,

parts of the lodes which traver s e the Ku p fe rsc he ife r .

I n the same region much fl u o rsp a r i s found i n similar

vei n s while h aematite derived from the alteration of
,

S path ic i ron ore has b een worked .

The Spassky copper min e i s situated about 2 0 0 miles

s outh of the town of S molen sk i n the p rovince of the ,

s ame nam e and is on e of the most important mine s

,

in Si b eria The ores are mai nly born ite with glance
.
,

an d grey copper ore They occur i n veins from which .

the s andstone of the cou ntry rock has been much -

impregnated The vein material is quartz and b arytes

.
-
.

The only rocks of ign eou s origi n i n the im mediate

district are porphyrite and rhyolitic breccias .

I n N orth Western Servia copper ores are met with i n

-
1 70 TH E G E O LO GY O F O RE D E PO S I T S .

con nection with serpentines intruded i nto M esozoic

rocks The copper ores are composed of copper and i ron
.

pyrites with calcite and serpentine The ores origin

, .

n a t e d by lateral concentration during th e se r e n t in iz a

p
tion of the rock and are now f ound i n brecciated masses
,

and i rregular vein s .

T he C opper ore s o f South Africa are largely obtained

from N amaland or N amaqualand in the north west
, ,
-

portion o f Cape Colony They are C opper pyrites a n d

.

born ite a n d appear to be intimately connected with

,

north north east dioritic dykes traversi ng schists an d

- -

gneiss The ores are probably segregation s Similar

. .

deposits are found i n D amaraland .

I n th e southern part of the Congo Free State a b out ,

1 00 miles north of R hodesia the deposits of C opper ores

,

are stockworks and impregnation s of C opper a n d i ron

pyrites occasionally with manganese i n lower P al aeo
, ,

zoic quartzites and limestone T he upper parts of the .

lodes contai n oxides .

The ores are very siliceous and occur largely as im ,

p gre n a t io n s of quartzite by malachite S eams of the .

same mineral also exist i n the quartzite The copper .

ores are met with along a zone o f fissu rin g which

extend s i n a north westerly direction for 2 00 m ile s
-
.

I n R hodesia C opper ores have been worked for ages ,

but not i n a large way I n the Sable Antelope m in e

.

th e lodes traverse gneiss and vesicular b asalt and con ,

tai n C oppe r pyrites glance and carbonate also borni te

, , , ,

with calcite and gypsum .

I n Ch ina C opper ores occur in the provinces of

Y unnan an d Kwe ic ho u i n both o f which the sulphide
,

i s the pri ncipal ore and is f ound i n sandstones near

,

masses of po rphyrite and m elaphyre and i n limestones ,

.
1 7 2 TH E GE O LO GY O F O RE D E PO S I T S
i ntruded i nto P a l mo z o ic rocks S ituated near these d e .

posits are other mines conn ected with propylitized ,

andesites associated with Tertiary rock s The ore s .

are associated with specular i ron ore sulphides of lead , ,

zi nc and silver with quartz b arytes calcite and dial

, , , , ,

l o git e .

I n the South of J apan i n the m ore northerly of ,

th e two i sland s is the famou s B e sshi M in e situated

, ,

i n a series of quartz chlorite and graphite schi s ts

, ,
.

The mai n body of the ore is em b edded in the schists ,

which near the ore contain the mangane s e epidote ,

—piedmontite The ore which i s mainly copper su l

.
,

p h i d e occurs with i ron pyrites a s bands and streaks

,

i n the schists and yi elds 3 or 4 per cent of copper

, . .

The whole mass of the ore forms a b ody over a mile

in length an d ranges from a few feet to 30 feet in
,

width .

I n other parts of J apan the ores are foun d i n vein s

near granites and diorites and also occur i n b recciated ,

propylitized ande s ites .

Ars e n i c a l S u l p h idi c C o p p e r O re s — O i the type i n

which enargite is the domi nant m ineral the mo s t im ,

portant example s are tho se of Butte M ontana which , ,

contains the richest C opper mi n es in the world The .

district was origi nally worked up to 1 89 2 m ainly for , ,

silver ore s but the fall i n price of that m etal caused

,

many of the S ilver mines to be closed down The .

C O pp e r now produced contai n s 84 ounce s of s ilver and

O 3 ounce of gold to the ton of m etallic copper yielded .

The mi neral region is enti rely m ade up of Tertiary

igneous rocks o f which quartz monzon ite known locally
, ,

as the Butte granit e i s th e m o s t important and covers

, ,

th e larges t area b eing s urrounded beyond the mining

,
 H YD A TO GE N E S I S 1 73

cent re by Cretaceous metamorphosed limestones etc ,

.
,

and partly covered b y an desite and ande s itic breccias .

The B utte granite i s cut by later aplitic veins and ,

i ntru s ions known as the B luebi rd granite Still later .

’

intrusion s a s dykes of rhyolite or quartz porphyry occur

, ,

with the lodes T he mineralization of the area com

.

B u t t e Bl u e b/r d Qu a r tz Rhy o l ite La c us trine Al l a viu m Co p p e r

Gra n i t e Gr a n i te -
P o rp hy ry Lo d es Lo d es

F IG .
39.
— G E O L O GI C AL S K E T C H M A P -
O F TH E BU TT E D IS TR I C T ,

M O N TA N A .
( AF T E R M E S S R s . WE E D ,
E M MO NS AN D T OW E R )
,
.

m e n c ed afte r the intru s ion of the quartz porphyry and ,

wa s followed by intrusions and outpouring of rhyolite

( se e F ig s 39 and
.

There are no outcrops visi b le for th e upper parts of ,

the lodes have undergon e exten s ive weathering with ,

s econdary concentration o f the ores As poi nted out i n .

1 74 TH E G E O LO GY O F O RE D E PO S I T S
descri b ing the silver ores of Butte the C opper an d silver ,

areas are di stinct although all the lodes belong to

,

the same period o f mineralization T hey are clearly .

FIG .
4o . I
— D E AL IZ E D S E C T I O N OF A C O PP E R BU TT E
L O DE AT ,

M O N TA N A S H OW ING TH E R E LAT I O N O F Q U ART Z P O R P H Y R Y

,

D YK E L O D E AN D F AU LT TO O N E A N O TH E R ( A F T E R
, , .

H V W IN C H E LL )
. . .

divisible i nto three groups T he oldest i s that upon .

which the famo u s Anaconda is situated having an ea st ,

and west s trike T his i s intersected by an oth er rich

.

group of lodes with a bearing nort h west and south

,
-
1 76 TH E G E O LO GY O F O RE D E PO S I T S
cut by dykes of porphyry The o re occurs i n fissures
-

traversing the slates in every direction The upper .

parts of the veins consisted of oxidized ores an d car

b o n a t e s below which were complex ore s such as
, ,

en argite fam atinite eu c a rite hu m a n gite (s elenide of

, , ,

copper an d silver) an d C opper glance b ut i n depth

, ,

these dimi ni shed G alena and z in c bl e n d e occur i n

.

s ome quantity .

P R I MA R Y LE A D AN D ZI NC V E I NS .

Deposits of galen a and z in c b l e nd e fall withi n im

portant subgroups and have such marked di fferences i n
,

form and mode of deposition that it i s convenient to

deal with them under the heads of fissure or vei n de
posits an d metasomatic deposits I n thi s section only .
,

the vein s will be described T he ores of lead and Z inc .

have an id entical mode of occurrence and they are ,

commonly associated with one another the ores of lead ,

sometimes giving place to ores o f zinc and vice verso .

Although o f ten characterized by a variety of ot her

minerals their various vein types are comparatively
,
-

sim ple an d are i n marked contrast to the ores of gold

,

and silver I n m any respects however the lead veins

.
, ,

from the genetic standpoint are in separable from those

of S ilver as th e difference is only that of the relative
,

proportions of these ores to on e another .

G alena usually contain s a small percentage of silver ,

varying from per cent up to 2 per cent i n the . .

different subgroups into which the vein s are divi sible .

O ther metalliferou s minerals found i n association

with lead and zin c ores i nclude sulphides of i ron and
C opper with compounds such as bournonite fahlerz
, , ,

j amesonite anti monite and very exceptionally also

, ,
 H YD A T O G E N E S I S 1 77

nickel cobalt and bismuth ores M ispickel i s occasion

, ,
.

'

ally pre s ent and sometimes phosphates Cadmium is

,
.

com m only and i ndium and galliu m are rarely foun d

, ,

associated with o res of zi nc .

M i nerals which characterize ores of pneumatolytic

origin are a bsent although microlites of tin stone ( c a ssit
,

e rite ) have b een detected i n z in c b l e n d e a t F rei b erg and ,

wolfram in lead ore in the H artz and i n Cornwall .

The veins of lead and zinc appear to be connected

with acid intrusive rocks of all ages but the ores not ,

i n frequently S how a marked preference f or certain kin ds

of rocks .

I n the younger or Tertiary intrusives they almost

invariably contai n appreciable amounts of gold an d
silver often in such quantity as to warrant thei r classi
,

fic a t io n with the gold an d silver vei ns .

The most i mportant lead and zi nc lodes are those

which occur i n the P al aeozoic rock s .

The generally accepted classification of lead and zinc

lodes is dependent upon some dominant vein con
st itu e n t which leads to a threefold grouping
, .

The fi rs t is the pyrite s lead quartz group which - -

,

i ncludes s uch m i nerals as galen a z in c b l e n d e i ron and , ,

copper pyrites mispickel and quartz Subordinate

, , .

amounts of carbonate of lim e magnesia and i ron with , , ,

j a sper and chlorite m ay al so b e present The amount

, .
°

of s ilver pre s ent in the galena rarely exceeds 0 5 per cent °

and is generally from O I to O 2 per cent while it i s absent

° °

.
,

i n the other mineral s .

The second group comprises veins consisting o f rich

argentiferous lead ores (galena ) with brown s par ( dolo ,

mite) as the most important veinstone The other .

minerals present may be quartz z in c b l e nd e i ron pyrites , , ,

12
1 7 8 TH E G E O LO GY O F O RE D E PO S I T S
fahlerz rich silver ores car b onate of iron and man
, ,

ganese The pyritic constituents may also b e argen

.

t ife ro u s and there are sometimes argentite and ruby

,

silver ore s The amount of silver i n the galena varie s

.

from O 4 per cent to 2 per cent I n the z in c b l e nd e . .

silver i n the form of sulphide may be present to th e

amount of per cent while the pyrites m ay contain .
,

as much a s O 2 per cen t °

The thi rd group is that of the b arytic lead veins in ,

which b arytes is the main vei n con stituent u sually ,

accompan ied b y quartz calcite and fl u o rsp a r of variou s , ,

tint s . Th e metalli ferou s mineral s are arge ntiferous

galena sulphides of i ron zinc and C opper with fahlerz
, , , ,

and rich S ilver ores The z in c b l e n d e frequently con .

tain s i nclusion s of silver sulphide and t he galena ,

contai ns from to per cent of silver . .

All thes e three types of vei ns occur i n the F rei b erg

district where i n addition to the simple form s there
, , ,

are tran s ition types h aving the qualities of two or more

-

groups .

T yp ica l E x a m p l e s o f L ea d a n d Z i nc Ve ins —The .

lead and Z inc vein s of C ardigan and M ontgomery occur

i n a belt twenty two miles in length extending from -
,

the s outh of Cardigan shire to L lanidloes i n M ont ,

gomery N o ign eous rocks exist anywhere in thi s

.

di strict so that the source of the ores although

,
‘

pro b ably deep seated i s unknown -

, .

There are six groups of lodes corresponding with

undulation s i n the P al aeozoic s hales grits and con , ,

glomerates I n the west the lodes consi st of slightly

.

argentiferous galena with z in c b l e n d e an d occasionally ,

sulphide of C opper The rich district k nown as the .

Welsh P oto s i yielded argentiferous galen a contai ning

1 80 TH E G E O LO GY O F O RE D E P O S I T S
hampton B ee ra l sto n ) and i n Cornwall ( Calstock
, , ,

Callington Menheniot St M inver St Teath E ndellion

, , .
,
.
, ,

N ewquay Truro P erranza b uloe H elston )

, , , .

The ores appear to belong to the barytes fl u o r -

quartz type although neither barytes nor fluor are

,

univer s al N ear Tavistock the ores consi st mainly of

.

sulphide of lead and zinc with carbonate of i ron oxide , ,

of i ron and quartz At B e e ra l sto n a siliceous vein stone

,
.

contain s argentiferou s galena .

The lodes of Wheal M ary Ann i n C ornw a ll , ,

S how a characteri s tic paragenesis Th e veinstones are .

b anded and sometim es associated with b recciated killas

,

cemented by chalcedonic quartz There are two periods .

of i nfiltration of fl u o rsp a r with an i ntervening period ,

i n which quartz and galena were deposited followed , ,

fi nally b y deposition of quartz i ron pyrites an d calcite

, , .

Carbonate and phosphate of i ron and lead occur with

native silver red and dark sulphide of s ilver some
, ,

copper sulphide antimonial ore b ournon ite and barytes

, , ,
.

Zinc sulphide is found at H e ro d sfo o t I n N orth Corn .

wall antim onial silver an d lead ores occur but thei r ,

con nection with the lead ores of E ast Cornwall and

D evon is dou b t ful .

N ear T r u ro the vein s con sist o f quartz galena and , ,

z in c b l e n d e while near H elston carbonate of i ron i ron

, ,

pyrites and pyromorphite exi st i n as sociation with the

, ,

lead and Z inc sulphides .

The lead depo s it s of N orthum b erland Cumberland , ,

D urham and D erbyshire are gen erally found in l ime

, ,

stones which are metasomatically replaced b y lead ores

,

near the lodes so that they are usually metasomatic

,

replacements b ut in som e cases are in fil l ings of cavities

,

formed by the solvent action of water I n the Alston .

 H Y D A T O GE N E S I S 1 81

district ( N orthumberland) the lodes are found m ainly i n

the Car b oniferous limestone but are particularly pro ,

d u c tiv e i n certain beds I n addition to fluctuations i n

.

productiveness there are often marked change s i n the

,

mineral contents of the lodes I n so m e place s the .

characteri stic mi neral s are fl u o rS p a r and calcite while ,

in others t hey are S pathic i ron ore or brown h aem atite

scar limeston e)
I n D erby shi re the va riety of form s di splayed by the
ore bodies has led to thei r classification under such
term s as rake s pipes flats and sc rin s The rakes
,
’

,
’
.
’

are true fissures oft en faults ; the scri ms are mineralized

,

fi s sures crossing them ; the flats are mi neralized bedding

planes ; while pipes are i rregular pipe like bodies of ore -
.

At three horizon s i n th e D erbyshi re limeston e are

sheets of basaltic rocks known as toadstones , When .
’

the lodes pass from lime stone i nto the M illstone G rit ,

s hales or toadston e they become unproductive

, , .

I n Colorado ( the A spen R ico E nterpris e mines , , ,

etc ) the lodes have a north east bearing and traverse

.
-
,

slates , sand stones an d li mestones of L ower C arbo

,

n ife ro u s age They differ i n character an d vary in

.

value according to the rocks which they traverse .

At the contact of a much fractured limestone with -

overlying sh ales the ore has spread out laterally an d ,

by infiltration has acquired a banded structure B elow .

this horizon the lodes are barren ; they con sist m ainly o f
breccias ranging up to about a foot in thickness and ,

contrast strongly with the n umerous strings i n the lime

stone The vein materials are quartz and car b onate of
.

mangane se with galena z in c b l e n d e copper an d i ron

, , ,

pyrite s also the sulphides of silver and antim ony A

, .

lit tle native silver with gold occurs i n som e places .

1 82 T H E G E O LO GY O F O R E D E P O S I T S
At P lomo Colorado a granite gn eiss contain s a u rif
, ,
-

e ro u s pyrites along certain bands an d zones The s e .

appear to have b een form ed by impregnation and re

placement along crush b elts H orn b lende an d b iotite
-
.

are altered to chlorite Secondary quartz and cube s

.

of pyrite s al s o occu r and the altered rock pa ss e s in

,

sen si b ly i nto the gnei ss The m ineral solution s traver

.

sing faults penetrated the crush zones of the gnei s s -

,

and deposited auriferou s pyrites and silica At a later .

date rene wed di sturban ce resulted i n dyke intru s ions -

of quartz porphyry and the formation of a system o f

fissures th rough which a second access of mineralizing
,

solutions resulted i n the form ation of later lodes con

taining quartz galena C opper and Z inc sulphides fl u o r
, , ,

S par and micaceou s i ron ore

, .

The lead deposit s of the Coeur d Al e n e di strict i n ’

N orthern Idaho between Spokane an d the Bitter Moun

,

tai n s belong to the carbonate type The district i s

,
.

composed of Algon kian s lates and quartzites pierced by

a large syen itic intrusion The lodes are later than th e .

syenit e but older than a series of intrusive basaltic

,

rocks which traverses it ; the H ecla vei n however is , ,

an exception for it i s younger than a basic dyke wit h

,

which it is associated .

The vein s i n addition to argentiferous galena ( 1 0 per

,

contain considerable amounts of car b onate of

i ron quartz z in c b l e n d e an d i ron pyrites some copper
, , , ,

ore and barytes and other minerals including secondary

, ,

com pounds of S ilver ( F ig .

At F risco in U tah the H o rn sil v e r M ine i s on a lode

, ,

situated at th e j unction o f limeston e with andesiti c

rocks The lim estone is m etamorphosed to garn et rock
.
-

by an i ntrusion of monzonite which has also affected ,

 18
4 TH E G E O LO GY O F O R E D E PO S I T S
lode traversing highly schistose rocks at right angles
to the foliation The associated minerals are i n addi
.
,

tion to ros e coloured calcite siderite z in c b l e n d e pyrit es

- -
, , ,

and pyrrhotite ; ozokerite i s also found b ut n o quart z , .

I n N ew South Wales th e famous B roken H ill M iiI e ,

is another example of argenti ferous galena associa

with quartz fl u o rsp a r an d small quantities of calc
, ,

The country consists of metamorphic rocks pe ne

t ra t e d by gran itic m asse s and dykes of diorite The ie .

are two principal lodes the larger of which is nearly ,

1 0 0 feet wide i n places T he actual rock traversed by

.

these lodes i s a garneti ferous biotite gneiss which at ,

B roken H ill is supposed to be bent in the form of a

sharp anticlinal fold accompanied by crushing ,
.

C rystallin e garnet m ay be regarded as a true vein

.

constituent for it contains i nclusions of galen a and

,

blen de I t appears i n the vein however to be due

.
, ,

to a reconstruction of b recciated garn eti f erous country

rock sin ce secondary garnet crystal s are found grow
,

ing on garnetiferous fragments I ntergrown with the .

garn et i s silicate o f mangan ese .

At Zeehan i n Western Tasmania the much folded

, ,
-

L ower Silurian conglomerate s sandston es and clay , ,

slates with altered basaltic lavas and tuffs are in the

, , ,

neighbourhood o f the lead veins much altered by ,

granite G abbro an d serpentin e are also found i n the

.

mi neral district but these are older than the granitic

,

intrusion s .

T he vei n s are con nected with the granite and th ree ,

groups di fferentiated by thei r characteristic m i n erals

, ,

have been recognized The ores occur in fis su res either

.

as thin stri ngs or as masses reaching 2 0 feet in width ;

also as i rregular deposits from 60 to 2 0 0 f e et wide .
 H Y D AT O G E N E S I S 1 85

The first group contain s sulphides of lead zi nc , ,

and i ron .

The second contain s argentiferous galena with a little ,

b lende pyrites and carbonate o f i ron

,
.

The third is an in significant series which belongs to

a t ran s ition type b etween tin and s ilver lead vei n s
- -
.

Th e ore s con si s t of arge n tiferous sul phide of tin with ,

wolfram copper and i ron pyrites galena s ulphide of

, , ,

b ismuth an d carbonate of i ron The galena contains

, .

from 1 0 to 2 0 0 ounces of silver to the ton ; the argen

t ife ro u s pyrites 1 4 6 ounces to the ton
,
.

The vein s however of the district generally b elong

, ,

to a m ixed type representing the character s of the first

,

two groups ; they may also carry j amesonite bour ,

n a n it e and fahlerz
, .

The upper parts of th e lodes contai n native silver and

other secondary silver ores ( chlorides and sulphides) ,

oxide of manganese sulphate and carbonate of l ead , ,

etc while the vein ston e is generally quartz with sub

.
, ,

ordinate am ounts o f calcite dolomite and car b onate of ,

i ron .

I n the Dundas region six miles east of Zeehan the , ,

deposit s are sim ilar but i n som e cases S how a departure

,

from the usual type as for instance in the conn ection , , ,

of sulphidic minerals an d carbonate of i ron with

dolomite .

I n the F re ib e rg district ( Saxony ) the lodes are

situated m ainly i n gneis s mica schists quartzites an d , , ,

other metamorphic rocks E clogites gar netiferous .

,

horn b lende rocks serpentine an d ga bb ro also occur

, , ,
.

These rocks are b roken th rough by granite and by ,

quartz porphyry and other dyke rocks With the ex

-
.

c e t io n of the rich silver quartz vein s of the district

p
-
,
186 TH E G E O LO GY O F O R E D E PO S I T S
the lodes are all you n ger than the quartz porphyries -
,

the barytic lead veins being the younge st .

The lodes m ay be classified according to their strike .

T he pyrites lead an d part of the rich silver quar tz an d

- -

rich lead type s strike a b out north north ea s t while the - -

,

b arytes lead vein s and the remai nder of those a b ove

-

mentioned strike about north west i n common with -

non m etalliferous cross courses

- -
.

The pyritou s lead ores also are well represented i n

th e mini ng region of F rei b erg where the infill ing o f
-
,

th e vein s con sists of quartz i ron pyrit es pyrrhotite , , ,

argentiferous galena z in c bl e n d e and sulphides of , ,

ar s enic C opper and other metals with smaller quanti

, , ,

ties of the carbonate s of i ro n mangane s e calcium and , ,

magnesium Among other minerals may b e men

.

t io n e d : b arytes fl u o rsp a r calcite strontianite pitch

, , , ,

blende and a variety of rarer mi nerals together with

, ,

secondary ores T he z in c b l e n d e contai n s small quanti

.

ties o f ti n ore i n th e form of microli t hs .

I n this region a fe w of the lodes are characterized by

an exceptionally high proportion of C opper ores .

The barytes silver lead lodes ranging from 3 to 1 2

- -
,

and even 2 0 feet i n width occur i n gnei s s phyllites and , , ,

mica s chist and consi st mainly of b aryte s fl u o rsp a r

-
, , ,

quartz calcite and dolomite with sulphide of lead

, , , ,

copper i ron and zinc B ournonite is al so present with

, ,
.

le s s common minerals such as arsenical pyrites anti , ,

monial silver b lende ceru s site anglesite malachite and

-
, , , ,

other secondary ores Rarely they contain nickel and .

cobalt ores They are later than the pyritous and high
.

grade lead vein s which they traverse like faults

,
.

At Schnee b erg i n S axony ar sen ical pyrite occur s

, ,

i n large quantities quite dom i nating the galena con

,
1 88 TH E G E O LO GY OF O RE D E PO S I T S
I n the Clau sthal region ( H arz Mountains ) the lodes
.

occur i n D evonian and L ower Carboni ferous shales over

m ic s

De Vo n 1 a n Cu Im 00 k e r Perm ia n J u ra s s ic ,
Up p e r
Gr a n i t e Tr/a s 8 Cr e t a c e o us
l o wer Cre t a c eo us

FIG .
42 . O LO GI C AL S K E T C H M AP O F
— GE -
TH E Lo DEs OF TH E
C LA US T H AL R E GI O N U PP E R H AR Z
, ( A FTE R F KL OC K
M A NN )
. .

an area ten miles long by fi ve miles wide and belong ,

to the carbonate type There are ten parallel s eries of

.

composite lode s with thei r numerous s tringers and ,

 H YD A T O G E N E S I S 1 89

each series i s traceable th rough practically th e whole

length of the mineral area ( F ig .

The average strike of these composite lodes is either

toward s the south west or i s east an d west and th ey
-
, ,
° °
all have an underlie of from 1 0 to 2 0 to the south .

The vein s are later in age than the folding of the region ,

and can b e actually seen to traverse several zone s of

b recciated rock (the so called ruscheln exi sting along
-

planes of o ve rthru st in g and s trikin gtowards the north

,

ea st ( F ig .

The content s of the lode s con s ist mainly of quartz ,

calcite and i n some case s barytes with lesser amount s

, ,

I
I

ON E M IL E

FI G .
43
— P LA N
. O F TH E F AULT S ( R U S C H E L N ) A N D L O D E S AT
ST. A ND R E A S B E R G H AR Z ( A F T E R F K L O C K M AN N )
, . . .

o f siderite strontian ite and dolomite with fragments of

, , ,

cru shed country rock The pri ncipal ores are argen
-
.

t ife ro u s galen a ( O 2 to 0 3 per cent of silve r ) z in c b l e n d e

°

.
, ,

C opper and i ron pyrite s tetrahedrite an d b ournonite , ,

.

I n th e State of Anhalt the deposits of the H arz ,

Mountai ns b elong to the high grade lead ore s and -

,

con s ist of mineral s of several gen eration s a s sociated

with a vei n of spathic i ron ore of considera b le width .

T he oldest vein minerals are quartz pyrites and pyr , ,

r ho tite ; then come s fl u o rsp a r with spathic i ron ore ,

s ome z in c b l e n d e and barytes ; thi rdly come s galena

,
1 99 TH E G E O LO GY O F O RE D E PO S I T S
and C opper pyrites with b ournonite fahlerz and anti
, , ,

monial ores ; and finally s pathic i ron and calcite .

Wolfram and scheelite occu r occasionally .

I n the R hineland and Westphalian region s there

are several zinc an d lead fiel d s i n the P al aeozoic rocks
-
.

The veins are the siliceous zinc lead car b onate type -
,

but are occasionally characterized by baryte s .

Those of Co b lenz ( We rl a n ) are of a type similar to

th e H olzappel lodes .

The other localitie s are n ear Arn s b erg Gladbach , ,

D ii ss e l d o rf etc
, .

I n the Black F orest ( Mu n ste rtha l ) the lodes are

as s ociated with porphyritic dykes in b iotite gneiss and ,

consist of quartz fl u o rsp a r calcite siderite an d barytes

, , , , .

These occur as vei n mi nerals with z in c bl e n d e and

galena with su b ordinate amounts of pyrites s ilver
, , ,

antimonial and ars en ical ores and secondary ores ,

.

I n the S chapbach region th e ores S h ow p seu d o m o rphs of

saccharoidal quartz aft er barytes with galena fl u o rspa r , , ,

and both original an d secondary copper ores C alcite .

,

dolomite and S iderite also occur Bi s muth silver and

, .
, ,

other ores are also found

, .

At P ri b ram i n B ohem ia lodes are found i n a syn

, ,

clin e of Cam b rian grits on the south east of which are

,
-

s lates contact altered by the granite ma s s which lies

- -

still farther towards the south .

Between the grits and som e shales lying to the n orth

there is a fault striki ng north ea st which cut s O ff the -
,

grit s agai n s t the s hales O ne of the principal mining

.

centres is situated clos e to thi s fault ( known as the

L e tte n k l u ft) and i s traversed o b liquely by the lodes ;
,

these i n the shales however become poor

, ,
.

P arallel with the lodes are green stone dykes in which

192 TH E G E O LO GY O F O R E D E PO S I T S
I n the An na M ine some of the ore i s highly siliceous ,

and contain s b ut little carbonates the metalliferous ,

minerals b eing a rge n tife fo u s galena ru b y an d n ative ,

silver ore fahlerz anti mony sulphide etc these b eing

, , , .
,

younger than those mentioned above .

T he lodes show a banded arrangement i n which early

ore of the fi r s t type occur s n ext to ore of the second
'

type with a la s t vei n fill in g O f c a l c ite

,
-
.

There are several localities i n Bohemia which are

distingui s hed as Z inc or lead producers .

To t he west and south o f P ilsen lead and zinc ore s ,

are found with quartz I n one place the m ineral

.

paragenesis i s quartz with some b aryte s and fl u o rsp a r ,

followed by sulphides o f lead ( with per cent of .

S ilver) Z i nc and i ron

, , I n a neighbouring district th e
.

barytes and fl u o rspa r are not present but are replaced ,

by calcite and dolomite ; the silver content o f the

galena v aries between and O 2 per cent °

S outh of these places ( at Kuttenberg ) on the south ,

east of P rague and at Budweis i n Southern B ohemia

, , ,

vein s o f zi nc an d lead sulphide with quartz calcite , , ,

dolom ite i ron pyrites and sulphide of arsen ic with

, , ,

som e native and red s ilver ore s occur in gnei s s overlain by ,

C retaceous rocks The gneiss is i nvaded b y an i ntrusion

.

of granite and by veins of pegmatite and mica trap

,
.

N orth of G raz i n Styria in the Southern Tyrol and

, , ,

on the east of Trent vein s of Z inc and lead sulphide s

,

are well known N orth of G raz the lode s are i n

.

calcareous chloritic an d clay s late s and consi s t of

, , ,

z in c b l e n d e an d galen a ( with a b out per cent of .

silver) with sulphides of copper and i ron ; quartz

, ,

barytes s ilicate of zinc an d carbonates of i ron calcium

, ,

and b arium are common a ssociates

,
.
 H YD A T O G EN E S I S 193

I n some vei n s the order of mi neralizatio n wa s quartz ,

albite felspar sulphides o f zinc an d lead fl u o rsp a r

, , ,

and galena of a secon d generation with secondary

carbon ates .

At P fu n d e re rb e rg the gnei ss an d slates are traversed

by diorite veins an d dykes of aplite and micropegmatite
,
.

The lodes are brecciated and contain sulphides o f ,

lead C opper i ron and zinc The galena contain s o 3

, , ,
.
°

to 0 6 per cent of S ilver while the copper and i ron

.
,

sulphides are au ri ferous .

I n the district of L aibach i n Carniola ores o f lead , ,

and zi nc occur in fissu re b reccias an d fractu res i n -

irregularly bedded Carboni ferous sand s ton es and sh ales .

Three modifications of the vein s are known The fi rst .

consists of sulphides o f lead zinc and i ron with , , ,

b arytes The second i s h aematite with barytes galena

.
, ,

and a littl e C innabar an d C opper ore The thi rd i s .

C i nnabar i n vei n s with limonite barytes aragonite , , ,

witherite etc , .

The Bosnian occurren ces are associated with pro

py l it ized dacite slates and quartzites , T h e lodes ,
.
,

ranging up to 1 6 feet in width con sist of quartz with , ,

a little dolomite and siderite sulphides o f lead (O 2 per ,

°

cent of silver ) zi nc an d i ron and small am ounts of

.
, , ,

fahlerz antimonial copper and secondary ores

, ,
.

Tuscany and Sicily have thei r lead mines In .

Tu scany the lodes are in P al aeozoic slates and consi s t ,

of quartz a little albite carbon ates of calcium and

, ,

i ron and sulphides o f lead ( 0 3 to 0 5 per cent of silver )

,
° °

.
,

zinc i ron and C opper with antimonial lead ores A

, , , .

little ti n with cobalt and bis muth is recorded

, , .

Some important lead an d zi nc deposits of meta

somatic origin as well as o f the nature o f ordinary
,

I 3
19
4 TH E G EO LO GY O F O RE D E P O S I TS
lodes occur in S ardinia
, The lodes occur i n m et a
.

m o rp ho se d S ilurian an d Cam b rian s late s sandstones , ,

and limestones and are connected with pre Triassic

,
-

hornblende granite ma s ses having syenitic m o d ific a

tion s also with later dykes of porphyry and micro
,

granite .

T he nature o f the veins at Iglesia s i s typical of

the occurrences elsewhere i n Southern S ardinia The .

m etasom atic types con nected with these vein s are de

scribed under metasomasis The vein s of M onte .

vecchio near Igle s ias occur a s single or composite

, ,

lodes varying from th e thickne ss of a knife edge up

,
-

to 5 0 or I O O feet The vei nston es are quartz with

.

barytes and here and there fl u o rsp a r which in som e

, ,

places shows a marked preference for the parts of the

lodes situated in limestone Argentiferou s galena .

to per cent of silver ) sulphides of C opper and

. .
,

i ron with carbon ates of lead i ron an d calcium occur

, , , ,

with secondary red an d native silver ore s ho rn sil ve r

, , , ,

and other secondary minerals .

I n the sam e region sulphides of lead and zinc occur

i n association with sulphides of i ron and C opper as
i mpregnations in an i ntrusion o f d ia b a se The ores . .

are accompanied by hornblen d e and calcite which ,

appear to replace the felspar and augite o f the original

rock Transitional types between the ores an d the
.

fresh rock are also recognized .

The deposits of the provi nce of M urcia i n Spain , ,

occu r i n association with T ertiary dacites and augite

hypersth ene andesites which are kaolinized and partly
,

altered to alumston e by the i nfluenc e of sulphuric

action on the weathered rock .

The rich ores of silver and l ead contain sulphides

196 TH E G E O LO GY O F O RE D E PO S I T S
to 8
per cent of silver and a re associated with
°

O 2 0 .
,

z in c b l e n d e the sulphides of arsenic i ron copper and

, , , ,

antimony ! an d argentiferous compounds ; car b onates

and barytes are uncom mon The lodes are in gnei ss .
,

sc hist and older P al aeozoic rocks embracing dolomites

, ,

and limestones intruded by gabbro an d s oda granite ;

,

th e apophyses of the latter are often cut b y the veins .

P RI MA R Y S I LV E R ORE V E I NS .

M any of the important deposit s of ilver occur a s s

secondary conc e ntration s i n th e gossan s or upper part s

of silver lead lodes and do not come i n the cla ss
-
,

of vein s here con sidered True silver ore vein s are .

-

characterized by the presence of original argenti ferou s

m inerals com prising n ative silver and alloys ; com
,

pounds of s ilver with the halogen s ; mineral s con tain ing

S ilver and S ulphur tellurium selen ium antimony , , , ,

arsenic b ismuth C opper and lead and complex com

, , ,

pounds of these elements .

G alen a n early always contain s a little silver while ,

other sulphides such as m ispickel z in c bl e n d e and

, , ,

i ron pyrites are someti mes argentiferous

,
.

I n th e classi fication of the various silver ore types -

,

the somewhat arbitrary mod e of treatm ent which is

used i n the grouping of the gold ores must agai n b e
employed since a true genetic treatment is rendered
,

di fficult by the lack of data which might enable the

ores to be linked with the ign eous rocks from which
they were derived .

O n e of the most important of the subgroups of silver

vein s i s that i n which quartz often amethystin e i s a , ,

typical vein con stituent The vein s are further charac

-
.

t e riz e d b y the presen ce of accessory m in erals contain ing

 H Y D AT O G E N E S I S 1 97

co b alt an d nickel Sulphide s are g e nerally present all

.
,

of which m ay be argentiferous I t i s to the presence of .

the s e sulphides in a fin e state of division that the dark

, ,

colour o f much of the quartz is due .

Among the metalliferous m inerals present are py rites

’

mispickel b lende galena and chalcopyrite

, , ,
The .

principal silver minerals may be silver glance poly ,

basite stephanite proustite pyrargyrite etc

,
:

, , ,
.

O f the non metalliferous mi nerals which occur as

-

acce s sory constituents calcite with some carbonate of

,

manganese and very occasionally barytes are the most

, , , ,

im portant .

The principal localities wh ere thi s type o f vei n i s

represented show that it is particularly associated
with the younger eruptive rocks which are f requently ,

propylitized sil ic ifie d or kaolinized an d impregnated

, ,

with pyritic mi nerals near the vein s I t will be .

noticed that thi s su b group has a distinct genetic

si milarity to that o f the gold quartz veins and as -
, ,

some of the silver ores of thi s subgroup contai n gold ,

it will b e readily recognized that the subtypes may

be regarded as mem b ers o f a gold silver sulphide quartz - - -

group .

A similar remark applies to the subgroup of s ilver

ores wh ich i s disting u i sh ed by the presence i n the lodes
of an apprecia b le amount of calcium car b on ate with ,

accessory m etallic sulphides and arsenide s The lodes .

have modification s in which the metals such as silver , ,

anti mony nickel cobalt and arsenic occur native an d

, , , , ,

sometimes i n association with zeolites when developed

near igneous rock s .

The presence of barytes i n considerable quantity i n ,

addition to sulphidic m i n erals is characteristic of som e

,
1 98 TH E G E O LO GY OF O RE D E PO S I T S
silver veins but of these a number are probably the
,

en riched u pper parts of lodes which i n depth are rich in

sulphides of lead Z inc and copper
, , .

S ilver ores which are accompan ied by considerable

a m O II n ts of co b alt an d nickel com pounds appear to
'

form an indefin ite subgroup in which bismuth ores ,

occur with sulphides of lead Z inc and copper In, , .

addition there is O ften pitchblende arsenical pyrite s , ,

and anti monite The vein stones are commonly quartz

.

and carbonates with accessory b a rytes and fl u o rspa r

, .

I n the C hapter dealing with deposits o f pneumatolytic

origin reference was mad e to the occurrence of certa i n
,

tin ores i n Bolivia associated with pyritic silver ores ,

an d it is questionable whether they S hould n ot b e dealt

with here seeing th at they may be regarded either as
,

deposits of pyritic silver ores characterized by the

presence of cassiterite or of cassiterite characterized by
,

the presence of S ilver ores an d other sulphides The .

comparative scarcity of mi nerals such as t ourmalin e , ,

topaz and fl u o rsp a r j ustifies the V iew that these deposit s

, ,

constitute an i ntermediate type between true ti n vein s

and s ulphidic silver vein s but as th ey have already , ,

b een dealt with under pneumatolysis they are only ,

briefly m enti oned here .

Typ ica l E x a m p l e s o f S il v er O re Veins The B utte -

district M ontana has been one of th e richest silver and

, ,

C opper producing region s i n the world .

The lodes occur in a post C retaceou s hornblende -

granite known as quartz monzonite I t is the oldest

,
.

of th e igneous rocks an d i s cut by newer aplitic

,

or granulitic i ntrusion s Both these i ntrusions were

.

t raversed by dykes of quartz porphyry at wh ich stage ,

i n the eruptive hi sto ry of the region the lodes were

2 00 TH E G E O L O G Y O F O RE D E P O S I T S
Th e silver vein s contai n argenti f erous f ahlerz ruby ,

silver an d o ther silver ores with sulphides of lead

, , ,

zi nc arsenic an d i ron ; native gold and silver with

, , ,

secondary ores o f lead and a little occasional copper ,

occu r i n the gossan associated with quartz fl u o rspa r

, , ,

an d rarely barytes
, , .

Silicate an d carbonate o f mangane s e appear to exi s t

as original con stituents of the lodes The outcrop s of .

the lode s are black and unlike the lodes o f copper , , ,

show a well marked banding o f the ores

-
.

The s ilver ores o f N evada occur m ainly in granite ,

which i n the district of R eese R iver is penetrated by

felsite and propylitized porphyrite At Tonopah how .
,

ever th e min i ng area consists o f Tertiary propylitized

,

hornblende an desite dacite rhyolite basalt and tu ffs , , , ,

i n a region otherwise composed of P al ae ozoic rocks .

I n th e Tonopah region the lodes occur i n association

with propylitized hornblende andesite which i s the ,

oldest of the Tertiary eruptives .

The N evada silver ores con sist o f stephanite poly ,

basite red silver ores an d tetrahedrite with a little

, , ,

blende galena i ron pyrites and chalcopyrite The

, , ,
.

principal vein m aterial i s quartz but this i s a e com

-
,

p a n ie d by carbonate s of manganese an d lime and by

adularia felspar F ree gold occurs with the o re s a n d
.
,
‘

antimony is occasionally present i n i mportant quantity

at Tonopah The gossan s contai n bromide and chloride
.

of silver .

The alteration of the country rock is mainly that of -

s il ic ific a t io n and sericitization together with impregn a ,

tion by i ron pyrites .

I n th e Stat e of Colorado the silver ores do not carry

much gold but are of a similar type to those de scribed
,
 H YD A T O G E N E S I S 201

from the State of N evada ; but there is present some

fl u o rS p a r and barytes I n the south of Colorado th e
.

deposits of C reede occur i n Tertiary eruptive s while ,

near G eorgetown they are m et with i n granitic and

gneissose rocks .

The recently discovered mining region of Cobalt in

the vicin ity of L ake Te m isc a m a n g ( Te m isc a m in q u e) on ,

the border of O ntario and Quebec is a good illustration , _

of the association of silver cobalt and nickel ores ; , ,

these are i n veins which vary from a knife edge to a foot -

or so i n width Th ese traverse slates and c o ngl o m e

.

rates of L ower H u ro n Ia n age but in the southern part ,

of the region occu r i n dia b ase and gab b ro o f post

M iddle H uronian age The ores which are probably
.
,

of hydrothermal origin consist of native silver argentite

, , ,

and pyrargyrite with antimonide of silver and other

,

minerals The deposits are mar k ed by an abundance of

.

nickel and cobalt co m pounds such as smaltite millerite , , ,

niccolite and chloanthite ( with decomposition products

, ,

n ickel and co b alt bloom ) Com pounds of bismuth . ,

arsenic and m anganese also occur while i n small , , ,

quantities are the commoner sulphides blende galena

, , , ,

pyrite s and chalcopyrite The pri ncipal veinstone is

, .

calcite with subordin ate amou nt s of quartz Accord

, .

ing to M e s srs Campbell and Knight there i s a distinct

.
,

order of mi neralization as follows : F i rst cam e arsenide

,

of cobalt followed by ar s en ide of n ickel and s mall

,

quanti t ies of other ores S ubsequently there was a

.

period of distur b ance resulting in brecciation of the

,

vein materials with the i nfiltration of calcite and de

, ,

position of native silver ; lastly the formation of bismuth ,

ores .

Argenti f erous deposits similar t o those of C obalt

2 02 TH E G E O LO GY O F O R E D E PO S I T S
occur on the O ntario shore o f L ake Superior in the
Silver I slet district .

H ere the vein s exist pri ncipally i n a gabbro in

t ru d e d I nto th e Algonkian ( pre Cam b rian ) s late s The -
.

pri ncipal ores are silver an d its s ulphide s with galena , ,

b lende and fahlerz Compounds of nickel an d cobalt

, .

are i mportant con stituents while the pri ncipal vein ,

materials are calcite with some fl uo rsp a r barytes and a , ,

little quartz .

At B roken H ill N ew South Wales antimonial silver

, ,

ores occu r in a lode cro s sing the schi sts The lode .

is rich where it i ntersects bands of am phibolite but ,

i n the other rocks it i s thi n and poor The ore con si sts .

of argenti ferous fahlerz and oth er antimonial silver

compoun ds C obalt glanc e i s a characteristic a c c o m
.

p a n im e n t .The argentiferou s C opper sulphide stro ,

m e ye rite exi sts as a secondary mi neral wh ile horn and

, ,

n ative silver with ruby silver ores s ulphides of lead

, , ,

copper anti mony arsen ic cobalt and nickel iodide

, , , ,

an d carbonates of S ilver are al s o pre s ent accompanied ,

by carbonates of i ron and li me .

