R E V IS E D

TE X T BOOK OF G E OLO G Y
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JA M E S D D A N A , LL D
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L A TE P R O F E SS O R O F G EOLOG Y A N D M I N E R A LOG Y I N Y A LE U N IV E R S ITY ,

AU THO R O F G EOLOGI C A L S TO R Y B R IE F L Y TOLD

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MA N U A L O F G EOLO G Y
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S Y S TE M O F M I N E R A LOG Y C HA R A C TE R I S TI C S O F V OL C A N OE S
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“C O R A L S A N D C O R A L I S L A N D S R E P O R T S O F W IL KE S
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E X P LO R I N G E X P EDITIO N O N G EOLOG Y Z O OP HY TE S
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A N D C R U S T A C E A ET C , .

FIF TH E D ITION , R E VIS E D A N D E N L A R GE D

E DITED BY
W I LL I AM N OR TH R I CE , P H D , LL D . . . .

PR OF E SS O R O F G EOLOG Y IN W S E LE Y A N UN I V E R S ITY

NE W YO R K C INC I NN ATI C HI C AGO

A M E RI C A N BO OK C OMPANY
 C O P Y R IG HT ,
1 89 7 , BY

AME R I CAN B OO K COMPAN Y

RE V . T . B . GEOL .

W . P . 8
 PR E FA C E .

THE lat e Pr o fe ss o r D ana had be gun a revision o f this

w o rk a short time before his d e at h . The re q uest of his
family that I should complete the work of my revered
teache r was responded to with something like a feeling
,

of filial Obligation .

It was proposed in the plan of revision that the di st i n c

tive characteristics of the b o o k should be preserved so far
as possible It was to be bro u g h t down to the present
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time as regards its facts but it was still to express the

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well known O pi nions of its author The general plan of

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arrangement was to be kept unchanged and the size of ,

the book to be increased as little as possible .

In the progress of the work it became manifest that the

usefulness of the book would be increased by certain
change s m ore radical than had been at first contemplated .

The zoological and botanical classifications used in the

former edition were j udged to be obsolete The endeavor .

has been made to substitute for them as nearly as p r a ct i

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cable the classi fi cation s which are followed in the maj or

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ity of re cent manuals on zo o logy and botany whether ,

precisely accordant with my own views or not It was .

decided that the theory of evolution required fuller recog

iv PR E FA C E .

n it i o n than it had received i n the previous edition of this

work or the last edition of the Manual I t was a proof .

of P rofessor D ana s remarkable hospitality to new ideas

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that he adopted a belief in evolution at an age when most

men are incapable of important changes of O pinion B ut .

the idea of evolution never influenced his thinking in

general as it doubtless would have done had be embrace d
i t earlier In the present edition the bearing of varl o u s
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,

events in geological history upon the theory of evolution

is p ointed out in the appropriate places ; and in the ,

Closing chapter which has been entirely rewritten the

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general bearing of pale ontology upon evolution is dis

cussed The treatment o f metamorphism also was b e
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li e v e d to re q uire considerable m odification especially ,

with reference to dynamic metamorphism and the de

v e lo p m e n t of a foliated structure in igneous rocks .

With these exceptions the book presents substantially

,

the views of the science which were held by the author in

his later years and which are embodie d in that monumen
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tal work the fourth edition of the Manual I have been

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the more willing to follow this c ourse since in the main ,

my own opinions are in harmony with those of my teacher ;

although on a few points if the responsibility for the
,

book had been solely my own the views e x pressed would

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have been somew h at di fferent as for instance in regard

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to the geographic and cli matic oscillations of the Quater

nary era It is a delicate task in revising the work of
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another to discriminate between errors which should be

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corrected and statements at variance with t h e editor s

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O pinions which in deference to the author should be le f t

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 PR E F AC E .

u nchan ged I cannot flatte r myself that qu estions o f this

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s ort have always been decided aright I have doubtless .

sometimes chan ged too much and sometimes too little , .