O n e of the most celebrated m i ni ng countries of the

world is M exico where i n addition to abundant deposits
, ,

of s ilver and gold ores of C opper lead an d other

, , ,

metals are worked

, .

Th e s ilver ores are fou n d at m any places i n the

l ength of country between Ch ihuahua in th e north
an d O aj aca i n the south The strike of the lode s is .

parallel with the lin es of upthrust and folding which

have affected the rocks of the S ierra M adre .

The pri ncipal rocks of the area con sist of mica

schists an d m etamorphosed slates with intrusive ,

diorites and M esozoic and Tertiary sandston es ,

29 4 TH E G E O L O GY O F O R E D E PO S I T S

an d fl u o rspa r N ative gold is commonly found i n the

.

quartz of the u pper parts of the lodes .

T he lodes are sometim es characterized by the

presence of druses or c avIt Ies containing zeolite s such
, , ,

a s apophyllite while orthocla s e also exists as a true

,

vein mi n eral The characteristic t ypes of alteration of

-
.

the ande s itic rock s where traversed by the lodes are

, ,

s il ic ifi c a t io n kaolin ization and propylitization

, , .

E xceptionally as i n the State of San L ui s P otosi

, ,

the ores occu r i n lim e s to n es as i rregular metasomatic

deposits conn ected with narrow fissures The ores .

consist of carbonates and arsenates of lead with native

and horn silver .

T he deposits o f silver ore i n P eru and i n th e neigh

b o u rin g country of B olivia b elong to that type of deposit
now being described I n particular should be m en .

tio n e d the deposits of Cerro de P asco The lodes are .

o f post J ura s sic age an d con si st i n depth of argen

-
,

t ife ro u s grey copper ores pyri tes galen a , an d quartz , ,

.

The upper parts of the lodes are characterized by

’
gossan called locally th e pacos or c a sc aj a d o s i n
,
’ ‘
,

whi ch lik e the colorados of M exico rich s econdary

, ,

ores of silver are found i n quantity with a little gold .

I n su b ordinate amounts there occ u r here and there

arsen ical com pounds z in c b l e n d e an d manganous com
, ,

pounds with carbon ates etc ,

.

The lodes are con nected with dacite ( quartz an desite ) -

,

and occu r either i n this rock or i n the Tertiary sand

stones slates and li mestones
, , .

The association of silver ores and cas s iterite i n Bolivia

was referred to i n dealing with the tin veins on p 99 . .

At Cerro de P oto s i the silver ores occur i n b leached ,

kaolinized and pyritized slates and rhyolites they con ,

 H Y D A T O G E N E SI S
'

2 05

sist n ear surface of native and red silver ore s and in -

,

depth of sulphides of copper zinc an d lead with , , ,

smaller amounts of sulphides of ti n and arsenic and ,

thus link the ores as a class with the sulphidic ores of

pneumatolytic origi n .

The depo sits of O ruro con sist of i ron pyrites sul ,

p h i d e s of silver antimony and

,
copper with tin ore , , .

L ead ore containing m icrolites o f tin oxide is found i n

, ,

depth with z in c b l e n d e ar s enic W

,
ol f ram quartz and , , , ,

carbon ate of i ron etc so that th e deposits constitute

, .
,

a m ixed type Th e di strict is form ed of P al aeozoic

.

slates traversed by dacite ( quartz andesite) with which ,

the ores appear to be connected .

Various modification s of vein s o f this unusual type ,

in which sulphidic silver and lead com pounds are asso

c ia te d with tin s ton e occu r i n other parts of Bolivia a s
, ,

at Colqui ri where chloride o f silver i s found with calcite

,

and carbonate of mangane s e ; also at H uayn a P otosi ,

Chorolque and other localities where minerals such

, ,

a s tourmaline topaz and fl u o rsp a r are occasionally

, , ,

O bserved .

N orth east of Serena Chili in the mining district of

-
, ,

which the San J os é is the prin cipal mine the vein s are ,

connected with i ntrusion s of dacite I n addition to .

n ative silver and the chloride sulphide telluride an d , , ,

amalgam of silver there is argentiferou s galena poly

, ,

b a site and cupriferous silver sulphide together with ,

traces of bismuth cobalt and nickel ore s The vein

, , .

stone is ba ryte s calcite and quartz At Coquimbo the

, .

U pper J ura ssic lime stones and intrusive porphyries are

connected with vei n s of si milar nature .

N ear Chanarcillo forty eight miles south of C opiapo

,
-

( Chili ) the veins travers e J urassic limeston es cut by in

,
2 06 TH E G E O LO GY O F O RE D E PO S I T S
t ru sio n s
of aug ite porphyrite in the vicinity of which
-
,

there is a development of calc silicates and an enrich -

ment of the ores in th e lode and country rock the lodes -

vary from a few i nches to 32 feet i n width .

The original ores are mispickel blende and pyrite s , , ,

which occur at a depth Above these come native .

silver an d sulphide of silver with ruby s ilver Ores ; ,

but near the sur f ace the ores contain chloride and
bromide of silver n ative silver with carbonates of lime
, , ,

i ron and copper barytes also occurs Clay an d limonite

,
.

is th e common gangue in th e upper part s of the vein s .

The vein s of Caracoles i n the desert of Atacama are , ,

of similar nature and are con nected with dykes of quartz

,

and augite porphyry i ntrusive in J urassic limestones and

marl s The lodes are always richest when i n or n ear
.

the porphyry .

T he cobalt silver ores of the E rzgebi rge i n Saxony

-
,

and Bohemia are typical exam ples of thi s class o f

,

deposit They occu r in th e m e tamorphic rocks i n the

.

vicinity o f the post Carboni ferous granites The three

-
.

principal districts are those of Schnee b erg Schwarzen ,

b erg J ohanngeorgenstadt and J oachimsthal G eyer and

, ,

A nnaberg ; and Marienberg .

I n these regions th e vei n s fall i nto fou r groups The .

two older groups comprise th e ti n vei ns an d the pyritic

lead and C opper vei ns while the two you n ger groups ,

comprise the co b alt S ilver and i ron and m anganese lodes

-
, ,
.

I n the J oachimsthal group there are two series of

lodes kn own respectively as the M o rgengeinge ( s triking
’

east north east ) an d the M ittem o ektgéznge (striking

’

- -

generally about north an d south ) The pri ncipal vein .

mi nerals a re quartz calcite carbonate of i ron and , , ,

magnesite ; the lodes vary i n width f rom a few inches

208 TH E G E O LO GY O F O RE D E PO S I T S
I n the n eighbourhood o i M arien b erg a number of
intersecting veins contai n n ativ e arsenic and silver ,

ores of silver uranium cobalt nickel lead copper

, , , , ,

and i ron pyrites i n association with carbon ate of i ron

, ,

b arytes fl u o rspa r and quartz T hese vein s cut th rough

, , .

syenitic an d dioritic rocks .

I n E urope S ilver veins of th e quartzose typ e occur

in S axony ( F reiberg ) H ungary ( near Kasch au ) Baden , ,

( Kinzig Valley in the Black F orest ) and i n other

, ,

countries .

I n the F re ib e rg district the lodes occur i n meta

morphic and plutonic i ntrusive rocks an d con si s t of
, , ,

quartz with sulphides o f silver red silver ores an d , ,

native silver together with argentiferous sulphide of

,

i ron very rarely th ey carry sulphides of lead and zinc ,

the latte r being covered with films of silver glance .

Thin section s of the sili ceous vei n stone S how the

silver minerals dispersed in small quantities through
out a granular mosaic of quartz .

S om e of the ores are compl e x compounds such as ,

polybasit e freieslebenite etc which a re o ften met with

, , .
,

lining cavities .

L ater in fil tratio n s also occur the m inerals com ,

pri sing car b onates o f iron and manganese with calcite , ,

b arytes celestine gypsum and fl u o rspa r and sulphides

, , , ,

of antimony arsenic and copp e r

, , .

I n the Kinzig Valley Black F orest ( Baden ) a series , ,

of silver ore vein s of somewhat varying mineral com

-

position an d age exists i n both the older and n ewer

roc k s o f the district .

The newer rocks consist o f Triassic and P ermian

sandstones which unconformably overlie the gnei ss of
, ,

which the principal part of the mineral area is com

 H YD A T O G E N E S I S 29 9

posed Serp e ntine and amphibolite i nvade the gneiss

.

in restricted areas while on the south ther e are in ,

t ru sio n s of granite and syen ite N umerous i ntrusive .

hypa b yssal rocks such as granophyre are also m et with

, , .

The lodes occur principally i n the older rocks but ,

are also found in the B u n te r and R o thl iege nd e san d f

stones .

The ve i n s of the oldest vein system i n the district -

hav e quartz as the principal vein stone and are s im ilar ,

in nature to those of the F re ib e rg region O ther vein .

minerals are carbonates o f i ron and lime red silver ,

ores silver glance and native silver i ron pyrites chalco

, , ,

pyrite galena and sulphide of antimony ; a little gold

,

i s also present .

The other series of silver lodes of th e district are

respectively characterized by calcite argenti ferous lead ,

ore b arytic C opper and lead ore and cobalt s ilver ore
, ,
-
.

I n the F ro hn ba c htha l mi neral area in the same region -

,

( Baden ) quartz lodes in gneissose rocks contai n argen

,

t ife ro u s fahlerz sulphide of lead and a little copper

, , ,

with carbonate s of lime and m agne sia I n a later .

phase of th e mineral history of the veins there was -

introduced i n addition to the foregoing compounds of

, ,

nickel and arsenic B arytes and dolomi t e with sul .

,

p hi d e s of lead silve r and ,antimony constitute a thi rd ,

phase and finally the youngest set of minerals com

, , ,

prises native silver compound s of C opper and silver , ,

su l phides o f Z inc iron and anti mony with fl u o rsp a r

, , ,

etc.

Slight modifications o f the above type s are found i n

N assau and i n Alsace .

T o the south of the B rocken G ran ite ( H arz Moun

tains) and its metamorphi c aureole the m ining dis ,

14
2 10 TH E G E O LO G Y O F O RE D E PO S I T S
tri e t of St Andreasberg is situated i n the Wie d e rs c hiefe r
.

( L ower D evonian ) The rocks consi st of slates with

.

limestone bands and intrusive sheets of diabase .

The actual mineral area is cut O ff sharply from the -

surrounding district by two large crush zones or faults -

( the s o called R uscheln which converge westwards

-
,

and enclose a wedge shaped area 3 kilometres i n length

-

b y 1 kilometre i n width on the east ( pp 1 88 .

,

The lodes are si mple fracture s varying i n width

from an i nch to 1 5 feet The principal vein mineral is .

well cry stallized calcite which exi sts i n two genera

-
,

tions . I n the older generatio n there occur arsenical

and anti mon ial ores an d sulphides with nickeliferou s
an d cobalti ferous minerals I n addition there are Z inc .

and lead sulphides with subordin ate amounts of copper

pyri t es i ron pyrites and pyrrhotite
, O f som ewhat
, .

later origi n is fahlerz which occurs with quartz the , ,

latter replacing part of the calcite After thi s com e .

s ulphides of copper lead and sparingly zinc with, , , ,

n ative silver and millerite A fourth stage in the hi story .

i s the conversion of si lver to stephanite and other

sulphides and the formation of arsenides antimonides
, ,

an d complex m inerals F i nally native S ilver occurs .

,

with realgar calcspar an d many zeolites ; and secon

,

dary carbonates with ho rn sil ve r cobalt bloom mala , ,

chite etc Among th e minerals pre s ent i n small quantity

,
.

are axinite epidote garnet and fl u o rsp a r

, , ,
.

The b arytic silver ores of the G uadalaj ara district in ,

Central S pain are som ewhat si milar to those o f the

,

di s trict north of Al m e rIa i n Andalusia ( Southern Spain ) ,

.

I n the form er locality the lodes are in gneiss and mica

schi s t and con sist of quartz barytes and carbonate o f
, , ,

i ron N ative silver with ruby an d other S ilver ores such

.
,
2 12 TH E G E O LO GY O F O R E D E PO S ITS

i n the fahlbands are sulphides of C opper and co b alt and ,

silver ores in exceedingly small quantities The lode s

,
.
,

o f which there are a great number often close together ,

an d forming a network vary from a mere kni fe edge to ,

-

2 feet i n width and traverse the fahlbands obliquely i n

,

a north westerly di rection O n ly those parts of the

-
.

lodes which traverse the fahl b an ds are rich enough

for mining The vei n min eral s are calcium carbonate
.
-
,

fl u o rs p a r and quartz D olom ite an d barytes are rare

. .

Adularia and albite al s o occur with a s b e sto s and as b es ti

form m in erals Carbonaceous minerals such a s anth ra
.
,

cite and graphite a re occasion ally m et with i n quantity

, .

Zeolites such as apophyllite harm otome stil b ite etc

, , , , .
,

are also f ound an d som etimes prehnite i s present

, .

The pri ncipal ores are native s ilver i n various form s

associated with calcite but quicksilver and gold also ,

exist with mercurial com pounds ho rn sil v e r red silver , ,

o res and complex com pounds of i ron cobalt arsenic

, , , ,

antimony C opper silver and s ulphur

, Among the
, , .

other metalli ferous minerals we m ay m ention mar

c a site and other sulph ides such as those of Z i nc C opper , , ,

lead arsenic and i ron all of which are more or less

, , ,

argenti f erous P yrrhotite Is also present an d there i s

.
,

a rarer occurrence of native arsenic an d C opper with

co b alt bloom and carbonate of i ron As a whole it .
,

should be rem arked that the native silver i s by far the

most important m ineral and in comparison with it s ,

sulphides occurs in the ratio o f anything from 1 0 to 2 0

to
The reaction s which broug ht about the formati on o f
native silve r are supposed to have been initiate d by
,

the action o f steam on sulphides and su l p ha rse n id es

o f s i lver and t o h a ve produced native silver
, . _
nativ e ,
 H Y D AT O G E N E S I S 2 13

arsenic etc and a liberation of s ulphuretted hydro g

, .
,
en
and sulphur dioxide ( see p I t has been stated .

that the silver was originally b rought to its present

po s ition in solution as the carbonate or b icar b on ate of
sil ver which wa s decompo s ed by carbonaceou s m atter
,

o r ferrous compounds I t ha s also b een S h own e x p e ri

.

mentally th at a hot s olution of ferric sulphate di s s olves

silver but this action is reversed at lower temperature s
, ,

as expressed i n the following equation :

2 Ag F e 2( S O 2 ) 3 2 FeS O 4
é
.

Vein s similarly connected with fahlbands have b e en ‘

worked i n D auphi n e F ran ce The H ungarian silver

, .

ore deposits near Kaschau we re form erly worked for

, ,

gold i n the upper parts of th e lodes where it occurred ,

with anti mony och re The pri mary ores con sist of .

argen t iferou s antim onite j ameson ite etc ; an d slightly, , .

auriferous pyrites sulphide s of zinc C opper and arsenic

, , , ,

with quartz a little calci te and carbonate of i ron

, , .

The silver ores of J apan ( Akita i slan d o f S ado an d , ,

near Tokyo ) belong to the siliceous sulphidic group

They are conn ected W
,

ith Tertiary eruptives the inter ,

mediate types o f which are propylitized I n some .

localities compounds of m anganese occur i n a b undance ,

b u t in oth er s cupri ferous mineral s enter largely into

the composition of the lodes I n addition to quartz .
,

calcite an d other carbo n ates occur with sulphides of

silve r lead zinc and i ron G old i s of importance in
, , , .

s om e of th e vein s .

I n the province of Chi li ( China ) ru b y silver ores -

, ,

argentite and chloride of silver are found i n association

, ,

with galena b lende and arsenical ores which are con

, ,

n ec te d with dykes of felsite .

2 1
4 TH E G E O LO GY O F O R E D E PO S I T S
The sil ver ores of Southern Sardinia occur i n a‘

granite and i n the zone of m etam orphosed S ilurian

rocks into which it i s intruded N ear the surface th e .
1

lodes con si st m ainly of barytes and galen a with quartz ,

calcite and z in c b l e n d e I n depth they are siliceou s

, .
,

b ut con si st largely of calcite with fl u o rsp a r and zeolite s ;

the m etalliferous mi neral s usually comp ri s e native silver ,

argentiferous galena and b lende ho rn sil ve r and ruby , ,

silver ores ; marcasite pyrrhotite and sulphide s of , ,

C opper and arsenic are also present with co b alt and

antim oni al ores carb onate of i ron an d other mi nerals
, , .

The final phase of lode fo rmation is represented b y

carbon ate phosphate a nd ch romate o f lead with nickel
, , ,

and cobalt bloom etc , .

V E I NS OF NI C KE L AN D C O B A LT O RE S .

The or e s of nickel and cobalt are divi sible into two

main groups ; th e first o f which i ncludes the sulphides
of cobalt n ickel an d bismuth ; the second howev er
, , , ,

com prises th e hydrosilicate o res of nickel which belo n g ,

to the oxidic hyd a to ge n e tic types of veins an d which ,

are described under that head Th e second group i s .

th e mo re i mportant com mercially .

I n th e sulph idic nickel an d cobalt group th e ores

are further subdivided i nto two mor e or less in
definite types accordin g to the dominant mineral con
,

s titu e n ts .

The
ores of nickel and cobalt occur p ri ncipally
as sulphides or arsenides an d comprise such mineral s ,

as smaltine co b alt glance — double sulphide of nickel

,

an d cobalt erythrine a s bolan e ( wad with oxide of

, ,

cobalt u p to 40 per chloanthite m illerite and ,

various sulphates arsenates arsenides and anti monides

, , ,
2 16 TH E G E O LO GY O F O RE D E PO S I T S
found i n faults or lodes traversi ng the M an sfeld copper
district i n the Thii ringe r Wald
, .

At Kamsdorf an d oth er places in Thuringia ( Saxony) ,

lodes occasionally brecciated an d traversi ng both the

, ,

Kupferschiefer and the underlying conglomerate of the

Zech s tein series contain asbolane cobalt b loom an d
, , ,

smaltite with calcite an d barytes Th e cobalt lodes of

, .

S pessart near B aden have a similar genesis

, , .

I n Styria t he hornblendic slates and gneiss contain

,

wide pyriti c zon es or f ahlbands i n which mispickel , , ,

pyrrhotite and i ron pyrites form ban d like masses

, ,
-
.

N ear the su rface the sulphides are oxidized The .

cobalt and nickel ores are found in lodes t raversi n g

these fahl bands and are associated w ith calcite quartz
, , ,

and the ores of lead bi smuth a rse n sic an d copper , , ,

.

I n th e F ichtelgebi rge the ores of cobalt and nickel ,

are found with carb on ate of iron bismuth an d barytes ; , ,

while i n the district o f S iegen P russia they are met with , ,

i n lodes containing car b onate of i ron and C opper ores .

I n the Schneeberg di strict already referred to under ,

silver ores ( p the cobalt lodes are conn ected with

.
-

the gran ites which are i ntruded i nto schists and contact
altered slates ; they are younger than the ti n lodes .

The cobalt lodes are num erous and the ores are
-
,

characterized by quartz and nickel and bi smuth o res ; ,

th ey are met with among decom posed crushed country

rock which fills th e vein s C alcite carbonate of iron .
, ,

an d ankerite with occa sion al barytes fl u o rsp a r an d

, , ,

ores of arsenic silver uran ium C opper zinc and lead

, , , , , ,

are m et with At the time of formation of the lodes

.
,

the origin al min erals appear to have been m ainly

carbonates with barytes ; these have been s u b sequently
replaced by silica .
 H Y D A T O GE N E S I S 2 17

I n the Wa llis Valley district situ ated b etween th e ,

P en nine Alps and the B ernese O berland lodes of copper , ,

in chloritic gneiss contai n cobalt and n ickel ores with

,

spathic vei nstones ; they are characterized b y the

presence of quartz copper s ulphide grey copper ore
, , ,

galena lead molybdate and other s econ dary ore s of lead

, .

Co b alt a n d nickel ores occur in P iedmont with ,

quartz calcite and ores of copper

, , .

I n N assau lodes of quartz with spathic i ron ore

, ,

ankerite copper and n ickeliferous pyrite s a n d b ism uth

, ,

ore are foun d i n ancien t volcanic tuffs and picrites

, .

I n L os Angelos C ounty ( C alifornia ) argenti f erous ,

co b alt ores are found i n lodes having a barytic vei n

stone .

The occurrenc e o f cobalt and arsenical ores with

gold and silver in q u artz lodes whic h t raverse talcose
slates has been noted i n con nection with acid intrusion s
in S ierra F amatina Argent in e , .

Cobalt ores are foun d in lodes traversing schists near

Balmoral ( Tran svaal ) H ere the lodes con sist of chal
.

c e d o n ic quartz and fibrous horn blende with smaltite ,

cobalt bloom and molyb d ena

,
.

B ISMUTH O RE S .

The most common bismuth minerals are the native -

metal an d it s sulphides Among the subordinate ores .

may be mentioned compound s of b i smuth with sele

nium tellurium silver gold C opper and lead ; while
, , , , ,

oxides carbonates ar s enates and silicates are al s o

, , , ,

known i n still s maller amounts as secondary products ,

There i s no well marked group of b i sm uth vein s and

-
,

i n the n atural classi fication mineral s of b i smuth must

be regarded not as the principal but as subordinate
, ,
2 18 TH E G E O LO GY O F O R E D E PO S I T S
con stituents occu rring occasion ally in such quantities
,

as to establish exceptional modifications of other vein s .

Thus they someti mes occu r in app reciable quantities

'

i n auriferous quartz vein s a s in the auriferous bismuth ,

ores pyrites an d mispickel of Queen s land ; th ey are

, , ,

pro b a b ly con n ected with granite and in N ew South ,

Wales quartz with native b ismu t h gold and m o l yb

, , , ,

d e n u m occurs near the contact of granite with slate s

,
.

The most i m portant deposits of bismuth are those of

B olivia ( Chorolque an d Tasna ) where they are m et with ,

i n a large number o f vein s which have close a ffinities

.

with stan niferous silver vei ns The ores con s ist largely
-
.

of bismut h i ntergrown with cassiterite an d seem to be ,

connected with dykes of dacite an d quartz trachyte

traversing altered clay slates ; wolfram also occurs I n .

association with the ores are the usual accom pan i ments
of th e sil v e rftin lodes such as pyrites an d other ores of
,

i ron sulphides o f copper lead zinc etc wit h quartz

, , , ,
.
, ,

siderite b arytes and occasionally tourmaline

, , .

Bismuth ore s occur also i n Telemarken i n associa

tion with tourmalin e copper veins contain ing sulphides
-

of i ron and lead with quartz an d carbonates ; i n many

tin fie l d s as i n the Altenberg i n som e parts of Corn
-
, ,

wall ( E ast P ool M in e ) an d i n Q ueen sland ,

.

I n as sociation with C opper sulph ide bismuth ore ,

occurs in the C obar M i ne i n N ew South Wales I n .

Australi a bismuth has been noted as occurring i n an

och reous deposit rou nd a therm al spring ; the minerals
pre sent wer e gold and bismuth carbonate b ut on being ,

followed downward s th e deposit was found to contai n

the telluride of bi s muth .
2 20 TH E G E O LO GY O F ORE D E P O S ITS
characterized b y the presence of quartz fl u o rsp a r , ,

calcite and chalybite

, .

I n Y ork C ounty N ew B runswick ores of n ative , ,

antimony and s tibn ite contai ning a low percentage of ,

gold and silver are found i n a ssociation with calcite

,

and quartz i n vein s t raversing black slates I n Son ora .

C ounty M exico i m portan t deposits of antimonial

, ,

oxide s are found ( p .

I n N ew South Wales an d Victoria antim onial ores ,

have b een mined I n N ew S outh Wale s they are

.

as s ociated with quartz while i n Victoria ( as at Sun b ury ) ,

the antim ony i s foun d i n gold quartz .

O f E uropean localities for antimony those of West

phalia Saxony and Bohemia are th e m o st noted
, , .

I n the U nterharz the sulphid e of anti mony occurs ,

with various m etallic sulphide s and arsenides calcite , ,

strontian ite ankerite sideri te b aryte s gypsum fl u o r

, , , , ,

spar and quartz i n breccias in P al aeozoic sl ates

, , .

At M ileschau i n B ohemia vei n s contai ni ng antimony

, ,

as radiating n eedles are found i n con nection with

kersantite which traverses hornblende granite .

I n O porto ( P o rtugal ) antimony i n association with

gold is foun d i n a di strict contain in g i n addition to tin ,

an d wolfram vein s lodes of argenti f erous galen a ,

.

I n F rance the departments of Cantal H aute L oi re ,

-
,

and P u y de D om e yield antimony ores th e lodes of

- -
,

wh ich occur i n gneiss m ica schi st and gran ite Th e ,

-
, .

vei ns consi st of anti moni al ores with q uartz an d a

little z in c b l e n d e an d pyrites A rgentiferous an d plum .

bi ferous vei n s with anti mony also occur while calcite ,

and barytes are occasionally present as gangue minerals .

Antim onial ore s are also worked i n Corsica and

S ardinia I n C orsica the antimonial ores are complex
.
,
 H YD A T O G E N E S I S 22 1

and con s i st of q uartz with variou s sulph ides i ncluding ,

cinna b ar native sulphur an d calcite I n Sardin ia also

, ,
.

the vein s contain calcite .

The T uscan antimony lodes contai n sulphides of

arsenic and mercury with quartz an d occasionally ,

sulphur in pockets and stringers B etween the P ermian .

shales and th e E ocene limestones are siliceou s ore

bodie s which yield anti mon ial ores .

In H ungary th e anti mony lode s consist of q uartz

and calcite with sti b nite an d pyrite s The ores are
,
.

particularly rich where the lodes are in graphite or

C hlorite schists and th e latter become impregnated
,

with sulphide of antimony pyrites an d a little ci nnabar , , ,

for a distance of 1 2 feet on either side of the lode s .

L odes containing anti monial ores with blende a u rif ,

e ro u s pyrites quartz and calcite are also known

, , ,
.

O xides o f antimony occur in li mestone of N eocomian

age i n the p rovi nce of Con stantin e Algeria , .

I n J apan K Y amada has described antimonial ores

, .

i n the island of Shikoku where lodes occur in sericitic ,

schi s ts which near the lode s are impregnated with

,

pyrites The vein s ton e is quartz with s ome calcite

.

I n Sarawak N orthern Borneo antimonial ores are

, ,

found i n lode s traversi ng limestone s and slate The .

ore s consist of stibn ite native anti mony and oxide of

,

antimony i n quartz
, .

A R S E N I CA L O R E S .

T he principal arsenical m inerals are realgar an d

orpiment Arseni c is however a very com mon associate
.
, ,

of antimony an d occurs united with it i n the complex

,

ores of other metal s such as fahlerz etc , ,

.

N ative arsenic is also found with native anti mony .

 TH E G E O L O GY O F O R E D E PO S I T S
’
'

2 22 .

The occurren ces of workable deposits of ar s enical and

anti monial ores are li mited but are known at Al c ha r , ,

near Salonica ( T urkey ) i n N e w C aledonia and other , ,

places I n com parison with the numerous antimonial

.

veins those contai ning similar compounds of arsenic

,

are quite rare .

R ealgar and orpimen t are deposited from som e hot

S p ri ngs an d as s u b limates are con n ected with volcanic
,

activity They are also met with i n vein s and as

.

i mpregnations .

I n G alicia realgar occurs with gypsum and quartz i n

argillaceous rocks i n Tuscany in marl i ntergrown with
, ,

gypsum and marcasite and associated with sulphide ,

of C opper pyrrhotite li m onite sulphur and fl u o rsp a r

, , , ,
.

I n the sam e provi nce i t i s con nected with cin nabar ,

as has also been o b served i n Asturias ( Spain ) and

at H uancavelica ( P eru ) .

N ear Civita Vecchi a vein s traversi ng sandstones

contai n calcite realgar and orpiment , , .

N ear Krem n itz i n the H ungari an ore mountain s

,
-
,

Triassic dolomitic limestones are traversed by i rregular

veins containing clay i n which are embedded lumps ,

of arsenic s ulphide ; i t i s also found i n pockets at th e

upper limit of the limeston es .

While the arsen ic vein s seem to fall into a group of

the n own they do not constitute th e main sources
,

of arsenic .

The most im portant source s are those i n which th e

arsenic i s a by product of the working of other vein s
- .

The pri ncipal ore i s the double sulphide of iron and

arsenic ( m ispickel or arsenical pyrites ) ; i n silver and
lead v ein s it occurs at St Andreasberg P ribram and .
, ,

other places and in the barytic silver vein s of Saxony

,
.
22
4 TH E G E O LO G Y O F O RE D E PO S I T S

and realgar ; it is s poradic i n many sulphidic vein s

which carry gold silver an d the sulphides of C opper
, , ,

lead and zinc ; the accompanying vein s tones are

,

quartz chalcedony opal bitumen calcite dolomite

, , , , , ,

brown spar and more rare l y barytes fl u o rsp a r

, , , , ,

gypsum and sulphur , .

Antimony as a mineral paragenetic with mercu ry

, ,

occur s i n C alifornia M exico B orneo R u s sia ( N iki , , ,

to v ka ) Corsica S ervia Bosnia and H ungary

, , A , , .

mi neral having the c o mposition H n 4 S 7 is found i n ,

M exico an d i n H ungary C in nabar has in some in

, ,

stances been deposited on anti monite An abundance

,
.

of i ron pyrites i n some places i s an in dication of the

presence of mercury .

M ercury i s freely soluble i n hot strong sulphohydrate

or car b onate solutions forming a dou b le s alt with one ,

—
of the alkalies as for i nstance H gS 4 N a zS ; from , ,

this it may be precipitated as a s ulphide with a ,

li ttle free mercury by dilution or by the action of

.
, ,

som e bitum inous matter with which it i s so frequently

associated as at I dria i n C alifornia an d i n R ussia
, , , .

As sodium s ulphide also dis s olves pyrites blende , ,

gold etc these minerals are found with C in na b ar

,
.
,
.

When such solution s react on limestone the limeston e ,

i s converted partly to gypsum and partly to more

soluble compounds while any argillaceous material ,

which may have been present is impregnated wi th

C i n nabar and left in the place of the limestone .

Carbonaceous or bituminous material favours the

deposition of C in nabar .

The deposits appear to have originated m ainly by ~

the deposition of C inna b ar fro m such solution s as

these but owing to the volatility of mercury and
, ,
 H YD A T O G E N E S I S 225

mercurial compounds at comparatively low tempera

tures some think that they m ay be due to sublim a
,

tion ; it i s highly probable that steam was an important

factor in many cases .

—
The dark sulphide m etacin n abar occurs as an —
alteration of the red ci nn abar and is frequently present
,

in the upper parts of such deposits N ative mercury .

may re s ult from oxidation of the sulphide .

I n the depo sits of Almaden the C inna b ar occurs ,

impregnating sandston e from which much of the

,

siliceous material appear s to have been dissolved .

D eposits of mercury are found in connection with

the following igneous rocks : G ranite ( C or s ica ) dia b ase
( Almaden ) ; i n green stone porphyry m elaphyre an d-
, ,

basalt ; serpentine and olivi ne rock ( California ) ; rhyo

lite ( N ew Almaden ) trachyte and other lavas .

Typ ica l E x a m p l es o f Q u ick s il v e r D e p o s its — T he

mo s t important deposi t s of m ercury are those of Almaden ,

i n the Sierra Moren a ( Southern S pain ) The rock s .

consist of highly in clin ed Silurian an d D evon ian shales ,

and quartzites broken through b y diabase and mela

,

h
p y re intrusions .

The C innabar occurs in three beds of quartzite as

more or less complete impregnation s or as string s ,

running through the beds The i mpregnation s die out

.

gradually in the quartzites but suddenly where the s e

,

a b ut agai n st the shales .

The C inn abar i s a s sociated with native mercury ,

pyrites and copper pyrites

, O ther minerals are
.

practically non existant b ut a little baryt es is present

-
,

wi t h some b ituminous material .

Very little mercury occurs i n th e shales and lime

stone while none i s f oun d in th e igneou s rocks
, .

IS
226 TH E G E O LO GY O F ORE D E PO S I T S
I n the province of A sturia s cinna b ar with a rsenical , ,

ores containing up to 0 7 per cent of mercury occurs ‘

.
,

in b reccias and as impregnations of quartzites and c o n

,

glomerates in a Carbon iferous limestone series -

.

The cele b rated quick s ilver deposits of I dria in Car ,

niola ( Austria) occur i n a serie s of Triassic limestones

, ,

s hales tu ffaceou s san dstones marls dolomites and con

, , , ,

glomerates .

The cinna b ar exi sts as impregnations o f dolomite

and dolomitic breccias i n association with pyrite s and
native m ercury with mi neral s such as quartz secondary
, ,

calcite dolomite s om e fluor and an appreciable am ount

, , ,

of bitumen which has probably acted as a precipitant

, .

The riche st of the mercury deposits occupied fissure s in

con nection with the b odie s of ore b ut they h ave all ,

been wor k ed away .

'

There a re two groups of min e s i n the region Those .

of the south eastern distri ct are working on lode s a b out

-

3 feet wide s ituated i n dolomitic breccia s and con

,
-

glomerates which lie between dolomitic b eds a bove

, ,

an d calcareous slate and m arly lime stone b elow The ,

.

ci nnabar impregn ate s the overlying dolomites for C O Il -

g

s id e ra b l e distances and also passes along the less

,

important b ut parallel zones of b recciation .

I n the n orth west mine the rocks are much folded

-
.
)

The rocks overlying the conglomerate are highly

bitumi nous shales impregnated with ore in the form of
i rregular bunches an d pockets ranging up to 60 feet or ,

more i n width and traversed by numerous vein s The

, .

process of impregnation probably took place in E ocene

times .

The ci nnabar deposits of th e old volcan ic region s of

Tuscany occur in zon es o f excessive fissu ring in the
228 TH E G E O LO GY O F O R E D E PO S I T S
and other minerals of which pyrites galena copper , , ,

pyrites stibn ite s ilver quartz b arytes and bitum en

, , , , , ,

are th e mo st important .

The Californian quicksilver d eposits o f Sulphur Ban k ,

N ew Almaden N ew Idria and G reat We stern mining

, ,

districts are situated i n the coastal mountain s which ,

consist of folded C retaceous slate s pierced by intru sion s

of granite quartz porphyry andesite s rhyolite s and
, , ,

b asaltic rocks ; the mercurial ores are most often

associated with ande site and b a s alt The depo s it s as .

a rule con sist of i rregular lode s of cinna b ar with ,

n um erous small vein s and stockworks or i mpregna t ion s

of the porous country rock but there i s no extensive -
,

m etasomatic replacement .

At the G reat Western M ine the cinnabar is i n a ssocia

tion with pyrites quartz and b itumen i n a flat depo s it
, , ,

at the j unction of N eocomian sandstone with an

opalized serpentine .

The N ew Almaden ores of cinnabar an d native quick

silver occur as stockworks i n th e vicinity of disturbed
sandstones serpenti nes an d diabase Associated with
, ,
.

th em are C opper and iron pyrites i n small quantities ,

also quartz calcite dolomite an d magnesite

, , ,
.

I n B rewster County Texas the ores are found in , ,

C retaceous shales an d limestones which are traver s ed ,

b y sheets dykes plug s and laccolites of rhyolite an d

, , , ,

phonolite and covered by lava fl o ws of a basaltic

,
-

charact e r The limeston e is of L ower C retaceou s age

. ,

an d i s represented i n the Te rl igu a D istrict H ere the .

li mestone is somewhat cavernous an d i s traversed b y ,

vein s an d strings of calcite which contain cinn abar , ,

toge ther wi th gyp s um and th e o x yc hl o rid e s of quick

silver. I n some ca s es the walls of cavities are li ned
 H Y DATO G E N ES I S 2 29

with cinna b ar which is also m et with i n quantity on

,

the floor s of such cavern s F riction breccias cemented .

-

by calcite and gypsum with oxidized pyrites an d ,

cin nabar are not uncommon features

,
.

C in nabar is also met with in the s hales of th e

U pper C retaceous I n the Study B utte region th e
.

shales contain thin b ands of limeston e and the whole ,

is situated b etween b ed s of sandstone The quick .

silver ores are al s o found traver s ing the ign eou s rocks
in th e f orm of stri ngs .

The P eruvian deposits at H uancavelica occur i n slates ,

lime stones sandstones an d conglomerates of J urassic

, , ,

age penet rated by trachytic rocks with which th ey

, ,

appear to be connected The accompanying mi nerals .

are pyrites mi spickel and sulphide of arsen ic

, ,
.

At H uitzuco i n the State of G uerrero i n M exico

, ,

the mercurial ores con si st o f cin nabar metacin nabar , ,

l iv in gsto n it e pyrites gyps u m s ulphur

, calcite and
, , , ,

bitumen The occurrence of the antimonial sulphide

’

of mercury l ivin gsto n it e is th e most remarkable feature

, ,
.

I n the State of S an L uis P otosi the cinnabar o f ,

G uadalcazar is con nected with massive lim estones in

tr a ded by granite an d porphyry U nimportant deposits .

of zinc and lead are also found T he ci nna b ar i s i n the .

disturbed limestone and i n i rregular depo sits i n clay

, ,

with calcite fiu o rsp a r gyp s um and a little barytes

, , ,
.

I n the State of Santa R o s a M exico cin nabar is found , ,

i n dolomitic lime s tone passi ng i nto white lim eston e i n

, ,

association with free mercury quartz and clay , ,

.

I n C hina cin nabar deposit s associated with anti mony

,

occur i n the province of Kwe ic ho u i n quartzose vei n s ,

t raversing dense magn esian limes t on e The deposits .

are found to b e of several form s : ( 1 ) As i mpregn ati on s

 TH E G E O L O GY O F O R E D E P O S ITS
' '

2 30

i n well d e fin e d beds ; ( 2 ) as i mp reg natio ns alon g j oi nts

-

and bedding plane s ; ( 3) a s isol ated masses pockets an d , ,

Vugs containing cinnabar

, calcite and q uartz ; (4) , ,

i rregul ar di s seminations i n a n u mb er of disturbed

li meston e beds .

Om c VE I N S OF H Y D ATO GE N E TIC O RI G I N .

T his class of veins comprises ores which consist mai nly

o f oxides carbonates and silicates which have b een
, , ,

deposited from solution s Altho u gh not i nfrequently .

accompanied b y sulphides such compounds are gener ,

ally only present as accessory o r accidental minerals ,

except i n the vein s which are intermediate b etween the
tru e oxidic vein s and those carrying sulphidic ores with
large amou n ts of carbonates .

T he most important minerals o f thi s group are the

oxide s an d c a rbonates of i ron an d manganese but the ,

hydrosilicates of nickel are also included With regard .

to th e s ource o f the ores o f i ron an d mang anese there ,

i s much uncertain ty but in th e case of the nickel the ,

bo nn e ctio n with serpentine is u ndo ubted There i s a . .

to tal a b sen c e fo f minerals form ed under pneumatolytic

’

c ond iti on s .

IDIC I RO N
‘

- O! O RE S OF AN D M A N GA N E S E .

I ron an d m anganese ores have a similar mode of

.

occurr ence i n N ature are not uncom monly as s oc 1ated ,

with one another and h ave si m ilar vei n stone a c c o m p a n i

,

ment s .

The c o mm o n o re s of i ron are red and b rown h aem a

~

tite a nd the spath ic I ron ore The b rown h aematite .

(l im o n Ite etc ) generally arises from a secondary altera

“

.
,

tion or hydration of red h aematite or of spathic i ro n

2
3 2 TH E G E O L O GY O F O RE D E PO S I T S
lodes of spathic iron ore have been worked with copper
ores barytes and occasionally a little cinnabar
, , .

S pathic i ron ores have also been wor k ed i n Connecticut

where in addition to spathic ores sulphides
, ,

of various metals occur with quartz .

I n the red h aematite ores the pri ncipal vei nston e

accompaniment is quartz or j asper with small ,

amounts of car b onates of lim e and iron limonite a , ,

little b arytes m anganese an d fl u o rsp a r These de

, ,
.

posits may be regarded as modifications of spathic i ron

veins .

I n Saxony the red and brown i ron o res in the district ,

n ear Zwickau con sist of red and brown h aem atite with
,

ferruginou s quartz ; they exi st either as contact deposits

b etween greenston e and S lates or as i rregular siliceous
,

imp regnations of O rdovician quartzite s or as pockets ,

and ram ifying vein s in m asses of O rdovician diabases .

They are believed to have been formed by lateral

secretion an d possibly by decomposition of the dia b ase
, .

I n the E rzgebi rge of Saxony the veins occur i n brec

,

c ia t e d lodes i n both granite an d m etamorphic rocks ,

and contain h aem atit e and limonite with small amounts ,

of bismuth and cobalt ores and sulphide o f copper ,

wavellite fl u o rsp a r carbonates of lime and i ron barytes

, , , ,

quartz j asper chalcedony clay etc M anganese ores

, , , ,
.

sometimes exist i n considerable quantity ; they are

always am ong the later min erals of the lodes for they ,

are found to traverse them in strings ; but occasionally

they occupy the whole width of the lode C alc and .

C opper u ranite are also found

-
.

The manganese lodes contai n ores of mangan ese i n ,

a ssociation with veinston e materi als S imilar to those

characterizing th e i ron lodes, the principal b eing quartz ,
 H YDATO G E N ES I S 2 33

calcite and barytes L ike i ron ores it i s necessary for

, .
,

commercial purposes that the manganese ores S hould

,

contain over 40 per cent of th e metal an d the n um b e r .

,

of deposits of thi s type containing ore rich enough for

working i s somewhat lim ited The ores principally .

used are secon darily en riched bodies ; n i ne tenths of the -

material wrought being used i n the manufacture of

“

s ie el eisen
p g and manganese steel wh ile the rest is ,

employed i n the p reparation of chlori ne p e rm a ga n a te ,

of potash an d other su b stance s of commercial value

,
.

T he G erman manganese lodes h ave received con

s id e ra b l e attention from Continental geologi sts At .

L angen b erg i n Saxony there are large b recciated lodes

, ,

and stockworks which at thei r outcrops are conn ected

,

with secondary depo s its which occupy shallow basin like ,

-

depre s sion s i n schists and con sist of i ron an d man

,

gane se ores I n som e localities as at G raul S imilar

.
, ,

deposit s contain cobalt an d manganese ores with ,

bi s muth och re -
.

I n the E i b en stock granite and near P latten i n , ,

Bohemia the mangan e se ores form stockworks and

, ,

vei ns ranging up to 3 feet i n width At J o ha n n ge o r .

g e n s t a d t ( S axony ) the ores occur

, a s bedded vein s i n
schi sts and slates the count ry rock b eing i mpregnated
,
-

with soft ores of i ron P seudomorphs of h aematite .

after calcite anhydrite and pyrolusite are found The

, , , .

manganese is mainly i n the form of oxide s .