The only important cha n ge in the arrangement of the

book the insertion of the chapter on Z oological and Botan
,

ical Classification before the chapter on Dynamical Geol

ogy was in di cate d in the note s left by the author The
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practice followed by P rofessor D ana in previous editions ,

of this book and in his other works of writing the names

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of z o Olo g i cal and botanical groups with anglicized termi

nations has been followed in general in this edition
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.

The full Latin form of names of groups above the grade

of family has been used only in cases where no anglicized
P rofessor D ana s
’
form is sanctioned by general usage .

p la n of terminating n ames of rocks in y te in distinction ,

from the names of m i n e rals which terminate in i te it has ,

been deemed be st to abandon as that innovation in nomen ,

cla t u r e has not been adopted by other writers .

The appendi x to the former edition giving localities of ,

fossils has been omitted It is believe d that such a list

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is not of much value unless given in more detail than the

S pa ce at disposal would permit Teachers who desire .

such a list are referred to S c h u ch e r t s f

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D i r e cti o n s or Cal

le e ti ng and P r ep a r i ng Fo ss i ls , published as P art K of Bul

N o 8 9 of the United States National Museum
le t i n .
.

I take this opportunity for grateful acknowledgments

to P rofessor E S D ana P h D for his appreciative sym
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pathy in the perplexities of my work ; to the publishers ,

for their earnest cooperation in the endeavor to make the

b ook as good as possible to G K Gilbert A M of the . . ,
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 P R E F AC E .

United States Geological Survey for valuable criticisms

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on the manuscript ; and to my son P rofessor E L R ice

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Ph D for assistance in the correction of the proof

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, It is .

hoped that the book in i t s revised form will prove itself

adapted to the use of students in our schools and colleges ,

and that it will keep before their minds the name and the
scientific work of one of the greatest of geologists and one
of the noblest of men .

W ILLIA M N O R TH RICE .
 C O N TE N TS .

INT ROD U CTI ON . AIM , S U BJ E CTS ,

A ND D I V I S I ONS O F G E O LO G Y

PAR T I . P H Y S I O G R A P H I C G E O L O GY .

I . GEN E R AL F E AT U R E S O F T H E E A RT H ’
S U
S R F ACE

S YST E M I N T H E E ARTH ’
S F E AT U R E S

P AR T I I . S TR U C T U R AL G E OL O G Y .

I . C O NST I T U T ION O F B O OKS

M in e rals
Ki nd s o f R o ck s

II . R OC K MA SSE s , OR TE R R ANE S

I
THE AN I M AL A N D V E G E TA B LE KI N G D O M S .

C LASS I F I CAT I ON
Th e A n imal Ki ngd o m
Th e V e ge t a ble Ki ngd o m

GEO G R A P H I CA L D I ST R I B U T I ON O F M A R I E L I F E N

P A R T II I . D YN A M I C AL G E OL O GY .

1 . L I FE
l . F o rmat i ve W o rk
2 . P ro t e c ti ve an d D e s tru c t ive E ffe ct s
vi i
vii i C ON TE N TS .

II . C HE M I CAL A CT IO N O F T HE A IR A ND W ATE R S
1 . D es tru ct ive E ff e ct s
2 . F o rmat i ve E ff e c ts

III . M EC H AN I CAL E FF E CTS O F THE A TMOS H E R E

P

1 . D enu d ati o n Tran sp o r ,

t at i o n D e p o s i t i o n
,

2 . Wi nd s as Tran s p o r te rs o f M o i s t u re

IV . M E C H AN I CA L E FF E CTS OF W ATE R
1 . Fres h Wa t e rs

2 . Th e Oc ean

3 . Fre e z in g and F ro z en W at e rs

S u mmary . F o rm at i o n o f S e d i me n tary S trat a

V HEAT
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S o u rc e s o f He at
E ff ect s o f Heat
1 . E xp an s io n a nd C o n tract i o n
2 . E rup t i o n s o f Ign e o u s R o ck , A ss o ciate d
no me n a
3 . M et a mo rp h is m
4 . F o rmat i o n o f V e i ns
VI . CR U STA L M O EMENTS V E V OL U T I ON OF C ONT I NE NTS A ND