I n the H arz M ountai ns at I lfeld deposits of man , ,

ganite p silomelane braun ite hausman nite pyrolusite

, , , , ,

and wad i n a s sociation with barytes and carbonates of

,

i ron magnesium and lim e are foun d i n thin strings

, ,

and vein s i n a ma ss of weathered porphyrite which

is intrusive i n th e R otliegende ( L ower P ermian ) .
 TH E G E O L O GY D E P OS I TS
' ’

23
4 O F O RE I

I n the Thu rin ge rwa l d vein s of mangan e se ore s traverse ,

porphyry melaphyre and melaphyre conglo merate

, ,
.

I n S tyria ( Veitsch ) the lodes traverse Sil u rian lime ,

‘

s tones and c on s i s t of rhodoch rosite

, .

I n the depa rtm e nt of Sa one e t L oi re ( F rance ) lodes - -

,

of psilomelan e with quart z barytes fl u o rsp a r limonite , , , ,

an d hydrated oxide of arsenic are connect ed with ,

granite T he lode s are formed along lines o f over

.

thrusting traversi ng Tertiary rocks .

I n the district of H uelva and i n a zone of the Silurian ,

slates extending f rom S eville to Cape S in eo on the ,

P ortugue s e coast are found lenticular ma sses of silicates

,

of m angane s e i ron an d li m e which have had th ei r

, , ,

origin i n thermal springs I n association with them .

there are quartz ( frequently j a s peroid ) carbonate of ,

mangan ese and pyrites I n depth th e deposits are

, .

m ore pyritic: a n d it is only the dark weathered outcrop

which i s worked At S anta Catali na h owever the ores
.
.
, ,

have b een m i ned to a depth of 33 0 feet .

I I N I CK E L
'

H Y D R O S L C A TE O RE S .

These n i ckel ores a re con nected with the se rp e n tin iza

tion of peridoti te an d pyroxenite rocks ; they may be
regarded as having been d eposited i n the fi ssures tra
'

versing masse s of s e rpenti ne by the com b i ned proces ses

of lateral secretion and hydatogenesis acting d u ring the ,

change of olivin e bearing rock s to serpentine and of a -

,

subsequent concentration by weathering of the ser

penti ne Some of the ore deposits m ay possibly b e
.

regarded as allied to segr egations ( se e pp 69 .

,

The nickel probably occurred i n minute quantities i n

"

the ferr o magnesian silicates o f the original peridotites

’

wh ich sh ortly after i ntrusion became cha n ge d to ser

.
2 3 6 TH E G E O L O GY O F O RE D E PO S I T S
T he post C retaceous i ntru s ion s of harz b urgite near
-

R iddles ( O regon ) are con nected with nickeli fe rous

veins The rock has b een to some extent serpentinized
.
,

but contained origin ally olivin e and bronzite with c hro

mite and magn etite S erpentine vein s traverse the
.

mass i n association with hydrous s ilicate of n ickel At

,
.

the time o f the separation of the nickel ore n umerous ,

vei n s of quartz an d i ron oxide resulted from th e expan sion

which accompan ied the chem ical changes i n the rock ;
they consequently often radiate from centres .

I n Silesia the deposits of nickel ore are connected

with serpentin e formed from peridotite i n wh ich th e
, ,

rem ai n s of olivin e c rystals occur together with mag ,

n e t it e tremolite an d ch romite
, , .

The veins i n this half s e rpentinized rock con si st of

-

serpentin e talc and clay and are them s elve s traversed

, , ,

by narrow vein s of garnierite an d other nickel ores

i n association with quartz O pal and chrysoprase , , .

The so called n odular ores are found i n pockets

-
‘ ’

and stockworks .
 C H A PT E R V

ORE S DU E T O M E TAS O M AT I C
R E P LAC E M E N T

BY meta s omasis is meant a chemical process involving

the replacement of one s u b stance by another not ,

necessarily with the retention of the form or even ,

volume of the original mineral F or i nstance should a

,
.
,

pure limeston e be converted i nto a dolom ite b y the re

placement o f part of its calci um b y m agnesium such a ,

change would b e purely chem ical and would b e known ,

as metasomatic replacement .
’

I n all ca s e s of true meta soma s is the replacing material

is introduced b y ci rculating water s frequently acting ,

from a b ove downwards and the solvent action of the

,

water is increa s ed b y the presence i n it of such com

pounds as alkaline car b onates sulphide s S ilicates car
, , ,

b o n ic acid or the humic acid s all of which have special

, ,

action s on the country rock-

.

Waters charged with mineral matter in solution ,

acting on a se t of strata of varying com po sition s uch ,

as s andstone s and limestone s have a selective capacity

, ,

for it is noticed that the metalliferou s m aterials are

deposited i n rock s of special compo s ition F or in stance .
,

let u S imagine water s acting along the plane of contact

of an igneou s rock fai rly rich in i ron and a set of alter
, ,

nating grits and li m estones as shown in the figure

, .

2 37
2 38 TH E G E O LO GY O F O RE D E PO S I T S
The iron of the igneous rock will pass partially into
solution during the process of weathering an d a ,

chem ical reaction will take place between this solution

and the limestones resulting in the deposition of an,

i ron ore and the pas s age of an equivalent mas s of lime

,

stone into solution within the region th rough which th e

water circulates .

I t ha s been found conven ient to restrict the u se of

the term metasomatic to those ch emical replacements

FIG .
45 . I L L U S TR ATE TH E I N F LU E N C E O F R O C K
— S E CT I O N TO
C OM P O SI T I O N O N TH E P O SI T I O N O F M E TAS O M A I I C O R E ’ ‘

B O DI E S .

1 ,
I gn eo u s ro c k ; 2 , grits ; 3, l im es to n e . B l ac k p a tc h es in d ic a te o re .

which only take place i n rocks through the agen cy of

circulating water We thus exclude all those change s
.

brought a b out b y high temperature and aqueous and ,

ga seous emanations from cooling igneous magma s ,

which on account of the attendant metamorphism

, ,

would be treated more appropriately under the head

ing s of P neumatolysi s ( p or M e t amorphism ’
.
‘

( p 33 1 )
M eta so m a tIc replacements are brought a b out primarily
by the selective influence of certain rocks for som e
2 40 TH E G E O L O G Y O F O R E D E P O S I TS
These two classes of ore deposits i nclude un der thei r
respective heads the greater number of ores of m e taso
matic origin the former embracing the most i mportant
,

i ron and manganese deposits th e latter those of silver , ,

lead and zinc

, .

M etasomatic ores present certai n features by which

they may be recognized and thus separated from tho s e
,

formed i n other way s There i s i n almo s t all cases an

.

absence of symmetrical b anding or comb structure i n -

the vei n material There is a n otable absence of

.

breccias cemented by vei n stuff an d a gen eral lack of -

,

defin ition b etween the country rock and th e ore -

.

We will now proceed to discu s s the origin and

describe the mode of occurrence of the various m eta so
matic ore beari ng masses
-
.

M E TA S O M ATI C IR O N O R E S .

The ore s of i ron which owe thei r origi n to m e ta so

matic replacement con sist of the carbonate ( P e C O 3 ) ;
the anhydrous oxide h ae matite ( P e zO 3) ; and the hydrated
,

oxides limonite etc

, O ccasion ally silicates are met
,
.

with but by far the most prevalent are the carbonate

,

( chalybite ) and oxide ( h aematite ) M any limonitic ores .

are due to the oxidation and hydration of the car bonate

by waters which carry oxygen or alkalies i n solution
, ,

percolating i nto the ore and causing the carbonate to

,

decompose with the formation of f erric hydrate and the

liberation of carbonic acid gas .

The source of the i ron which gives ri se to m e ta so

matic replacements i s generally in some land area of -

igneous rocks or pyritous sediments which during the , ,

proce s ses of weathering yield ferruginous solution s of

,

various characters dependent on the character of the

,
 M ETASO M AS I S 241

rock the climate the a b sence or presence of vegetation

, , ,

and many other factors Some idea of the i m mense .

quantity of iron leache d out of rocks an d carried away

i n solution may b e formed from the average composition
of river waters The amount of ferric oxide contai ned
.

i n a cu b ic mile of water is as much as thirteen ton s all ,

derived from rocks existing above sea level -

.

A great n um b er of i ron b earing minerals including -

.
,

many of the ferromagnesian silicates allow thei r con ,

ta in e d i ron to pas s readily i nto solution during the

ordinary proces s of weathering ; and pyrites is easily
oxidized to the solu b le ferrous and ferric s u lphates .

The more b asic igneous rocks those richer in i ron ,

and magnesia would furni sh the more highly fe rru

,

g in o u s solution s an d at the same

,
ti me they are more
prone to decomposition than those rocks with a higher
percentage of s ilica .

I ron b earing s olution s may bring about metasomatic

-

changes i n two way s either b y percolating i nto some

—

strata differing i n character from those originally yield

,

ing the i ron which are capa b le of bringing about an

,

exchange of material ; or th ey may find their way i nto

a S hee t of s tanding water at the b ottom of which is ,

some porous depo s it which will extract the i ron by a

meta somatic process .

Calcium carb on ate i s the compound which we fi nd

most often s uffers replacement under the influence of
such s olution s and the cau s e is not di fficult to detect
, .

F errou s and ferric salts such a s the sulphate and ,

chloride are decom posed i n the pre s ence of calcium

,

car b onate with the formation of the carbonate or the

,

oxides of i ron a s the ca s e may b e ; and this i s the

,

reason why so many i ron ore s occur associated with or ,

16
2 42 TH E G E O L O GY O F O R E D E P OS I TS
occupy the position s of limestones in the sedimentary ,

rocks .

I f a solution of ferrous sulphate ( F e S O 4) acts on

calcium carbonate the chemical reaction results in the
,

formation of f errous carbonate and calcium sulphate ,

which reaction i s expressed i n the equation

P es o ,
Ca C 0 3 FeCO 3 c a so ,
.

The i ron carbonate will replace the calcium carbonat e

of a rock molecule for molecule and the calcium ,

S ulphate will either crystallize as gypsum or i f the , ,

s olution is su fficiently acid b e carried away , .

A solution of ferric sulphate a cting on

calcium carbon ate will produce hydrated ferric oxide ,

calcium sulph ate and a liberation of carbonic acid gas

,

3 C a C O 3
H
3 , o 3C a S O 4
P e , ( o H )6 3 c o ,
.

H aematite may b e produced by the direct action o f

ferric chloride on calci um carbonate
F ezC l 6 3 C a C O 3
P e gO s I 3C a C l 2
-
3 C O z
.

F errous car b onate unde r the i nfluence of oxygenated

water or water containing alkaline carbonates in solu
,

tion is decomposed with the formation of the hydrated

, ,

sesquioxide of i ron and thi s i s the origin o f most

,

limonitic ores of meta somatic character

4 P e C O 3
O2 H
3 zO F e2( O H )6 F e2 O 3 4 C O z
.

O ther limonitic ore deposits result from di rect pre

c ip ita t io n of the hydrate and are not replacement s ; ,

these will b e treated later un der the head of P re c ip i

tation ( p ’
.

The i ron in the solutions which give rise to m e ta so

2 44 TH E G E O LO GY O F O RE D E PO S I T S
lime stone may b e taken as an additional proof of their
meta s omatic origin .

The spathic i ron ores of the C oal M eas u res are -

probably precipitations and not replacements for it i s

, ,

unlikely that li meston es recurred at such frequent

i nterval s i n so argillaceou s a series of freshwater
character C ertain limeston e b ands which do occur i n
.

these rocks are occa s ionally replaced i n part b y i ron

ore s but so far no argillaceous i ronstone has b een
, ,

proved to b e a true metasomatic replacement The

alkaline carbonates such as those of s odium a n d
,

potassium meeting with an i ron beari ng solution will

,
-
,

precipitate the hydrou s carbonate of i ron and this is ,

the more probable origi n o f the Coal M easure and -

many other spathic ores .

The i ron ores of m etasomatic origin m ay be divided

roughly into t wo classes
I Contem poraneous i n which the replacement has
.
,

taken place during or immediately after the d eposition

o f the origi nal rock .

2 Subsequent i n which the replacement took place

.
,

some ti me after the deposition and con solidation of

the origi nal rock .

The former class will i nclude most of th e bedded

meta somatic i ron ores occurring i n s edim entary rocks ,

and the lat t er those which exist as i rregular patches

,

an d vein s .

C O N TE M P O RAN E O US T
M E A S O M A TI C I RO N O RE S .

U nder the heading of contemporaneo u s metasomatic

deposits may be included most o f the bedded i ron ore
deposits so f requent i n the great M esozoic sedimentary
series .
 M E T AS O M AS I S 2 45

I n G reat B ritai n the ores occur in te rstratifie d with

b eds belongin g to the L ower M iddle and U pper L ias , , ,

the I n ferior O olites an d the L ower C retaceous rocks

,
.

I n other region s they occu r largely i n the M e sozoic

depo s its b ut s everal case s of m eta somatic ore s are
,

known in rock s of much greater antiquity .

I n th e Silurian system of A merica above the M edi na ,

Sand s tone we have the grea t C li nton i ron group exi sting
,
-

in the State s of N ew Y ork P enn sylvania Wiscon s i n , , ,

Vi rginia and several others

,
.

L ia s sic ore s are worked exten s ively in H anover R ock s .

of I nferior O olite age yield ore s i n L orraine L uxem ,

b urg WIi rte m b e rg U pper Silesia an d Switzerlan d

,
'

, ,
.

I n E ngland the most important ores occur i n the

eastern counti es especially i n L i ncoln shi r e an d Y ork
,

shi re .

At F rodingham i n L incoln shire a L ower L ia s oolitic

, ,

lime s tone b elonging to the zon e of Am mo nites ( A m io cem s)

semico sta tu s has been replaced b v ferrou s carbonate .

It has a m aximum thickne ss of 2 5 feet and a yield of ,

metallic i ron which varies from I I t o 3 5 per cent .

The limestone ha s b een only partially replaced an d ,

t he rock is therefore still rich in calcium carbonate ; at

the same time much of the ore especially n ear the out ,

crop ha s been oxidized to li monite

, .

The ore is generally a brown oolitic rock i n which

the greater part of the s hell fragments an d oolitic
grains have been replaced by ferruginous material I t .

occurs below th e horizon of the C levelan d ores noticed

b elow and thin s out with more or less rapidity wh en
,

traced i n a south easterly direction

-
.

The C leveland ore occurs i n th e u pper part of the

M iddle or M arlston e divi sion of the L ias in th e zone of
2 46 TH E G E O L O GY O F O RE D E P OS I TS
A mmo nites (A ma l theus) a horizon characterize d
p
sin a tu s,

b y calcareous bed s over the greater part of E ngland .

FIG 46 — G E O L O G ICAL M AP
. . OF TH E C L E V E LA N D H I LL S ,

S H OW ING TH E O U TCR O P O F TH E C L E V E LA N D I R O NS T O N E .

Sca l e, 4 m il es to I inc h .

As will b e seen from the accompanying m ap ( F ig .

th e outcrop o f the ore i s most irregular i n form but ,

2 48 TH E GE O L OGY O F O RE D E P OS I TS

( H il do cem s) Infl o ws the , N eocom ian ores of Claxby and

Tealby i n L incolnsh ire and the Weald of Kent
, ,
.

I n Co n tinental E urope si milar ore s occur in the L ias ,

of H anover i n the U pper L ias and I n ferior O olite of

,

L orrain e and L uxemburg i n the zone s of H a rpo cem s ,

o a l inu m and H
p m u m hiso m
.e .

The i ron ore s of L orraine an d L uxemburg t he ,

so called minettes have a very variable composition

‘ ’
-
,

th e i ron exi s ting as carbonate s ilicate or oxides , , ,

including magnetite Although these ores are doubt .

le ss largely due to original deposition they are i n a ,

m easure contemporaneou s replacement s and additional ,

ferri ferous material has been i ntroduced b y s olution s

percolating downward from the pyritife ro u S P o sid o nia
Shales There are five mai n seam s of ore covering an
.
,

area of about square miles averaging about 3 6 ,

per cent of i ron and containi n g only 1 7 per cent o f

.
,
.

p h o sp ho rIc acid .

I n U pper S ilesia Switzerland and especially i n the

, ,

n eighbourhood of Aalen ( Wurte m b e rg) ores are found ,

which also belong to the H mu zchzso me Zone I t will

’

. .

be s een from th e abo ve therefore that m ost of the , ,

great b edded i ron ore deposits i n E urope of m eta

somatic origi n belong to well d e fin e d horizon s in th e -

M esozoic sedim entary series .

I n Am erica the fam ous Clinton ores are as sociated

and i nterbedded with S ilurian rock s ( L landovery ) and ,

occur above the M edi n a Sandstone They cover a .

very great area an d have b een worked in the Western

,

States of N ew Y ork P en n sylvania Wiscon sin Vi rginia

, , , ,

Kentucky Tennessee and Alabama They are o ften

, , .

oolitic but some of the deposits con si st largely of

,

calcareou s organi sm s such as b ryozoa corals etc , , , .

,
 M ETASO M AS I S 2 49

replaced b y iron ore and cemented by secondary ,

calcium carbon ate i n th e form of calcite in such a ,

manner as to prove that much of the replacement of

calcium carbonate by i ron ores took place before the
cementation of the rock a s a whole Th i s character .

ha s also been noticed i n the ca s e of th e F rodingham

ore s de scri b ed above .

I RO N O RES D UE TO S UB S E Q UE N T R E P L A C E ME N T .

We now pas s on to consider another and mo s t

im portant group of deposits of i ron oxides an d car
b o n a te s
. L ike tho s e described above they o we thei r ,

origin to the replacement of li mestone and occasionally ,

of siliceous rocks by ferrugi nous material but differ i n

, ,

the fact that they seldom occur as true in te rst ra tifie d

deposits an d also were i ntroduced from som e outside
,

source long after t he containing rock had consolidated

an d taken on the characters which it now possesses .

These ores which i nclude the best known hmm a tite

,
-

depo s its occur in two ways either replacin g the walls

, ,

of a fault o r j oint or at the j unction of two kinds of

,

strata of different porosity in either case along som e -

line that admits o f the free passage of mineral b earing -

solutions .

Such ore masses are of most wide distribution and ,

occu r all over the world chiefly associated with lim e ,

ston es.

I n B ritain th e hmm a tite deposits of S outh Wales

, ,

Cumberland and L ancashi re occur i n th e Carboniferous

, ,

L ime ston es series and are due eith er to the i nfluence of

,

the h ighly ferruginous T riassic and P ermian s eas under ,

which the Car b oni ferous rocks wer e locally subm erged ,

or to iron com pounds leached out of the overlying

2 50 TH E GE O L O GY O F O RE D E P OS I TS
Triassic P erm ian or C arboni ferous rocks and re
,
.

, ,

deposited i n t he underlying limestones by metasomatic

action .

I n a few other di stricts in the B ritish I sles but ,

m ore e s pecially on the Continent depo sits of like ,

n ature and origin occ u r as s ociated with li mestones of

m any age s .

I n s uch districts a s the P yrenees the Alps and the , ,

Carpathian s a long and continued series of earth move

,
-

ments has resulted in a succession of folds faults and , ,

uncon formities ; limeston es have been th rown against

rocks o f widely different character an d have been ,

covered at later periods by seas and sedi ments con ,

taining m uch m i neral m atter I t i s n ot surprising .

,

therefore to find that in such regions as the s e the

,

replacement of lim estones by i ron ores i s a most

marked phenomen on I n the B ritish I s les the most
.

important ore deposits of this character are associated

with the Carboniferous L i meston e series and occur ,

chiefly i n th e district s of S outh Wales C umberlan d , ,

and N orth L ancashire .

I n the district of S outh Wales i ncluding the F orest ,

of D ean the ore occurs as h aematite an d limonite form

, ,

ing i rregular deposits either withi n the lim estone or at

its j unction with some other rock I n the case of ore s
within the li m
.

estone they lie more or less along the

,

planes of b edding and j ointing an d are con nected b y ,

several small ore bearing chan n els with the upper sur
-

face o f the rock O ccasionally the ore has formed at

.

the j unction of the li mestone with the overlying shales

of th e M illstone G rit series or with the Triassic rocks
,

which cover it u n c o m fo rm ab l y .

I t i s worth remarking t hat a great number of im

2 5 2 TH E GE O L O GY O F O RE D E P O S I TS
The metasomatic character of the South Wel sh ore
i s C learly demon strated b y thin section s which b y ,

transmitted light show cri noids polyzoan s and other , ,

organic calcareous remains replaced b y the red oxide

,

of iron .

I n the N orth of E ngland occur the still b etter known

h aematite depo s it s of Cumberland and N orth L ancashi re ;
t hey are of identical character and both are associated
,

with Car b oniferous L im estone The Cumberland d is .

t ric t compri s es the Carboni ferous area of Cleator M oor ,

on the b order of the Whitehaven c o a l fie l d while the ,

N orth L ancashire di strict lies chiefly i n th e neighbour

hood o f F u rn ess The ore depo s its of these two dis
.

t ric t s occur in pockets chiefly along fault lines and

,
-

—
j oints, and evidently b elong as is the case in South
—
Wales to a period long subsequent to the deposition
of the lim eston e T hey yield on an average 5 0 per
.
, ,

cent of metallic iron Thei r m etasomati c character i s

. .

proved b eyond dou b t by the occurrence of h aematite

pseudomorphous after scalenohedra of calci t e and by ,

the pre s ence of b rachiopod shells crinoid s an d other , ,

origi n ally calcareous organism s replaced by i ron ore , .

At the sam e time the bedding of the lime stone may

often be t raced th rough the o re and thin b eds of S hale ,

may be seen passing from the ore to th e unaltered

rock without i nterruption .

Associated with th e lead and zinc veins of D enbigh

shire and F lintshi re i n N orth Wales are a few vein s
, ,

and pockets of h ae matite which are i ntere sting on

,

account of their containing a fai r quantity of manganese

as oxide and some nickel and cobalt as pyrites These
,
.

ores occur i n the C arboni ferous L imestone series at

Cwm .
 M ETASO M AS I S 2 53

I n the case of the N orth of ores it has b een E ngland ,

s uggested that the i ron w a s i ntroduced i n the form of

c ho rid e b ut th e s ulphate of i ron seems to u s more

,

pro b able especially a s it i s not an uncom mon feature

,

of the h aematite vein s to contai n sulph ates of the alka

line earth s among the gangue minerals .

I n the M idland district of E ngland the U pper C oal

M easures occasionally c o n t a I n thin bands of marin e
limeston e ( Spiro rbis L i mestone ) which are often fou n d
-
,

converted into h aematite b y the action of ferruginous

waters .

F IG .
48 .
— S E C TI O N To S H OW TH E MO DE OF O CC U R R E N C E OF
TH E AN TR I M I RON O R ES .
( A F TE R T ATE AN D H O L D E N ) .

1 Lo wer b a sa l ts ; 2 l
p iso itic iro n o re 3 b l ; o e 4, y ll
e o w oc h re ;
l h r b lt
, , ,

5 ,
it o m a rge ; 6, u ppe a sa s .

I n I reland i n County Antrim i ron ore s i n the form

, ,

of h aematite li monite and the ochre s occur in connec

, , ,

tion with the basalts which form s uch a prominent ,

feature of that di strict The b asalt s themselves con .

tain on an average 5 to 6 per cent of the metal and .

,

have undou b tedly b een the source of the i ron i n mo s t

instances The ore s exi st in the form of ferruginous
.

clays pisolitic deposits an d ochres lying between the

, , ,

sheets of b asalt and it is evident that they are d u e to

,

the weathering of the lower layer of ba salt b e fore the

2
54 TH E G EO L O GY O F O R E D E P OS I TS
upper one was deposited The action giving rise to .

them is partly physical partly chemical and is analo

, ,

gous to that which played a part i n the formation of

certain bauxites ( p .

The above figure gives an idea of th e mode of

occurrence o f these ore s .

Similar deposits are foun d associated with the basalts

of the F aroe I slands an d I celand which are of the ,

same period of eruption .

There are a great num b er of di strict s a b road which

F IG .
49 —S E C TI O N
. IN TH E P Y R E N E E S S H OW ING
,
A L I M E S TO N E
M AS S F O L D E D AM O N G M E TA M O R P H IC S C H IS TS , AN D
P AR TIAL L Y R E P L AC E D B Y O R E .

contain i ron ores similar to the above and o f identical ,

origin .

I n Spain especially in the E astern P yrenees and i n

, ,

the districts of Torrente Cartagen a Vizcaya ( Bi scaya )

, , ,

etc h ae matite and limonite occur i n a lime s tone series

.
,

in a manner suggesting metasomatic replacement .

The general mode of occurrence of the ore s is in

d ic a te d in the figure a b ove .

I n G reece as at L aurium an d H ilarion the ore

, ,

lies at the summi t and b ase of a calcareous series ,

following th e line of demarcation between it and the

sh ales by which it is bounded on eit her side .
2 56 TH E G E O L O GY OF O R E D E P OS I TS
of metasomatic origi n are num erous an d well displayed
— such for i nstance as i n the Tintic di strict of U tah
, , ,

Where the ore has formed at th e j unction of an ign eous

rock ( monzon ite) with a limestone ; and the Salisbury

F! B IA N C A

!E Al l a w u m

Ll m es t o n e 5 5 p Ho t e l Ga rn e t To u r ma l i n e
O a /o m it : gc h
b olu
‘

s 2 60 8 15 4 08 8
Gr a n i t e

F IG .
50 .
— M AP OF TH E S O U TH -
E AS TE RN P O R TIO N OF
'
J HE
I S L AN D OF E L B A, TO S HOW TH E D IS TR I B U T I O N OF I RO N
O R E ( H ZE M ATITE ) .

Sca l e, I mi l e to I in c h .

district i n Connecticut where large limonitic deposits,

exi st i n a limestone seri es deposited by waters descend ,

ing from the overlying pyritiferou s Berk shire shales .

I n the i sland of Cuba to the east of Santiago iron , ,

 M ETAS O M AS I S
‘

2 57

compounds leached out of the basic igneous intrusion s

of the Sierra Mic a ro have been deposited as h aematite
in J urassic lim eston es at thei r contact with the ign eous
rocks To the west of Santiago sim ilar ores occu r but
.
,

are les s valua b le owing to th e high percentage of phos

ho ric acid they contain
p .

S o far we have b een dealing solely with th e replace

ment of lime stone s b y i ron ore s b ut ferruginou s solu
,

tions occasionally replace rocks of a different character .

M any in stances are known of h aematite and other

i ron ores replaci ng dia b ase dykes and other ba s ic or
intermediate igneou s rocks but it must be remem bered
,

that such rock s are rich in calcium m inerals which -

,

weather with extreme ease under ordinary atmospheric

condition s .

R eplacements of diabases by i ron ore s may be cited

from the Vosges and H arz M ountain s and are known ,

to have taken place in a modified degree in the L ake

Superior region .

The ores of the L ake S uperior region pos s ess certain

characteristics which cause them so far as thei r origin is
,

concerned to stand mor e or less alone Although they

, .

seem to be undoubted metasomatic deposits the con ,

d itio n s under which the replacement took plac e as well ,

as the rock replaced differ from any we have con sidered

,

be fore.

The L ake Superior i ron bearing strata form a belt of

-

rocks i ndicated on th e map as occurring i n the great

pre Cambrian H u ronian f ormation an d as lying between
-
,

the Keweenawan rocks and the great Arch aean funda

mental complex .

They consi st of ch erty i ron carbonates which are the ,

chie f original sediments of thi s group of rocks ; the i ron

I 7
258 TH E GEO L O GY O F O R E DE P OS I T S
.

wa s directly preci pitated from s olution a s carb on ate ,

after the manner of m any spa thic i ron o re s ( p '

and was presuma b ly d erived from the more ancient

igneou s rock s of the L ake Superior region many of ,

which were b asic in character and proportionately rich

i n i ron com pound s .

Ar c h a e a n .

F IG .
51 .
—M AP O F TH E L A K E S U P E R I O R R E G IO N .

S ca l e , a p p ro x im a te ly I 50 l
mi es to I in c h .

The cherty i ron carbonates b y metasom atic change s , ,

pa ss in sen sibly into ferruginou s quartz schi sts j aspers ,

and magnetite and h aematite schists and furni sh a ,

most striking example of the manner i n which sedi

ments may pass into crystalline s chists by a process
( 2 60 TH E GEO L O GY O F O RE D E P OS I TS
tha t the m etasomatic changes have been m ost intense
the igneous rock has been more or less completely
c hl o ritiz e d and the lower layers o f the iron bearing
,
-

form ation replaced by ores .

I n the case of ores occurring within the form ation

along the lines of faults or dykes it is n oticed t hat th e ,

ore gradually dimi nishe s i n rich ness as the di stance from

these li nes increases .

A study of the various L ake S uperior i ron bearin g -

districts has caused the ores of thi s region to b e

F IG 5z
.
—
S E C TI O N S H OW ING I R O N O R ES IN TH E S O U D AN
V E R M IL I O N
_

F O R M ATIO N , D IS TR IC T O F M IN N E S O TA .

The o re l
re p ac es th e f e rru gin o u s j a spe rs at t h e ir j u n c tio n wit h th e
u nd er ly ing ig ne o u s ro c k .

regarded as true replacement or metasomatic deposits .

F urthermore it has been proved that the replacement

,

took plac e a f ter the district had been affected b y earth

m ovements and m any of the cherty carbonates and
,

j aspers brecciated The cherty carbonates contained

.

originally large quantities of ferrous carbonate This .

,

under the influence of car b on ated waters was dis solved ,

and carried downwards O ften along well d e fin e d chan nel s

,
-

now marked by ore deposit s When two or more s tream s .

converged and m et at the bottom of a synclinal trough ,

th e metasom atic action was most marked .

 M ETASO M AS I S 2 61

The igneous rocks underlyi ng th e district on weather ,

ing under the i nfluence of percolating waters would ,

yield a con s idera b le amount of alkaline carbonates ,

which would aid i n the s olution of th e silica o f the

j asper s and cherts and would help to bring about thei r
,

replacement by i ron ores .

The M esa b i di s trict differs not so much i n the mode

of o rIgIn of th e ore as i n the fact that the i ron beari n g
,
-

formation has a somewhat different character I n the .

cherty rocks of the o t her di stricts the i ron exi sted as

ferrous carbonate but in the M esabi district it was
,

origi nally depo s ited as a s ilicate to which the n am e ,

greenalite has been applied .

The average composi tion of the i ron ores of the

Vermilion Mesabi M arquette M enomi nee and G o
, , , ,

g e b ic ranges is as follow s : I ron from to

per cent ; phosphorus 0 o 44 to
. per cent ; silica
,
°

.
,

to per cent alumina to . per cent ; , .

manganese to, per cent ; lim e to per .

,

cent magn esia

. to , per cent sulphur trace .
,

to per cent ; organ ic matter and loss

. to 1 0 7 ,

per cent .

S imilar t o the iron ore deposits o f the L ake Superior

region are th ose of B echuanaland G riqualand West ,

and R hodesia i n S outh Africa ; and i n N ew Zealand

,

those at P arapara The o res of B echuanalan d and

.

G riqualand West are associated with a great cal

c a re o u s s eries forming a m ember of the Transvaal
System This li mestone is known as the Campbell
.

R and L imestone an d D olomite and i s s ucceeded by ,

the G riqua Town G roup a ferrugi nou s series of j aspers , ,

cherty carbonates and magn etite schists

, .

The ore s occur along line s of brecciated limeston e

2 62 TH E G E O L O GY O F O RE D E P OS I TS
an d dolomite marki ng it is s upposed old subterranean
, , ,

water chan nel s The replacement has i n many in

.

stance s been most complete an d the removal of much ,

calca reou s matter has often resulted i n the lowering of

the overlying G riqua Town s eries The diagram given .

below shows the general man ner i n which the ores ,

which are chiefly limonite an d h aematite occur ,

.

I n the S outh I slan d of N ew Zealand at P arapara ,

i n the Cape F arewe l l P enin sula i s a group of s trata ,

tentatively classed as Silurian an d overlai n by coal ,

bearing Terti ary sediments .

Sca le of Fa c t
0
“
3 00 6 00 m
a

F IG .
53 .
— S E C TIO N AC R O S S R AM AG E S KO P , B ER K L Y WE S T ,

S H OW ING TH E R E L ATIO N O F TH E G R IQ U A T O WN S E R IE S
To TH E C A M P B E LL R AN D L IM E S TO N E ( A F TE R A W . .

R O GE R S ) .

T he lower series con si sts of much folded hornblende

and fel spathic s chi sts sideritic limestones and cherts
, ,
.

The ores are metasomatic replacem ents of s iliceous

rocks and occur in b road synclinal areas where the
,

ferruginous solution s from above were concentrated in

a t rough of som e imperviou s s tratum .

M E TA S O MAT I C D E P O S I TS OF A L U MI N A AS B AU! I TE .

Alumi na i n its anhydrous form (A120 3 ) i s n ot a

C ommon mi neral i n N ature although it occurs as ,

corundum i n several di s tricts ( pp 5 7 The im .

,

pure hydrated oxide A 120 3 2 H 2 0 to whi ch the name

,
.
,

bauxite has been given is met with i n g reater quantity ,

.
 26
4 TH E G E O L O GY O F O R E D E P OS I TS
somatically upon it forming calcium s ulph ate and
, ,

depositing the hydrated oxides of alumina and i ron .

The bauxite deposits as worked i n the G eorgia

Alabama district con si st of layers and masses O f ore
enclo s ed i n a residual clay the result of prolonged ,

weathering of the lim estone series under somewhat

special atmospheric conditio n s .

B auxite is also foun d embedded i n clay at O berhessen

and Vogelsberg in Germ any .

I n the P uy de D om e country of C entral F rance the

- -
,

Westerwald Vogelsberg and the N orth of I reland

, , ,

b auxite occurs in association with basaltic rocks and ,

i s regarded as having been formed f rom these ign eous

masses by an obscure metasomatic process .

T he deposits of Baux occur as i rregular masses i n

C retaceous limestones and it has been suggested that
,

they were laid down by the agency of min eral springs .

Such an origi n i s extremely li kely but at the same tim e ,

the action which b rought about the precipitation was

almost certai nly metasomatic and dependent on the ,

chemical action of the limeston e .

LE AD AN D Z I N C M E TA S O M A T I C D E P O S I TS .

The ores of lead and zi nc which owe thei r origi n

to meta s omatic replacements are most commonly the
s ulphide s galena ( P b S ) and z in c b l e n d e ( Z n S ) and more
, ,

rarely the carbonates s ulph ates and S ilicates cerussite

, , ,

( P b C O a) a n glesite ( P hS O 4 ) calamin e ( Z n C O 3 ) and

, , ,

smithson ite ( a S iO 4 H zO ) L ead an d zinc ores are

.

frequently found i n a s sociation with limestones ; they

generally occur together and may i nclude some silver
,

—
an d copper the former existing as argenti ferous galena ,
 M ETASO M AS I S 2 65

—
and the latter as pyrite s ( chalcopyrite ) also com
pounds of cadmium Z in c b l e n d e and galena seem i n
.

almost all cases to be origin al mi nerals ; but the car

bo n a te s and sulphates of lead and zinc a re more O ften
formed in the upper part of the ore body or lode from
the sulphides by the action of percolating meteoric
waters S mithsonite for example m a y often be n oticed
.
, ,

to replace the other ores and gan gue mi nerals ; it has

been found pseudomorphous after fluor calcite an d , ,

even galena .

The metal s l ead and zinc have been mi ned i n li me

stones of almost every age all over the world ; but i n
our own country by far the greater number of meta
somati c deposits yielding ores of these metals occur i n
the great Mountai n L im estone or C a rboniferou s L im e
stone Series and in all cases thei r formation can be
,

proved to have taken place long after the deposition

of the limestone usually during some period of earth
,

movement and exten s ive unconform able conditions .

The ores of lead and zinc often offer the clearest

evidence of metasomatic replacement ; f ossils of a
calcareous substance have been replaced by the sul
p hid e s or carbonate s of these metals the ore retain ing ,

thei r extern al form and someti mes even thei r I nternal

,

structure Such ca s es may b e C ited from Cumberlan d

.
,

i n our own country ; from M ontepon i i n S ardi nia ; and ,

from I serloh n i n We s tphalia

, .

I n E ngland and Wales i n Carniola We s tphalia

, , ,

Baden the Veille M ontagne district M ontepon i and

, ,

Ma l fa ta n o district s of Sardinia L eadville an d Silver,

P eak in Colorado Wythe County i n Vi rginia the

, ,

E ureka district of N evada and a great number of other

,

localities of equal importance ores of lead an d zinc ,

2 66 TH E G E O L O G Y O F O RE D E P OS I TS
occur associa t ed with limes tones i n a man ner i ndicating
thei r metasomatic origin .

The metallic mine r al s occupy fi ss ures formed either

by faults or j oints and extend more or less i rregularly
, ,

as was the case with the i ro n ores associated with

limestones (p i nto the surrounding rock
. .

The ore ma s ses have been depo s ited from solution

-
,

and are due primarily to a chemical s elective i nfluence

which the limeston e exerted on the mineral bearing -

solution They thus differ from true vein depo s its i n

.
-

which th e country rock played no essential part i n th e

-

formation of the lode .

The mineralizing solution s i n almost every case o f

metasomatic lead an d zi nc deposits cam e from above
downwards thus differing from many of the solutions
,

which have given ri s e to true vein depo s its .

There are however good examples of metasomatic

, ,

replacements which have had a hydrothermal origin

that i s to say have resulted from the action of heated
,

solution s ri s ing from below .

We have already stated that metasomatic depo s its

of lead a n d zinc are generally restricted to s ome rock ,

such a s lim estone which i s capable of interacting with

,

percolating water s and causing them to deposit thei r

,

metalliferous conte nts ; this therefore supplies us with , ,

the reason why so m any lead an d zin c deposits de

t e rio ra t e an d ultimately fail i n depth .

I t i s obviou s that the limestones did not originally

contai n the metals which are now collected i n the
'

vein s an d fi ssures traversing them and the source may ,

generally be found i n some series of igneous rocks or

sulphide bearing sediments either expo s ed at the surface
-
,

or su bj ected to weathering i nfluence s b elow ground -

.
2 68 TH E G E O L O GY O F O RE D E P OS I TS
are known to exi st as sulphides held i n solution by
acids or by alkalin e sulphides .

N either lead nor zin c sulphi des are very insoluble ,

their precipitation as i s well kn own being retarded or

, ,

p revented by free acids .

Assuming that these metals were c a rrIe d i n solution

a s sulphides it seems m ost reasonable i n point o f V iew
, ,

of the ot her minerals present i n the depo s its to suspect ,

one or m ore o f the alkalin e sulphides of being the

s olven t i n most cases especially as we know that the
,

sulphides o f th e alkalin e earth s such as barium sul ,

p h id,
e will dissolve several m i nerals including the red
silve r ores ( pyrargyrite and proustite ) without change .

L et us take the case of barium sulphide Acting on .

a limeston e it would cause th e form ation of barytes

,

and the solution of part of the calcareous m atter ; at

the same time th e m etallic sulphi des would be deprived
of part of thei r solvent an d deposited in the place of
,

the dissolved li meston e .

A poi nt i n favour of the metallic sulph ides being

carried as such i n solution is the apparen t solution an d
redeposition of galena I n som e di stricts it has been
.

observed that a surface enveloping the richest ore

deposits bears as regard s position a more or le s s con
, ,

stant relation to the present surface of the ground and

the hydrostatic level I f such be more than a mere
.

coinci dence it would point conclusively to the solution

,

of lead sulphide i n the upper part of th e enclosi ng rock ,

an d its redepo s ition at a lowe r level .

F luorspar i n these depo s its clearly occurs as a meta

somatic replacement resulting from th e action of some
dissolved fluori de on a li meston e
C a CO 3 R F2 C a F2 RCOS .
 M ETAS O M AS I S 2 69

The more soluble car b onate would b e carried away ,

and its place taken b y the less soluble fluoride of

calcium which often occu rs pseudomorphous after
,

calcite an d dolomite .

F luor spar i s not b y any mean s a con stant associate

of either galena o r z in c b l e n d e but its occasional occur
,

rence with these ores suggests that the mineralizing

solution s were not likely i n s uch cases to h ave con
ta in e d alkalin e carbonate s for the s e act on calcium
,

fluoride with the formation of calcium car b on ate ,

thus
R 2C O 3 + C a F 2 Ca C O 3 + 2 RF .

Fo r a s imilar reason we s ugge st that th e fluoride

wa s not carried i n combi nation with the alkali metal s
alone for under tho s e ci rcum s tances a metasom atic
,

replacement of lime s ton e by fl u o rsp a r would n ot be

possi b le .

F luorspar may however b e formed b y the action of

, ,

the alkaline fluorides on calcium s ilicate s the more ,

s oluble alkaline s ilicates pa s s ing away i n solution .

I n the case of the fl u o rsp a r deposits associated with

calcareous beds it i s extremely di fficult to imagin e i n
,

wh at form the fluorine was i ntroduced ; b u t it must be

rem em b ered that there are several sp a rin gl y so l u bl e
metallic fluoride s such as those of s ilver and lead and
, ,

it is also possi b le that the double fluorides of th e m etals

played a part .

I t i s also po ssible that the m ineralizing solution s

were acid in character and would thus not contai n
,

free alkalin e carbonates such as is the ca s e with most

,

alkalin e percolating waters .

As ha s b een stated previously th e carbonates sul , ,

p ha t e s,phosphates an d silicates o f lead an d zinc are

,
2 70 TH E G E O L O GY O F O R E D E P OS I TS
usually due to alterations b y percolating waters i n the
U pper parts o f lodes which carry sulphidic ores ; at the

same ti me they often exi s t as metasomatic replacements .

I n the presence of lime s tone the solution s of sul phate s ,

produced by the si mple oxidation of the sulphide s will ,

b e acted upon b y th e calcium car b onate causin g th e

,

precipitation of the metal s as car b onate or sulphate ,

according to the alkalinity or acidity of the s olution .

The calcium s ulphate f orm ed i n such cases would

either be retained i n the vein o r carried forward i n
solution.

B oth lead an d zinc sulphates under the further action

of percolating waters charged with carbonic acid may
b e converted i nto carbon ates thi s b eing a frequent
,

change i n th e upper part o f lead and zi nc lo d e s .

Zinc silicate can b e formed from the sulphide by

the action of alkali ne siliceous water s ; the alkali ne
carbon ate s are the most usual solvents for silica in
natural waters .

The phosphates of lead and zi nc are gen erally of

secondary origin but there are i n stance s where deposits
,

of such minerals are metasomatic i n character and ,

have had thei r origin in highly phosphatic b eds traversed

by mineralizing solution s A striking example is the
.

case of a bon e b reccia filling a cave in the limestones

-

of the B roken H ill di strict of R hodesia where th e ,

calcium in combi nation with the phosphoric acid has

been replaced largely by zi nc giving ri s e to the zinc
,

phosphates hopeite tar b uttite etc

, ,
.

Although the m etasomatic ores of lead and zinc

have had pre suma b ly an identical origin and are often
,

associated i t will be well to divide the followi ng

,

exam ple s i nto two separatin g as f ar as pos s ible those

,
2 72 TH E G E O L O GY O F O RE D E P OS I TS
vein s but contai ned less silver T hi s probably points
, .
,

as does the presence o f copper cobalt and nickel to , , ,

the i ntroduction of the metals at m ore than on e period .