M O U NTA I NS
E vo lu t i o n o f th e E ar th ’
s Fu n d ame n t al Fea tu res
S tru c tu re o f M o u n t a i n R an ge s

P ro cess o f F o rmati o n o f M o u n tain R an ges

P A RT IV . HI S T O R I CAL G E O L O GY .

INT R O D U CT IO N

I . A R C H AN E T I ME

II . P A LE O Z O I C T I M E
I . E o p aleo z o i c S e ct i o n

I . C am b ri a n E ra
II . L o w e r S i luri an E ra

D is tu rb an c es at t h e C lo s e Of t h e L o w e r S ilu r ia n E ra
 C O N T E N TS .

II . Ne o pale o z o i c S e cti o n
I . U p p e r S ilu ri an E ra
II . D e vo n ian E ra
III . C a rb o n i f ero us E ra

G e n e ral O b s e rva ti o n s on P ale o z o i c Time

D i s tu rb an ce s at th e C lo s e o f P ale o z o i c Ti m e

M E S OZ OI C TI M E

I. Tri a ss i c an d Ju rass i c E ras

D i stu rb an c es at t h e C lo s e Of th e Ju rass i c E ra
II . Cre t ac e o u s E ra
G e n e ra l O b s er vat i o n s on M e s o z o i c Ti me
D i s t u r b an c e s at th e C lo s e o f M e s o z o i c Ti me

C E NO Z O I C T I ME
I. Te rti ary E ra

II .
Qu at e rn ary E ra

1 . G lac i alP e ri o d
2 . C h a mp la in P e ri o d
3 . R ecen t P e ri o d

L i f e o f th e Qu at ern ary
G e n e ral Ob s e rva t i o n s on C e n o z o i c Ti m e

GE NE R AL O B SE R V AT I ONS ON GEOLO G I CA L HI STO R Y

L e n gt h o f G e o lo gi c al Ti m e
G e o grap h i cal P ro gre s s in No rth A meri ca
P ro gre s s o f L i fe

C o n clus i o n
 G E OLOG Y .

ITS AIM, S UBJE CTS , AND DIV IS IONS .

Ai m of Geo lo gy Beneath the soil and waters of t h e

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earth s surface the re is everywhere a basement of rocks .

The rocky blu fi s forming the sides of many val leys the ,

ledge s about the tops of b ills an d m ountains and the ,

cliff s along seashores are portions of this basement ex

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posed to vie w Ge ology is the science that stu dies these

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rocks not merely to learn about ore beds coal and build
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i n g materials but primarily to gather from them facts

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about the earth s h i story the history of its rocks fea
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tures and life It is an outdoor science and out of doors

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,

are found the best places of instruction for pupils and

t eacher .

S ubj ect s o f S t u dy — 1 M aki g f B e ds f R

n o . o o d
. a — In
most of the rocky blu ffs and ledges over the country the ,

rocks li e in successive beds Th e beds di ffer in thickness .

and in other ways They may be all sandstone and show

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the grains of sand distinctly under a pocket lens O n e .

o r more of the beds may contain sm oothly worn pebbles ,

w ith sand — the same material that co n stitutes a g rave l

bed another may be a shale so soft and fi n e grained that ,
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if ground up and mixed with w ater it will make mud ,

suggesting that it might have been formed out of mud .

The q uestions arise : Ho w w ere the pebbles rounded ?

Ho w were the mud sand and gravel distributed in beds ?
, ,

W henc e the sand pebbles and mud ?

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 IN TR O D U C TI O N .