Secondary changes have re s ulted i n solution and re

deposition of the ore s i n caviti es but most of them are ,

of true meta s om atic origin .

The D er b yshire lead ores were among the fi rst to be

worked i n B ritain and they are n oted for their asso ,

c ia t e d gangue mi nerals fl u o rsp a r and barytes two , ,

m inerals highly characteristic of lead veins in li m e

s tones and which have been p rofitably worked
, .

4
F IG .
54.
— D I AG R A M M ATI C S E C TIO N AC R O S S TAL AR GO C H
VE IN S ( AFTE R S TR AH AN ). .

1, G re y a ndw ite h
im e s to n e ; 2 l
ac k im e sto n e ; bl l 3 s h l a es
v v h h
, ,

4, Ta l a rgo c h e in The e in to th e rig t c a rries

. e m a tite a nd
co p p er o re s .

The ores consist o f galen a with some z inc b l e n d e an d ,

i n the upper part o f the lodes which usually occur along

fault fissu re s or j oints cerussit e an d calamine
-
Some ,
.

C opper pyrites also occurs .

T he lead ores o f D erbyshi re seem to b e con fined

more or less to one h orizon in the L ime stone Series ,

and to be governed as regard s depth by certain sheets , ,

of i ntru sive and extru sive O livine dolerite locally known ,

as toadston es through which and below which t he

‘
,
’

ores seldom pass .

Some of the chief districts where galena has be en

extensively mined are those of C astleton B radwell
‘

, ,
 M ETAS O M AS I S 2 75

Tideswell M oor L ong s tone E dge and Taddington and

, , ,

most of the depo s its are m etasomatic in character

So m
.

e of the lodes however are brecciated an d others

, , ,

show well d e fine d com b structure ; it is probable i n

-

these case s that the ores are in dependent o f m eta so

matic action an d are merely the in fill ings of caviti es
,

and open fissures in the li mestone s .

I n E urope and the other continent s e xample s of ,

meta somatic lead ore depo s its are far too numerou s
“

to mention in detail but the following are a few

,

selected on account of thei r importance and scientific

i nterest
.

S ome of the most important depo sit s i n E urope are

tho s e of Sala in Sweden of R ai b l and Blei b erg in
,

C arinthia and of Tunis i n N orth Africa I n Am erica

, .

there are the f amou s deposits of L eadville and Colorado ,

and si milar occu rrence s i n Wi scon sin an d U tah as well ,

as the argentiferou s galenas of the E ureka dist rict of

N evada.

The Sala deposit s occur to the north O f Stockhol m

i n Sweden and are intimately associated with an ancient
,

dolomitized lim e stone The ore is chiefly galena which

.
,

carries a good percentage of silver .

These deposits have had m any origins assign ed to

them b ut none seems so sati sfactory as th at of meta
,

somatic replacement .

The famou s districts of R aibl and Bleiberg i n Cari n

thia are s ituated i n an area composed largely of U pper
Trias s ic li mestones and dolomite s The R ai b l region .

is also noted for its zi nc deposits and presents th e ,

clearest eviden ce of meta s omati c replacement of the

lime stones by com pounds of th e metals The O re .

b earing veins are steeply i nclined to the horizontal and ,

18
2 74 TH E G E O L O GY O F O R E D E P O S I TS
traverse a great thickness of strata ; a peculiar feature
i s that they contain large quan titie s of the mineral
w u lfen i te lead molybdate ( P b MO O 4) formed from th e
, ,

original lead com pounds b y the action of later per

c o l a t in g waters carrying molybdic acid or soluble
m oly b dates .

P yrom orphite the c hl o ro p ho spha te o f lead found i n

,

the upper portion s of many lead lodes has had a s im ilar ,

origin being formed by the action of phosphoric acid

,

solutions on pre existing lead compound s

-
.

I n N orth Africa associated with the N ummulitic

,

L im estone i n the n eighbourhood of Tunis occur several ,

important deposits of galena an d cer ussite mixed with

a certain amount of z in c b l e n d e and its alteration pro
ducts The galena which is seldom argenti f erous
.
, ,

occurs i n flat lodes at the unconformable j unction O f

the li meston e s with a series of m ica schists and quartz
ites The secondary calamin e occasionally shows the
.

most remarkable concretionary structures I t has been .

suggested that the ores were introduced at some late

period i n the T ertiary e ra .

I n America the clearest proofs o f metasomatic action

are displayed by the great lead ore deposits of L ead
ville i n Colorado and by tho se of U tah Wisconsi n
, , , ,

I llinoi s and several other State s ; also i mportant silver

,

b earing ore s occur i n the E ureka district of N evada

and in the Sierra M oj ada di strict of Mexico .

The L eadville region is situated on the western S ide

of th e M osquito Mountains and is com posed chiefly of
,

lim estone with porphyries and o ther igneous rocks .

The ores which are mostly car b on ates exist in a blue

, ,

grey dolomitic limeston e of Carboni f er ous a ge ; they

i nclude also t he sulphides of iron and lead together ,
 2
7 6 TH E G E O L O G Y O F O RE D E P OS I TS
The main ore bodies are due to the replacement of a
li mestone along its faulted plane o f contact with im ~
p e rv I o u s quartzites .

The ores in depth consist o f the sulphide galena ,

associated with some i ron pyrites but as th e deposits ,

are followed to th e surface they take the form of car

b onate oxide m olybdate c hl o ro p ho sp ha te and arsenate
, , , , .

An i mportant feature of the E ureka lead depo s it s is

that they contai n gold in addition to a fai r quantity O f
S ilver .

F IG .
55 .
— G E N E R A LIZE D S E C TIO N To I L L U S TR ATE I HE
'
M O DE
OF O CC U R R E N CE O F TH E L E AD O R E S IN TH E L E AD V ILL E
D IS TR IC T .

The o re li bes e t we e n th e l im e sto n e b l

e o w a nd th e Wh ite
P o rp hy ry a b v
o e .

T he lodes are O ften brecciated by subsequent move

m ent b etween the hard and soft rocks and it can b e ,

clearly seen that mineralization has taken place both

before and after the formation of the breccias .

T he accom panying figure depicts in section the usual

position of the ore mass wit h re ference to the limestone
-

and quartzite .

The deposits of b oth U tah and Wisconsin appear to

be associated with a series of dolomitic limestones and ,

as far as deposition i s concerned to be independent o f

any other rock masses They bear no relation to the
-
.

igneous rocks of the di strict but are occasionally over ,

lain b y recent superficial accumulations .

 M ETASO M AS I S
‘
2 77

The ore i s argenti ferous galena and its late in t ro d u c ,

~

tio n is suggested by the fact that certain caves i n th e

limeston e have yielded b ones i mpregn ated with thi s
mineral .

The deposit becomes rapidly poorer i n depth a ,

character which i s pre s ented b y a great n umber of the

meta somatic ores of lead and zinc .

Th e ores of Illinois which occur in the T renton L ime

,

stone o f O rdovician age end off b efore the underlying,

F IG 56 . .
—S E C TI O N TO I L L U S TR ATE TH E P O S ITIO N O CC U P IE D BY
TH E O R E B O D IE S IN TH E E UR E KA D I S TR IC T .

1 M o un t P ro sp ec t q u a rtz ite 2 l im e sto n e The o re o c c u rs b e twe en

,

th e l i m e sto n a n d th e M o u n t P ro sp ec t q u a rtz ite

.
,

e .

P ot sdam Sandstone is reached j ust as th e maj ority of ,

the D erb yshi re ores do wi th re spect to the toad s ton es .

I n the Cambrian of D akota th e ore wh en unoxidized ,

consists of pyrite argentiferous galen a and small quan

, ,

tities of z in c b l e n d e T he pyrite occasionally carries

.

gold and is of earlier formation than the galen a The

, .

ore i s ev id e n tl y a replacement of a dolomite bounded by

2 7 8 TH E G E O L O GY OF ORE D E P OS I TS
S hales a nd is accom pan ied by much s il ic ific a tio n of the
,

surrounding rock which recalls the refractory ores

, .
’

I n the C arboniferous L imestones of the sam e region

deposits o f lead car b onate pass down i nto galena and ,

occur as large i rregular mas s es i n contact with a porphyry

or partly filli ng c revices The i rregular masse s are the .

richer i n S ilver and the in fil l in gs are accom pan ied b y

,

the g reater amount of secondary S ilica .

I n the Coeu r d Al e n e Mountain s of M ontan a fissures

’
,

traversing quartzites and quartzose shales of Algonkian

age carry galena and other sulphides in a gangue of
, , ,

S iderite with quartz and barytes but no fl u o rs a r Th e

p ,
.

S iderit e shades off gradually i nto the surrounding rocks ,

an d i s evidently a replacem ent Some of the sulphides .

appear to replace the qu artzite .

I n the northern part of the State of Arkansas meta

somatic d e p Osits of galena an d z inc b l e n d e occ ur i n t he '

O rdovician and M is s issippi L imestones They h ave .

f orm ed chiefly along lines of fracture which are a c c o m ,

p a n ie d by brecciation and are controlled by ,

beds of
shale The ores as originally deposited consisted O f
.

z
galena and z in c b l e n d e and as su c h are still found ,

i n depth ; but subsequent alteration by descending

alkaline and siliceous wa t er has resulted i n the soluti on
of the sulphides an d their redeposition together with ,

much seconda ry silica at a lower level The silica has

,
.

replaced the li mestone to a great extent giving rise to ,

cherts AS already pointed out the soluti on and ré

.
,

deposition o f sulphidic ores i n m i neral lode s i s not an

unusual phenomenon ( p .

I n M exico lead ore exception ally rich in silver als o

,

occurs i n limestone and lies along or near the plane

, , ,

of contact of the limestone with a limestone b reccia -

 2 80 TH E GE O L O GY OF OR E D E P OS I TS
b lende in places ; alt hough z in c b l e n d e i s a com para tively
rare m ineral i n the M endip district it pro b a b ly occu rs ,

i n greater quantity in depth .

The zi nc ores blende and calam in e also occur as

, ,

metasom atic repl acem ents as s ociated with the galena

an d h ae matite deposits of F lintshi re ( p .

Compared with the zinc deposits of the Continent ,

such as tho s e of Sardinia and the Alps the E nglish an d ,

Welsh occurrences sink i nto in sign ific a n c e T h e origin .

and mode of occurrence o f the Conti nental deposits

seem to b e identical with those we have already con
s id e re d ; we see the same i nti mate connection between

the zi nc and lead ores for they generally occu r together

,

i n the sam e deposit Such a relation b etween similar

.

ores of two metals taken in conj unction with th e fact

,

that th e y are associated with th e same gangue m inerals ,

can only p o ifI t to an i dentical mode of introduction and

deposition .

Amongst the most important m etasomatic zinc ore

deposits o f C onti nental areas are those of Sardin ia ,

G reece B e l q m We stphalia Silesia the E astern Alps

, , , , ,

and N orthern Spain i n E urope ; Algeria and the ,

O tavi M ountains in G erman We s t Africa ; and many

,

districts i n the U nited States an d M exico in N orth ,

America .

I n Sardinia zinc and lead ore s are m ixed in several

districts but only a part of the deposit s can b e claimed
,

to have had a metasomatic origin .

The metasomatic ore s are associated with li me

s tones an d other beds of O rdovician age i n th e south

west portio n o f the i sland They are met with either.

at the j unction of the lim estones with a series of non

calc areou s beds or withi n the limestones themselves
,
.
 M ETASO M AS I S 81
‘
2

The j unction O f th e limest o ne with the other type of

sediment may b e either a fault li n e or a normal plane
of sedimentation the metalliferous deposit following
,

the one or the other as the case m ay be .

The ores are m ixed i n character con s isting of galena ,

calam ine and smithson ite ( zinc silicate ) associated with

, ,

a good deal of iro n i n the form of oxide an d hydrate .

The gangue contain s barytes an d fl u o rsp a r while th e ,

li mestone surroundi ng or boundi ng the ore body ha s

un dergon e extensive dolom itization .

The chief districts where zi nc ores are raised are

those O f M ontepon i and Ma l fa ta n o wh ich have yielded ,

vast quantitie s of calamin e .

In the vein s etc O f Sardinia which are associated

'

,
.
, ,

with limeston es it i s evident that zinc charged waters

,
-

have attacked and replaced th e calcium carbonate

particle for particle I t i s probable however that here
.
, ,

calamine i s a seconda ry metasomatic deposit resulting , ,

as in many other cases from th e alteration of zinc

,

blen de ; for m any of th e Sardinia deposits wh en followed ,

downwards are proved to contain a considerable quan

,

tity of this s ulphide .

The G recian ores of Attica south east of Athens i n,

-
,

the n eighbourhood of L au rium are famous for thei r ,

extreme thickness and for the very early date at which

,

they were first exploited The metal bearing s trata

.
-

con sist of thre e disti nct beds of li meston e of doubtful

age separated from each other b y non calcareous rocks
,
-
.

The ores as i n m any cases previously describe d

, ,

occur chiefly at each contact of a li meston e band with

the adj oining rock these j unction s repre s enting the
,

planes of con centration of the percolating waters .

T he ores consi s t chiefly of z inc bl e nd e an d galen a i n

2 82 TH E G E O L O GY O F O R E D E P OS I TS
a gangue o f chaly b ite but oxidation has given ris e ,

to cerussit e calamin e h aematite and gypsum all of

, , , ,

which are foun d i n the upper parts of the deposits .

The thickness O f the ore body di mi nishes in each b ed

O f limestone when followed upwards
; for i nstance i n ,

the figure b elow the zinc deposits in the lower b ed

,
,

la b elled I will be pure but those i n 3 will have a con

, ,

s id e ra b l e admixture of calcium carbon ate .

F rom the a b ove and som e other reason s it i s argued ,

that the Z i nc b earing solution s were hydrothermal

-
,

came from below an d that t hey passed th rough small

,

F IG .
5 7
— D. I A G R A M M A T I C S E C TI O N To I LL U S TR ATE TH E M O D E
O F O C C U R R E N C E O F O R E M ASS E S IN TH E N E I G H B O U R H O O D
O F L AU R I U M .

I a n d 3 L imes to n e
, 2 sh a l es , .

fissur e s i n the non calcareous rocks Without depositing

-

thei r metalli ferous conte nts I n th e lim estone how .

,

ever the presence O f the calcareou s m aterial caused

,

them to deposit the or e s alon g the j u nctions of the

li meston es with th e interven ing an d resistan t shaly
layer Th e solution s wo uld pass on only a fter th e work
.

of replacement was complete .

T he B el gIa n deposits like those of E nglan d and ,

Wales are confin ed almost entirely to th e C arboni ferou s

,

L i m eston e S eries an d occur chiefly i n the district of

,

V ieille M ontagn e .

'

Th e limestones S how exten sive d olomitization a ,

2 84 TH E G E O L O GY O F O R E D E P OS I TS
the j unction O f the Schaumkalk or m etalliferous dolo ,

mite with the u n derlying S o l e n k a l k i nto which the

, ,

ores pass .

The minerals as originally deposited were sulphides

of the m etals lead zi nc and i ron for all the depo sits
, , ,

appear to become highly sulphidic i n depth ; so there

fore as in so many other i n stances the presence of
, ,

calamine cerussite and h aematite i s due to oxidation of

, , ,

pre existing sulphides

-
.

I t has been suggested that the original source of the

zinc and lead ores lay i n the Schaumkalk dolomite ,

where they were precipitated at th e ti me of the deposition

of the limeston e and that the present great ore depo s it s
,

owe thei r origin to a metasomatic secondary en rich ment .

I n the Alpi n e region the richest zin c bearing region

,
-

is th at o f C arinthia in which the R aibl district i s the

,

best kn own: T he ore which like those mentioned , ,

above occurs i n the Triassic lim estones is chiefly cala

, ,

mine ; b ut a little silicate of zi nc i s also met with as ,

well as the m i nerals ceru s site and limon ite .

I t i s i nteresting to note th at the hydrous carbonate

o f zinc occurs i n som e quantity an d i s a mi n eral which , ,

as far a s laboratory experiment s teach us would be ,

readily depo s ited b y the influence of calcium car b onate

on zi nc solution s Why the anhydrous carbonate i s i n
.

N ature generally much more common than the hydrous

salt still requi res explanation .

The zin c ores of R ai b l are i ntimately connected with

th e faulting an d j oi nting o f the b eds i n which they
occur They are u sually surrounded by or as s ociated
.
,

with secondary dolomites but most of the com mon

, ,

gangue minerals such as barytes fl u o r etc are p ra c t i

, , ,
.
,

cally absent These dep osit s p resent the most stri k i n g

.
 M ETASO M AS I S .2 85

pro o fs of the replace m ent of a limestone an d even its ,

organic remains by metalliferou s material ; for it is not

,

a rare thing to find fragm en t s of lim eston e completely

replaced by ore with the retention of thei r original
,

structures .

The chief Spani sh deposits occur i n the p rovi nce of

Asturias At Santander they are associated with the
.

H ippm ite L ime s ton e of C retaceous age but in the P icos

/
,

de E uropa district the Carbonifero us L im e ston e form s

the country rock O riginal b lende an d secondary cala
-
.

mine wi t h some silicate are the usual ores in both

di s trict s ; b ut i n the Santander deposits the hydrous
carbonate of zinc occurs i n addition .

I n Africa in the L ittle Atla s R ange of Algeria the

, ,

T ertiary N ummulitic L imeston e contain s con siderable

metasomatic deposits of z in c bl e n d e which is locally ,

converted into calamine .

The ore s occur chiefly at the j unction of the cal

c a re o u s with non calcareous bed s as is the ca s e in
-
,

most o f the other districts already cited .

L odes carryi ng z in c bl e n d e associated with galena ,

and having sm ithsonite calamine and copper carbonate , , ,

i n the go ss an s occur i n the M a l m a n i dolomites of the

,

Transvaal They are intere sti ng al s o on account of

.

their containing the mi neral ci nnabar .

I n the U nited States and M exico zinc ores occur in ,

most of the lead districts we have already mentioned

-
,

as for instan ce i n the State s of Colorado U tah Wis

, , , ,

consin I lli nois P enn sylvania etc

, , , .

M E TA S O MAT I C C A D M I U M D E P O S I TS .

T he metals cadmium an d zinc are extremely similar

'

i n nature they are dissolved by the same solvents and ,

2 86 TH E G E O L O GY O F O R E D E P OS I TS
are thrown out of solutio ns i n almost all ca s es by th e
same precipitant I t is th erefore not surprising to find
.
, ,

cadmium in almost all zinc ore deposits exi sting under

conditions exactly similar to the zinc compounds and ,

having an identical origin Analy s es O f m ost samples

.

of z in c b l e n d e S how the presence o f this metal in small

quanti ties ; it probably replaces zinc i n combination ,

with sulphur ; occasionally however the som ewhat

, ,

rare but pure s ulphide greenockite i s m et with as i n

, , ,

several districts i n the U nited States .

Cadmium also occurs in th e deposits of zinc car

b onate and silicate i n alm ost all of the districts men
t io n e d above where such zinc ores are mined It is .

especially abundant i n the calamin e deposits of U pper

S ilesia a n d of the Vieille M ontagn e di s trict The .

calamines o f U pper Si lesia have yielded as much as

5 per cent O.f cadmium .

M E T AS O MAT I C C O PP E R D E P O S I TS .

The S u l p hid e s , C a rb o na tes ,

e tc — R eference has .

already been m ade to the occurrence o f copper ores i n

the lead an d zinc deposits of metasomatic origin ; and
although th ey are generally met with i n small quantity
only they occa s ionally occur i n su fficient force to give
,

a di s ti nctive character to the deposit The ores consi st .

chiefly of chalcopyrite or copper pyrite s and the result s ,

of its reduction or oxidation in the form of native

copper and oxide s of copper ; while p hosphates car
'

b o n at e s an d silicates are not in f requent secondary

, ,

products .

The mode o f depositio n of the sul phides in a ce rtain

n u mber of deposits like t hose formed in limestone or at
,
2 88 TH E G E O L O GY O F O R E D E P OS I TS
precipitation s lining and filling fissures thei r deposition ,

being i n no way controlled b y the nature or composition

of the country rock A few cases however of deposits
-
.
, ,

of C opper ores which we are led to regard as m e ta so

matic will be cited below .

I n the di strict of N izhne Ta gil sk i n the U ral M oun

-
,

tain s copper ores have been descri b ed as occurring at

,

the j unction of lim estone wi t h syenite in a man ner ,

s ugge s ting metasomatic replacement of the limestone .

The B l a go ssl o wsk depo s it s also i n the U ral s and t hose

, ,

of Banat i n H ungary were probably also of this nature

, ,

but have been su b sequently metamorphosed .

Th e ore i s largely chalcopyrite b ut its alteration ha s

,

resulted in the formation of the carbonates azuri t e and ,

malachite th e phosphate s and silicate of copper

, .

I n the U n ited States the copper deposits of Bisbee ,

i n Arizona appear to be metasomatic replacements

,
.

The ores occur as ma s ses i n pockets i n the Pa l mo zo ic

limestones at thei r j unction with s hale s and igneou s rocks ,

more especially with the great porphyry m ass of the

Sacramen to district which has produced little or no
,

metamorphism on th e surrounding sediments There .

seems l ittle doubt that th e metal wa s i ntroduced as

s ulphide by solutions which worked along the plane of

contact of the igneous rock with the sediment s and ,

which b rought a b out the replacement of the limestone .

The ores have undergon e great change s th rough

subsequent alteration by oxygenated water s charged ,

with s ulphates which percolate from the surface ; thus

,

the mi nerals contain ed i n the upper 2 00 to 600 feet of

th e lodes are qui te different f rom those found at a
greater depth .

The earliest process of ore formation was the depo

 M ETASO M AS I S 2 89

s itio n of i ron and copper pyrites zin c bl e nd e an d some , ,

molybdenite .

The secon dary changes i nclude the f ormation o f

cuprite malachite azurite c hal c o sit e and many other
, , , ,

minerals together with the elim ination of much of th e

,

zinc and sulphur .

The original minerals below the weathered zon e are

chiefly i ron and C opper pyrites but some cerussite exists ,

i n the lim estone .

These ore s are for the most part associated with

metamorphosed calcareous beds containing s uch m eta
morphic c alc silicates as garnet idocrase diopside an d
-
, , ,

tremolite B ut the proo f of thei r metasomatic origin

.

lies in the fact that the ore bodies are not confined to
the zone o f metamorphism and seem to be mor e or ,

less i ndependent of it occasionally stretchin g far ,

b eyond the range of the metamorphic calc silicates -

.

I n the district o f the H artville U pli ft Wyoming , ,

copper ore s such as c ha l c o site malachite etc replac e , , .

,

the ferruginous compounds and even the matrix O f the , ,

lower part of the G uernsey S andston e F ormation which ,

rests directly on an im pervious floor o f pre Cambrian -

r o cks.

I n many o f the lead an d zi nc deposits described

a b ove copper ores prove an important accessory con
,

st itu e n t of the lodes I n the Sierra Moj ada district of

.

M exico we are confronted with a series of interestin g

complex lodes of metasomatic origin contai ning ores o f
C opper S ilver lead zi nc an d i ron
, , , , .

T he high grade copper ores of M onte Catin i an d

-

M onte Calvi in N orthern Italy are by some considered

, ,

to have had a metasomatic origin and it i s quite prob ,

a b le that S om e of the chalcopyrite m asses such as thos e ,

I 9
2 90 TH E GE O L O GY O F O RE D E P O S I TS
of N assau found i n altered dia b ases and andesites
,

schalstein ) and associated with galena and z in c b l e n d e

( , ,

may be of a similar nature .

N a tiv e C o pp e r — D eposits O f native C opper present

.

many features of exceptional i nterest for although much ,

O f the free metal has b een formed i n the lodes th rough

the reduction of sulphides carbonates oxides etc b y , , ,

.
,

the action of organic compounds i n solution a certain ,

num ber of deposits such as those of the L ake Superior

,

region are claimed to b e t rue m etasomatic replacements

,
.

R eference to the map on p 2 5 8 shows that i n the .

L ake Superior region there occurs a great serie s of

rocks of pre Cambrian age th e uppermost division of
-
,

which has been styled Ke e we e n awa n after the narrow ,

peni n s ula on the southern side of the lake where it ,

i s excepti onally well displayed The Ke e we e n awa n .

S eries is succeeded uncon form a b ly by the L ower Cam

brian sandstones an d contai n s the chief copper deposits
,

of the region I t con si sts o f a great mass o f a m ygd a

.

l o id a l lavas an d sills with some beds of sandston e

, .

These igneous rocks and sediments are restricted to the

L ake S uperior basin and present remarkably constant
,

features over all the district The igneous rocks are .

—
intermediate i n character that i s to sa y neither rich ,

i n silica n or in the ferromagnesian constituents ; th ey

b elong to the augite plagiocla s e family and hornblende
-
,

i s seldom met with excep t as an alteration product .

The native copper occurs as nodules an d even as a ,

matrix of certai n breccias an d filling the amygdaloidal

,

cavities i n the igneous rocks of the series .

I n th e Ke ewee n a wa n F ormation it has been most

exten sively met with i n the State of M i chigan e s pecially ,

i n the Keewe e n a w P eninsula ; it also occurs in the

2 92 TH E G E O L O GY O F O R E D E P OS I TS
metaso m a tic i n origi n We m ay m ention those of
.

Algeria and of the Sonora district of M exico .

T he Algerian deposits occur i n the province o f Con

st a n t in e
, in the n eighbourhood of J ebel H am mamet .

The ore which exi st s chiefly a s oxide is found i n

, ,

i rregular layers runn ing parallel to the beds of black

limestone O f L ower C arboniferou s age with which it i s
associated T hese ores were at one tim e thought to
.

be o f simple sedim entary character deposited con ,

temporaneously with th e enclo s ing rock I t seem s .

,

however that the idea of a m etasomatic replacem ent of

,

the limestone more closely approximates to a true

explanation of the facts O bserved .

T he M exican deposit s are similar to the above i n

mode o f occurrence and are associated with a limeston e
,

series of approxi mately the same age The ore consists .

chiefly of tl ie hydrated oxide H n ZO 5 , .

L ike th e natural sulphides of i ron C opper etc the , ,

sulphide of antimony is soluble i n solution s o f the

alkalin e sulphides but the a b ove deposits were probably
,

formed by the action o f calcium carbonate on the

solution of some antimony acid -
.

The other deposits of antimony ores occurring in

association with limestones especially those of the
,

sulphide stibnite seem to be intimately con nected with

, ,

an d dependent on igneous intrusion s an d it i s do u btful

, ,

whe ther they should b e re f erred to the metasomatic or

to allied hyd a to ge n etic deposits .

M E TA S O M AT I C M A N G AN E S E D E P O S I TS .

Manganese i s a metal very similar to iron i n its

chemical properties and it occurs associated i n varying
,

quantities with m ost i ron ores either as carbonate

, ,
 M ETASO M AS I S 2 93

or anhydrous and hydrated oxides As regards forma .

tion the ores of manganese are identical with those of

,

iron bei ng deposited from si milar solution s by the action

,

of the same reagents .

I n som e o f the metasomatic i ron deposits mentioned

previously manganese occurs as the carbonate dialogite
, ,

the oxide pyrolusite and its products of hydration ,

according as the corresponding i ron compounds exi st

as chalybite h aem a t ite or limonite
, ,
.

I n N orth Wales m anganese ores of m etasomatic

’

origi n are associated with the chemically sim ilar

metals i ron nickel and cobalt i n the F lintshi re lodes
, , ,

(P 2 52)
O n the Continent i n the O denwald manganese , ,

deposit s are m et with i n t he P ermian ( Zechstei n )

dolomites ; an d noted masses exist i n th e P yrenees i n ,

the C a b e sse district associated with th e L ower Carbon

,

ife ro u s L i meston e S eries .

The L ower Carboni ferous L i mestone or the M arbre ,

G riotte contain s several masse s o f carbon ate of man

,
’

ganese which occur as replacements The ore bodie s

, .

i n depth pa s s i nto grey mangan ese ore dialogite and , , ,

as is usual with metasomatic deposits presen t no well ,

d e fin e d boundaries with the country rock O n e mass -

.

m easures 1 9 7 feet i n length 1 64 feet i n width an d has , ,

been worked to a depth of 2 30 feet .

I n Italy depo s its of manganiferous h aematite occur

,

i n th e districts of O rbetello and M onte Arge n ta ro ,

associated with Triassi c or P ermian li mestones The .

ores contai n about 35 per cent of i ron and 1 8 per cent . .

of manganese with a general absence o f sulphur and

,

phosphorus .

I n the vicin ity of S antiago C uba deposits of man , ,

2 94 TH E G E O L O GY O F O R E D E P O S I TS
ganite pyrolusite braunite and wad are associated
, , , ,

with j aspers the whole being regarded as a replacement

,

of calcareous sediments by mean s o f alkalin e siliceous , ,

an d mangani ferous solution s .

M E TA S O M ATI C G O L D D E P O S I TS .

O wing to the strong attraction o f ferrou s compounds

for oxygen an d thei r con sequen t reducing action they
, ,

are occasionally employed to precipitate the metals

gold and palladium from thei r solution s That such .

a reaction has taken place i n N ature i n beds rich i n

ferrous i ron there can be little doubt and has occasionally ,

given rise to bedded auriferous deposits .

Well marked gold beari ng horizon s have lately been

- -

described from S outh Africa an d thei r mode of occur ,

rence points conclusively to the metal having had a

metasomatic origin .

I n the central portion o f the L ydenburg district of

the Tran svaal auriferous horizon s are met with chiefly
, ,

i n the dolomitic serie s which form s the middle divi s ion

,

of the Tran s vaal System and lies between the P retoria ,

S eries above and the Black R eef Series below ; but

si milar horizon s also occur i n the upper and lower
se rie s ( see F ig .

The auri ferou s horizon s follow with the greatest ,

regularity the strike of the associated beds an d have

, ,

participated equally i n all the folding and faulting that

the district has u ndergone I t is therefore certai n that .

the i ntroduction of th e metal was at a period previous

to the f aulting Along the ore horizon s there i s ample
.

indicatio n of the former existence o f i ron pyrites in

quantity where it probably existed as an origi nal p rec ip i
,

ta tio n . Subsequent oxidation has caused the ore to have

2 96 TH E GEO L O GY O F O RE D E P OS I TS
I t is proba b le that the S iliceous gold bearing solu -

tions acting on the pyrites below the permanent water

,

level where there i s a deficiency of oxygen cau s ed a

, ,

partial oxidation of the pyrites and a con sequent meta ,

somatic deposition O f the gold S ubsequent oxidation .

of the remaining pyrites by the lowering of the ground

water level o r by reason of its exposu re at the surface
,

following a period of denudation has left the ore d eposit ,

i n its present form .

L ess i mportant ore horizon s of sim ilar character

occur i n the Black R eef S eries associated with inter
bedded secondary quartz vein s ranging f rom 2 to
1 8 i nches i n thickness .

I n the P retoria S eries th ree inter b edded ore horizon s

have been detected but th e two important beds of the
,

dolomitic series occur respectively 1 0 0 an d 30 0 feet

below the base of the P retoria S eries .

I n the L yden bu rg an d Carolin a districts all the ,

original ore bodies excepting those of true se d im e n

,

tary character belong to distinctly bedded sheets and

, ,

are met with o n well d e fine d and constant horizon s

-
.

I n th e U nited States of America a number o f deposits ,

known as refractory siliceous ores are associated with

rocks of Cam b rian and Algonkian age i n the B lack ,

H ill region of S outh D akota an d stretch as a broad ,

belt f rom Y ellow C reek to Squaw C reek The ores .

consi st of chalcedonic silica and quartz with som e ,

fl u o rsp a r pyrites etc

, ,
and form flat banded masses
.
, ,

in which the ban ding follows the bedding planes o f the

enclosing rocks ; the bands vary from a few inches to
3 0 0 f eet in thickness ( s e e F ig .

T hese deposits do not partake o f the nature o f veins

with well d e fin e d walls but they are associated with
-
,
 M ETASO M AS I S 2 97

b ed s of dolomite into which they pass by in sen sible

,

gradations They are evidently m etasomatic i n char

.

acter th e solutions forming them havi ng b een i ntro

,

d u c e d down sm all and almost vertical fissures on each ,

s ide of which the rocks have suffered considerable

s il ic ific a tio n .

Ca m b r i a n Im e r wo ua C a m bria n P o r p hy ry
ha l o s m th
Bas a l D ol o m i t e B e d s
Co ng l o m e ra t e

F IG .
59 D IAG R AM IL L U S TR ATI N G TH E R E P L AC E M E N T O F
.

G
L IM E S TO N E B A N D S B Y S I L IC E O U S O L D O R E I N TH E B L AC K
H ILL S D I S TR IC T, S O UTH D A O TA K
( A F TE R J D I R I N G )
. . . V .

The chief mineral of the ore mas s other than silica -

, ,

is pyrite s which on decompo s ition ha s given rise to

,

h ae matite and li monite an d cau s ed a solution o f the

,

adj oining limestone Arsenopyrite sti b n ite fl u o rsp a r

.
, , ,

and gyp s um also occur and there has b een a formation

, ,

o f brown mica .

These mineral m asses compare i n certain respects

with the ores of th e Lydenburg district described above .
2 9 8 TH E G EO L O GY O F O RE D E P OS I TS
I t i s O bvious that the mineralizing solution was alkaline
and highly s iliceous The gold which exist s either
.
,

native or as the telluride has b een introduced i nto ,

these deposits b y the sam e set of fissures and has b een ,

deposited from its solution th rough the influence of

some b ase i n the country rock -
.

I n th e Carboni ferous L imestone plateau of Crown

H ill also in D akota gold and silver ores occur in a
, ,

similar man n er a s sociated wit h secondary silica and

,

fl u o rs p a r as m etasomatic replacem ents of the limestone

,
.

The precious m etals probably exist as tellurides as was ,

the case with the C am b rian ores mention ed above .

I n the L ydenburg di strict of S outh Africa th e state ,

i n which the gold occurs is not known and it is quite ,

po s si b le that it may b e i n the form of telluride although ,

so fa r there has been no mention of tell urium having

b een d ete c téd .

M E TA S O M ATI C TIN D E P O S I TS .

The ti n b earing bro wn i ron ores of th e C ampiglia

-

M arittima i n the i sland of E l b a are con sidered b y some

, ,

to be of meta somatic origin Their true nature however .

, ,

i s still a matter for S peculation and it is quite po ssi b le ,

th at thei r occurrence may be due to some process other

than metasomasi s .

I n stances of the m etasom atic replacement of quartz

ite by cas s iterite and tourmalin e have been de
s cribed from the R ooiberg di strict Tran svaal Th e ,
.

replacement s are believed to have b een effected b y

hydrothermal solution s conn ected with the pegmatites
descri b ed on p 5 5 and are therefore of exceptional
.
,

interest The sedimentary formation in which the

.

deposits are found con sists of alternating b eds o f

30 0 TH E G E O L OGY O F O RE D E P O S I TS
deposited in the sa nd sto e which s omehow acted as
W
,

a precipitant or there
,
ere original vanadium and
uranium mi nerals in the sandstone which were su b se
,

quently decomposed .

Although uranium is generally derived from acid

and vanadium from the basic rocks the i mportant
,

mineral carnotite contain s both these elements

.
 C H A P T E R VI
B E D DE D ORE S DU E TO P R E C I P I TAT I O N

BY precipitation i s meant th e process by which certai n

con stituents of a solution are th rown out of that so l ution
i n a solid form an d i n all ca s e s it i s dependent on the
liquid being i n a s tate of supersaturation with regard to
the substance undergoing precipitation .

The precipitated ore deposits o f this class may be

divided into two groups Th e first embraces all those
.

minerals which are precipitated from solutions i n which

they exi sted as the sam e or approxim ately the sam e
, ,

chemical compound .

The S econd includes those minerals which are the

result o f the addition of a s ubstance which reacts with
some salt of a metal i n solution forming a compound
,

i n re s pect to which the solution is in a supersaturated

state.

We k n ow from laboratory experi ments that precipita

tion from a solution can be p roduced i n a variety of
ways such as by lowering the temperature by the
, ,

evaporation of the solvent o r its removal by some other

mean s and by th e addition of some su b stance which
,

forms with the metal i n solution a salt with a less degree

of s olu b ility
.

The concentration of a solution and the consequent

,

prec ipitation of its contents by a fall i n temperature ,

30 1
30 2 TH E G E O L O GY O F O RE D E P O S I TS
does certainly occur in N ature i n the case o f risi ng
thermal waters but generally speaking such a process
, ,

giving ris e to bedded o re masses is of rare occurrence

-
.

The deposition of the m etallic ore s is more O ften due

to supersaturation caused b y the evaporation of t he
solven t or the reaction of t he s ol vent with som e
sub stance either s olid or liquid with which it happen s
, ,

to come in contact M ost common of all however i s

.
, ,

t he precipitation b rought about when salts of certai n

m etals are converted i nto different and les s solu b le
compound s either by the action of som e other salt i n
,

s olution or by the ab s orption of oxygen .

To take examples let u s consider the precipitation of

,

certain car b onates sulphides and oxides

, , .

Several metalli ferou s carbonates such as tho s e of i ron ,

and mangan ese are held in solution by water charged

,

with carbon dioxide thei r solu b ility in pure water being

,

small O n the extraction of the carbon dioxide from

.

an aqueous solution o f such salts ferrous and man ,

ganous carbon ate will be precipitated i f oxidation is

prevented Such a reaction may give rise to bedded
.

deposits of th ese compounds and at the same time is ,

the cause of the stalactitic and stalagmitic ores O f iron

and m anganese although these have most often under
,

gone more or less complete oxidation To ta ke examples .

of anoth er type the sulphides of copper an d lead will

,

b e precipitated from aqueous solution s of thei r sulphates

on the reduction of these salts by organ ic matter or by
the action of sulphuretted hydrogen on their soluble
salts i n an acid solution I n the case o f oxides a
.
,

common form of precipitation is th at of ferric oxide

an d ferric hydrate from solution s of ferrous carbonate
which are a b sor b i ng oxygen from the ai r M a gn e tite is .
30
4 TH E G EO L O GY O F O RE D E P OS I TS
with the bedding o f the enclosing rock and thei r recur ,

rence at m ore or less frequent intervals on slightly

different horizons The upper and lower limit s O f such
.

ore masses are most often clearly defined and do not

-
,

shade imperceptibly into the adj oining barren rock as ,

do the metasomatic deposits previously described I n .

the case of the im pregnations of unmetamorphosed

shale s and sandstones with mi nute patches o f ore
‘

material it is O bviou s that the ores could have

,

b een formed b y no process other than precipi ta

tion po s sibly helped s ubsequently by the process of
,

concretion .

P R E C I PI TA TI O N AS O ! IDES .

I RO N AN D M A N G AN E S E .

The C hief depo sit s of oxide of i ron which owe thei r

origin to direct precipitation are those occurring as lake
or bog i ron ore -
.

Th e i ron is thrown out of solution as a mixture of

hydrated oxides by the agency o f alg ae an d b acteria ,

which have the property of extracting i ron from solu

tions of its carbonate and sulphates .

F erric hydrate m ay of course be deposited from i ron

, ,

solutions by the simple process o f oxidation as i n the ,

case of th e carbonate
4 F 6 CO 3
02 H
3 , o F 6 , ( O H )6 F 6 20 3 4 C O ,,

or by the action of som e salt of an organic acid such as ,

ammoniu m humate on a ferrous solution ,

bicar
b onate of i ron ) .

Deposit s of ferric oxides of sedi mentary character are

well known in m any districts amongst which we may ,

men t ion those of L u sac e S ilesia Banat Jutland etc

, , , ,
.
 P REC I PI TAT I O N 56 5

T he lakes o f Scandinavia however especially i n the

, ,

province s o f S m i l a n d Ve s trago e thl a n d and D a l a rn e

, , ,

offer some of the b est example s and are most in stru c ,

tive seeing that the actual formation o f the ore can b e

,

watched and studi ed .

I n the S candinavian lakes the preci pitation is brought

a b out chiefly by fresh water alg ae to which the nam es
-
,

L apto thmx o chm cea G a l l io nell a f ermgin ea etc have

'

.
, , ,

been given and the iron is th rown down enti rely a s

,

hydrated oxide The alga G a l l io nél l a flourishes at a

i

di stance of about 1 0 or 1 2 yards from the s hore an d to ,

a depth of 30 feet b elow the surface of the water The .

ore deposit con si sts of a slimy mas s of hydrated i ron

oxides and gelatinous s ilica an d ranges from a few ,

i nches up to I % feet i n thickne ss .

After a tim e a concretionary proces s b egins to act

wi t hi n the uncon s olidated ma s s with the formation of ,

—
oolitic or pi s olitic gran ule s a feature which is mo s t
instructive and helpful when con sideri ng the origin O f
some of the pi solitic iron ores a s sociated with th e
M esozoic and Tertiary sedimentary rocks .

The Swedish lake deposits are worked even when

only a few inches thick and it is i ntere sting to n ote
, ,

with regard to the rate of formation of these ores that ,

they renew themselves i n a period of from fifteen to

thirty years .

It has already been mention e d that magn etite is a

m ineral rarely to b e accounted for b y original depo sition
from solu t ion There are however certain i ron ore
.
, ,

beds which contain this mineral i n some quantity an d ,

i n which i t was evidently deposited by the agency o f

water under normal conditions T he occu rrence o f .

suc h deposi ts a s the magnetic ore of R osedale i n Y ork ,

20
30 6 TH E GE O L O GY OF O RE D E P O S I TS
shi re and the magnetite in the hydrated ores of the
,

R hine provin ces i s a di fficult thing to explain I t must

,
.
,

however be borne i n mind t hat a magnetic hydrated

,

oxide of i ron with the composition F e O F e2 0 3 t O

, , ,

can be m ade artificially by treating a ferrou s s alt

with a solu b le f erric compound in the presence of an
alkali H ere however as in the case of the car
.
, ,

b onate of zinc there seems a tendency i n N ature to

,

form the anhydrous compound if po s si b le I t may b e .

that the slowness with which the reaction takes place

i n N ature i s a controlling facto r or it may be that the ,

loss of water is governed by th e shrinkage of the mass

under pressure The value of the b og i ron ores i s
.

grea t ly dim inished by thei r relatively high percentag e o f

phosphoric acid .

M anganese deposits occur either alon e or i n associa

tion with iron com poun ds We get bog manganes e .
-

S imilar to b og i ron ; and the be d ded oxides psilomelane

-
,

etc have an identical origin with limonite and the

.
,

other hydrated oxides of i ron .

With regard to the source o f these m etals what was ,

said with reference to the solutions which gave ri se

to metasom atic replacements i s equally true for the i ron
and m anganese precipitation s .

The i ron was derived chiefly from the ferromagnesian

silicates of igneous rocks and from the pyrites of sedi
ments decomposing under the i nfluence of carbon
,

dioxide alkaline carbonates and vegeta b le acids or by

, , ,

partial oxidation T he source of the manganese also

.
, ,

lay chiefly in the ferrom agnesian silicates many of ,

which contain this m etal in som e quantity M an ganese .

most often seems to have been carried i n acid solutions

rich in silica the precipitation o f the oxides generally
,
30 8 TH E G E O L O GY O F ORE D E P OS I TS
tates may b e cited from several districts and several
geological horizons I ron ores occur i n the O olites of
.

R osedale in Yo rk shIre i n the Corallian of Wes tbury i n

,

VVil t shire and A b botsbury in D orsetshire and in the

, , ,

L ower C retaceous of the E ast of E ngland The ores .

are mostly oolitic or pisolitic in character and consi st ,

chiefly of hydrated oxide s with a s mall proportion of ,

carbonate The R o s edale deposit has the s om ewha t

.

unu sual feature of being magnetic but i n thi s re s pect ,

is similar to s ome of the oolitic brown ores of F rance

and the R hin e provi nce s which a l so o c c u r i n the Middle
,
’

J uras s ic strata .

I n E urope some of the ferriferou s deposits like tho se ,

O f the L ias I nferior O olite and L ower C retaceous s eem

, , ,

to be d u e in part to original precipitation and partly ,

to metasomatic replacem ent T he pi s olitic ores e sp e c i .

ally seem to have the characters of original sediments .

I n th e departm ents of M aine and L oi re h aematite ,

occurs interbedded with the L ower P al aeozoic sedi

ments .

The deposits of C alvados occupy a position a b ove

th e A rmorican G rits and below the C a ly mene Shales O f
,
-

the O rdovician System They are a b out 6 feet i n

.

thickness and consist of h aematite and limonite with

,

some car b onate .

An oolitic iron ore occurs in the synclinal area of

P rague in Bohemia above the P rz ib ra m Quartzite I t
, ,
.

contains som e silica an d a rather high percentage O f

phosphoric acid .

S imilar ores but still more impure are found in

, ,

Andalusia associated with L ower P al aeozoic sediments

,
.

Amongst the deposits of later date we may mention ’

the oolitic ores of the Wealden and N eocomian strata

 P REC I P I TAT I O N 36 9

of F rance which are well displayed in the B as Bou

,
-

l o n a is and the di strict O f Vassy respectively .

The ores in the Wealden deposits of Kent associated ,

with the Wadhurst Clay seem to approximate most ,

closely to a clay ironstone and thu s pre s ent characters

,

which would group them with the b edded hydrous car

b o n a t e s of the C oal M easures to be subsequently
-
,

de scribed .

B rown iron ore of oolitic character f orm s a bed 3 0

to 5 0 feet thick i n the Tertiary deposits of th e Ketch
P eninsula i n R ussia It yield s 38 to 42 per cent o f
,
.

i ron an d 2 to 4 per cent of m anganese At th e sam e

, . .

time it has an exceptionally low percentage of phos

p h o r ic acid .

Amongst recent deposits the fresh water bog i ron - -

ore s are the most importan t They occur i n all no rth .

,

tem perate region s where ferrugi nous waters are more

,

or less stagnant in S hallow depression s of the surface ,

and kept at a more or less con stant level owing to th e

i mpermea b ility of the subsoil .

Such deposits are extremely prevalent i n the low

land s o f N orth E urope They are foun d in S outhern
.

Scandinavia in the low lying country of H olland o n

,
-
,

t he drift plai n of N orthern G ermany in P oland an d , ,

R ussia .

I n the B ritish I sles bog i ron ores occur i n several

,
-

districts i n I reland in the central plain and i n the ,

Shetlan d I sles They contain a varia b le quantity of

.

ferric oxide ranging from 2 0 to 7 8 per cent i n different

, .

grades o f ore All these precipitated oxides of i ron and

.

mangan e s e are associated with a good deal of ph os

p h o ric acid s ometi m e s as m uch as
, 9 or 1 0 per cent a .
,

feature which detracts seriously from th ei r value .

3 1 0 TH E G E O L O GY O F O R E D E P O S I TS
The precipitates of oxide of manganese i n the form
of pyrolusite the anhydrous oxide psilom elane the ,

hydroxide m angan ite an d the earthy hydrated varieties

, ,

generally styled wad are com mon but n ot so widely

,
’

di stri b uted as the equivalent ferruginous com pound s .

M angane s e in small quantities is associated with almost

every aqueous deposit O f i ron ore b ut its percentage ,

occasionally rises i n exces s of the i ron givi n g ri se to ,

true mangane s e depo s it s N odules of m angan ese ore

.

are well known in recent deep sea accumulation s -

.

O n the Continen t som e of the ores of N assau and

,

Westphalia are undou b tedly original sedim ents but ,

thei r character has been more or less completely changed

b y secondary local en richments an d by metasomatic
replacements of the country rock -
.

As i n the case of the i ron ores it i s in the oolitic ,

deposits th at we h ave the clearest evidence of contem

p o r a n e o u s formation of manganese ores .

I n Spai n and i n th e Caucasus deposits of oolitic ,

character are well known The Caucasus ores b elong

. .

to the E ocene or M iocen e ; they occur i n the Kv iril a

Valley in a series of beds of sand and sandston e re s t
ing on the C retaceous limestones The similar M iocen e .

deposits of S pain occur amongst other places in the

, ,

Val de P e fia s i n the provi nce O f C iudad R eal

, .

T he chi ef ores of the U nited S tates of America are

those located alon g the border of th e Appalachian
region i n th e States of Vi rgi nia G eorgia an d Arkansas
, , ,
.

They occur above th e P otsdam Sandston e of L ower

P al aeozoic age and although n ow existing chiefly i n
, ,

the form of oxide s were proba b ly depo s ited in the

,

first instance as carbonate The ma n gan e s e o riginally

.

existed in a series of li mestones and s hales over ,

 3 1 2 TH E G EO L O GY O F O R E D E P OS I TS
The beds are for the most part alm ost hori z ontal
, ,
.

Thei r ore bearing layers are thi n ranging from a

-
,

2 i nches to 2 feet in thickness and yielding a v a ,

quantity of copper .

I t i s quite possi ble that these oxides m ay b e ori

precipitation s ; but at the sam e time chemically c ,

s id e re d it is more proba b le that they have been

,

rived from the sulphides by a subsequent process

oxidation .

The red an d black oxides of C opper are often

with in the upper and oxidized part o f lodes which
carry C opper pyrites ( p .

I
AL U M N A AS B AU! I TE .

Chemical deposits of bauxite which appear to be

i ndependent of metasomatic action occur i n several
districts i n E u rope and the U nited States They seem .

to have originated from ign eous masses by the process

of weathering an d to be derived largely from the
,

felspathic ingredie n ts of th ese rock s .

The first stage i s the formation of the aluminium

silicate which subsequently under the influence of
, ,

alkaline carbon ates i n solution parts with its silica and ,

deposits hydrated aluminium oxide .

The C hemical nature O f these deposits i s clearly

i ndicated by thei r pi s olitic an d concretionary structure ,

the spherul es occasionally reaching 1 i nch i n diameter .

The bauxite depo s its of A rkansas i n N orth America , ,

have been well described and thei r mode of occurrence

,

is well known .

Arkansas is a district which may be roughly divided

i nto two b y a n orth easterly and south westerly line
- -

separating the O lde r P al aeo zo i c rocks o f the north west -

 P REC I P I TAT I O N 1
3 3

of the State f rom the Tertiary an d R ecent deposits of the

south east The P al aeozoic rocks consisting chiefly of
-
.
,

limestones an d shales have been folded an d su b se

, ,

quently to the folding i ntruded by masses of norm al

and el aeolite syenite .

The b auxite form s a more or les s co ntinuous sheet

'

over the surface of these ig n eous ma s ses and extends ,

beyond them on the plane of denudation I t is evi dent .

that they had thei r origi n in a mas s of syenitic detritus ,

and were form ed b efore the deposition of the Tertiary

sediments.

I t will be seen from the above th at th e bauxite

deposits occupy the position of a great unconformity
in other words occur on a sur f ace which was un der
,

going denudation for a considerable period .

I n S outh E urope along the coastal country of the

,

M editerranean pisolitic bauxite deposits of consider

,

a ble extent occur i n a sim ilar position They rest .

i ndiscriminately on b eds ranging from the R h aeti c i n

H erault to the G ault at R e v eset an d are overlai n by the
,

C enomanian H ippurite L im eston e an d by fresh water ,

-

deposits of D anian age .

I n the Auvergne bauxite occurs as a covering of

,

gneisso s e rocks and h as pro b a b ly had a si milar origin

,

to the deposits of Arkansas .

Certai n deposits associated with basalts ( p 2 64) are .

supposed b y some to have ha d a metasomatic origin .

Their mode of formation however i s still u n sa tis

, ,

fac to ril y explained an d they m ay quite possi b ly prove

,

to b elong to the a b ove cla s s .

Bauxite deposits of great thickn ess ranging up to ,

1 2 feet occu r in the Wochein district of Austria ; and

,

they have also been worked i n P iedmont .

3 1
4 TH E G E O L O GY O F O RE D E P OS I TS

P R E C I PI TA T I O N S AS C A R B O N AT E S .

IRO N AN D M A N GA N E S E .

The carbonate s of i ron and mangan ese are occasion

ally found a sso ciated with sediments in a manner that
point s clearly to thei r having been deposited b y chemical
means contemporaneously with th e enclo sing rock
,
.

They form well d e fin e d layers parallel to the strati

-

fic a tio n planes of th e beds i n which they occur ; an d

there i s no eviden ce of m etasomatic replacement of the
country rock except perhaps i n certai n secondary e n
-
, , ,

ric hm e n t s o f the mass b y subsequent solution and

redeposition of the ores I ron mangan ese and mag .

, ,

n e siu m form S imilar carbonates i n which any one of

these metals may partially replace another .

T he carbonates o f i ron an d mangan ese are soluble

to some extent in water contai ning an excess o f carbon
dioxide an d where oxidation is prevented by the
,

presen ce of som e reducing agent such as decaying ,

vegetable matter Such solution s on undergoing a

.
,

certain amount of concentration and loss of carbon

dioxide would deposit the metals as carbonates
, .

Salts of i ron an d mangan ese existing i n the ferric

and m anganic states u nder the influence of d e c o m
,

posing organic m atter would b e reduced to the corre

sp o n d in g ferrous and manganous compounds and the ,

addition of an alkali ne carbon ate would produce the

spontaneou s precipitation of the hydrous carbonates of
the metals It is most probable t hat the alkalin e
.

carbonate s have played a very i mportant part i n the

precipitation of th e clay iron stones described b elow ,

but many of the m anganese deposit s are best explained

 3 6
1 TH E G E O L O GY OF O RE D E P OS I TS
Th e N orth Staffordshi re ores a re dark brown to black
compact masses varying from a few i nch es to 2 f eet
,

i n thickness T hey i nvariably overlie a seam of coal

.
,

th e th ickness of the ore varying i nversely a s th e thick

ness of the latter Compared with s imilar deposits of
.

other di stricts they are richer the percentage of i ron

, ,

—
being given as ferrous oxide 40 to 46 per cent ; , .

ferric oxide 4 to I 5 per cent

,
.

In all di stricts other than N orth Staffordsh ire it is

extrem el y di fficult to trace any con nection between th e
beds o f i ron stone an d the coal seams but that they -
,

had an identical mode of formation i n all cases there

can be no dou b t They were evi dently deposited as
.

a ferruginous mud which has subsequently undergone

,

much dehydration and contraction I n some of the .

concretion s (S p haerO siderite ) an organism such as a

-
,

p ortion of a plant or animal has acted as a nucleus , ,

and the evidence of contraction i s furnished by many

cracks an d cavities now filled with calcite or quartz .

Almost all the spathic ores con tai n som e manganese

which also exists as carbonate an d would have b een ,

precipitated simultan eously with the corresponding i ron

compound .

I n Coal M easure times it i s probable that the sur face

- -

waters were richer i n m ineral matter than at almost

any other period T he dense vegetation would give
.

rise to humic acids i n great quantity and as i s well , ,

known these acids from the ease with which they

, ,

oxidize are some of the most powerful natural solvents

,
.

O n the Continent deposits of exactly similar nature

,

and mode o f occurrence are associated with the U pper

C a rboni ferous rocks of the R uhr b asin in Westphalia ,

i n the neighbourhood of E ssen and H Ord e ; in the

 P REC I PI TAT I O N 3 7
1

lower part o f the C oal M easures i n th e b asi n of S aar

-

bruch in U pper Silesi a ; and i n the basi n of the L oire

, ,

in F rance .

Identical clay ironstones occur in th e productive

Coal Measure s of the U nited States of America espe
-
,

c ia l l
y i n the eastern State of P enn sylvania and in the
Appalachian region S pathic ores are also m et with i n
.

N ova Scotia .

I n depo s its of later date ore masses of thi s character ,

-

are occasionally met with — as for i n s tance in the , ,

Keuper and J ura of U pper Sile s ia I n E ngland an .

example m ay be cited f rom the L ower C retaceous bed s

of the Weald i n Kent ,
.

With regard to th e deposits o f carbonate o f m an

gane s e it is not so easy to put forward trustworthy
,

examples I n our own country the b est perhaps i s

.
, , ,

that of M erionethshire where i n the neighbourhood o f

, ,

Barm outh manganese carbonate occurs on two disti nct

,

horizon s : one j ust a b ove and th e other j ust b elow th e, ,

grits which form a well marked series i n the lower part

,
-

of the Cambrian System .

The ores have been exten sively mined all along the
line of outcrop i n a series O f shallow workings They .

were pre suma b ly depo s ited from s olution as carbonates ,

and a s such they occur in depth ; b ut near the surface

they have pa s sed i nto various hydrated oxides in th e
process of weathering .

M angane s e carbonate a s an original depo s it e xi sts a s

, ,

layers i n the D evonian bed s of the P yren ee s i n the ,

O ligocene of M ah ren and at a few other localities i n

,

E urope .

Besides the deposits of almost pure manganese car

bonate s uch as those mentioned above al most all th e
, ,
3 1 8 TH E GEO L O GY O F O RE D E P OS I TS

- Mo el f re Grits
’
.

- Bl o wn S a nd

- b g1 § -
.

’ Ha rl u h Gri t s
fi fif 77a f
a

Ma nga n es e be d s in d ic a t e d by Hrich bl a ck l in e .

F I G 60 — M A P S H O WI N G TH E M AN G AN E S E B E A R I N G
- H O R I Z O N S

I N TH E C AM B R I AN R O C K H H H
. .

S O F M E R I O N E T S I R E ,
N O R T

WAL E S ( AFTE R G O O D C H IL D )
.
.

S ca l e, 4 m il es to I inc h .

bedded masses of carbonate o f i ron contai n a certain

amount o f mangane s e i n a sim ilar state I n these cases .
32 0 TH E G E O L O GY O F O R E D E P O S I TS
ri se to either by the action o f sulphuretted hydrogen
on metallic solution s or b y the reduction of soluble
sulphates .

The m etals which m ost O ften exist as sulphides occa ,

s io n a l l with some arsenic are those f i ron opper

y O , C , ,

lead and zinc with someti mes nickel co b alt s ilver

, , , , ,

and antimony The ore occurs either as impregnation s

.

of some sedimentary rock i n which it is finely d is ,

seminated as crystal s or grai n s or as m ore or le ss con ,

t in u o u s b ands in t e rc a ll a t e d b etween two less metal

l ife ro u s layers O ccasionally t he place of a con tinuous
.

sheet of ore is taken b y a layer of concretionary nodules .

T he origi n of the metallic sol u tions ha s already b een

touched upon but the cause of the precipitation is not
,

so O b vious There seems however to be two more or

.
, ,

less distinct ways in which the deposition may be pro

d u c ed .

As was poi nted out i n the case of the oxi des many ,

organisms living i n water are capable of decomposing

sulphates with the li b eration of sulphuretted hydrogen
,
.

T his gas acting on the metallic solution s will account

, ,

i n a m easure for much of the pyrites disseminated

throughout a variety of deposits such as the O x f ord ,

and Kim meridge clay At the same ti me the pyrites of

.

many of the s hales S lates and clays is evidently to be

, , ,

accounted for by the direct reducing action of decaying -

organic matter either vegetable or ani mal and a s a

, ,

proof we fin d pyrites replacing the s oft parts of f os s ils

i n s edimentary deposit s o f almo s t every age P yrite s .

replaces graptolite s i n the O rdovician and Silurian

Systems plants i n the Coal Measures mollusca i n th e
,
-
,

M esozoic rocks and i n recent tim e s impregn ates the

,

t im b er of O l d mi ne level s all changes b rought a b out

,
.
 P RE C I P I TAT I O N 32 1

by t he reducing agencies of organic compounds M any .

clays which now contain sulphides most S paringly can be

proved to have p reviously held th em in much greater
quantity The L ondon and Kimmeridge clays for in
. ,

stance are full of gypsum i n large crystal s which have

, ,

b een formed by the action of sulphuric acid ari sing ,

from the oxidation of pyrites on the calcareous tests ,

of organi sm s I n a n on c a l c a re o u s c l a y the oxidation

.
-
_

of pyrites will take place with the form ation of alum

shales .

T here are a few additional points i n con nection with

the precipitation of sulphides which are of interest I n .

the above list of metals it will be seen that there are

—
two classes in cluded one contain ing the metals i ron ,

nickel cobalt and zi nc which are usually only pre

'

, , ,

c ip ita t e d as sulphides f rom alkali n e solution s whilst ,

the others may b e thrown down f rom acid solutions of

their salts .

I n the presence o f organi c acids however and under , ,

increased pressure it m ust be remem bered that the

,

general rules of preci pitation have many exception s ,

an d that organi c acids undoubtedly play a most im

portant part i n N ature both in the solution of the metals
i n the first i nstance and i n governing their subsequent
,

precipitation .

To take examples ni ckel and cobalt a re precipitated

,

as sulphides by the action of sulphuretted hydrogen on

thei r solu b le salts of organic acid s i n the presence of
these acids In a free state Zi nc sulphide on the other
.
,

hand may be preci pitated from a feebly acid solution

,

under increased pressure .

M anganese sulphide i s rarely found in N ature for it ,

i s on e of the most soluble compounds of this class ; it

2I
3 2 2 TH E G E O L O GY OF O RE D E P OS I TS
i s only precipitated in th e presence of alkalie s and ,

its precipitation is thus com pletely prevented b y the

presence of free weak acids M anganese as sulphide .

doe s occur however i n combin ation with the sulphides

, ,

of other metal s .

Copper an d lead form s olu b le and at th e sam e time

,

s table ,salts with hydroxy organic com pounds which , ,

although re s isting the action of many of th e usual

preci pitant s are readily decomposed by sul phuretted
,

hydrogen the m etals separating out as sulphides The

,
.

ea s e with which almost i n so lu b le metallic s alt s pa ss

i nto solution i n the presence of certai n organic com
pounds is exemplified b y the case of lead s ulphate ,

which is practically in s oluble in water b ut i s readily ,

dissolved b y a solution of ammonium tartrate .

Turning again to the n atu ral deposits of sulphides ,

and con s idering the metal s which occur together we ,

are constantly met by a certai n am ou nt of conflicting

evidence whether we consider the solution from which
,

they are deposited to have been acid or alkali n e i n re a c

tion and it i s almost i m possi b le to form any definite
,

conclusion as to the true nature of th e s olution .

There i s n o reason for supposing however that all , ,

deposits of sulphides have been de rived f rom one type

o f solution and it i s ev e n possi b le that at a considera b le
,

depth the lowe s t stratum of a sheet of water owing to ,

S low diffusion might have a different reaction from the

,

main m ass .

T aking i nto con sideration a large number of cases it ,

seems most reasonable to favour the idea th at the pre

c ip ita t io n of sulphide s ha s chiefly taken place from
slightly acid or neutral solution s through the agency of
sulphuretted hydrogen li b erated by living organisms or ,
3 2
4 TH E G E OL O GY O F O RE D E P OS I TS
i n the Terti ary deposit s while nod ules of a concretionary
,

character are abundan t in certai n zon es of the Chalk .

O n the Conti nent the mo st famou s deposits are

,

those O f R ammel s b erg i n the N orthern H arz M ountain s

, ,

occurring in rock s of M iddle D evonian age They form .

layers up to 1 5 yard s i n thickne ss parallel to the b edding ,

of the enclo s i ng rocks ; b ut the whole sedimentary series

has undergone exten sive plication The ore consists .

of a mixture of sulphides i ncluding pyrites C opper , ,

pyrites z in c bl e n d e and galena with a certai n am oun t

, , ,

of b arytes The s e ores however are by som e regarded

.
, ,

as of secondary origi n .

An almost equally i mportant district is that of Meggen ,

in Southern We s tphalia where the ore i s also as s o ,

c ia t e d with deposits o f D evonian age I t occurs b etween .

the lower shales of the U pper D evonian ( L en ne Shales)

and th e Middle D evonian lime s tone group -
.

As at R ammels b erg it contai n s other sulphide s such

, ,

as z in c b l e n d e etc and accessory barytes

,
.
, Analyses .

S how about 3 5 per cent of i ron and 44 per cent of . .

sulphur som e zinc but little or no copper and lead

, , .

I n both the cases cited a b ove although a metasomatic ,

origin has been clai med for th e ores thei r b edded ,

character their association with bitumi nous material

, ,

th ei r oolitic structure as well as th e presence of pyrites

,

concretion s in th e n eighbouring beds point more or ,

less clearly to thei r havi ng had a sedi mentary origin .

I ron pyrites also occurs i n a b undance associated with

the Tertiary brown coals of G ermany .

CO PP E R AS CO PP E R P Y R I TE S .

C opper pyrites as a mi neral of sedimentary origi n

i s O f wide distribution exi sting n ot only on many ,
 P REC I P I TAT I O N 32 5

geological horizon s but in widely separa t ed districts

,
.

O ne horizon however more than all others In E urope

, , ,

—
is famous for its copper deposit s namely that of the ,

’
so called
-
Kupferschiefer .

The Kupferschiefer are b itu m In o u s shales an d san d

stone s o f P erm ian age and form a central member ,

of the L ower Zech stein lyi ng b etween the Zechstei n ,

L imestone above an d the Zechstei n C onglomerate

below which rests un conformably on older P a l mo z o ic
,

rock s . Th e Kupferschiefer are remarkable also for , ,

thei r richness i n animal remai ns chiefly fish and thei r , ,

constant characters over wide areas ; thei r marine origin

i s clearly demon strated b y the presence of such fossils
as brachiopods and echinoids .

The ore occurs as finely divided grai n s and crystals

of small size ; it con s ists chiefly of copper pyrites but ,

it contains also som e galena and o ther sulphides T he .

most i mportant min ing district i s that of M an sfeld i n ,

the L ower H arz M ountain s The ore layers are ex .

-

t re m e l y thin — —
less than 2 feet i n thickness an d the
percentage of ore s eldom ri s es above 3 ; but at the ,

same time thi s district has had an an nual yield of

,

a b out tons of copper as well as a fai r quantity ,

of silver .

Although the Mansfeld district is now the only

important area where the ore s of the Zechstei n are
worked the Kupfer schiefer stretch in to H esse a nd
,

We stphalia an d at one time were extensively m ined at

,

R ie c he l s d o rf B ieber and near Saalfeld

, , .

There is no dou b t that these ore s owe thei r origi n to

the reduction o f metallic sulphates by means of d e c o m
po s ing animal and vegeta b le matter of which there i s ,

- s uch striking evidence .

3 6
2 TH E G E O L O GY O F O RE D E P OS I TS
I n other countries s i milar deposits occu r in N orth
America on a S imilar horizon I n Texa s copper .
,

pyrite s locally altered by atmo spheric agencie s i nto

,

malachite and azurite occurs as sociated with bituminous

,

material i n the Wichita and Clear F ork beds a series ,

of deposit s very like the C entral E uropean Zechstei n in

origi n and appearan ce There are three chief horizon s
.

— O n e i n the Wichita beds and the others in the C lear

,

F ork group M ention has already been made O f the

.

copper bearing sand stones such as those of P erm

-
, ,

Bohemia the di s t rict between Aachen and S a ra l o u is

, ,

and of Corocoro i n Bolivia where it is supposed that ,

the ores were origin ally deposited as sulphides although ,

they now exist chiefly a s oxides and carbonates The .

idea of precipitation a s sulph ides is strength ened b y

the p resence of b itumi nous matter an d large quantities
of sulphates such as gypsum an d barytes
,
.

Y et another type of deposit con sisti ng essentially of,

the sulphides of copper occurs associated with volcanic

,

tu ffs and breccia s of an de s itic compo s ition T he Boleo .

di strict of L ower California O ffers us the best example .

Th e di strict of B oleo i s an elevated plateau di ssected by

deep valleys along the sides O f which outcrop s a series
,

of almost horizontal volcanic rocks largely of a frag ,

mental character Th ese b eds O f tuff and agglom erate

.
,

which may b e classed with the andesitic and trachytic

group s of volcanic rock s contai n several C opper bearing
,
-

layer s varyi ng from 2 to I O feet i n thicknes s There .

is no dou b t that these b ed s were laid down under water ,

and it is more than probabl e that the ores are true

p recipitations The metal exists as sul phide but we
.
,

also m eet with large amounts o f sec ondary com pounds ,

such as the oxide s chloride ( atacamite ) silicate ( chryso

, ,
3 8
2 TH E G E O L O GY O F O R E D E P OS I TS
clays there are no example s of this cla s s But where
, .

these two sulphides are met with they always occur ,

surrounding or replaci ng the soft parts of some

organism As we have already seen sulphides of these
.
,

metals are associated with the copper ores of the

Kupferschiefer of C entral E urope and were probably ,

pre s ent to a con side rable extent i n the copper bearing -

sand s tones of Bolivia St Avold and other di stricts

, .
,

in fact i n m ost areas from which copper ores have

,

b een cited .

I
N C KE L AN D C O B AL T AS PY R ITE S , E TC .

N ickeliferous and cobaltiferous pyrites as well as the ,

sulphide millerite are o c c a sIo n a l l y m et with in con

,

n ec t io n with other sulphidic ores I n B ritain these

.

minerals have been noticed associated with the pyrites

and spathi c i ron depo s its of the C oal M easures while -
,

n ickel and cobalt i n an undetermin ed form have been

shown to exi st i n the precipitated i ron ores o f other
horizon s .

G O L D IN S I N TE R S .

G old i n a n ative state occurs as precipitations i n

certai n highly sili ceous accumul ation s form ed at the
surface under hydrothermal condition s The gold is .

proba b ly carried i n solution by s ulphate of i ron and on ,

the decom position of thi s compound on reaching the ,

surface i s depo s ited with the gelatin ous silica and i ron
,

oxide s .A good example of such a deposit i s that

of M ount Morgan i n Queenslan d Australia wh ere a , ,

siliceous sinter i m pregnated with h aematite yielded as

much as 1 7 0 ounces of gold to the ton T h e district of .

M ount M organ is largely composed of dioritic rocks

associated with rhyolites The former as we have seen
.
, ,
 P REC I P I TAT I O N 2
3 9

are the chief original gold carriers and in this case also
-
,

were probably the source of the metal .

S imilar deposits but o f less economic value occur in

, ,

N evada and i n the Y ellowstone P ark I n both cases .

the si nter has been depo s ited f rom highly alkaline an d

siliceou s water con nected with rhyolitic rocks which ,

form a feature of these districts .

It must be born i n mi nd that some o f the s o called -

quartz reefs occurring amongst the older rocks might

-

have been given rise to by a similar process .

P R E C I PI TAT I O N As S I L I C A TE S .

O ccasionally the metals i ron manganese an d zinc

, , , ,

are precipitated in the form of s ilicates from aqueous

solutions but thi s class O f deposit is as a rule of n o
, , ,

great importance We have seen that many metal

.

l ife ro u s silicates associated with metasomatic deposits

are really of a secondary character and result from the ,

alteration of other metallic compounds by alk a li ne

siliceous waters There are however cases where
.
, ,

silicates may exist as original precipitations They are .

proba b ly derived di rectly from igneous rocks passing i nto ,

solution during the process of weatheri ng They were .

depo s ited as was th e case with the oxi des an d carbon

,

ates O f iron an d manganese as more or less spherical,

grain s or a s conti nuou s sheets the precipitation b eing ,

largely brought about b y the lo s s of car b on dioxide fro m

th e s olution an d the n eutralization of the alkalin e
car b on ates .

I ron i n the form of silicate has been precipitated in

the H uronian Series of the L ake Superior region i n the ,

M esabi district The silicate has been called gre e n a

.

lite and occurs as pale green grai ns havi ng an appear

, ,
336 TH E G E O L OGY OF ORE D E P OS I TS
ance and mode o f origin si milar to the glauconit e of the
M e s ozoic and other deposits.

M angane s e s ilicate has been worked i n the L ouder

vielle an d G enu districts O f the P yrenees I t occurs
.

in te rstra t ifie d with beds of D evon ian age and on more

,

than one horizon L ocally i t has been converted i nto

.

carbonate and oxide by the action of carbonated and

oxygenated waters .
332 TH E G E O L O GY O F O RE D E P OS I TS
subtraction O f some i ngredient s uch as silica carbon , ,

dioxide or water producing a con siderable change i n

, ,

the composition of th e rock a s a whole S uch deposits

as these are not regarded as truly metamorphic i n
character and will be dealt with i n the chapter on
,

Secondary Changes ; we shall therefore restrict the

term metamorphi s m to express tho s e processes by
‘ ’

which the changes of the second class are brought

about and S hall i nclude under that heading those
,

recon struction s produced i n a rock mass by the in -

fl u e n c e of a high temperature or by shearing stresses ,

of su fficient i ntensity to generate h eat .

The general effect of raising a rock m ass to a con -

s id e ra b l e temperature above the normal i s to bring

about a decomposition and destruction of several of
its component minerals and to produce new compounds
,

b y a process of exchange between the various acids and

bases present In the rock ; and it i s there fore obvious
that such change s can take place without producing
any marked alteration in the bulk analysis of the rock -

mass except perhap s th e partial loss of water or some

, , ,

other volatile con stituent .

I t follows that the new minerals formed during the

process of m etamorphi sm will be almost entirely depen
dent O n the original C hemical composition of the rock
an d the temperature to which it is rai sed .

F rom a study of the metamorphic minerals presen t i n

any rock it is possible to form a very accu rate conclu s ion
,

as to the nature of th e rock before metamorphi s m ;

whether for i nstance it was an almost pure lim es t one
, , ,

a sandy limestone a shale or a san dstone for i n each

, , ,

of these cases the n ew mi nerals produced by the rise in

temperature will have a distinctive character At the .
 M ETA M O R P H I S M 33 3

s ame time many of these n ew min erals give us an

,

i ndication of the relative temperature to which rock

mas s es have been raised .

The heating necessary to produce th e rise i n tempera

ture i n a rock and to bri ng about metamorphic e ffects
, ,

m ay arise i n two ways either b y the i ntrusion of a

—

fluid igneous magma i nto the cooler region s of th e

earth s crust cau s ing what i s known as an aureole of
’
,
‘

contact metamorphism or it may arise from the i nternal

heat of the earth and affect large masses of rock Which
,

are buried at a great depth below the surface produci ng ,

metamorphism of the regional type .

Thermal metamorphism is hardly ever a superficial

phenomenon but i n the course of ages rocks which
,

have been altered in this man n er have b een laid bare

at the surface owi ng to th e upheaval an d denudation of
the s uperincumbent s trata .

To give an i nstance of th e proces s of th ermal meta

morphi s m let u s consider the action of h eat on a buried
,

m ass of i mpure limestone containing calcium an d

magnesium carbon ates f ree silica in the form of quartz
, ,

and alumi na At a high er temperature and under

.

pres sure calcium and magn esium car b on ate i n th e

,

pres e nce of S ilica will give ris e to calcium and mag

n e siu m silicates such as forsterite calcium aluminum ,

s ilicates such as garnet idocrase and diopside and , , ,

aluminum silicates such a s cyanite andalu site and , ,

cordierite according to the proportion O f each original

,

con stituent and according to the temperature to which

,

the rock ma s s is raised

-
.

Besi des the formation of enti rely new minerals ,

metamorphic action shows itself i n the dehydration

of many hydrous compounds and hydroxides of the
3 34 TH E G E O L O GY O F O R E D E P O S ITS
.

metals an d b y the si mple recrystallization of already

,

existing stable minerals .

The limit of the migration of material during the

process of metamorphism i s exceedingly small an d ,

therefore the i nterchange an d com b in ation of acids and

bases i n th e original rock takes place only at very close
range .

A rock such as a fai rly pure limeston e undergoing

metamorphi s m will simply recrystallize after all its
S iliceous an d alumi nous i mp u rities have acted on an

equivalent quantity of limeston e with the formation of ,

calcium aluminium s ilicates The presence of for sterite .

indicates that the original rock contai ned magne s ia ,

pro b ably i n the form of dolomite G arnet idocrase .

, ,

an d diopside i n all ca s e s indicate a s omewhat impur e

,

limeston e as the parent rock ; while s uch m inerals as

-

andalusi t e Cyanite and cordierite poi nt with equal

, , ,

certai nty to argillaceous s ediments .

The ore deposits which exi sted i n areas of sedi

mentary rocks previou s to thei r metamorphi sm have ,

under the i nfluence of heat suffered distinct changes ; ,

for in stance the limonites and the hydrated i ron ores

, ,

as a class have been converted into magnetite by loss

,

of water and recrystallization P yrites may remai n .

unchanged or be recrystallized but i f originally mixed , ,

with other s ulphides it may com b ine with them to

,

form the complex compound fahlore .

The im pure ores such as the earthy oxides of i ron

,

and m angane s e which contain a large quantity of

,

silica m ay under certai n conditions give rise to the

,

silicates of these metals .

It ha s been stated that the metamorphic mineral s

present in any rock are a per fect indication of the
336 TH E G E O L O GY O F O RE D E P OS I TS
divided according to thei r mod e O f occu rrenc e i nto two
, ,

subclasses first those of the crystallin e schists in

,

which they occur as layers and lenticles an d which ,

—
include many i mportant deposits h aematite magnetite , ,

and metallic sulphide s The second s u b cla s s i nclude s

.

those larger i rregular ore mas ses which probably occu r

-

as metamorphosed metasomatic deposits and also many ,

of the so called metasomatic contact deposits and veins

- -

i n which the country rock contains characteristic m eta

-

morphic minerals .

TH E O R E D E P O S I TS O F TH E C R Y S TA L L I N E S C H I S TS .

The ore deposits i n the crystalline schists as we now ,

see them a re pro b ably the result of metamorphic action

,

of a regional type on original sediments contai ni ng

ban ds of metalliferous material deposited either by
direct precipitation or by metasom atic replacement .

T hei r sedimentary origi n is supported by their appear

ance of stratification and by th e fact that a metalliferous
,

deposit i s often confined to one horizon over a large

area .

DE P O S I TS OF O! I D E S ( HE M A I ITE A N D M AGN E
’ ‘

T I TE ) .

These two minerals among the i ron ores especially ,

the latter are o f most frequent occurrence i n meta

,

morphic rocks h aematite being produced b y the de

,

hydration of lim onite ; an d magnetite b y the alteration

of ferrous carbonate b y lo ss of car b on dioxide or b y the ,

partial reduction of hmm a tite .

The derivation of magnetite f rom ferrous carbonate

i s in most cases to b e inferred from the mineralogical
ch aracter of the rock which encloses it .
 M ETA M O R P H I S M
‘

33 7

The country rock o f magnetite deposits has almost

-

i nvaria b ly b een calcareous and the metamorphic min ,

e ra l s which it contain s are mo s t often therefore the , ,

calc s ilicate s H aematite on the other hand which

-
.
, ,

ha s mos t O ften had its origi n in limonite occurs i n a ,

more siliceous gangue .

H aematite and magnetite are O ft en i nterbanded

with the crystalline schists and granular gnei s s es in
su fficient quantity to b e of great economic importance ,

and such deposits occur i n almost every district wh ere

A rch ae an rocks are exposed at the surface .

S ome of the m ost i mportant are those of S candinavia ,

where the thin mas s e s of h ae matite and magnetite ,

associated with mica schists and similar rock s are ,

—
well known and exploited as for instance those of , ,

Arn d a l and the provi nce of H elgeland i n N orway ,

.

The N orth R anen depo s its i n the provi nce of H elgeland

occur in ferri fero us schists and gneis s ose rocks a s ,

layers of specular h aematite an d magnetite i n varying

p roportion s They hold an average of 1 3 per cent of
. .

metallic i ron and although most often i n thi n beds

, , ,

occasionally reach a considera b le thickness .

DE P O S I TS O F S UL PH I D E S .

The chief sulphide deposits O f the crystalline schists

are the so called fahl b ands so well developed i n Scan
-
,
’

d in a v ia . Although perhap s of n o great i mportance i n

, ,

them s elve s they have been the s ource of the mineral

,

matter which ha s enriched the lode s crossing the dis

t ric t .
The s e deposits contain a great variety of metallic
sulphides either free a s C opper pyrites i ron pyrites
, , ,

z in c b l e n d e or galena or com b ined together with som e

, , ,

22
338 TH E G E O L O GY OF O RE D E P OS I TS
antimony and arsenic to form t he complex mi n eral
,

fahlore or tetrahedrite .

O n e of the best examples of the fahl b ands may be

drawn from the district of Kongsberg i n N orway , ,

which in cludes the mining areas of O verberg and

U nderberg I t i s a region situated to the south west
.
-

of Christiania and composed of gneisses mica schists

, , ,

and hornblende schists i ntruded by mas s ive igneous

,

rocks The direction of the fahlbands and the foliation

.

of the district is north an d south and the dip is at a ,

steep angle to the east The mi neral depo sit s occur

.

i n zones of impregnation and the sulphidic material , ,

mo stly pyrites is very fin ely divided The Kongsberg

,
.

district also f urnishes a good example of the enrich

i ng i nfluence of the fahlbands o n fissure vein s which
traver s e the country .

I n other parts of N orway and Sweden the fahl b and s

yield valua b le ores of C opper such as those of R Ora a s,

and F oldal and cobalt exists as sulphide i n the de

,

posits o f S ku tte ru d and S narum i n Southern N orway ,

.

I n all cases a variety of sulphides are present but ,

generally one or two metals are present i n quantity ,

and thus characterize any particular deposit .

TH E L A RGE R O R E B O D I E S OF M E TA MO R P H I C
C H A R A C TE R .

We will now pass on to con sider those larger ore

bodies as s ociated with th e crystalline metamorphic
,

rocks which were mo s tly metasomatic in character

,

prior to thei r undergoing metamorphic changes of a

regional type .
346 TH E G E O L O GY O F O RE D E P OS I TS

p ho s ecalcareous rocks I t builds mas s es occasionally

d .

reaching 5 0 yards i n length by 2 0 0 yards i n depth but ,

there is a gradual passage f rom the ore body i nto th e

F IG . 6I .
— M AP OF D IS TR ICT O F P E R S B E R G , S H O WI N G
TH E
T H E AS S O C IA TIO N O F TH E O R E WITH M E TA M O R P H O S E D
K
C A L C AR E O U S R O C S ( A F TE R S J O R G R EN )
. .

S ca l e, 1

country rock The m etamorphic m inerals wit h whic h

-
.

it is associat ed i nclude garnet s pyroxene amphi b oles , , ,

etc b ut perhaps the mo s t remarka b le are knebelite a

.
,
 M ETA M O R P H I S M 34 1

manganese bearing olivin e and dannemorite an actino

-
, ,

lite rich in the same metal .

Well bedded depo s its of s i milar nature to tho s e

-

de s cri b ed a b ove occur at O rebro i n Sweden an d at , ,

D u n d e rl a n d s d a l and N a e v e rha u ge n in N orthern N or ,

way They are a s sociated with m ica s chists and li me

.

stones O f metamorphic character The ore exi st s a s an .

iron b earing mica s chi st interbedde d with li mesto n es

-
’

and horn b lende schists Its as s ociates are the u sual

.

calc silicates but i n additio n a garnet exception ally

-
,

rich i n manganese .

I n other part s of E urope si milar ores are found i n ,

Spai n and P ortugal with sim ilar a sso c Iat io n s an d i n , ,

fact i n most region s where the A rch aean floor i s ex

,

posed at the surface .

The Malaga magnetite deposits are due to th e m eta

morphism O f dolomites which h ad been partially re
placed by siderite or h aematite .

O ne of th e best examples of a m etam orphosed

m etasomatic deposit i s furn ished by the magnetite and
h aematite masse s of Mokta e l H adid i n the provi nce of ,

Con stantine N orth Africa M agn eti te with h aematite

, .

occur s i n several beds associated with pyroxene garn et -

rocks and mica sch ists the calc silicates represen ting
,
-

in a measure the residual limestone which had not ,

b een replaced by i ron ores .

The depo sit as a whole is remarka b ly free from

i mpurities i n the form of s ulphur and phosphorus a —
feature which i n common with a large proportion of
,

metamorphic i ron ores greatly i ncreases its value The

, .

iron was most proba b ly deposited in the first in stance

as carbonate which was su b sequently converted into
,

a mixture of magn etite an d h aematite .

342 TH E GE O L O GY O F O RE D E P OS I TS
I n th e U n ited States O f Am erica in N ew J ersey and ,

Con necticut and i n the region s of L ake C hamplain an d

,

the Adirondacks magnetite ma sses occur i n the O lder

,

schist s and gneisse s the axes of the ore bodies for the
,

most part lying parallel to the foliation of the district s .

The ores have a similar mode of occurrence to those

already descri b ed and are associated with an identical
,

set of m etamorphic mi nerals .

The iron ores of P rince of Wales I s land Ala ska , ,

occur in masses as s ociated with epidote garnet etc , ,

.
,

and lie b etween parallel dykes of O livine dolerite .

Whether the manganiferous i ron bearing serie s of -

B razil e specially that of the S erra do E s pinha co

, ,

S hould b e cla s sed with the L ake Superior t ype of i ron

ore s ( p . or whether it should b e treated here is ,

a matter of some dou b t but on the whole the ores

s eem to be more closely allied to m etam orph ic deposits .

I n addition to the lateritic i ron ores of the central

provinces of I ndia other m asse s of different origin
,

occur in the J aw a d i H ills in the M adra s P re sidency

,
.

They exist i n several bands associated wi t h hornblendic ,

garn etiferous and hypersthene bearing gneisses They

,
-
.

con si s t almost entirely of m agnetite and are clearly of ,

m etamorphic origin S imilar deposit s occur in the

.

I slan d of M adagascar .

M AN G A N E S E .

Mangan ese in the metamorphic rocks usually occurs

in th e form of hau s man n ite braunite an d franklin ite
, ,
.

H ausmannite is si milar to m agn etite i n com position ,

b ut the ferrous and ferric oxides of the latter are re

placed respectively by si milar manganous and m anganic
compound s F ranklinite may be regarded as a man
.
344 TH E G EO L O GY O F O RE D E P OS I TS
Silicates such as manganese epidote mangan ese diop
, ,

side and manganese garn et

, .

CO RUN D UM .

We have seen ( p 5 7 ) that this min eral may re

.

sult from the differentiation of b asic igneous magm a s ,

but sedimentary aluminous rocks un der con s iderable

pres sure when su bj ected to the heating influence of
,

the earth s interior or to that of som e intruded igneous

’

mass will undergo a marked recon struction often

, ,

accompanied by the development of corun dum A rock .