At the f oot o f such a bluff there commonly lie heaps o f

loose sand and stone s derived from the bl u ff The rains .
,

frost and other causes keep wearing its surface dropping

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grains and tumbling down fragments

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and thus the
debris is formed If a stream runs by the base of such a
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bluff the wate r when in rapid flow will wear away and
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carry Off the material grinding and rounding the fallen

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fragme n ts If the bl u ff stands on a seashore the waves

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beating against its exposed front will aid in the work of

reducing it to sand stones and mud for distribution by
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the waters o ff the shore and upon the beach .

All over the world the exposed rocks O f hills m ountains , ,

and plains are u ndergoing wear and decay and becoming ,

reduced to earth and coarser loose m at e ri al And if the .

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whole world is thus engaged and has always been at this ,

work since rocks were first exposed to the action of the

air and waters there ought to have been produced at
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all times through period after period not o n ly loose

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material enough for making soil but also for the forma ,

tion of vast accumulations of sand beds g ravel beds mud , ,

beds.

Along the b ottom o f a broad river valley either side o f ,

the stream there are beds of loose sand gravel and clay
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lying in many alternations parallel wit h t h e surface Up .

or down the valley evidence may usually be found that

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the flowing waters are always at work but especially in ,

flood times wearing stones to earth and carrying down

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stream the ground u p m at e r i al for deposition over the flats

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either side evidence therefore that the rivers have made

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the beds which border them .

S o again along seashores there are great deposits which

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the waters have made from the sand and pebbles supplied
by the battered bluffs and from the sedi m ent which the
rivers carry to t h e ocean They form wide sand flats o ff
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the shores which are left bare by the retreating tides and
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extensive mud beds and sand beds in the deeper waters , ,

and beach deposits above tide level .

 IN T R O D U C T I O N .

These river made and sea made beds are now unhard
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ened ; bu t the evidence gathere d has made it certain that

most O f the hard rocks are similar deposits consolidated ;
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that they were spread out in beds in the same ways in

which beds are now formed along or O ff seashores in river ,

valleys and in lakes N ine tenths of the rocks studied

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by the geologist are water made rocks Nearly all the -

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olde r water made rocks are of marine origin becau se in

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early time the ocean spread over the continents leaving

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only islands to mark their sites The continental seas .

were then the grea t workers ; the little lands had only
little rivers .

A gain rocky blu ffs o ften consist in part or wholly of

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beds of limestone L imestones are now being m ade where

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the seas abound in shells and corals The process may be .

studied about the shore s O f Florida at the Bahamas and , ,

at Bermuda as well as about many islands of the P acific

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and the E ast Indies The process is now going on as in .

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ancient time .

In m any beds there are alternating ridges and furrows .

li k e the s o called ripple marks n o w often formed by the

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currents in shallow water ; or cracks — though now filled

— that were opened by the drying sun in an exposed

mud fi at or impressions that were produced by the drops

of a fall of rain Such m arki n gs are records as to the
.

origin of the rocks — the ripple marks telling of their for -

mation in shallow waters or as sand flats the mud cracks ,

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showing that the rock when soft mud was exposed at , ,

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times to the drying sun above the water s surface ; the
raindrop impressions teaching that it rained in ages long
past and that the bed so marked was a mud flat or a bed
,

of fine wet sand lying during the storm uncovered by the

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water Thus am ong the geological records there are

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facts as to the depth of the waters and m eteorological ,

records .

2 E x c a va ti ng Wo rk of Wa te r s
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— O ver the earth s sur .

face rivers work not merely at transporting and makin g

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 IN TR OD U C TI ON .

deposits o f sediment but also at excavating channels over ,

the land And so they have worked in the past ; and to

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them in large part the earth owes its valleys great and
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small the shapes of its ridges and the manifold details of

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mountain scenery M oreover while doing this excavating

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work the waters of the land have gathered much of their

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material for the making of rocks .