,

such as an ordinary argillaceous sedim ent in which the ,

contained alumin a is n ot i n exce s s of the s ilica will ,

under S uch condition s gi ve ris e to the metamorphic

alumin ium silicates cyan ite andalusite cordierite etc , , , .

But should the alumina be m ore than equivalent to

the silica th e excess of alumina wi ll crystallize as
,

corundum I t is to be expected therefore that the

.
, ,

m etamorphosi s of a highly a l u m in io u s deposit would

result i n the formation of an almost pure m ass of
thi s m ineral an d it i s interesting to fin d that the
,

changing of bauxite i nto corundum has b een effected

i n the laboratory by m eans of the electric furnace .

C orundum either i n th e form of gem stones such

,
-
,

as ruby and sapphi re or m ore com monly as em ery

, ,

occurs in a variety of rocks but always i n those in ,

which there i s presumably an excess O f alumina over

silica .

I n metamorphosed impure dolomites and limestones

it is met with at N axos i n G reece and in the neigh, ,

b o u rho o d of Smyrna ! Vith magn etite and aluminum

.

silicates it occurs as masses i n the crystalline schists of

many distri c ts At O chsenkopf near Sc hwarzenberg
.
, ,
 M ETA M O R P H I S M 34 5

i n S axony a mica talc schist contain s it in som e

,
-

quantity and in the P yrenees it has been developed

,

largely as a contact mineral at the j unction of granitic

masses with P al aeozoic sediments .

P ro b ably the best known deposits are those of -

N orth ern I ndia Tibet an d Chi na as at M ysore

, , , ,

Canton etc occurring in thermally metamorphosed

, .
,

aluminous sediments together with the alum inium ,

silicates cyanite and andalusite .

DE P O S I TS O F S UL PH I DE S .

M asses o f i ron pyrites pyrrhotite and other sul , ,

h i d es uch as copper pyrites z in c b l e n d e and galena

p , s , , ,

occur i n a similar man ner to thos e of magnetite ,

already descri b ed associated with the same types of

,

metam orphic rocks including mica garn et horn ,

blende and zoisite hornblende schi sts T hese sulphidic

- -
.

deposits may be roughly divided i nto two classes

( a) The C opper bearing pyrrhotites and pyrites which
-
,

occur i n rocks not particularly rich in silica and from ,

which there is an ab s ence of l imestones ; ( b) sulphides ,

i ncluding some z in c b l e n d e and galena occurring i n ,

metam orpho s ed calcareous deposits .

These sulphide masse s are O ften auriferous the gold ,

b eing sometimes original but most O ften concentrated ,

b y the secondary metasomatic action of the pyrites ,

on descending auriferous solution s .

I t was pointed out in the case of sulphidic deposits

,

due to precipitation that they most often occurred i n ,

the true argillaceou s sediments a nd were much le s s ,

frequently found i n a s sociation with arenaceous deposits

or li mestones Sim ilarly i n the case o f th e meta
.
,

morphic masses there is seldom any marked i ndicati on

34 6 TH E G E O L O GY O F ORE D E P OS I TS
o f the original presence of much calcareous material ,

or i n other words there is a smaller proportion of the

, ,

u sual calc silicates such as were a ssociated with the

-
,

metamorphic magneti t e deposits The place of epidote .

,

garnet and diop s ide is in such cases taken by more

, ,

aluminou s m ineral s s uch a s the micas chlorites an d

, , ,

the aluminous amphi b oles At the same time certain .

,

m a s se s of pyrites and other sulphides are occa s ionally

found in a s sociation with calc silicates which could only -

have had th eir origin in highly calcareous rocks .

I t i s most probable that the sulphide masse s of both

the above classes owe thei r present characters c hiefly
to a process of recrystallization together with a certain ,

amount of secondary en richment and migration of ore

m aterial .

The greater num b er of s u lphide masses fall i nto th e

fi rst class mentioned above and i nclude most of those ,

which occur in association with mica schi sts horn ,

blende schi sts and other metamorphosed aluminou s

,

rocks E xamples may b e drawn from I reland N orway

.
, ,

H ungary the Carinthian an d Styrian Alps Tasmania

, , ,

and th e U n ited States of America I n I reland pyrites .

,

ma sses occur i n a series of talcose and hornblendic

schist s of metamorphic character i n County Wicklow .

I n N orway in th e neighbourhood of R Ora a s which is

, ,

the centre o f an im portant min ing di strict deposits O f ,

copper bearing i r
-
on pyrite s pyrrhotite and copper , ,

pyrites are associated with the ancient talc mica and

, , ,

C hlorite schists with which they appear in te rs t ra t ifie d

,
.

The masses reach as much as 6 yards in thickne s s and ,

exten d laterally and vertically for con siderable di stances .

I t is supposed that they existed in th e first in stance a s , ,

precipitation s in a sedim entary serie s and have since , ,

348 TH E G E O L O GY O F O R E D E P OS I TS
traversi ng faults The position of th e ore masses as a
.
-

whole 15 entirely dependent on the structural relations of

the schists and conglomerates ; and it i s believed that the
various masses were formed i n cru sh ed an d fractured
schists at th e points where during earth movements , ,

they were forced against h ard conglomerate ma s ses .

The fact that the pyri t ic m as s es are traversed by later

faults has no significance from th e point of view of origin .

The same authority has sugge sted like origin s for the
pyritic masses of R io Tinto an d T ha rsis and of R am ,

m el sb e rg and D ucktown .

The sulphide masses occurring with metamorphosed

calcareous sediments are ch aracterized by the great
variety of the sulphides they contain ; i n f act th ey ,

i nclude all those Which occur i n the metasomatic

deposits A s examples we may take the ore m asses
.

.
-

of many localities In Sweden of Cari nthia of L am nitz , ,

thal and of several localities I n the Tyrol and N ort h ern

,

Italy .

T he L a m nitztha l deposits occur at the j unction O f

horn blende schists with garneti ferous mica schi sts ; an d -

the ore consists of pyrites with pyrrhotite coppe r ,

pyrites galena and z in c bl e n d e

, , .

Those of P anzen dorf in the T yrol fifteen miles south

, ,

of L ienz are also associated with garnetiferous mica

,

schists and hornb l ende schists and con si st o f a great ,

variety of sulphides including all those m entioned above

,

as occurring at L a m n itz tha l The deposits o f Sterzing . ,

also i n the Tyrol occur wit h hornblen de sc hi sts and

,

metamorphosed dolom ites .

I n N orthern Italy a t M onte B eth i n the district of

—
,

P inerolo south west of Turin — sulphidic ores occur i n a

,
-

complex of phyllites sc hists and igneous rocks ; they

, ,
 M ETA M O R P H I S M 349

are as sociated with calc phyllites and hornblende schists

-
.

T here are several other S i milar occurrences i n P iedmont .

The famous H om estake gold ore s i n the N orthern

Black H ills of South D akota occur as lenticular pyritic
impregnations in zones i n the Algonkian s chist s i n ,

a ssociation with intrusion s of rhyolite porphyry The .

s chi s t s contain contact min eral s s uch a s b iotite garnet , ,

t e rm o l it e
,
acti nolite titanite and graphite
,
the s e
,

m inerals are consequently found among the ore which ,

is mainly compo s ed of pyrite s mi s pickel quartz , , ,

dolomite calcite an d gold The pyrites occurs as in

, , .

filling s along plane s of schi s tosity a s i rregular masses ,

i n the schists and porphyry an d i n quartz veins Some ,

.

parts of the deposit have been shattered by subsequent

movement .

M E TA M O R P H I C C O N TA C T D E P O S I TS .

As regards their manner of formation and th e con

ta in e d m inerals contact deposits are i n m ost ways similar
,

to tho s e which owe thei r present characters to meta

m orphi s m of the region al type but they differ widely ,

i n thei r mode of occurrence They are found only withi n

.

the metamorphic aureole surrounding s om e plutoni c

i ntru s ion and re s ult ei ther from the local change i n
,

some pre exi sting metasomatic or precipitated metal

-

l ife ro u s deposit or from a meta s omatic change p ro

,

d u c e d in the country rock simultaneou s ly with its

-

metamorphi sm .

The changes brought about in a pre exi sti ng metal -

l ife ro u s depo s it as we have already seen will be of the

, ,

natu re of dehydration or recrystallization ; but the

i ntrusion of a large b ody of igneous material may result
i n the introduction of fresh me talliferous material b y
35 6 TH E G E O L O GY OF O RE D E P OS I TS
mean s of the heated solutions given o ff from the magma
during the last stages of its consolidation The forma .

tion o f ore deposits b y such a process bridges the gap

b etween true metasomasis and pneumatolysis .

I n our own country there are several good exam ples

of m etamorphic contact deposits the best perhap s , , ,

being the two di s tricts O f H a yto r i n D evon shire and

G rampound i n C ornwall .

The H a yto r mine is situated on the eastern b order

of D artmoor ; the ore is in the form of thick bed s of
magnetite in te rst ra tifie d with altered shales and sand
stone s O f C arboni ferous age and i s associated with such
,

metamorphic m i n erals as actinolite an d garnet .

There is little dou b t that the ferruginou s material was

deposited contemporaneously with the shale s and sand
s tone s i n which it occur s and in all proba b ility resem b led
,

th e Cleveland i ronstone ( p 2 45 ) in m any respects Thi s

. .

origi n al deposit was metamorphosed b y the grea t

granitic m as s of Dartmoor which b reaks across the ,

bedding of th e sedimentary rock s and converted into ,

magnetite . The ore s have been altered b y surface

waters for s om e d istance down the lodes with the forma ,

tion of ochre an d other secondary products .

The G rampound lode ( South Terras Cornwall ) carrie s ,

magnetite with a little h aematite and i s associated with ,

c a l c s il ic a te s such a s green garnet

~
, .

I n F rance b ed s of m agn etite and h ae matite occur at

several places i n the departm ent of M anche especiall y ,

at D ie l l e te in th e neighbourhood of F l a m a n v il l e The
,
.

ores are held b y Cam b rian and S ilurian rocks rich in

garnet acti nolite and epidote the me t amorphism being
, , ,

produced b y i ntruded masses of granite Although .

such example s are more usually found i n con nection

35 2 TH E G EO L O GY O F O RE D E P OS I TS
exist i n a gangu e o f calcite pyroxene hornblende and , , ,

garnet .

Metasomatic i ron ores occurring i n the Canton de

Vicde s sos i n the department of Ariege especially at
, ,

R ancie have b een metamorpho sed i nto magnetite and

,

h aematite and are a ss ociated with ma s ses of calc

,

s ilicates O riginally the metalliferous deposit exi sted

.

as a replacement of a L iassic li me s t one and wa s ,

proba b ly si milar to the Cleveland ore of E ngland .

M etamorphic magnetite a n d h aematite ma ss e s are

known i n a great many more remote di s tricts such ,

as the U rals and F i nland ; an d with manganese i n the

neigh b ourhood of S antiago i n Cuba in connection with , ,

masses of porphyry .

M anganese ores i n all cases have a similar origin

to those of i ron and therefore it is not surprising to
,

find compound s of thi s metal a s sociated with the meta

morphic i ron ores I n B razil the district of O uro
.

P reto is noted for its rich manganese and i ron de

posits . The rocks of thi s di strict are schists and
gneisses of Arch aean age and a series of s chistose quartz ,

ites m icaceous schists and lim eston es known as the

, , ,

Itacolumite Series b elonging to the L ower P al aeozoic

,
’

division At s om e later period than the L ower P al aeozoic

.
,

i ntrusion s of granitic dioritic and gabbroic rock s pene , ,

t ra te d the whole and produced considerable contact

,

metamorphi s m .

The Itacolumite S e rIe s Is the m ost i nteresting as it is ,

the chief ore repository and contain s i ron manganese , , ,

and som e gold T he micaceou s schists pass into pale

.

coloured calcareous b eds wh ich in turn give place to ,

iron schists and beds o f almost pu re i ron ore known as ,

ita ba rite O n e o f the principal districts is S erra do

’
.
 M ETA M O R P H I S M 35 3

E spin ha co , where the ores consist of the m e ta m o r

p ho s e d re s idual deposits O f limestone which originally ,

contained carbonate of i ron and the carbonate or oxides

of m anganese .

The manganese ores consi st chiefly of the earthy

hydrated oxides and pyrolusite but there i s little doub t
,

but that they have undergon e con sidera b le changes

since thei r formation .

I n the H autes P yren ees the schistose lim estones of

,

Serre d Arrét are impregna t ed with a variety of man

-
’

ganese beari ng min erals of metamorph ic origi n

-
.

SO far we have been dealing almost exclusively

with the oxidic contact depo s it s which are somewhat
monotonous in character but a m uch greater variety i s
,

displayed b y t he m asse s o f sulphides wh ich occur i n a

S im ilar man ner .

S ulphides of iron more or less cupriferou s occur

, , ,

associated with igneou s intrusions i n m etamorphic

rock s of many ages and many di stricts The most .

famous deposits are proba b ly those of R io Ti nto i n the ,

province of H uelva i n S pain while S imilar ores occur

,

at G avorrano i n Tuscany The sulphides of i ron are

, .

themselves of n o great value but as they are usually

,

associated with some C opper and other sulphides and ,

often contain the precious metals they are frequently ,

raised to great economic importance All exten sive .

deposits of pyrIte s S hould b e assayed for gold .

The R io Ti nto deposit s occur as ma ss es of i ron an d

C opper pyrite s s tretching at i ntervals from P ortugal on
,

the west to the borders of S eville on the east The .

region is one of intensely folded P al aeozoic s edi ments ,

i ntruded by masses of igneous rocks of types varying

2 3
35 4 TH E G EO L O GY O F O RE D E P OS I TS
from micro gran ites to doler ites
-
I t i s with these
’

igneous intrusion s that th e pyrites masses are inti mately

connected the ore gen erally occurring at thei r j unction
,

with the sedim entary rocks which as a rule S how con , ,

s id e ra b l e S igns of metamorphism .

I n the U ral M ountain s the district of B o go sl o wsk

,

furnishes a somewhat doubtful example o f thi s class o f

ore deposit I t i s said that D evonian li mestones have
.

b een contact altered by i ntru s ive porphyrites with the

-
,

formation of masses of garn et pyroxene and idocrase , , ,

an d with the introduc t ion of s uch metalliferous minerals

as C opper pyrite s A simi lar origin has been s uggested
.

for the ores of G o ro b l a go d a t ( p 5 1 ) an d other locali .

ties but it does n ot seem conclusively proved that they

,

are not segregations from igneous magmas which have ,

sub s equently b een affected by metamorphic action of the

region al type A contact metam orphic deposit formed
.

b y the introduction of materials i n limestones at the ,

moment o f thei r alteration by contact with an igneous

rock i s in stanced i n the Campiglia M arittima ( Tuscany)
, ,

where the Te m p o rin o vei n consist s of copper and i ron

pyrites a lit t le galena z in c b l e nd e and mispickel i n a
, , , ,

vei nstone of radiating manganiferous pyroxene needles ;

the vei n re s ult s f rom the contact alteration of L iassic -

limestone by augite porphyry .

I n the U nited States there are two important districts

containing copper bearing contact deposits namely
- — ,

tho s e of C li fton M orenci an d B isbee in Arizona

,
.

The Clifton Morenci deposits appear to be dependent

-

on the i ntrusion of a mass of porp hyry which has

produced extensive metamorphism of the surrounding
P al aeozoic limestones and S hales The metamorphism . ,

which takes the form of th e production of n e w m inerals

35 6 TH E GE O L O GY OF O RE D E P OS I TS
rocks with the P al ae ozoic limestone s and have a gangue ,

of metamorphic calc silicates P rofes sor L indgren

-
.

b elieves th at the porphyry magma contained much

moi sture holding metallic salts i n solution which was
, ,

liberated at the time of the consolidation Similar .

deposits may be cited in Vancouver I sland In .

Australia i n N orth Queensland a good example o f a

, ,

contact C opper deposit may b e taken from the Chil

lagoe district where magnetite chalcopyrite and zinc
, , ,

blende occur at the contact of igneous and calcareous

rocks i n a gangue of garnet wolla s toni te pyroxene
, , , ,

and other calc s ilicates -

.

I n Ten nes s ee cupri ferous deposits n ear D ucktown run

,

parallel to the foliation of mica schi sts with gn ei s so s e

bands of L ower Cambrian ( G eorgia B eds) age The .

ores are mainly pyrrhotite traversed by strings of copper ,

and i ron pyrites with small amounts of sulphides of

lead and zi nc i n association with calcite quartz garn et
, , , ,

epidote and acti nolite The pyrrhotite b ody is a mas sive

,
.

in fil l ing an d contain s an average of 2 per cent o f

,
.

e n
co p p
Zin c and lead sulphides occur with the other sul
hi d e s in most i n stances but the z in c b l e n d e deposits o f
p ,

Am meberg and the galena masses of S ala i n Sweden

, , ,

are both worthy of S pecial notice T he z inc bl e nd e of .

Ammeberg to the north east of L ake Wetter exists

,
-
,

chiefly as lenticles i n the Arch ae an schists and gneisses ,

but it i s also found as a contact deposit in a zone o f

ha l l efl in t a s which lies between the younger granitic
masses and the sch ists .

The galena deposits o f Sala north o f Stockholm are , ,

associated with metamorphosed calcareous lenticles in

the crystallin e schists and are clearly of metasomatic
,
 M ETA M O R P H I S M 35 7

character the metasoma s is being accompanied b y such

,

changes as the m a rm o riza tio n of th e limestone and i n ,

a less degree the production of new minerals .

GO LD IN M E TA M O R P H I C R O C K S
G old is O ften found i n rocks which have undergone ex
ten s ive thermal alteration more especially in conj unction
,

with sulphidic ore depo s it s of the metamorphic type ;

but occasionally it occurs i n metamorph ic rocks in de
'

pendently of any metallic sulphides I t usually owes .

its presence i n rocks of this nature eit he r to original

, ,

sedimentation as detrital gold or to deposition on ,

pyrites from auri ferous solutions by metasomatic action .

O n e of the best i n s tances o f gold i n metamorphic con

tact deposits i s that o f the D eep C reek di strict of
U tah The P ro du ctus L i mestone form ing a chai n of
.
,

hills i s invaded by n umerous vein s and m asses of

,

granite and porphyry which have prod u ced powerful

,

m etamorphic effects At the j unction o f these igneous

.

masses with the limestone we find such metamorphic

minerals as garnet and tremolite i n abundance while ,

fart her away the li mestone has undergon e re c rysta l l iz a

tion The gold occurs native i n two ways either lying
.

finely divided i n the recrystallized l im e stone i n th e

neighbourhood of sulphidic C opper ores or i n fin e ,

threads and strings i n masses of tremolite .

G old al so occurs i n metam orphosed limestones i n

N evada ; and i n the S ilver P eak di strict solutions , ,

emanating from cooling granitic masse s have deposited ,

the metal i n the marginal granite and in the surround

ing metamorphic rocks .

I n the crystalline schists gold occurs in sm all quan

,

tities i n many districts i n Am erica E urope and Asia , , ,

35 8 TH E G E O L O GY O F O RE D E P OS I TS
and has given rise to som e o f the richest placer deposits
o f the world ( p .

I n the Allegh any region in the H uron ian rocks

, ,

pyritous and quartzose lenticles are m et with i n talc ~

,

a n d chlorite schists the gold bei ng b oth in the lenticle s

-
,

and fin ely di s sem i nated th rough the schists . S im ilar

occurrences are known i n N orth and S outh Carolina
‘

an d the Black H ills of D akota i n association with

,

talc an d horn b lende schists also i n S i b eria N orthern

-
,

I ndia J apan and the G uianas

, , .
 360 TH E G E O L O GY O F O R E D E P O S I TS
with the ordinary process of surface denudation Where .

thi s denudation has proceeded very slowly there is

O ften a large variety o f secondary minerals S howing a
,

more or less orderly arrangement as regards their vertical

distri b ution ; the m ore completely oxidized of the ores
are n ear the surface b ut the reconcentrated more sul
, ,

p hi d ic types are b elow at varying depths and merge

, ,

in sensibly i nto th e original sulphides The se S econdary .

ore zon e s are often the riche st portion s of lodes .

I n som e regions which have b een extensively

glaciated the lode s contai n very few secondary ores
, ,

owi ng to the removal by the ice S heet of th e d ec o m -

posed superficial country rock and with it the upper

-
,

parts of the lodes The i ron and zi nc lodes of Scandi

.

navia and of N orth America may be referred to as

exam ples of this while in O ntario according to Volney
, ,

L ewi s the gossans of the lodes have been removed by

,

the sam e agency .

S E CO N DA RY C H AN G E S BY A S C E N D I N G S O L U TI O N S .

The secondary changes of minerals i n lodes effected ,

by waters derived from a depth are not frequent They , .

are generally brought about by the solution s of a later

period of mi neralization by which the O lder m inerals
,

are largely replaced by n ewer .

The ores of th e C om stock lodes ( N evada) appear to

have been largely accompanied by calcite but thi s ,

m ineral is now m et with only i n small quantity owing ,

to it s replacem ent by quartz .

The replacement o f barytes and calcite in the cobalt

ores of the E rzgebi rge and of the ore s of lead and
,

C opper i n the Black F orest i s connected with a later

,

p eriod o f min e ralization ; i n t h e latter c a se iron and ,

.
 S E C O N DA RY C H A N GES 36 1

manganese ores were deposited To what precise period .

i n the hi s tory of some lodes the pseudomorphous re

placement O f s ome lode minerals such as fl u o rspa r , ,

barytes cal cite quartz etc b y others such as i ron

, , ,
.
, ,

pyrites chaly b ite limonite C opper pyrites etc should

, , , ,
.
,

be assign ed is uncertain ; but there is little doubt

many of these C hanges should be ascribed to the
ordinary ac t ion of secondary concentration by surface
waters .

The pos s ibility of the secondary changes in minerals

being produced by deep seated vapours o r solution s is
-

suggested by P rofes s or Vogt who poi nts out that ,

sulphide of silver may be acted upon by hot ai r or

superheated steam with the formation o f capillary

,

native silver and sulphur dioxide or sulphuretted ,

hydrogen thus ,

Ag2S O2 2 Ag SO2 ;
Ag2 S H ZO 2 Ag H zS O .

By reaction O f the sulphuretted hydrogen with

sulphur dioxide free sulphur or sulphuric acid may be
,

formed capable of further reaction s which in some

, ,

ca s e s involved regeneration of the silver glance .

S imilar reactions may be effected on other s ilver ore s ,

or on copper ores as follows ,

2 C u 2S 60 2 C u zO 2 SO
Cq 2 C u zO 6C u SO2
A g3As S 3 H
3 zO A
3 g As H
3 2S 30 .

The last of the foregoing reaction s i s supposed to

explain the occurrence of the large amounts of native
silver i n the Kongs b erg di strict near Christiania , .

I n the Ko ngsb e rg ve in s calc it e i s the d ominant

'
36 2 TH E G E O L O GY O F O RE D E P OS I TS
mi neral ; fl u o rsp a r quartz anthracite and bitumen
, , ,

are also present while barytes is found occasionally

,
.

Axi nite soda and potash felspar chlorite and zeolites

,
-
, , ,

are al so met with I n addition to silver b ut in smaller

.
,

amounts there are sulphide s of iron ( i n appreciabl e

,

quantity ) zinc lead C opper and arsenic and co b alt

, , , ,

bloom The order of mineralization appear s to have

.

been Quartz ; ( 2 ) sulphide ores and silver glance ,

with calcite and bitumi nous material ; ( 3 ) fl u o rspa r ,

barytes with felspars ( 4) younger quartz veins with

, ,

axinite i ron sulphide pyrrhotite and zeolites I t was

, , ,
.

in stage 2 that the native S ilver was formed .

S E CO N D A RY C H A N G E S WE ATH E R I N G
BY AN D AC T I O N
OF M E TE O R I C WA TE R S .

The reaction s b rought about i n the upper parts of

lodes by surface waters are ( 1 ) those of oxidation and
( 2 ) those of r eduction M ost sulphidic lode s S how .

that f rom thei r outcrops to a depth of from a few feet

,

to hundreds of feet th e uppermost part consists of a

,

zon e of oxidized mi nerals ; while the lower part consi sts

of secondarily deposited minerals O ften con stituting ,

very rich bodies of ore An i ntermediate zone is O ften .

present which may b e regarded as a tran s ition zone and

, ,

thi s i s frequently a t the groun d water level -

.

Although there i s no rea s on for accepting the theory

i n its enti rety the view that the greater number O f ore
,

deposits are the result of underground waters has found

favour of late year s I t has been held that there are
.

two type s of underground water circulation known -

,
’
respectively as the shallow un derground or vado se ,
’
,

an d the deep seated ci rculation I t i s with the shallow

-
.
3 64 TH E G E O L O GY O F O RE D E P OS I TS
the lode and redeposi t ed by a second reaction The .

dissolved metallic salts or the free acids occasionally

,

liberated i n the general chemical change s reacting on ,

non metalliferous minerals i n the lode or country rock

- -
,

O ften form secondary non metalliferou s mi nerals s uch

-
,

a s gypsum The reaction of s ulphate O f zinc upon

.

lime stone may b e taken as an illustration .

I n dry coun tries the mi neral s of the upper parts of

the lodes are much more varied than those of moist
countries owing to th e more soluble compounds s uch
, ,

as sulphates an d som e carbonates b eing better a b le to ,

exist i n th e s olid state .

Typical arid regions are those O f the deserts o f

,

Arizona and of Atacama .

I n the upper parts of the cupriferous deposits of

Chili particularly near Copiapo there i s a series of
, ,

cupriferous an d ferric sulphates and car b onates both —

—
neutral and basic in various stages of hydration illus ,

t ra t iv e o f the presence of soluble m ineral s i n the

go ssan s O f ari d region s Chlorides an d o x yc hl o rid es are
.

also typical com pounds of such districts .

The secondary en richments of lode s brought about

th rough these s econdary reaction s are often o f great
i mportance commercially The gold concentration of .

th e M ount Morgan M ine ( Quee n sland ) the secondary ,

en richm ent of argentiferous ores i n the gossan of B roken

H ill ( N e w S outh Wales ) the m any secondary deposits
,

o f copper lead and zi nc in the Am erican conti nent

, , , ,

an d those of our own country i n C ornwall and other

localities are all examples of concentration of m etal
,

l ife ro u s lode minerals by secondary processes .

I n G uanaj uato ( M exico) the secondary alterations

( colorados an d negros or pi nta azul ) extend to depths
,
 S E C O N DARY C H A N GES 6
3 5

of feet F rom surface to a depth of 2 5 0 fee t th e

.

lode s are poor but from thi s level to

, i n depth
the gold is secondarily concentrated and free milling -
.

Below this the gold occurs i n ores of lead and antimony ,

an d consequently is not so easily separated .

N ear the surface the veins sometime s contai n black

oxide of manganese and the m aterial here goes b y the
,

n ame of que mazon At Catorce where the deposits

.
’

,,

are in lime s tone the colorado s extend to a depth of

,

5 0 0 feet and con s i s t of oxide and s ulphate of iron

, ,

native silve r chloride bromide and s ulphide of s ilver

, , , ,

i n a gangue of manganiferous calcite ch rysocolla ceru s , ,

site and azurite

, .

The secondarily deposited gold is found i n ochreous

cavities in a quartzo s e veinstone which on ce contained
pyrites .

When the veinston e was oxidized the i ron pyrites ,

wa s carried O ff in the form of ferrous s ulphate leaving ,

the gold which was originally di s seminated through

,

the pyrites i n the form of s mall segregated masses

, .

F ree gold is found i n the gossan s of many pyritic

lodes as for in s tance i n the R emedios district in
, , ,

Colombia ( South America) ; here the lodes contai n

fil ifo rm and grain gold i n an ochreou s material exten d ,

ing from the outcrop to a depth of 5 0 feet b elo w ,

which there occur s auriferous pyrites with s ulphide s of ,

antimony arsenic lead and C opper ; the molybdate

, , ,

of lead an d native bismuth are also found .

The chemical reaction s involved i n the changes giving

ri s e to the ores of the gossans and zone s of secondary ,

deposition i n lodes depend on the relative a ffinities of

,

the metal s for the acid radicles and thi s may b e ex ,

pressed b y writing the m etals in a certai n order Thus .

,
3 66 TH E G EO L O GY O F O RE D E P OS I TS
the following series —
mercury S ilver CO p p e r b ismuth , , , ,

cadmium lead zinc nickel cobalt i ron and manganese

, , , , , ,

— is so arranged that a solution of a salt of any o n e

of these metals will be decomposed by tho se s ulphides
of the metals which follow it but will be unaffected by ,

those which precede it .

O n e of the commonest m etallic compounds of all

lodes is i ron pyrites and as this com es at the end of the
,

series with manganese its effect as a precipitant to

,

salt s produced by oxidation of some of the other metallic

s ulphides must be very great .

I n the zone of oxidation ( i n the gossan ) i ron pyrites

i s decomposed by a series of reactions which culminate ,

i n the formation of li monite a mineral extremely ,

common i n the upper parts of lodes .

The oxidation o f i ron pyrites pri marily results i n the

formation of ferrous sulphate and s ulphuretted hydrogen ,

thus

F errous sulphate i s easily oxidized to ferric sulphate ,

which i n the presence of some non metallic hydroxide -

is decomposed with formation of limonite

,

F e 2 ( S O 4) 3 6R . OH F e 2 0 3 3 H zO R
3 2 S O 4
.

The car b onate of i ron is also lia b le to de struction

4 F e C O 3 + H
3 zO 20 2 Fe
2
0 3 3H z
O 4C O z .

While if the carbonate contai ns manganese an oxide

, ,

of manganese is formed at the same ti me .

I t has been suggested that the formation of h ae matite

f rom the decomposition of i ron pyrites may be effected
b y alkalin e solution s the action resulti ng i n the forma
,

tion of alkalin e s ulphide s and thiosulphates The effect .

3 6 8 TH E G E O L O GY O F O RE D E P OS I TS
The copper pyrites of the s econd equation can b e
regen erated al s o in accordance with the following
reaction
Cu so 4 2 FeS 2 O, C u F e s2 P eso ,
2 SO
Cu S O 4 2 Fe S Cu FeS 2 FeS O 4 .

While intermediate compound s such a s bornite may , ,

b e form ed by similar reactions .

A remarkable in stance o f the regeneration of copper

pyrite s is i n stanced i n Vancouver island where i n ,

Bonanza C reek a layer O f C opper pyrite s i s found at the

surface contai ning 1 0 per cent of C opper ; thi s percentage
.

dim i ni shes with depth until at 2 0 feet the ore ceases

,
.

I t is found as a secondary deposit i n decompo s ed

s urface rock s and was probably derived from cupriferou s
-
,

solutions which were reduced by organic compounds .

N ative C opper i s O btai ned by reduction of sul

phate of copper th rough the action O f ferrou s salts ,

which are converted to peroxide of iron or to ferric

sulphate .

The reaction corresponds to that represented by the

equation
C u S O 4 2 F e S O 4 F e 2( S O 4 ) 3 Cu .

The relative ease with which th e various cupri f erous

sulphide s are decomposed by ferric sulphate i s indicated
b y the f ollowing order : copper pyrites bornite and , ,

copper glance .

Although the sulphidic C opper ore depo s it s i nvaria b l y

-

S how secondary alterations near the s ur face there are ,

some exception ally important deposits of secondary

origin an d among these may b e mentio ned ores
,

of the Mount L yell and the B urra Burra M i nes in

 S E C O N DA RY CH A N G ES 3 69

Australia R io Ti nto ores those of Chili and M ontana

, ,

( Butte ) etc ,
D eposits of secondary origi n are found at
.

Monte Catini and also i n Ten nessee ,

.

Sulphate of copper is found i n workable quantity i n

the upper parts of lodes in N evada and also i n Chili , ,

a s sociated with ores such as the carbonates and silicate

of C opper .

I n the U rals oxidized copper ores malachite etc are , ,

common I mpregnations of sandstones b y the car

.

b o n a te s of copper occur at Katanga ( i n Congo F ree

State ) I n P oland impure m alachite i s worked out by
.

the use of sulphuric acid on the country rock Auriferous -

.

malachite has been found i n G uatemala at the contact

o f syenite with limestone .

The formation of the basic copper carbonate a b ove

ground water level i s effected by the action of som e
-

solu b le carbonate on th e copper sulphate in a lode ,

thus :
2 Cu S O 4 2 CaCO 3 H zO
C u O H zO C u C O 3
. . 2 Ca S O
4
CO 2 .

The oxides of copper and th e native metal are

form ed by reaction s represented by the following equa
tion
2 Cu S O 4 2 Ca CO 3 2 Cu O 2 Ca S O
4
2 CO 2 .

Cuprite ( C u zO ) occurs i n quantity i n the C obre M in e

( C uba ) and i s formed by the reduction of the cupric
,

oxide to cuprous oxide which by further reaction with ,

ferrous sulphate or f ree sulphuric acid gives ri se to

native copper
Gu zO H ZS O 4 Cu CuSO , H zO ;
3 C u
z
O 6Fe S O 4 6Cu F e2 0 3 2 Fe
2(
S O 4) 3

3C u 2 0 2 FeS O 4 4 Cu 2 CuS O
4
F e zO s .

24
37 6 TH E G E O L O GY O F O RE D E P OS I TS
I n Chili n ear Copiapo secondary ores of copper
, , ,

such as C opper glance atacamite carbonate of copper

, , ,

cuprite copper pyrites and bournonite are found in

, , ,

fi ss ure s traver s ing J uras s ic sandstones and shales rhyo ,

lite porphyrite melaphyre and volcanic tuffs I n the

, , , .

di strict of Chuquicamata quantities of atacamite are ,

found i n s hattered granite forming a s tockwork to a , ,

depth of 30 0 feet at an elevation of

, feet above
th e sea .

N ear Antofagasta the ore i s mai nly atacamite with ,

s ulphate of copper to 2 00 feet from the s u rface

, At .

this level b lack coppe r ores are met with and below ,

these are the primary sulphide s .

The gossan s of the We stern Argentine are auriferous ,

and even at moderate depths contain carbonates an d

oxi des of c p pp e r .

Th e P eruvian lodes occu r i n M esozoic rocks with

melaphyres i ntruded by diorites and porphyrites At
, .

R ecuay i n that country the ores o f an east and we st,

s ystem of vein s which contain much silver and s ome

accessory C opper and of a north and south series which

,

contain s much C opper are largely of secondary origin

,
.

At C erro de P asco secondary ores are found i n veins i n

altered andesite ; to a depth of from 2 0 0 to 300 feet
the ores are secondary ( colorados or pacos) ; b elow
these come sulphides o f i ron and copper which are ,

a rgenti ferous ( mulattos or p av a n a d o s) The original .

ores ( n egrillos ) i n depth are sulphides of i ron zinc and , ,

copper with mispickel tetrah edri te and bornite con

, , , ,

tai n ing S ilver an d gold .

I n M exico the upper parts of the lodes S h ow the

characteri stic s econdary types of ores I n Sonora .

County ( Ca nane a district) oxides of copper a nd the ,

37 2 TH E G E O L O GY O F O RE D E P O S I TS

are associated with quartz felspar garnet ) i ron copper , , , , ,

and arsenical pyrites lead moly b date and fluor , ,

S par . Secondary i n crustation s of sooty sulphides are

f ound coating the s e ore s I n the zone affected by .

secon dary changes ar s enical and antimonial sulphides

of silver stromeyerite polybasite and s econdary
, , ,

ore s of i ron manganese lead and copper are m et

, , , ,

with .

I n th e Vi rgilina di strict fragm ents o f bornite are

coated by copper pyrite s th e whole being cemented ,

by oxide of i ron formed through the decomposition of

th e bornite .

The secondary concentration of zi nc and lead ores

i n limestone by the action O f meteoric waters is
analogous to that of copper ores but there appears to ,

b e a closer connection between lim estone and zinc

and lead ores than there i s between limestone and the
copper ores .

The com mon lead ore ceru s site may be formed in

di rectly f rom galena ; galena i n the u p p e r p a rts of o

lead lode s i s converted into sulphate of lead which ,

i n turn becom es carbonate th rough the action of car

b o n ic acid or carbon ates i n the solution s which ascend
th e lode F rom the carbonate or sulphate the lead may
.

be reconverted to sulph ide by th e action o f sulphides

of either i ron or zinc
P bc o ,
F e s, 02 P bS P ec o ,
SO
P h so , Z nS P bs Z nS O 4 .

The association o f the zinc and lead ores with lime

stones is explai ned b y true m etasomatic action The .

sulphides are converted to sulphates which react on ,

th e limeston e an d replace it by the carbonates of the

 S E C O N DA RY C H AN G ES 37 3

metals ; w hil e sulphates of lim e and magne s ia formed

duri ng the reaction are carried away in solution
P bS O 4 CaCO 3 P bCO 3 Ca S O
Z nS O 4 Ca C O 3
Z nC O 3
Ca S O

The secondary lead sulphides of L eadville ( Colorado ) ,

B roken H ill ( N ew South Wales ) and the various de ,

po s it s o f lead ores i n N evada U tah and many other , ,

places i n America are good examples of thi s type o f

,

action Chloro carbonate s and sulphate s of lead occur

.
-

i n U tah L eadville ( Colorado ) Tarapaca ( Chili ) and

, , ,

Sardinia ( M onteponi ) P hosphate and C hloro ar s enate

.
-

of lead an d b a s ic s u lphate of lead and copper occur

, ,

less com monly while the mi neral greenockite ( C d S ) i s

,

sometimes liberated on th e alte ration of z in c b l e n d e

which contai n s cadmium .

The s econdary concentration of the ores of s ilver is

O f particular i nterest s ince the riche s t argentiferous
,

ore bodies have been form ed by secondary concentra

tions ; i n arid or s teppe like region s a s i n the D esert
-
,

of Atacama i n N orthern Chili the secon dary minerals

, ,

have a s pecial character owing to the u nu s ual nature,

of the compound s form ed .

The alkali ne s alt s ( caliche Chili saltpetre or soda , ,

nitre ) of the D esert of Atacam a owe thei r origi n to the

nitrification of salts i n the old mud s an d depo s its of
dried u p lakes which owing to the aridity of the
-
, ,

region have not been wa shed away Solutions of these

, .

s al ts occasionally fi nd thei r way into t he lodes and as , ,

they contai n chloride s iodides bromide s car b onates

, , , ,

and sulphates a corresponding series of secondary

,

m ineral s are formed i n the lode s Chloride bromide .

, ,

and iodide of s ilver with s ulphate s carbonate and

, , ,
3 74 TH E G E O L O GY O F O RE D E P OS I TS
complex ores of silver and ot her metals are found ,

together with polybasite and sulphides of silver Ac .

cording to C R Keye s the peculiar conditions o f arid

. .
,

regions favour the formation of chlorides i n lodes by

reason o f the fact that sali ne substances are carried
b y winds and deposited i n the f orm o f dust .

Sulphide of s ilver may be regenerated b y the action

of sulphate O f S ilver on a sulphide N ative silver is .

formed al s o by the action of ferrous sulphate on silver

sulphate the reaction resulting i n the production of
,

native silver and f erric sulphate thus ,

An O 4 2 FeS O
4
2A
g F e 2 ( S O 4) 3 .

I n Sonora County M exico native silver formed i n this

, ,

way is abundant i n the upper parts of the lodes .

That native silver i s possi b ly capable of solution by

means of Cu S O 4 or by F e 2 ( S O 4) 3 with formation o f ,

sulphate of silver an d sulphate of i ron or copper

, ,

respectively is shown b y H N Stokes U nder dif

, . . .

fe re n t conditions th e reaction becomes a reversible one ,

and the abov e equation represents the probable change .

O ther s econdary minerals found i n th e upper parts

o f lodes com prise phosphates ( formed by the action o f
phosphoric acids or solutions of salts derived from the
soil penetrating the lode s) ; arsen ides and arsenates ;
van adates an d ch romates ( from weatheri ng of gabbros
and serpentines) ; molybdates ; och res of bismuth and
antimony ; nickel and cobalt bloom and occa s ionally ,

metalliferous compounds of organic acids such as ,

i
p g o t it e ( from m u d e s o u s acid ) in D o l c o a t h M ine .

These secondary mi nerals occur either as i ncru sta

tions as stalactites and stalagmites or occasionally as im
, ,

r n t i n s and replacements o f the country rocks near

p ge a o -
 C H APTE R I!

D E T R IT A L A N D A LL U V I A L D E P O S IT S

TH E disintegration of rock m asses by n atural agents

-
,

such as rain wind waves differences o f temperature

, , , ,

and frost is always taking place i n all land areas ; it is

,

more or les s indepen dent of l atit u de but i n temperate ,

regions it is perhaps most rapid .

A rock — mass is generally fa r from homogeneous and ,

i s composed of a mixture of minerals having unequal

density hardnes s solubility and c o e ffic ie n ts o f ex
, , ,
-

p a n s io n. The greater the physical differences pre

sented by the various constituents o f a rock mass the -
,

more readily will it break down i nto its compon ent

mi nerals The material so formed collect s at the foot
.

of rock slopes and on level sur faces o f the rock under

-

going disintegration b ut ultimately in times of increased

, ,

rai n fall finds its way into streams rivers and fin a lly
, , ,

the sea .

U n der the influen ce o f run n ing water particles o f

soli d matter will be sorted according to thei r size an d
density .

T he t ransportin g power o f runn ing water is directly

proportional to some power of its velocity but as a ,

general rule n o stream travels th roughout its course at

a uniform rate I n its m ore rapid parts i t i s possi b ly
.

capa b le of carrying all the solid m aterial poured into

37 6
 D ETR I TA L D E P O S I TS 37 7

it b y lateral streams and it can even e rode the rocks

,

which form its bed O n the other hand the widening

.
,

or b ending of a stream the confluenc e with a tri b utary

, ,

or the occurrenc e of bars banks l arge rocks and other, , ,

obstacles will locally reduce the velocity and i nci

, ,

dentally the transporting power The effect of re .

d u c in g the velocity will there fore be a deposition O f

some or all of the s uspended solid particles in the order
o f thei r respect ive den s ities tho se with the greater ,

density b eing deposited first T he greater the difference .

in density b etween the various mineral s carried i n

suspension the more complete will be the separation
,

on deposition .

Sorting may also b e accomplish ed b y the simple

washin g away o f the lighter m aterial t hus leaving the ,

heavier particles more or less i n thei r original po s ition

that is to say they may remain as a detrital layer o n
,

the rock in which they were originally held .

I n the case o f the metalli ferou s deposits the natural ,

concentrations o f the heavier detritus are generally

termed placers .
’

T he proces s of concentration as exemplified b y the

larger rivers may take place i n several succes s ive s tages ,

fo r such streams are constantly eating i nto and rede

positing part o f their own alluvium T he alluvia O f .

many o f the broader river—valleys are not confined to

one level and occur either as terraces on e a b ove the
,

other mar king pauses i n the excavation o f the valley

, ,

or at a con s idera b le depth b elow the level o f t he

present drainage sy stem The former are known as
-
.

shallow placers and the latter as deep leads

,
’
.
’

The alluvium o f any existing river system i s n ec e s -

s a ril y derived from the areas drained b y the main

378 TH E GE O L O GY O F O RE D E P O S I TS
stream and its tri b utaries and its character will b e
'

determined b y the rock types presen t within the b asin

-
.