P art of the work of wate r especially in later geologi ,

cal time in both transportation and excavation has been

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carried on by water in the state of ice form i ng glaciers ,

and icebergs .

3 F s
. o s i ls ; L i
f e — The beds whether of sand
. mud , , ,

or gravel or of limestone ofte n contain shells corals

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bones or remains of plants — fossils as they are called

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from the Latin word f o s si lis signifying dug up The , .

shells or bones cou ld not have got into the beds e x cept ,

when the layer containing them was forming They are .

like the shells in the mud or sand of existing sea bottoms

or sand beaches and bear e vidence of the existence O f
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life and make known what species were living in the seas
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when the bed was m ade The fossils of the lo w er and .

uppe r beds in the same blu ff often di ffer showing that , ,

when the later beds were in progress the old species had ,

gone and new kinds had come in Through the whole .

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series of the earth s rocks new kinds continue to appear ,

and the Old to disappear on passing up from one level to ,

another Thus a history of the life of the globe from

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the simplest species of the early rocks to man has already ,

been deciphered and e ach year Of further study is adding

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to its completeness The history of the earth s life is the
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grandest subject of geological study .

B ut the fossils teach other lessons As the spe cies of .

successive periods difle r e d the kinds found in any rock ,

are evide n ce as to its age Again they are evidence .

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whethe r rocks are of marine origin or not and thus they

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contribute facts as to the earth s early ge ography They .

are O ften evidence also as to temperature or climate fo r,

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 IN TR O D U C TI O N .

as now some species have re q uired a warm and others a

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cool temperature .

4 M o u n ta i n ma ki ng
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R ocks ove r large areas in
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many regions are now upturned and lifted into moun

tain ranges hundreds or thousands of m iles long The .

rocks show by their position that in the mountain making ,

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they were pushed out of their original posi tions by some

subterranean agency The origin of mountains and the
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time s of such upturnings are subj ects for geological

study .

The upturned rocks have sometimes become crystallized ,

or converted into marble granite mica schist and the , , ,

like and such transformations furnish another subj ect of

study .

5 Fr a ctu r e s ; Ve i n s ; Vo lca n o e s ; G ey s er s
. Again . ,

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in many regions the earth s crust has been deeply frac
t u re d S ometimes mineral veins have formed in the fi s
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sures O ften melte d rock from unknown depths has

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come to the surface and spread widely ove r it thus adding ,

fi re made or igne ous rocks to those which are water made

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O ccasionally volcanoes have formed over the larger fi s

sures and in a f e w places geyser regions like that of the ,

Yellowstone P ark have been left as residual e ffects of

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volcanic action .

From the above explanations it is obvious that several

great subj ects are treated under Geology .

1
( ) The characteristics of the rocks of the globe .

2
( ) The historical succession in the formation of t h e

rocks .

3
( ) The origin of the rocks .

4
( ) The origin of rivers lakes and seas , ,
.

5
( ) The origin of mountains igneous eruptions vol , ,
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canoes and of fractures in the earth s crust and changes
,

of level .

6
( ) The history of continent making and the origin of
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the syste m in the arrangement of the earth s coast lines ,

its mountain chains and its island ranges

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 IN TR O DU C TI ON .

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7
( ) The history of the earth s climates .

8
( ) The history of life .

In the study of these subj ects Geology assumes with ,

good reason that the physical forces now in action have

been the same and under the same laws through all past
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time Whether those of the waters the winds heat c o

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h es i o n or O f whatever kind these forces have produced

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results through the ages like those Observe d about us ,

with little difference except that some forces must have

acted with greater and others with less intensity in early
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geological time E xisting nature therefo re a ffords the

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means of interpreting the geological records .

Divisi o ns Of t h e S cien ce — The divisions of the science .

here adopted are the following

1 si r i eol Treating of the earth s ’
. h h
P y o g ap c G o gy — .

physical features ; that is of the system in the exterior ,

features of the earth This department properly includes

.

also the syste m of m ovements in the water and atm os

h
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e re and the system in the earth s climates and in the
p , ,

other physical agencies Or conditions of the sphere .