I t often happens th at a river system receives detrital -

matter from rocks o f many different types an d it i s ,

thus quite com mon to fin d the alluvium o f a tri b utary

differing mi neralogi cally fro m that o f the main stream
a b ove the point of confluenc e An exam ple is furni shed .

b y the R iver P o an d its tri b utaries which drain the ,

complex region o f N orthern I taly Almost every .

important tri b utary o f the P 0 is characterized b y at

least on e easily recogniza b le mi neral which differs from
that O f the other streams and is an indication o f the
,

rock types o f its parti cular valley

-
.

I t is possi b le from an examination of the alluvium

,

o f any river to form by means o f the minerals o b served

, , ,

an accurate idea o f the rock types pre s ent withi n the -

b asin and also i n many cases to track any desired

,

mineral to its source .

All th e minerals which are o f economic i mportance

i n alluvial and detrital deposits h ave high den si t ies ,

and are thus easily concentrated b y n atu ral agencies .

Although runni ng water i s undoubtedly the most

power ful agent concentration i s also effected b y the
,

action O f wi nd an d waves .

Wind acts largely on the detritus due to the

weatheri ng o f rocks i n ari d climates an d its action is ,

simply that o f win n owi ng but together with waves it

, , ,

also bri ngs a b out th e concen tration o f heavy minerals

from the sands o f ti dal flats and coastal region s I n .

the case o f short rivers o f uni form gradient there is ,

little decrease i n the velocity of the stream until it

reaches the sea where almost at once all the suspended
,

m aterial will b e deposited givi ng rise to b ars an d b an ks

,
.
3 80 TH E GE O L O GY O F O R E D E P O S I TS
but the deep leads although sometimes con nected
‘
,
’

with the present system s o f drainage often belong to ,

so remote a period that there i s no t raceable relation

to the present sur face c o n figu ra tio n They have often
-
.

been overlain by more recent deposits of m ari ne o r

fresh water origin an d have even i n s ome instan ces
-
,

been o b scured b y coverin gs o f volcanic materi al which

has b ee n poured out over the old land surface -
.

B each placers are found i n marine deposit s of all

-

ages and the sorti ng action o f win d has b een detected

,

i n rocks o f the pre C am b rian M esozoic Tertiary an d

-
, , ,

R ecent periods .

As an illustration o f the i nfluenc e o f the country

rock on the character o f sh allow placer s a river system ,

is shown i n the figure with streams draining a gran itic

,

area a mass o f serpentine and crystallin e schists con

, ,

tain ing len ticles o f m etamorphic l imes tone with iron

ores .

The alluvium o f the stream A i n its upper part will

contain only the mi nerals o f the crystalline schists ,

b ut lower will contain particles o f i ron ore together

with calc silicates such as garnet etc
-
, , .

The strea m B will b e characterized perhaps by the , ,

occurrence o f cassiterite derived from the granite and

,

its metam orphic aureole associated with such pneu ,

m a to l ytic minerals as axinite fl u o rsp a r and tourmaline

, ,
.

The stream C might carry chromite with gold an d

platinum and the alluvium o f the united s t re ams ( D )
,

would contai n all the minerals of the tri b utaries .

We see therefore how b y starting low down a river

,

and going b y the C haracter of the alluvium it is ,

possi b le to trace any parti cular m ineral to its source ,

and i n t his way a great num b er o f rich deposi ts of

 D ETR I TA L DE P OS I TS 3 8 1

precious m etals have been discovered The placer .

deposit s are always the first to b e worked in any

district I t O ften happens that the concentration wh ich
.

has given rise to them is very com plete and then the ,

parent rock may contai n the precious m aterial in only

the minutest traces .

The num b er o f heavy mi neral s met with i n the

placers is extremely large and i ncludes the n ative ,

metals gold platinum osmium i ri dium copper s ilver

, , , , , ,

n ickel an d iron ; the sulphide s cin n a b ar copper an d

, ,

i ron pyrites z inc b l e n d e and galen a ; the oxides c assit

,

e rit e thorite ch romite corundum and zi rcon ; also the

, , , ,

spinels the phosphate mon azite the tit anite perovskite

, , ,

and the silicates axinite cyanite andalusite topaz , , , ,

garnet tourmaline horn b lende an d a ho st of others all

, , , ,

i ndicative o f the rock type i n which they ha d their origin

- .

O f these mi nerals only a small proportion are o f ,

direc t economic value b ut it h as been found that ,

certain non metallic mi nerals o f n o value in themselves

-
,

when met with in alluvial deposits point more or less ,

conclusively to the presence of some ore o r metal .

F or instance chromite is an invaria b le as sociate o f

,

platinum ; topa z tourm alin e fluor and axinite o f cas

, , , ,

s it e rite ; and cinnabar wol fram and hornblende might , , ,

i ndicate gold .

We will n ow consider the detrital deposits respectively

carrying gold platinu m tin copper iron ores and the
, , , , ,

rare earths such as monazi t e thorite etc

, , ,
.

D E TR I TA L AN D AL L U V I A L G O L D .

The di si ntegration of rocks containing auri ferous

vein s and the accumulation o f gold by the mechanical
,

agents mentioned a b ove has given rise to d eposits ,

3 82 TH E G EO L O GY O F O RE D E P OS I TS
which economically are the m ost important o f all
sources of the preci ous metal B e fore proceedin g to .

consider the most prevalen t alluvial deposits we will ,

mention a fe w o f detrital character which h ave had a

slightly different mode O f origi n .

The chemical weath ering o f rock s under tropical

and su b tropical condition s o ften giv e s rise t o sur face
deposi ts of considera b le thickness ( laterite These ,

deposit s are due to the chemical changes taking place

i n the s uperficial portions o f the rock masse s i ncluding -
,

the removal of certai n constituents b y solution and the ,

oxidation of others I n character they are usually

.

cellular ferrugin ous clays which have suffered little

,

redistri b ution b y running waters ; should they exist on

rocks which are i n any degree auri ferous they would ,

con tain the metal i n greater quantity than the rocks

b e lo w and it would b e more readily extract e d Such
,
.

deposits occur amongs t other localities i n the G uian as

, , ,

B razil the Adirondacks I ndia M adagascar and

, , , ,

L yden b urg in S outh A frica I n F rench and B ritish .

G uian a and B razil the lateritic deposits containing gold

,

are more or less confi ned to the plateaux and lesser

hill slope s occupied b y diori t es dia b ases amphibolites
-
, , ,

epidiorites and horn b lende schists rocks which are

,
—

regarded as the mos t frequent carriers of prim ary gold .

It ha s b een definitely proved i n t hese di stricts th at the

acid gneis ses gran ites and porphyrie s are not t he
, ,

source o f the m etal .

I n the valleys occurs the usual type o f alluvial

placers There is little dou b t that much o f the gold is
.
’

s e t free b y the complete oxidation o f auri ferous pyrites ,

and such an origin has b een claimed fo r the m etal in

t he detrital deposits of the Appalachians .
 384 TH E G E O L O GY O F O RE D E P OS I TS
I n the U n ited States the r e gion surrounding the ,

Black H ills o f D akota consists o f a series o f meta

m orphic rocks such as horn b len d e chlorite and othe r
, ,

schists overlai n uncon formably b y the P otsdam S and

,

stone ( U pper C am b rian ) Th e s andstones and con .

glomerates of the P otsdam Series are largely made up

of detri tus from the underlyin g rocks T hey contain .

gold i n a fin ely divided state derived from the m eta

m orphi c s eries which is traversed b y auri ferous quartz
,

reefs The gold i n the sandstones differs from that of

.

m gwo o o

Algo n ki a n P o ts d a m B e d s Tr a c hy t o id
S c h/s t Ca m b r ia n) P h o n o l it e p l a c e rs o f
‘

( Pr e Ca m bria n
) wit h Au r if e ro u s P l e is t o c e n e a
ge
B a s a l Ca n gl o m e r a t e .

F IG . 64 — S E CTIO N
. OF TH E D IS TR ICT N E A R L E A D I N TH E
N O R TH E R N B L AC K H IL L S , S O U TH D A O TA K .
( AF TE R W B . .

V
D E E R E U! ) .

t he S outh African bankets i n its non crystallin e char -

acter and larger grain b ut the concentration i n both ,

cases has pro b a b ly b een affected b y wave action .

S imilar deposits o f supposed Silurian age occur in

Q ueen sland Australia Th e P otsdam Sandstone itself
,
.

gives rise to sh allow gold placers o f the usual type in ,

which are found garnet tourmaline cassiterite and , , ,

other m inerals at D eadwood G ulch Blacktail ,

G ulch etc ( see F ig

, . .

T he chief gold b earing conglom e rates or bankets of

-
 D ETR I TA L D E P OS I TS 3 85

the R and G o l d fie ld i n S outh A frica occur on s everal

hori z ons i n the Witwater s ran d Sy s tem The origin o f
,
.

the gold is still a matter o f som e un certainty ; b y s ome

it i s claimed that it ha s b een i ntroduced su b sequently
to the formation o f t he conglo merates but the b alan ce ,

o f evidence is i n favour o f it being in a detrital state

deposited contemporaneously with the enclosing rock .

T he Witwatersran d System in its upper auri ferous

part is divided i nto the followi n g series i n descending
"

order
The E lsburg S eries ,

The Kim b erley Series ,

The B ird Series ,

The M ai n R eef S e rIeS ,

and has an aggregate thickn ess of a b out feet .

The gold has b een foun d i n each series on o n e

some what vari a b le horizon m arked b y conglomerate
,

separated b y quart z ite an d shales which are n ot known

to contain the metals .

I n the J ohannes b urg di s trict the rocks of the Wit

,

wa t e rsra n d System form a synclinal basin which attai n s

to a length of 1 0 0 m iles fro m east to west an d a ,

b readth o f fi fty miles They are boun ded b y granitic

.

and schistose rock s b elongin g to the fundamental com

plex and have b een con sidered to belong to the
,

D evonian System I t is qui t e possi b le however con

.
, ,

s id e rin g the evidence o b taina b le that they are O lder

,

than the D evonian and m ay even be pre C am b rian

,
-
.

They outcrop on the north side o f the synclin e at

J ohannes b urg and on the south at Klerksdorp Venters
, ,

kroon H eidel b erg an d N igel

, , .

Some conglomerates also occur at a higher hori z on

than the Witwatersran d System i n the Black R eef ,

25
3 86 TH E G E O L O GY O F O RE D E P O S I TS
Series at the b ase of the Tran svaal System and above
, ,

the Ventersdorp or Witwatersran d amygdaloid ( V aal

System ) .

The b anket of the M ai n R eef Series con s ists of three

or four seams o f co n glomerate ranging from 2 to 2 0 ,

i n che s i n thickn e s s ; but occasion ally a seam will reach

a m aximum of about 3 feet .

The gold o f t hese deposits i s not vi si b le to the unaided

e ye i s crys t allin e and i s as fa r as can be j udged only
, , , ,

i n the m atrix o f the conglomerates The pebbles .

,

which are mostly vei n quartz with a little quart z ite

-
,

do not contain gold except when traversed by cracks ;

t he m a trix is highly s il ic ifie d .

There are several good arguments again st the theory

of placer origin for these deposits an d in favour o f the
-
,

I ntro d uction o f the gold b y su b sequent i nfiltration ,

such for in stance as the absen ce o f nuggets ; but the

, ,

following facts point more or less conclu sively to the

detrital character o f the metal .

The gold values vary with the texture of the deposit ,

—
the coarser conglomerates those with more matrix i n
—
proportion b eing the richer .

The gold i s restricted to the conglomerates and is ,

a b sent from the other sediments associated with them .

I t wa s present in the congl o merates b e fore they suffered

a certai n am ount o f contem poraneous erosion with the ,

formation of wash outs I t is i ndependent o f dykes

’
-
.

and faults and also O f th e d ist ib u t io n o f pyrites which

,
‘

might have acted as a precipitant .

I t i s assumed therefore at any rate fo r the present

, , ,

that these deposits were in reali ty beach placers placers— -

S imilar to those well kn own i n N ew Zealan d and the

—
U n ited State s and that the gold is n o t the result o f
3 88 TH E G E O L O GY O F O RE D E P OS I TS
ree fs it does not seem n eces sary to C lai m fo r the placer
,

nugget s any other than a detrital origin I t is how .

,

ever possi b le that the welding O f small particles o f gold

,

i nto nuggets m ay take place naturally during the

formation of alluvial deposits .

The gold o f placers is u s ually associated with some

s ilver which when i n con sidera b le quanti ty gives t he
, , ,

alloy an exceedingly pale colour I t is also found .

,

associated with platinum a n d the allied m etals i n some ,

o f the gravels o f the Sierra N evada an d B razil i n the ,

deep lea d s o f V icto ria i n Australia and i n the rivers ,

o f As s am and Mysore i n I ndi a .

The richest alluvial deposits are always adj acent to ,

i f n ot restin g on the parent rock the coarser gold b eing

,
-
,

n earer the s ource .

I n E urope examples of alluvial gold deposits may be

drawn from the B ritish I sles F ran ce S pain N orth
'

, , ,

I taly an d C entral E urope

, .

I n E nglan d gold occurs i n al m ost all the alluvial tin

deposits o f C ornwall ( p associated with cas siterite
.

magn etite wol fram an d less frequently moly b denite

, , ,

derived from the granites o f the county the meta ,

m orphic aureoles and the vein s in the killas

, .

I n I relan d it is met with in the gravels of the G old

M i nes R iver and other stream s i n C ounty Wicklow ,

with an assemblage o f minerals si milar to those o f

C ornwall .

I n S cotland it has been washed from the alluvium o f

the stream s drai ning the L eadhills and ha s had i ts origin ,

i n auri ferous pyrites I n Wales it occurs in the alluvium

.

o f the C o thi in Carmarthen shire and has been derived

, ,

most proba b ly from t he numerous small quartz vein s -

which traverse the older rocks .

 D ET R I TA L D E P OS I TS 8
3 9

I n Cen t ral gold has b een foun d i n s mall

E urope
quantitie s i n t he all uvium of the Rhine and several
o f the larger rivers drain in g the Alps and C arpathi an s .

The R hi n e alluvium ha s been exploited b etween R heinau

and D e xl a n d a b out fi fty mile s from B asle where it con
, ,

tain s b eside s some gold titani ferous iron ore an d trace s

, ,

o f platinum G old occurs i n the rivers of N orthern

.

Italy draining the Alp s o f the Monte R osa district and ,

o f F rance and S pain draining the igneous and meta

morphic rocks of the P yren ees .

I n A sia the rivers of the U ral Mou ntain s and Si b eri a

have long b een famous for thei r alluvial gold an d
platinum I n the U ral district t he n oted field of
.
,

B o go sl o wsk lie s to the north and i ncludes the mi nor ,

districts of the R ivers L ozva an d S o ssv a tri b utaries o f ,

the Tavda The pa ren t rocks are chiefly diorites and

.
-

serpentines .

F arther s outh lie the chlorite an d talc schist district -

o f E katerin b urg b eyond which i s th e rich field o f

,

Zlatoust .

I n the latter district th e auri ferous alluvium occurs

along the tri b utaries o f the M ia sk which itsel f flows i n ,

the granitic and gneissose district b etween the I lmen

M ountains and the U rals .

The M ia sk placers are some o f th e richest in the

U ral s and are famed for the large nugget s which from
,

time to tim e h ave b een discovered Thirty miles from .

N izhne Ta gil sk auri ferous gravels lie beneath peat

mo sses .

I n Central Si b eria the great di strict of the Yeni sei is

one o f igneous and metamorphic rock s while to the ,

west lie the s u b sidiary drainage area s of the Vitim the ,

O lekma tri b u tarie s o f the L en a and o f the upper part

, ,
3 9 0 TH E G E O L O GY O F O R E D E P OS I TS
o the Amur The depo s its are o ften covered b y peat
f .
,

varyi n g from 2 feet up to 1 60 feet i n thickness ; b ut as

a rule the over b urden does n ot exceed 1 2 feet .

The auri ferous deposits of the N orthern Y eniseisk

di s tri ct all contai n bismuth m agnetite and occasionally , ,

garn ets ; b ut those o f the southern area contai n brown

iron ores i ron an d C O p p e r pyrites and occasionally
, ,

n ative copper .

N ear the head waters of the Y enisei occur the

-

deposits o f the Atc hinsk and M in u ssin sk districts where ,

t he rocks are chiefly gran ite diorite syenite diabase , , , ,

and basalt I n Chin a the province o f Shantung has

.

b een the main source o f Chi ne s e gold fo r centuries .

The ore occurs i n river alluvia but the bed roc k i s -

,
-

di fficult o f access owing to large amounts of water .

Alluvial gold has been found i n I ndia Tur k estan an d , ,

A fghan istan also in a great m any districts i n Tibet

, ,

Chi na and B urm a an d i n the i slands O f S umatra

, , ,

B orneo an d J apan
,
.

I n In di a most o f the streams o f Assam Mysore , ,

M adras Bombay H yderabad ( H aidarabad ) C hota

, , ,

N agpore ( or Chutia N agpur ) an d N orthern I ndia , ,

whic h drain areas o f metamorphic rocks and the

G ondwan a form ation contai n th e metal ,
.

The Fermo C ar b oni ferous rocks as we h ave seen

-
, ,

contai n detrital gold It occurs also in the alluvium .

o f the G o d a v e ri i n the n eig hb ourhood o f G o d a l o re

,
.

The streams o f the H imalayas are practically barren .

The deposit s of Sumatra occur chiefly on the western

coast i n a region of metamorphic schists traversed by
,

granites The ore i n place exists as quartz veins with

.
, ,
-

copper an d iron pyrites traversin g the schists and in , ,

a sso c iation with diorites .

39 2 TH E G E O L O GY O F O RE DE P OS I TS
s mall quart z vein s and stringers which occur i n the
-

m etamorphic schistose rocks This is true in a measure .

,

b ut there seems rea s on to b elieve that gold values are -

a l so controlled by basic ign eous dykes epidiorites etc , ,

.
,

as i n the G uianas an d many other districts The gold .

o f the Alaskan deposits has not travelled any great

distance an d occurs either free or associated with
,

pyrites O n the coast certai n beach placers are ex

.
-

t re m el y rich.

I n British Colum b ia nearly every stream contain s

gold i n its alluvium but the richest placers are con
,

n ec t e d wi t h the Rivers An derson F raser and C olum b ia , , ,

i ncluding between them the district o f C a ribo o The .

working o f these deposits which consist largely of ,

re sorted glacial dri ft is greatly i m peded as i n Alaska

-
, , ,

by the C limate .

The parent rocks are chiefly talcose and chloritic

-

slates an d schists which occasion ally S how sign s of

,

i ntense metamorphism .

T he C a rib o o district which is proba b ly one o f the

,

most important con sists o f a dissected plateau with an

,

average elevation of some feet a b ove sea level -

The deep valleys are lined with an accumulation o f

glacial dri ft O ften 1 5 0 feet i n thickness th rough which
, ,

t he rivers make their way an d carry on the processes

o f sorti ng an d concentration I n these valleys the .

auri ferous deposits O ften exi st b oth as shallow an d

deep placers the latter lyin g b en eath a false bottom
,

o f con solidated an d almost impervious dri ft .

F arther south i n Van couver I sland similar roc k s

, ,

have given rise to fai rly rich placer s especially i n the ,

L eech R iver district .

I n Western Canada valua b le placers occur in con n ec

 D ETR I TA L D E P OS I TS
tion with the Whale R iver and with the Chaudi ere ,

R iver i n Que b ec .

I n the northern States o f the U nited States such as ,

O regon Washington M ontana Wyoming an d D akota

, , , , ,

auri ferous alluvia are well known .

I n Central Washington the placers are sim ilar to

those of Alaska in characte r b ut the gold i s O f a very ,

pale colour owing to the fact th at it i s alloyed with

,

a certain amount O f silver .

The Wyoming deposits are o f i nterest i n so fa r as

they contain platinum and the D akota sh allow placer s
,

have already b een mentioned in con nection with the

P otsdam Sand s ton e .

I n M ontana an d I daho placers h ave been met wit h i n

t he E l k C ity district at A merican H ill an d Tiern an ,

those o f the latter place b eing b etween and

feet a b ove sea level They vary in thickness from
-
.

60 to 1 0 0 feet b ut the gold is almost all contained

,

i n the lowest 2 0 feet The bed rock con sists o f gneisses

.
-

i ntruded by veins of pegmatite .

I n the western States the alluvi al deposits o f Cali

,

fo rnia N evada and C olorado with N ew M exico are

, , ,

some o f the m o st famous i n the world .

The Cali fornian placers occur on th ree distinct levels ,

an d b elong to three different ages The oldest occupy .

the plateaux and re s t direc tly on th e parent rock they

,
-

are not con nected i n any way with the present drainage
system and are con sidered to b e o f Ter t iary age O f
, .

more recent date are the gravels o f the present valleys ,

which exist in at least two stages The O lder valley .

gravel s form terraces flanking the hill sides they have -

b een cut th rough at later periods b y the river which has ,

deepened its valley and left the older grave l s high above
39 4 TH E G E O L O GY O F O RE D E P OS I TS
t he present drainage level O cca s ionally they have
-
.

b een covered b y flow s o f l ava as in Tuolumne County , ,

an d are i n m a ny in sta n c e s worked as deep leads b eneath

a roo f o f volcanic rock The youngest deposits consist
.

o f the alluvium o f the rivers as now forming i n the ,

river bed and on the fl o o d plains

- -
.

Th e chie f districts where such placers are developed

are t hose containing the three Yu b a s and their tri b u
taries while plateau deposits occur b etween the
,

valleys .

The source o f the gold is i n par t i n the metamorphic

’

and igneous rocks o f t he ancient complex b ut the ,

distri b ution o f the metal seems to be governed to some

extent by quart z veins which traverse the J urassic rocks
o f the S ierra N evada an d also b y diabase i ntrusions and
,

lava fl o ws
-
.

The gold i n the vei ns of the C ripple C reek and

B lack H ills districts exists i n depth partly as telluride ,

but at the sur fac e it i s most O ften native I n fact .

,

i n such districts as N evada the S an Juan region o f ,

C olorado C ripple Creek an d M exico t he placers are

, , ,

derived from propylitic gold veins con nected with -

altered andesites f rom the fl u o rsp a r bearing telluride

,
-

vein s and from sericitic and calciti c m asses which

,

also yield a variety of metallic sulphides .

I ridium has been foun d i n the placers of the Sierra

N evada .

I n Central America and the West I ndies alluvial gold

occurs in H onduras and H ayti I n H onduras the .

placers are most common o n th e Atlantic slope and ,

have had thei r origi n i n sulphidic quart z ree fs which

contain auri ferous pyrites galena zincb l e n d e cinn a b ar
, , , ,

and sti b nite .

39 6 TH E G E O L O GY OF O RE D E P O S I TS
antimonial titanates o f i ron an d calcium ( der b ylite and
lewisite ) together wi th t rip u hyite
, are
found i n gravels contain ing cin n abar .

I n C hili where the rivers are almost all short and

,

rapid the placers are confined to the coastal region s

, ,

an d are derived entirely from the volcani c an d meta

morphic rocks of the Andes .

Australia has lon g been noted fo r the production of

large quantities of gold and as i n most other case s the , , ,

earlier mining was more or less confined to the S hallow

placers D etrital gol d deposits occur chiefly i n Victoria
.
,

N ew South Wales an d Q ueen sland ; in C h aracter and

,

a ge they correspond closely to the placers of C ali fornia ,

for t hey occur as plateau — deposits deep leads occ a ,

s io n a l l y covered by lava fl o ws and as shallow placers -

, .

The recent alluvium is o ften formed at the expense of

the m ore ancient detritu s .

I n Victoria deep leads are well developed i n the

Murray R iver district w hile S i milar deposits are over
,

lain by basalts regarded as o f P liocene age in the

, ,

E astern P lateau and G ipp s L and

’
.

I n the B allarat district detrital deposits o f several ages

are met with and i n G ipp s L and they are well develope d
,
’

i n the Valley o f the D argo an d are derived chiefly from ,

L ower P al ae ozoic rocks Victorian placers b esides the .

,

usua l minerals are known to con tai n topaz pleon aste

, , ,

sapphire wol fram and cassiterite ( p

, , especially in .

the districts o f M aryborough an d Castlem aine They .

h ave been derived from a variety o f rocks among st ,

which horn b len dic rocks an d granite s play a prominent

part .

I n N ew South Wales the capital lies in the centre o f

the auri ferous tract b u t th e placer s o f t he interior a re
,
 D ETR I TA L D E P OS I TS 39 7

di ffic ult to work on account o f the shortage of water .

G old occurs in the sands o f the R iver Clarence i n

a s sociation with cinnabar The most valua b le detrital
.

deposit s are the m arine placers such a s those of Montreal, ,

an d Corunna fourteen miles to the north which are

, ,

b lack ferruginou s sands derived from b asic igneous

,

rocks and contain a good percen tage o f gold Similar

,
.

deposits occur at Wagonga and below the silt o f ,

Wallaga L ake .

The alluvia o f the rivers of Q u e en sland on the sea ,

ward side o f the coast range all yield gold i n small ,

quan tities ; b ut on the other side fl ats an d n arrow strips ,

of alluvium are fairly rich The gold has been set free
.

b y the oxidation of auri ferous pyrites i n the country

rock Some o f it is alloyed with silver ; it has also
.

b een found on the high level plateaux

-
.

I n South Australia the R iver Torren s yields the

me t al i n small quantities but fairly rich placers occur
,

i n the districts of E chun ga J upiter C reek and B arossa

, ,

thirty five m iles from Adelaide

-
.

T he E chu n ga an d B arossa deposit s are shallow

placers an d deep leads derived most pro b a b ly from
,

auri ferous quartz ree fs The deep leads i n Victoria

-

are considered to be o f P liocene age and vary from ,

2 0 to 1 00 feet in thickness .

I n Tasmania placers occur at L isle near Moun t ,

Arthur an d along the P ieman R iver near the west

, ,

coast .

I n N ew Zealand the auri ferous deposits are chiefly

confined to the southern i sland along the western ,

coast west and south of the G reat D ivide They are

, .

b est developed in the districts o f O tago Westland and , ,

N el son represen ting an area o f some

, square
 ’

39 8 TH E GE O L O GY O F O RE D E P OS I TS
miles They consist o f the ordinary sh allow placers of
.
,

a thick series o f gravels o f Tertiary age i n the wider

valleys and recent b each placers The T ertiary gravels
,
-
.
,

as developed i n the O tago and Charlestown districts ,

are partly concreted yield varying quantities o f gold

, ,

and rest usually on a d en uded sur face o f the parent

rock .

S TA N N I FE R O U S D E T R I TA L D E P O S I TS .

N early all the i mportant tin the world con -

fie l d s o f
tain in addition to lodes deposits O f detrital tin ore
, ,
-

derived from the wearing away o f the granite an d con

tact metamorphic rocks i n which the tin lodes occur
- -
.

T he cassiterit e i s as i ndestructi b le as most other

minerals o f which alluvial deposits m ay be formed and , ,

although O ften foun d i n grains o f m icroscopic size is ,

nevertheless capable o f being concentrated i nto work

able deposits by re ason o f its high specific gravity .

I n its con centration i n tru e alluvia the lighter ,

argillaceous micaceous or very fin e sandy material

, , ,

d erived from the degradation of the rocks durin g the

li b eration o f the ore from the lodes i s washed away ,

from the heavier particles o f ti n ore Which settle in

layers in th e lower parts o f th e deposits and which ,

may b e su b sequently covered by sands or gravels

contain ing n o ti n ore This more particularly happen s
.

near the mouths o f stream valleys which ha ve b een -

su b merged .

As a shoad material it is also foun d on gentle slopes

-

below the outcrops of tin lodes mixed with ordinary ,

superficial broken and decomposed rock or head a ,

‘
,
’

formation which al though travellin ggradually down the

,

hill slopes with m ore or less rapidity according to the

-
4 00 TH E G EO L O GY O F O R E D E P OS I TS
with in the i nland detrital flat s or so called moors ,
-
.

These moors or mosses are wide i rregular shallow , ,

hollows o ften united b y low divides in fil l ed with coarse

, ,

detrital materi al and tin stone and overlain by layers ,

o f sand gravel and peat of no great thickness

, ,
The , .

principal o f these moors the G oss M oor and the R ed ,

M oor etc n e a r St Austell are situated at a level o f

, .
,
.
,

about 40 0 feet a b ove the sea on what appears to b e the ,

relics o f an O l d m ari ne shel f or plat form cleaned a nd ,

sharpened up i n P l iocene times At various levels .

,

either above up to or below 7 0 0 feet less con s picuous

, , ,
'

detrital flats occur which h ave also i n times past , , ,

b een worked for ti n ore and m ore recently for wol fram , .

T hese moors exten d laterally in tri b utary like arms -

u p to altitudes o f 7 00 80 0 or even feet and the , , ,

detrital material i n them appears to merge i nsensi b ly

i nto head the pre G lacial decomposed fragmental
‘
,
’
-

rock which covers as a m antl e the whole of the West

of E n gland T he flats th e widest o f which is the G os s
.
,

M oor ( one an d a quarter miles ) h ave a comparatively ,

rapid slope towards the streams which d rain them the ,

gradient b ein g that o f torrential conditions varying ,

from but rarely exceeding an angle o f thirty m inutes

, ,
.

The tin groun d is m ainly confined to chan nels at the

-

b ase o f the detritus and rarely exceeds a fe w feet i n thick

,

n ess T he material consists of coarse or fi ne su b angular

.

fragments o f schorl rock greisen gran ite horn fels and-

, , , ,

other igneous and metamorphic rocks with quart z ,

.

T he streams which drai n these upland flats or

mosses are in comparatively narrow V shaped v alleys ,

the mouths o f which have b een silted up at the coast ,

owing to submergence o f the lan d since their erosion .

I n the lower reaches there fore the ti n deposits o f the , ,

 D ETR I TA L D E P OS I TS 4 6 1

s tream s are b elo w the level of the s e a and b uried ,

b eneath great thickne s ses of b ed s of san d ( b oth river

and sea ) gravel silt peat an d su b merged forest up
, , , , ,

to 9 0 feet S uch streams have had their alluvium turned

.

over fo r stream tin from the coast to their source

-
.

The beach sands of some of the coves roun d the

-

Cornish coast are worked i n a small way occa sionally .

The ti n ore extracted from them occur s partly as a

natural constituent o f the sands or is partly derived ,

from the waste materi al flowing down the s treams from

the dressin g floors o f the inlan d mines .

The tin ston e which occurs i n the head is o f the ’

nature of shoad material The head i s a relic o f

- .
‘ ’

ancient weathering under s peci al climatic proba b ly ,

partly steppe like con ditions As the distric t was never

-
,
.

glaciated the superficial fragmental rock ha s b een

,

allowed to accumulate and under special condition s,

has crept or b een washed down the slopes i nto hollows ,

from whence much o f it has foun d its way i nto the

moors .

The working o f stream tin i n Cornwall i s very

ancient and has b een mentioned by old classic writers
, ,

who give accounts o f the early ti n trade b e t ween Corn -

wall and the M editerranean ports .

An idea of the enormous yield o f tin ore from the

alluvial depo sit s (which contained generally consider , ,

a b ly under 1 per cent even i n the richer patche s) m ay

.

b e O b tained from the estimate b y M r J H Collin s . . .

,

who s tate s that b etween 1 2 0 1 and 1 80 0 A D . .

tons o f metallic ti n were yielded b y the stream tIn -

works alone .

T he M a l a y P e n i ns u l a ; B a nk a a n d B illi to n — The .

detrital tin deposit s o f M alay are the world s most ’

26
4 0 2 TH E GE O L O GY O F O RE D E P O S I TS
important supply of this metal The principal de .

posits are contained i n the States o f S elangor P erak , ,

and P ah ang The line o f granite i ntru s ion s forming

.
,

the higher lands of the Malay P eninsula extend from ,

Siam to the i slands o f Banka and Billiton and through ,

out are a ssociated with tin ore .

The deposits consist o f the usual admixture of

materials derived from granite an d P al aeozoic shale s , ,

limestones an d quartzites ,
The minerals found i n .

them in addition to quartz co m prise magnetite

, , ,

ilmenite tourmaline topaz hornblen de mon azite

, , , , ,

s apphire wol fram and s cheelite

, ,
.

As in C ornwall the deposits con sist of layers or b eds

,

o f various materials an d reach a thickness o f 1 0 0 feet ,

or more b ut the ti n ground itself m ay average from 4

,
-

to 1 5 feet The Kinta Valley which is the most im

.
'
,

portant o f the alluvial tin producers i s a wide drainage -

,

area measuring about forty miles i n length thirty

, ,

miles i n width at its southern end an d five miles at ,

the northern end The material wrought contains .

from 3 to 1 per cent o f metallic tin but i n places as .

,

much as 2 0 per cent The so called karan g is the .

-
’

ti n groun d proper and often occurs stai ned or firmly

-
,

cemented b y lim onite produced b y the oxidation of ,

carbonate of iron solutions percolatin g th rough the

bed .

The so called kong is a type o f detritus consisting

-

o f a stan n iferous mixture of very fin e grai ned an d -

coarse material According to M r S crivenor the

. .
,

State geologist the term kong is used loosely for

,
‘ ’

material havi ng two modes o f origin I n one case it i s .

merely kaolinized or rotted pegmatite consisting o f a ,

mixture o f kaolin and quartz mistaken for detritus ; ,

4 6 4 TH E G E O L O GY O F O RE D E P OS I TS

those o f Vegeta b le C reek Stanthorpe C ope s C reek , ,

’

( near I nverell ) an d ,W atso n s C reek ’

.

I n the d eep lead s o f Vegeta b le C ree k the T ertiary

valleys have b een filled i n b y successive flows of b asalt s ,

and the total thickness o f m aterial overlying the tin

gravels m ay i n places amount to over 5 0 0 feet Zircon .
,

garnet t opaz tourmaline gold an d wol fram are

, , , , ,

associated with the ca ssiterite .

O f the Tasmanian depo s its those near M ount B is ,

c ho ff are of the most importan ce The tinstone occ ur s .

i n the decomposed fragmental rock which covers the

slopes o f the hills and is a true shoad m aterial
,
-
,

somewhat similar to the C ornish head I n part the ‘

.
’

deposit is like scree it extends to the tops o f the hills ,

and ranges i n places up to 7 0 feet i n thicknes s .

The hills themselves are composed o f P al aeozoic

argillaceous sediments an d lim estones cut b y quart z ,

porphyry dykes all o f whi ch are traversed by tin

,

veins To the residual deposits the term face is

.
‘ ’

locally applied The so called white face lies n ear

.
-
‘

quart z porphyry dykes and consists o f pieces of stan

-
,

n ife ro u s quart z porphyry with finer fragmental material

-
,

and sands containing ti n ore and other mi nerals .

The b rown face is situated i n basins near quartz

‘ ’

porphyry dykes and consists o f fragments of highly

,

altered stan ni ferous quart z porphyry a nd S late ; it -

reaches nearly 30 0 feet i n thicknes s and is cemented ,

by limonite and other ferrugin ous oxides .

The S t a nn i fe ro u s All u v i a o f S a x o ny a nd B o h e mia .

— AS in the s tan ni ferous head o f Cornwall tin ore i s ’

,

found in fragmental m aterial covering the hill slopes -

i n the tin bearing region s of the E rzgebirge as at

-
,

G eyer and E i b en stock The most i mportant deposits

.
 D ETR I TA L D E P OS I TS 4 6 5

of this regio n a re however those of the river valleys

, ,
-
,

which can b e broadly grouped according to thei r age as

R ecent or Tertiary .

The modern valleys which drai n the stanniferous

areas like thos e o f Cornwall are filled with altern ating
, ,

layers of gravels sands clays and peat The coarser

, , , .

detritus at the b otto m o f the valleys consists o f rounded

fragments of granite contact altered killas an d pieces ,
-
,

of veinstone I n addition to ti n ore b eryl apatite

.
, , ,

topaz fl u o rsp a r an d car b onate of i ron with s ome gold

, , , ,
-

are found as m inerals wh ich are para genetically rel ated .

The Tertiary alluvial deposits are only represented i n

one place i n the E rzge b i rge and that is near A b ertham ,

( at Sei fen ) H ere there is an old river b ed o f early

.
-

O ligocene age filled with stan ni ferous gravels alter

,

n ating with tourmal ine an d quartz sands an d clays -

,

which are covered by flows O f basalt and phon olite .

T he deposits are analogous to those of N ew S outh

Wales and have yielded large amounts of ti n ore
, .

M i sc e ll a ne o u s All u v i a l Tin O re s — At L a P a z i n ,

Bolivia a coarse detritus consisting o f boulders and

, ,

other d é b ris is found i n m o u n ta In torrents an d worked

, ,

fo r t he detrital ti n ore whi ch it contains .

I n the alluvia of the E m b a b a a n district i n Swazi

land South Africa tin s tone is met with i n as sociation
, ,

wi t h monazite corund u m magnetite and other su b

, , ,

stances o f which some are derived from stan ni ferous

,

pegmatites .

P L AT I N U M AN D A L L I E D ME TAL S .

The description o f the detrital gold deposits given

a b ove applies also to those placer s wh ich contain
platinum except that pla ti num placers are almo s t
,
-
4 0 6 TH E G E O L O GY O F O R E D E P OS I TS
alway s derived from one type O f rock while gold may ,

b e furni shed b y a greater variety .

I t was seen in an earlier chapter ( p 34) that the .

origin al source o f almost all pla t inum and the allied ,

metals osmium and iridium lay i n ultra b a s ic and b asic ,

igneous rock s I t is there fore not surprising to find

.

that all th e platin um placers are due to the b reaking -

down of rocks of this character .

I n E urope and Asia platinum associated wit h osmium

, , ,

i ridium gold and the mineral ch romite occurs i n the

, , ,

placers o f the U ral M ountains in the districts o f ,

N izhne Tagil s k G o ro b l a go d a t etc The placers o f

, ,
.

the N izhn e di strict are derived from the peridotite

masses of S o l o vsa ia .

Although the U ral placers taken as a group are t he

richest i n the world plati num h as b een discovered i n
,

m any other region s such a s in the auri ferous gravels of

,

the M ia sk district i n the alluvium o f certai n rivers i n

,

Borneo derived from serpentines and ga b bros and in ,

the rivers of A s sam .

I n N ew Zealand the placers o f the R iver Ta ya k a are

very similar to those of the U rals ; they contain osmium
and iridium as well as plati num and are derived directly ,

from peridotites .

At the R uwe gold mine in the Tanganyika di strict o f ,

A frica recent alluvi al deposits and certain sand stone s

,

carry gold plati num and palladi um but so fa r only the

, , ,

placers are worked .

I n N orth America platinum occurs in Colum b ia ,

associated with gold chromite titani ferous magnetite

, , ,

an d magnetite while som e o f the sands also contain

,

rhodium P lacers contai ning platinum an d gold have

.

b een me t with i n the Sierra N evada and i n Cali fornia ,

46 8 TH E G E O L O GY OF O RE D E P OS I TS
N orth and S outh C arol i na i n B ra z il at Sanarka i n the , ,

U rals in L i b eria an d N igeria ; but d eposits of economic

,

importance are also known i n the river sands o f Buenos -

Ayres i n the Argentine and i n the gold placers of R io ,

-

Chico ( Vene z uela ) o f Antioquia ( Columbia ) and of

, ,

Si b eria .

III the placers this mineral which is usually asso ,

c ia t e d with on e or more of s imilar character such as ,

xenot ime fergusonite j a d o l in ite samarskite uraninite

, , , , ,

etc has undou b tedly been furnished b y the crystalline

.
,

rocks undergoing disintegration I t has b een c o n c e n .

t ra te d n aturally by reason o f its high specific gravity

( 49 to 5 3) in the lower portions of the d eposit b ut ,

those o f the river placers nearest the head waters are -

i nvaria b ly the richer .

The mon azite sands O f B razil o f which those of ,

P rado are the most I mportant are derived from granites ,

and gneisses T h ey seldom exceed hal f a ya rd i n thick

.

ness and occasion ally yield 7 0 per cent of the mineral

, . .

The N orth an d S outh Carolin a deposits were ex

t re m e l y rich but are n o w largely exhau s ted
'

.
,

I n the year 1 89 3 9 4 the U n ited States alone yielded

-

poun ds o f mon azite .

IR O N AN D TH E B A S E R M E TA L S .

I ron ores occur a b undantly i n certai n beach placers -

o f the U nited States N ew Zealand and elsewhere , , ,

derived directly from basic igneous rocks and generally ,

known b y the n ame of black sand s They result from .

’

a process o f concentration carried on by the waves and

t ide b etween tidal limits .

I n our own count ry perhaps the b est examp l e is ,

 D ETR I TA L D E P OS I TS 4 6 9

the titani ferous iron sand o f P orth D in l l eyn i n N orth ,

Wales Titani ferous iron oxide also occurs as a marine

.

deposit on the seashores of P ahang .

The U n ited States deposits are rich i n magnetite ,

ilmenite h aem atite pyrite chromite an d monazite

, , , , ,

with apat ite zircon garn et epidote etc M agnetite

, , , ,
.

an d ilmenite are generally the most a b undant heavy

minerals .

I n N e w Zealand on the shores of the Tasman Sea

,

near N ew P lymouth occur titani ferou s an d magnetic

,

iron sands which are derived directly from the horn

-
,

b lende andesi t es an d b asic volcan ic rock s o f the distric t .

N ative copper an d an alloy o f the metal s i ron an d nickel

are not uncom mo n in some of the fl u v ia t il e and marine
shall ow placers T his iron nickel alloy has alrea d y been
.
-

mentio ned in con nection with the segregation o f the

native metals ( p .

N ative copper occurs i n some o f the black sands

mentioned a b ove and i t h as al s o b een met with i n the
,

alluvium o f the White R iver in Ala ska .

The compounds o f copper and also those of i ron ,

other than the oxides are distinctly rare i n detrital

,

deposits owing to the comparative ease with which they

decompose under humid condition s I n Arizon a how .
,

ever certai n metasomatic copper vein s have given rise

,

t o placers of some value contai ning com pounds o f

,

C opper s uch as chalcopyrite and born ite i n association

with several other metallic sulphides an d wolfram .

4 1 2 I N D E!
C o pp er o re 155- 1
76 ; co mp l x
e 1 55 hy p e rs t h
6 2 , 63 ; iro n o re s ene

l xi i i l
, ,

; d e tri ta
157
4 09 ; O d c , 1 5 5 , in , 2 4 39 40 4 8 ; n c k e In , 3 6 , -

ly
, , ,

156 ; s u l h id I C
p 155 156 15 9 , , , 3 7 ; p n e u m a to s is , 1 1 1 1 1 5 -

172 ; m e ta so m a ti c 2 86 2 9 1 ; -
G a l h o nel l a f errugmea , 3 0 5
ly v l
,

p n e u m a to tic 1 05 1 07 ; p re G a rn e t in t In e in s, 84 S e e a so
- -

h
.
,

c ip ita tio n o f, 3 1 1 , 3 1 2 3 1 9 3 2 4 M e ta m o rp ism

l
, ,

3 2 7 ; se gre ga tio n o f, 7 0 ; wit h G a u c o n ite , 3 30

a rse n ic , 1 7 2 1 7 6 -
l
G o d d e ri a tio n o f, 1 2 3 ; re a tio n
, v l
C o ru n d u m se gre ga tio n o f, 5 7 t o igne o u s ro c k s , 1 2 1 , 1 2 2 ; d e
h
,

m e ta m o rp ic 344 345 trita l , 3 8 1 39 8 m e ta so m a tic

hz l
, , ,

C ru s o n e s, 7 - 2 9 4 2 9 8 ; m in e ra
-
a ss o c ia te s o f
y ll
,

C r sta in e s c hIs tS , o re d ep o sits 121 122 m u sta rd 1 4 4

; n u gge t s ,
ly ti
, ,

o f. 336 338 38 7 , 3 88 ; p n e u m a to c, 1 07
-

lx
C o m p e , ign e o u s 30 1 09 ; se gre ga tio n s , ; so u 2
3 34
-
l
t io n s o f, 1 2 3, 1 2 4 ; p rec ip ita tio n
‘
D p l ee e ad s ,
’

380 3 9 4, 39 6, 39 7 o f 123 : te ll u rid e s , 1 2 6

l h l h
, . ,

Go d wit a u n ite , 1 2 6 ; wit a n ti

D e p o sit S e e O re d e p o sits mo n y h 125, 1 42 1 43 ; wit
l
.
, ,

D e trita d e p o sI ts ; 5 1 7 37 6 4 0 9 ; - i
a rse n c , 5 4 4 ; 12 1 0 - 1 2 WIth
l l b i m th h
, , ,

m in e ra s o f 38 1 go d , 3 8 1 39 8 ; - s 5 4 u43 ; 12 1 2 1 wit
l 5 ; with m ly b d
, , , ,

p a tin u m , e tc 4 0 5 40 7 ; tin o re , co
pp e r, 1 2 m o enu
-

l ; with p l ti m 3 4 ; with
,

39 8 40 5 ; n ic k e o re , 4 0 9 ; iro n 122 a nu
-

l it 6 ; with i lv
,

4 0 8 , 4 09 ; m o n a z1te e tc
o re s , ro sc o e 7 e, 1 2 S e r, 1 2

lf
, ,

4 7 , 4 0 8 ; wo ra m , 40 0 , 4 0 9
0 5 1 5 5 ; w th t l l
1-1 m 6 1 e u rI u 12

4 3 5 ; with
,

b f l
,

D ia a se , iro n o re ro m , 2 5 7 ; go d 1 -
1d m 1 v ana Iu ,

In »
3 2 ) 33 6
12

D id m iu m 40 7y G ld i
o l k it 33 ; i d i b
n a as e, n a a se

f l d di it
,

D i fe re n tia tio n , 4 , 2 I 7 1 -
in p ac e, an 3 33 ; i g it or e, 2, n ra n e,
24 28 ; se u e nc e o f, q 22 23 ; 3 ; in l t it
2 38 ; i m t a er e, 2 n e a

bb m ph i
,

f gao ro m a gma , 2 4 2 6 S ee -
or k 35 7 35 8 ; i c ro c s, n
l i
. ,

a so S egre ga t o n p e gm a tite 3 2 ; in p e rid o tite , ,

D io rI te , c o n tra c tio n fiss u re s in , 9 ; -

3 3 34 ; in sin ter, in
l y
,

go d I n 3 2 , 3 3 s e n ite 3 3

l iz l y
, ,

D o o m it a tio n 1 3 2 3 7 G o d o re , gro u p s 1 2 4 — 1 2 7 ; p ritic

l l h
, , ,

D u n ite , p a tin u m I n 35 o r su p id ic 1 2 4 1 2 7 1 4 0 -

l v l
, , ,

Go d e in s 1 2 1 1 55 ; ge n e ra .
-

lv
E a n s , c o n tra c tio n fi s s u re s in 9 -
,
a c c o u n t, 1 2 1 1 2 7 -

E n a rgite , 1 7 2 1 7 5 -
G o ssa n s , 3 60 3 63
E n ric m e n t , 1 8 h S ee S ec o n d a r y G ra n ite , c o n trac tio n fi s su re s in , -

h l
.

c a n ge s 9 1 0 ; g o d in , 3
2 ; p n e u m a to l ~

h
,

E p ige n e tic d e p o sits, 6 ys is c o n n e c te d w it 77 1 1 1 -

bi
,

E r u m 40 7 s u l p h id Ic se gre ga tio n s in 6 2

x l
, ,

E p a n sio n fi s su re s , I o - G ree n a ite , 3 2 9

G re ise n iz a tIo n , 1 3 , 1 4
Fa hl b
a n d s , 337 , 33 8
l
F a u tin g I O ‘
H e a d , s t a n n i e ro u s, 4 0 0 , 4 0 1
’
f
y
,

F is su re s 7 1 0 ; c o n tra c tio n -
9, IO H d a to ge n e s is , 5 , 1 1 6 2 3 6 ; c o m -

l h ly
,

F u o r a p a tite , 1 1 4 p a re d wit p n e u m a to sis 1 1 7

-

y
,

F ra c tu res , 7 1 0 -
a n t im o n o res , 2 1 9 2 2 1 a rse n -

ic a o re s l 2 2 1 2 23 ; is m u t -
b h
bbr ll
,

Ga o C arro c k Fe 24 -
26 ; o re s, 2 1 7, 2 18 ; co pp e r o re s ,

v v
, ,

s il Ic a in , 2 30 ; d i in e a nd 15 5 1 76 ; n a ti e Co p p er 15 7
4
-
, ,
 I N D E! 4 13

15 9 ; co p per py rite s , 159 - 1 7 2 ; I ro n o x id e , se gre ga t io n o f 39 5 3 -

h
, ,

co p per wit a rs e nic , 1 72 -

1 76 ; p re c ip ita tio n o f 30 4 3 1 1 -
,

go ld 5 5 ; g l d with
v e In s , 12 1-1 o Ir o n
p y rite s ,
p re c Ip I ta tI o n a s 3 2 3
y b i m th 4 4 3 l i
,

an tim on o r s u 1 2 1 3 42 S e e a s o S e r
g ge a t o n s

g l d w ith ilv h
.

55 ; g l d
, ,

o 5 s e r, 1 1 -1 o M e ta m o rp is m e tc
t ll I b
.
,

e id ur 43 5 h yd
es , li 1 -1 1 rO S I ta irite , 1 0 8 1 3 7 3 5 2
I l
,

i k l
,

t
ca e n c 34 3 6 ; e o re , 2 -
2 I ro n ta c o u m ite 35 2 ,

an d m g an
3 34 ; a n e se o re s , 2 0- 2

i k l
n c d e b lt an 4 co a o re s, 21 J a c u p ira n gite 5 3
x id i v i 3 36 l p h id
,

o in tIn g 8
o c e ns, 2 0-2 su Ic J ,

vi e ns , 3 ; l d d zi
12 1-2 0 ea an nc J u ra ssic iro n o re s , 2 45 2 49 -
257
v i 7 6 9 6 ; ilv
.

e ns, 1 96 1 s e r o re , 1
-

2 1
4 ; l p h i d i il i su g ld c s ceo u s o l z
Ka o in i a tio n 1 3 1 4 8 2 , , ,

o re , 7 4 12q i k i lv -
1 2 u c s e r o re s, Ka ra n g 4 0 2 , 40 3
’
,

Ko n g 40 2
’
2 2 3 2 30 -
,

H yd a to ge n e tic d e p o s its , c l a s sific a

tio n o f 120 l
re a tio n to ign e o us L a b ra d o rite ro c k , iro n o re in , 4 1
l
, ,

ro c k s , 1 19 S ee a so H y d a to
La n th a n u m 40 7
.

ge n e s is
y l l L a te rite go l d in 3 82
,

H d ro si ic a te n ic k e o re , 2 3 4 - 2 36 , ,

y h
H d ro t e rm a p a se o f o l h re d ep o L e a d o re m e ta so m a tic , ,
2 64- 2 79 ;
s itio n 3 1 , 5 5 p re c ip ita tio n s o f 3 2 7 3 2 8
v
, , ,

L e a d e in s , 1 7 6 1 9 6 -

I gne o u s ro c k s , co m mo n o re s o f, L epto thrix o chm cea , 30 5

15 ; m e ta ; l
d e p o s its s In , 2 o re L ias, iro n o res in 2 4 5 2 4 9 ,
-

in 3 5 , S ee a so D ff e re n tia l i L I m e s to n e , iro n o re s in 2 4 9 t in
P ly l
,

tio n , n e u m a to s is H yd a to ,
o re in 1 0 2 , 1 03
, S e e a so L e a d .

ge n e sis , a n d M e ta m o rp his m o re , e tc .

Il m e n te i
S ee ita n i e ro u s iro n T f Lo des ,
a lt e ra tio n o f wa ll s o f 13,

f
.
,

o re 14 ; in te rm itte n t o rm a tio n o f ,
I rid iu m 34 d e trita l 39 4 4 0 6 1 6 ; o rI gin o f 8 s tru c tu re s o f,

I ro n c a rb o n a te 3 1 4 3 1 9 f l h
, , , ,

-
1 0- 1 2 ; in a u ts and c ru s
I ro n o re c h ro me 5 3 5 4 d e trita l
,

, z o n es , I o

h
, , ,

40 8, 4 09 ; m e ta m o rp ic 3 39
l
,

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ff i
.
,

o o l I tic 2 5 2 9 ; se re a tIo n s o f D i e re n t a tio n

4 4 g g
-

v h
,

n a ti e iro n 3 5 , 3 6 ; so u rc e o f , M a gn e tite wit c a s s ite rite 56 ;

f h l
, ,

2 40 , 2 4 1 tita n i e ro u s , 3 9 1 09 wit tI ta n iu m , 39 S ee a so
I ro n o re
.
,

111

I ro n in a sa t, 3 5 36, 2 5 3 in
o re b l M a n ga ne se m e ta m o r
o re s , p h ic
b f l
, ,

c a r o n i e ro u s im e s to n e , 2 4 9 2
34 3 4 4
-
m e ta so m a tic 2 9 2 -2 9 4 ;
l
,

2 53 in c o a m e a su re s, 2 5 3 3 1 4 -

p re c i p I ta te d , 3 4 31 1
0 -

h y Q lv
,

3 1 7 in c rys ta l l m e s c is ts , 3 3 6 M e rc u r . S ee u ic k si er

b f M eso z o ic
,

337 ; in d ia a se 257 ; ro m ro c k s iro n o re s in 2 45

bb
, , ,

ga ro a n d n o rite 4 0 4 8 ; in
-

l l Co l o ra d o s
,

ia s 2 45 2 4 9 ; in L o w e r C re ta -
M e ta es 2 03

y l
, ,

c eo u s 2 4 5 ; in n e h el m e s e n ite,
, p M e ta es N e gro s , 2 0 3
5 2 ; In p o rp h yrI te 3 5 , 3 6 : in M e ta l s, in ign e o u s ro c k s , 2 ; s e gre
l y
,

S i u ria n 2 4 5 2 4 8 ; in s e n ite ga tio n o f n a tI v e , 32 37

-

hy y l h
, ,

p o rp r , 4 8 ; in tria s sic im e M e ta m o rp ism 1 7 33 33 6

1 -

h l
, ,

s to n e , 2 5 5 in ve in s wit m a n M e ta m o rp h Ic a u reo e , t in a nd

ga n e s e o re ,
2 3 2 34
0 -
co pp e r in , 88
 1
4 4 I N D E!
M e ta m o rp ic h
d e p o s its 1 7 o re d e trita l
4 0 9 ; a rse n id e 6 9 7 0
y ll h l
, , , , ,

33 1 3 5 8 ; in c r s ta in e s c is ts
-
s i ic a te 69 7 0 , 2 34 2 36 ; s u l
l
, , ,

336 338 : c o ru n d u m . 3 44 3 4 5 ;
-
.
h i
p d e , 32 8 S ee a so S egre ga .

iro n o re s , 339 34 1
-
m a n ga n e s e , t io n
34 2
-
344 : § u 1p h 1d e s . 3 45 3 49
-
N o rI te , c o ru n d u
5 8 ; iro n m in
M e ta m o rp hIc ro c k s , go ld i n, 35 7 o re s in , 39 4 8 ; s c h l I e re n in , 2 6 -

l h
, ,

35 8 2 7 ; s u p id es in 6 3

; h l
,

M e ta so ma sis 5 2 37 30 0 c e m ic a
l lv k g ld
, ,

re a c tio n s in 2 42 n ea r tin o des , O i ine ro c s, o in , 34 ; n ic k e l

l v
,

7 9 84 ;
-
se e c ti e in fl u e n c e o f i 36 3 7
n.
O l iti
.

ro c k s , 2 39 o i c o re s , ro n , 2 4 5 2 49 , -

30 5 ,
M e ta so ma tIc a lt e ra tio n s in l o d es 3 8 3 0 ; m g
-
10 an a n e se , 31 0
h t
,

14 O re c u es , 1 1 12
h
,

M e ta so m a tic o re d e p o sits a n ti O re d e po sits a ss o c ia tio n wit

y b x k l
, ,

mo n ,
29 1, 292 ; a u ite , 2 62 ign e o u s ro c s , 1 5 ; c a ssific a tio n
2 64 ; c a d m iu m , co p p er , o f, 19 ; d e fin it io n o f 1 ; e p i
v f
,

2 86 2 9 1 -
n a ti e co p p e r, 2 90 , g e n e tic, 6 ; o rm o f 6 8 ; sy n -

ld l
,

29 1 go iro n ge n e ra , 2 9 4- 2 9 8 ge n e tic , 6
z l
, ,

2 40 -2 4 4 iro n , c o n te m p o ra n e o u s , O re o n e s in o d e s 1 2
-

b q l
,

2 4 4 2 49 iro n s u s e u e n t 2 4 9
-
, O sm iu m , 34 ; d e trita 4 0 5
l z x i
, ,

2 62 ; ea d a n d inc , 2 64 2 85 ; -
O id a tio n in o re d e p o s ts, 1 3 , 1 7 ,
b
,

m a n ga n e se 2 9 2 2 9 4 ; tin 2 9 8 , -
35 9 3 7 3 ; o f c a r o n a te o f m a n
-

v
,

h ly b
,

2 99 ; u ra n iu m a n d a n a d iu m , ga n e se 3 6 7 ; o f c a , ite , 3 66 ;
2 9 9 - 300 o f c o p p e r o re s 3 69 ; o f iro n
l y z
,

M e ta so m a tic re p a c e m e n ts , 1 6,
p rite s , 366 ; o n e o f, 3 6 2 , 363
l
,

17 S e e a so M e ta so m a sis 3 66 3 7 5
-

x
.

M e te o ric w a te rs 1 7, 1 8 362 3 6 3 O id e s p re c ipita tI o n o f 30 4

l q l h
, , , , ,

M in e ra s se u e n c e in ti n o d e s , in s c is ts s e gre ga tIo n

v
, ,

84 88 -
o f 2 4 3 7 - 6 1 ; in
, e in s , 2 30 2 3 6
,

M In e tte s, 2 4 8
’

M ittern a c h tgan ge , 2 0 6, 2 0 7 ‘
P a c o s 2 04 3 7 0 ’

P a ll a d iu m 40 6
,

x
,

M i e d o re s , 1 5 ,

Mo ly b d e n ite , 1 0 1 1 1 1 P a v a n a d o s 3 70
’

ly b l h P h
, ,

Mo d e n u m go d wit , 1 2 2 84
’
ea c

P l
,

z l
,

M o n a ite d e trita , 4 0 7 , 4 0 8
,
e gm a tite , 3 3 ; go d in , 3 2 , 33 ;
M o rge ngange , 2 0 6 2 07 tin o re in , 5 5
l P
,

M u a tto s 3 7 0 ’
e rid o tite c o ru n d u m in 58
°

h l
, ,

l
,

M u sta rd go d 1 4 4 -
c ro m ite In , 34 ; go d I n ,
l l
,

n ic k e in , a tin u m i n ,
p
N a ti v e m e ta l s , s e gre ga tio n o f 32 34 3 5
Ph l l ll
,

co p p e r, 1 55 , 1 5 7- 1 5 9 m e ta so o n o ite go d te u rid e in , 1 4 7
P z l
,

m a tic co d e trita
pp e r 2 9 0 , 2 9 1
l in ta a u 364
’

P by h
, ,

c o p p e r, 40 9 ; iro n s e gre ga tio n , ip e s in D e r s ire 1 8 1 ; tin in , ,

l l
,

35 S ee a s o N ic k e P l a tIn u m , 101

l P iso l itic
.
,

G o d e tc iro n o re , 2 53, 30 5 , 30 8 ;
ll b x it
, .

N egri o s 3 7 0
’
au 31 3 e,
Pl
,

N e gro s, 364 a c e r d e p o sits , 3 7 6 4 0 9

’
-

hl
N e p e in e s e n ite iro n o re in , 39 y Pl a tin u m d e trita 40 5 ; l se gre ga

i
, , , ,

5 53
2, tio n f, 34 35 ; se gre ga t o n a s
o

Ni k l
,

c e f, 3 6 3 7
o re s , segre ga tio n o , ,
a rse n id e 6 8 6 9 ; in d u n ite , 3 5, ,

64 69 ; h yd a to ge n e tic 2 1 4 2 1 7
, ,
- in p erid o tite a n d se rp e n tin e ,

2 34 2 36 ; p re c ip ita te d , 32 8 34 3 5
-
.
4m I N DE !
So l u tio ns , m e ta i ll f 5 ; a sc e n d
e ro u s , T it i m i i
an u 39 n ro n o re ,

in g 3 60 3 62 -
; d es c e n d in g 3 6 2 T d t D by hi 8
oa s o ne , er s re , 1 1

vi
, ,

37 5 T m l
o ur pp a In e - c o er e ns , 1 0 6
,

S p a th Ic Iro n o re s 2 4 4 , 3 1 5 3 1 7 -
T m l i iz ti 3 4 8
o ur a n a o n, 1 I 83
2,
yl T i i l im t
, , ,

S pe rr ite s e gre ga tio n o f 6 8, 69

, ,
r a ss c i es o n e , ro n o re s in
S p haero sid e rite 3 1 6-
2 55
l h
,

S u p id e s , m e ta l l Ic p re c ip ita tio n
l b i l
,

o f 3 1 9 3 2 9 ; se gre ga tio n o f 6 1
-
U tra a s c ro c k s , go d in 3 4 , S ee
y ll h l P l ti
, , .

7 1 ; in the c r s ta in e s c is ts , a so a nu m
U ra n iu m m e ta s o m a tic 2 99 30 0
l h
, , ,

S u p id ic o re d e p o s its h yd a to
l
,

ge ne tic 12 1 2 30 p n e u m a to V a d o se c irc u a tio n 3 62 363

ly
, , ,

t ic , 1 0 5 1 0 7 ; se gre ga te d , 6 1 7 1
- - V a n a d iu m m e ta so m a tic 2 9 9 30 0 ,

l v l h
, ,

go d e in s 1 2 4 , 1 2 7 1 4 0
-
s e gre ga tio n o f 4 7 ; go d wit
f x by
, , ,

S u r a c e w a te rs O id a tio n , 17

l ly
.
,

S e e a so M e te o ric wa te rs Va p o u rs in p ne u m a to sis , 7 9 80
y h l x
,

S e n ite c o ru n d u m in 60 ; c a c o Ve In S O id ic , 2 30 2 36 ; p n eu m a to -

y l ly ti ilv
, , ,

p rite in 7 1 go d in 3 3 1 3 5 , , , , c, 75
-
115 o f s e r o re , 1 9 6
1 3 6 ; iro n o re in 5 2 , 5 3 2 14
y hy y
,

S e nite p o rp r iro n o re in 4 8 , V e in s to n e s , s tru c t ure o f 11

y
, ,

S n ge ne tic o re d e p o sits 6
Wa ll s l lt
,

o f o d es a e ra tio n o f 13,
T tl ibt i i
, ,

a n a o -n o 53 a es n ro n o re , 14

T ll id f g l d 6 43
e ur e o o 12 1 We a th ering b e l t o f 363
Th i m 4 7 Wh ite Fa c e 4 04
, , , ,

or u 0

d t it l 39 8 4 5 ; m t
,

Ti n o re , e r a ,
-
0 e a Wo l fra m d e trita l 4 0 0 409
, , , wit h
m ti
so 98 a99 pc, m t 2 2 ne u a o c a ss ite rite , 88 -
105
ly ti 88 5 ; g g t d 5 4 ;
,

c, -
10 se re a e

w ith 88 ; with m g
,

pp Co e r o re , a Yt triu m 40 7
m t m ph i
,

tit
ne 57 ; i e, n e a or c
l 88 with w l f m 88
a u reo e s, o ra Z in c o re s , m e ta so m a tic 2 64 -2 7 1

5 i v l
, , ,

10 i k n 3 4 o c a n c ro c s, 1 0 10 2 7 9 - 2 85 p rec ip ita te d 32 7 3 2 8 ;
Ti l d q l
, ,

v
,

n o f mi
es , se u e nc e o n e ra s e in s o f, 1 76- 1 9 6
i 84 88
n, l t ti f -
t y a e ra on o co un r Z o ne o x
f o id a tio n , 3 62 3 63 3 66 , ,

ro c k n ea r, 80 - 84 Z o ne o f re d u c tio n 36 3 , 36 4 36 7
Tit if
,

Ir
,

an e ro u s iro n o re se e on 37 4
l
,

; iro n sa n d , 40 9 Z o n a d I strIb u tI o n f
0

o re o o re s , 1 2

TH E E N D

B IL L I N G AN D S O N S, L I M IT E D , P R IN T E R S , G UI LD F O RD
 Mr Edward Arno ld s List of
’
.

Tec ical Scientific Publications

Ex t ra c m t h e LI VE R P O O L P O S T o f D e c 4 , 19 07
t f ro .

“
y
D u ring re c e nt e a rs M r E d wa rd A rno d h a s p a c e d in the l l h a nd s o f
h l l
.

e n gin e e rs a n d in t ere s t e d in a p p ie d s c ie nc e a a rge n u mb e r o f

o t e rs
vl h h
o u me s w ic , in d e p e n d e nt ly l
a t o ge t e r o f t e ir in t rin s ic me rit s a sh h
s c ie n t ifi c w o r s , a re er k v y
fi n e ex a m p e s o f t h e p rinte rs a n d e ngra e rs l ’
v ’

h l
a rt , a n d fro m t e ir a p p e a ra n c e a o n e w o u d b e a n o rn a m e nt t o a ny s c ie n l
t ifi c s tu d e n t s ib ra r l
F o rt u na te
’
y ly
fo r t he p u rc a s e r, th e p u b is e r ha s h l h
h h l k
.

s o wn a w is e d is c rim in a t io n in the t e c nic a b o o s h e ha s a d d e d t o his

l h l h
is t , wit the re s u t t a t t h e c o n te nts o f th e o u m e s a re a m o s t wit o u t vl l h
ex c e p tio n a s w o rt o f p e ru sa hy
a n d s tu d a s t eir a p p e a ra n c e is l y h
a t tra c ti e v .

The D res s i ng f M i ne ra l s o .

BY H E N RY L O U I S M A , . .
,

P ro fe sso r o f M i ning a nd L e c tu re r o n S u r v yi g A m
e n , r st ro ng Co ll e ge , N e wc ast l e -o u -T y ne .

With a b o ut 40 0 I ll u stra tio ns . R o ya l 8v o .

, 3o s . ne t .

The o bj h b
f t is o o k is to fil l a ga p in te c no o gic a itera tu re w ic e is ts
ec t o h l ll h h x
b e t we en wo rk s o n M in in g a nd wo rk s o n M e ta u rg O n th e in te rm e ll y
by h h l h by
.

d ia te p ro c e s se s, w ic th e m in e ra s u n ea rt e d th e m ine r a re
l
p e p a re d fo r th e s me te r a n d fo r t e ir u se in a rts a n d m a n u ac tu re s n o
r h f
l h x b h l h f
,

E n g is te t o o k ha s ye t a p p e a re d
-
The p re se n t w o rk s o u d t e re o re ,
v y l ll ll
,

b e e r we c o me to stu d e nts a s we a s to min e rs a n d me ta u rgis ts , .

AR N O L D S ’
G E O L O G I C A L S E R IE S .

G E N E R AL E D ITO R : D R J E M A R R F R S . . .
,
. . .

The ec o n o mic a sp e c t o f
is ea r l gy
re c e i in g m o re a tte n tio n in o u r
geo o y ly v
l
grea t e d u ca tio n a c e n tre s a n d th e o o k s o f t is se ries a re d esign e d in th e b h
l l y b l v h v
,

first p ac e fo r s tu d e n ts o f e c o n o m ic ge o o g I t is e ie e d o we e r,
h hy ll f f l l l y
.
,

t at t e wi b e o u n d u se u to the stu d e n t o f ge n e ra geo o g and

l vy h l
,

a so to su r e o rs a n d o t e rs wh o a re c o n c e rn e d wiih the r ti l i
p a c c a a pp
c a tio n s o i the sc ie n c e .

The G eo l o gy o f C o a l a n d C o a l M i n i n g -
.

B Y W AL C O T G I B S O N D S C F G S , . .
,
. . .

35 2 p ag s With 45 I ll u stra tio n

e . C ro wn 8 o 7 s 6d n t ( po st free 7 3 s . v .
,
. . e .

T h e G eo l o gy o f O re D epo s i ts .

BY H . H . T H O M AS AN D D . A . M A CA L I S E R , T
O f the G e o l o gica l S u rv e y . ! n P rep a ra /io n .

LO N D O N : ED WA R D AR N O L D , 41 85 4 3 M AD D O ! S TRE E T ,
W .
 M r E d wa rd A rn o l d
’
2 . s L td f
o

E l e c tric a l T ra c ti o n .

BY E RN E ST W I L S O N W H IT ,
. S CH .
,
P ro fe sso r o f E l ec trica l E n gine e ring in the S ie me n s L a b o ra to r y Ki g
, n
'
s Co ll ege , L o nd o n ,

AN D F R AN C I S LY D A L L , B A . .
,
B Sc . .

N E W E D ITI O N . R E WR I TTE N AN D G R E ATL Y E N L AR G E D .

Two v l o u me s, l th
so ld se p a ra te ly . D em y 8vo .
,
c o .

Vo l. with a b u t 2 7 I ll tra ti n an d I n de x o 0 us o s .

Vo l I I with a b u t 1 7 I ll t atio n
. n d In d x o 0 us r s a e .

15 n e t ea h v l um e ( p
5 . t fr e 1 5 c o os e 5 .

A Tex t B o o k -
Of E l e c tric a l E n gi n e e ri n g .

BY DR . A D O L F T H O M AL E N .

T a l at
r ns ed by G . w . O . H O WE , M S c . .
,W H IT . S CH .
,
L e c tu rer in El e c tr ca i lE ngine e ring a t the C e n tra Te c l h i l C ll
n ca o e ge , So ut hK e n singto n .

W ith 4 54 I ll u tratio n
s s . R o yal 8v o .
,
c o l th ,
1 55 . n et (p o st free I 55 .

Al te rna ti ng C u rre n ts .

A T e x t- B o o k fo r S tud ents of E ngineering .

BY C . G . L AM B , M A . .
,
B Sc . .
,

C l a re Co ll g
e e, C a mb rid ge ; Asso c ia te M e mb er o f the Ins titu tio n o f E ec trica E ngineers l l
Asso c ia te o f the C i t a nd G u i ds o f L o nd o n Ins titu te y l .

V111 + 32 5 pages . With up wa rd s o f 2 30 I ll ustr a tio n s. D em y8 vo , c o l th ,

f
.

1 08 . 6d . ne t ( po st ree 10 3 . N d ) .

E l e c tric a nd M a gn e tic C i rcui ts .

BY E LLI S H . C R AP P E R ,

H ea d Of the E l e c tr ca i lE ngine e ring D e p artm e n t in the U nive rsit y C ll g o e e, S hefiie l d .

v iii+ 38 0 page s . D em y 8v o .
, l th
c o , 10 5 . 6d . n e t ( p o s t free 105 .

Ap p l i e d E l e c trici ty .

A T ex t Bo ok
-
o f E le c tric a l E ngin eering fo r S ec o nd Y ea r S tuden ts .

BY J PA L E Y
. Y O R KE ,
H ea d o f the P h ysic s a nd E l i
e c tr c a l
E ngin ee ring D ep a rtm e n t a t the L o nd o n Co u n t yC o u nc i l
Sc h l
oo o f E ngin e e ring a nd N a vi ga tio n, P o p a r l .

xi i+ 4 2 0 p ages . C ro wn 8vo .
, c o l th , 7s 6d . .
 M r E d wa rd A rn o l d
’

4 . s L ist o f

The S tre ngth a nd E l a s tici ty o f S truc tu ra l

M e m b e rs .

BY R J . . WO O D S ,
ME . .
,

F o rme rly F e ll o w a nd Assist a nt P ro fe sso r o f E ngine ering Ro y lIa nd ia n E nginee ring C o ll ege ,
H ill
,
’

C o o p er s .

xn + 3 1 0 p a ge s . W ith 2 92 I ll ustratio ns . D em y 8v o .
, c o l th , 10 5 . 6d . n

( po st free 1 05 .

C a l cu l u s fo r E n gi n e e rs .

J O H N P E R RY M E D S C
BY ,
. .
,
. .
,

P ro fe sso r o fM h i d M th m ti i th R y l C ll g O f S i
ec an cs an a L e a cs n e o a o e e c enc e , o nd o n .

v iii+ 382 a
p ge s W it h 1
. 0 6 I ll u s tra tio n s C ro wn 8v o c l o th . .
, , 7 s 6d . .

M a th e m a tic a l D ra w i ng .

Inc l uding the G ra p ic S o h l utio n o f E qua tio ns .

BY G . M ; M I N C H IN , M A . .
,

F o rm e rly P ro fesso r o f Ap p l ied Mat h e ma tic s a t t he Ro y lIa dia n E ngine ering C o ll ege
n
H ill
,
'
C o o p er s

AN D JO HN B O RT H W I C K D ALE ,
M A . .
,

Assis ta n t P ro fe sso r f M th m t i t Ki g C ll
’
o a e a cs a n s o e ge , L o nd o n .

C ro wn 8v o .
, l
c o th, 7 s 6d . . n et ( p o st free 75 .

F i v e F i gu re T a b l e s
-
o f M a th e m a tic a l F u n c ti o n
C o mp ris ing T bl f L o ga rithms , P o w ers o f N umb ers , T rigo no metri
a es o

ll
E iptic , a n d o ther T rans cend enta F unc tio ns B Y J O H N B O R TH WIC l .

D AL E , M A . .
3s . 6d . n et ( p o st fre e 35 .

Thi s co ll e c tio n o f T ab l ha s
es en s e be le c te d fo r u se in the ex am in a tio
o f the U n i rs it ve y o f L o nd o n .

L o ga ri th m i c a nd T ri go n o m e tri c Ta b l e s (T
Fiv e P a c es l of D e c ima l s) . By JO HN B O R T H WIC K D A LE , M .

y
D e m 8v o , c . l th
o ,
25 . ne t ( p st
o free 25 .

T ra v e rs e T a b l e s . W i th a n In tro d u c to ry C h a p t
on Co -
o rd inate S urv eying . By H . L O U I S, MA . . , P ro fe sso r
M in in g an d L e c ture r on S ur v y in g Arm
e ,
stro ng C o ll e ge N e wc a stl ,

o u- Ty ne a nd G W . . GAU N T, M A . .
4s . 6d . ne t ( po st free 45 .
 Tea/5m m ! S czem zfi c P u él zm l z0ns
’ ’ ° °

a nd
‘

O rga n i c C h e m i s try fo r Ad v a n c e d S tu d e n ts .

B Y J U L I U S B C O H E N PH D B Sc .
, . .
, . .
,

P f f O g i C h m i t y i th U iv
ro e sso r o ity f L d
r an c d A i t f Ow
e s r n e n e rs o ee s, an ss o c a e o e ns
ll g M h t O e e, a nc es e r.

D em y 8v o .
,
l th
c o ,
2 15 . net ( po st free 2 13 .

The bo o k is written fo r s tu d en ts who a h v a l r ad y e e co mp l e te d an

l y
e e m e n ta r c o u rse o f O rga n ic C e m istr , h y nd i in t nd
a s e ed la rge ly t o

tak e the p a c e o f the a d an c e d te x t b o o k

l v -
.

The C h e m ic a l S y n th es i s o f Vi ta l P ro d u c ts a n d
the In te r re l a ti o n s b e tw e e n O rga n ic -

C o m p o u nd s .

B Y R A P H AE L M E L D O L A e tc ,
.
,
P f f Ch mi
ro e sso r o y i h C i y d G il d f L d T h i l C ll g F i b y
e str n t e t an u s o on on ec n ca o e e, ns ur .

Vo l I x v i+ 338 pages
. . S uper R o y a l 8v o c l o th a 1 s n et
,
. .
, , .

( p o s t fre e 2 15 .

The great ac h ie v emen ts O f m o d ern O rgan ic C h e m istry in the d o main o f

th e s y n th e s is o r artific ia l p ro d u c tio n o f c o m p o un d s wh ic h a re k n o wn
to b e fo rm e d a s the re su l t o f the v ita l a c tiv itie s o f p l a n ts a n d a n im a l s
h av e n o t O f l a te y ears b een s y ste matically rec o rd e d The O bj e c t o f the .

p re sen t b o o k is to s e t fo rth a sta te m en t a s c o m p l e te a s p o ssib l e o f the , ,

e x istin g s ta te o f k n o wl ed ge in t h is m o s t im p o rtan t b ran c h O f s c ie n c e .

The C h e m i s try o f the D i a z o C o mp o u n d s -

.

B Y J O H N CA N N E L L C AI N D S c ( M an c h e ste r a n d Tiib inge n ) , . .

,

E di f h P bl i i f h C h mi l S i y
to r o t e u ca t o ns o t e e ca o c et .

1 7 6 p a ge s D em y 8vo 1 0 5 6d n e t ( po st fre e 1 0 5
. .
, . . .

L e c tu re s o n The o re tic a l a nd P h y s ic a l C h e m i s try .

BY DR .
J . H VAN .
’
T H O FF,
Pro fe sso r o f Ch e mistry a t the U niversity o f B erl in .

T ranslated b y R A L E H FE L D T, D S O , . . . .

P ro fe sso r o f P h ysic s a t the Tra nsvaa l Tec h nica l I nstitute J o h a nn e sb urg , .

In th re e v o l um es, d em y 8vo , c l o th , 2 8s n e t ( p o st free 2 85 . . .

o r sep arate l y a s fo ll o ws
P AR T I . C H E M I CAL D Y N AM I C S 2 54 p age s .
,
wit h 63 I ll ustra
( po st free
.

ti o n s . 12 5 . n et 12 5 .

P AR T II C H E M I C A L S A
. T T I CS . 1 56 a
p ge s ,
wit h 33 I ll ustratio ns .

85 6d n et (p o st free 85
. . .

P AR T I I I R E L AT I O N S B E T W E E N
. P RO PE R T I E S AN D
CO MPO S I T I O N 1 4 3 p a ge s 7 5 6d .
,
. . n et ( po st fre e 75 .
 M r E d wa rd A rn o l d L ist
’
. s o f

E x p e ri m e n ta l R e s ea rc h e s w i th the E l e c tric
F u rn a c e .

B Y H E N R I M O I S S AN ,
M mb d I I t it t P f f C h m i t y t th S b
’
e re e ns u ro e sso r o e s r a e o r o nn e .

AU TH O R IZ E D E N G L IS H E D ITIO N .

T ran slated b y A T d e M O U I L P I E D M sc P h D . .
, . .
, . .
,

A it t L t i C h m i t y i th U i
ss s a n ity f L iv p l
e c u re r n e s r n e n ve rs o er o o .

x i i + 30 7 p age s with I ll u s tratio n s ,

D em y 8vo c l o th 1 0 5 6d n e t . .
, , . .

( p o st fre e 10 5 .

T h ere is h ard l y a p a ge o f it w ic h h
inte re s t a n d a rd y a is n o t c ro wd e d wit h h l
h h h f h h
,

sec t io n w ic d o e s no t tee m wit su ggestio n a nd if the c o m ing O t is E ngl is e d itio n

o f the b o o k l l
ha s b e en so o ng d e a ye d we m a y s ti b e t a n u t a t it ha s c o me a t a st, ll h kf l h l
f h h l h l li h —
,
"
a nd c o me in a o rm w ic it is a p easu re t o a n d e a nd a d e g t to re a d E l ectrica l .

R ev iew .

E l e c tro l y tic P re p a ra ti o ns .

E x e r c is e s fo r u se in t h e L a b o r a t o r y b y C h e m is t s and
E l e ct ro Ch em i sts -
.

BY DR . KA R L E LB S ,
P ro fe sso r o f O rga nic a nd P h y sic a l C h e m istr y at the U n iv ersit y o f G ie sse n .

T a l at d b y
r ns e R S H U TT O N , M S c
. . . .
,

D e mo nstra t o r a nd L e c tu rer o n E l e c tro -

C h e mistr y a t the U ni ve rsit y Of M anc h est e r.

x ii + 1 00 a e
p g s . D em y8 vo .
, l
c o th, 45 . 6d . n et (p o st fre e 45 .

In tro d uc ti o n to M e ta ll u rgi c a l C h e m i s try fo r

T e c h n ic a l S tu d e nts .

BY J . H . S TA N S B IE , B S C . .
( LO N D ) .

A sso c ia te Of M a so n U ni v e rs it y C ll o e ge , a n d L e c tu re r in t he B irm ing h am U n iv e rs it yT h ec n ic a l

c ho o l .

S E C O N D E D ITI O N .

x 11 + 2 52 p age s . C ro wn 8v o .
,
c o l th , 4 s 6d . .

An E x p e ri m e nta l C o u rs e f C h e m i s try fo r Agri

o
cu l tura l S tud ents By T . S D YM O N D La tely P rinc ipal L ec tu re r
y T hni l L b
.
,

l l Ch el msfo rd
.

in the Agric u tura D epa rtm en t, C o unt ec ca a o ra to ries, .

I
N ew mpre ssio n 1 9 2 p ages, wit 50 . h I ll t ti u s ra o ns. Cro wn 8vo .
, l
c o th,
2 5 6d
. .

H i s to ry of C h e m i s try B y D r H U G O B AU E R , . .

R o ya l T h ec n ic a l I n s titu te S tu ttga rt T ra n sl ate d b y R V S TAN

,
. . .

FO R D , B Sc. . C ro wn 8v o .
,
c o l th , 3s 6 d . . n et .
8 M r E d wa rd A rfl o td
.
’
s c ari ica t Cf S cien tific B o o k s

The E v o l u ti o n T h e o ry
M AN N P r f r f Z l gy in th
, o esso
T l
. By DR . A U G US T W E S I
U ni e rsit O F re ib urg in B re isga u
o o o o e v y f
h h T
.

ra ns a te d , wit the Au t o r s c o o pe ra tio n , b y J A R TH U R

’
H O MSO N , -

P f l y v y b
.

R egius ro esso r o f N a tura H isto r in the U ni e rsit o f A e rd een ; a n d

M A RG A R E T H O M SO N T
Two o s , x vi + 4 1 6 a n d i i + 39 6 p age s , wit o er
. v l vi h v
I ll yl l h
.

1 30 ustra tio ns R o a 8vo , c o t , 32 5 n et . . . .

Th e C h a n c e s Of D e a th and O t h er S t u d i e s in
E vo l tio n By K A P A O M A
u . RL E RS N , . .
, P ro f esso r O f Appl ied
M th m ti i U iv ity C l l g L d
a e a cs n n e rs o e e, o n o n, a n d f o rm e r ly Fe ll o w of K ing s
’

C ll g C mb idg
o e v l
e, ii 388 a r e . 2 o s. , x a nd 4 60 p ages , wit h nu m ero us
I ll t ti
us raD my 8 l th 5 t ( p
o ns. e vo .
, c o , 2 s . ne o st f re e 2 5 5 .

An In tro d uc ti o n to C h i l d S tu d y . By Dr . W . B .

D RUMMO N D . C ro wn 8vo .
, c o l th , 65 . ne t .

The C h i l d s M i n d : Its G r o wth a n d T ra i ni ng

’
. By
W E UR WIC K U niv er ity f L e d C r wn 8
. . l th 4s 6d n t , s o e s . o vo .
, c o , . . e .

The L i fe o f th e S a l m o n . W i th re e re n c e f m o re
e sp e c ia lly to the Fis in S c o t a nd By h l . W . L C AL D E R WO O D
.
,

I nsp ec to r l
o f S a m o n Fis e ries fo r S c o t a nd h l . I ll ustra ted . D em y 8v o .
,

7 s 6d . . ne t .

We h ave no h esita tio n wh a tever in a d vising a l l in tere ste d in the sa mo n ,

p e rso n s l
wh e th er as fish e rmen , n a tu ra li t
s s, o r l gi l
e s a to rs , to a d d t is b o o h
to t e r ib ra ries
"
k h i l .

An im a l e h a v o u r. B By i P ro fe sso r C . L L O YD
M O R GAN , L L D , P rin c ip a . l U ni o f v ersit y C o ll e ge , B risto l .

viii + 344 pa ges, wit 2 6 I ustra tio ns h ll l

.

. C ro wn 8vo .
, c o th, 7 s 6d . . ne t ( po st
f
ree 7 5 .

Thi s im p o rtan t b
c o n tri u tio n to the fasc inatin g s u bj ec t o f an im al p sy c h o
l gy
o co v er h les the w o gro u n d fro m th e b e h a v io u r o f c e ll s u p to th at

o f the m o st h ighly d e v el o p e d an imal s .

B Y TH E S A M E A UTH O R .

H a b it and In s t i n c t . V iii + 35 2 pa ge s w i th P ho to ,

r
ga v ure Fro ntisp iec e . D em y8 vo .
, c o l th ,
1 65 .

Th e S p ri n gs o f Co ndu ct . C he a p e r E d i ti o n .

i
v ii +
3l 7 p ages . L a rge c ro wn 8 vo .
,
c o l th , 3s. 6d .

P s y c h o l o gy fo r T e a c h e rs . N e w E d i ti o n ,
e n t re l y i
re writte n . xii +
30 8 p ages . C ro wn 8v o .
, c o l th , 4 s 6d . .

LO N D O N : ED WA R D AR N O LD , 4 1 4 3 M AD D O ! S TRE E T , W .
TH I S B O O K I S D U E O N TH E L A S T D A TE
S TA MZP E D B E L OW

A N I N I TI A L F I N E O F 2 5 C E N TS
W IL L B E A S S ES S ED FO R F A I L U R E TO R E TU R N
T H IS BOO K O N TH E D A TE D U E . TH E P E N A L TY
W ILL IN C R E A S E TO 5 0 C E N TS O N TH E F O U R TH
D AY AN D TO ON TH E S EV E N TH D AY
O VER D U E .