2 S tru ct u r al G e o l o gy — Treating of the rocks of the

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globe their kinds str u cture and arrangement in beds or

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otherwise .

3 Dy n am i cal Ge o l o gy — T reating of the causes or the

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,

m ethods by which all the earth s changes were brought

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about i ncluding the making of continents of ocean

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basins of rocks of m ountains of valleys ; the causes of

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all variations in climate and of all changes in the earth s
,

features and of the syste m in the progress of life The

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word dy n a mi ca l is from the Greek Bfiva ms p ower or force ,

.

4 Histo ri cal Ge o lo gy — T reating of the successive

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events in th e history of the rocks and O f the c ontinents , ,

oceans mountains valleys coast lines climates and life

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PART I .
—
PHYS IO G RAPHIC G E OLO G Y .

I G ENE R A L FE A T U R E S O F T HE E AR T H S
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S UR FA C E .

S ize an d Fo r m .
—
The earth has a circumference o f
about miles Its form is that of a sphere .

flattened at the poles the equatorial diameter ( 7 9 26 miles )

,

being about 26 33; miles greate r than the polar diameter .

R e g i o ns o f De pressi o n a nd E lev ati o n — About eight .

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elevenths of the earth s surface or square ,

miles is depressed below the rest and occupied by salt

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water This sunken part of the crust is called the oceanic

.

basin and the large areas O f land are called the continents
,

or continental plateaus The area of the continents and .

islands is about square m iles .

Arr ange ment o f Oce ans and Co ntinents — Nearly three .

fourths of the area of the continental plateaus is situ

ated in the northern hemisphere and very nearly three ,

fifths of the oceanic basin in the southern hemisphere .

The dry land as shown in the map Fig 1 may be

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said to be grouped about the N orth P ole and to stretch ,

southward in two masses an O riental including E u , ,

rope Asia Africa and Australasia and an O ccidental

, , , , ,

including N orth and S outh America The ocean is .

gathered in a similar manner about the S outh P ole and ,

extends northward in two broad areas separating the

O ccident and O rient namely the Atlantic and P acific , ,

O ceans a n d also in a third the Indian O cean separati n g

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 P HY S I O GR A P HI C G EOLO G Y .

the southern prolongations of the O rient namely A fric a , ,

and Australasia The O rient is made by this arrange

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ment to have two southern prolongations while the Q c c i

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dent or America has but one This double feature of

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the O rient accords with its great breadth for it averages

6 0 0 0 miles from east to west which is far m ore than ,

twice the mean breadth of the O ccident ( 220 0 miles ) .

The inequality of the two continental masses has its

parallel in the inequality of the P acific and Atlantic
oceans ; for the former ( 6 0 0 0 miles broad) is more than
double the average breadth of the latter ( 28 0 0 miles) .

F IG 1 . .

Lan dh e mi sp h ere and w ate r h e mi s p h ere .

The northern portion of the O rient or E urope and A sia ,

combined m akes one continental area E urasia ; its gen

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eral course is east and west The northern p ortion of the

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O ccident N orth America is elongated from north to south

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Dept h o f Oce ans and Hei gh t o f Co ntinents — The mean .

depth of the oceanic depression is about feet ;

and the mean height of the lan d ( according to Murray)
2 25 2 feet The greatest depth reached by sou n dings
.

( south of the Friendly Islands ) is feet ; the great

est height o n the land ( Mt E verest O f the Himalayas ) is
.

feet ; hence the interval between the e x tremes o f

 ’
T HE E AR TH s F E AT U R ES .

altitude and depre ssion is over eleve n miles If the con .

t i n e n t a l plateaus and the floor of the ocean were graded

to a common lev el the ocea n would still have a depth of
,

about feet The mean h ei ght of E urope is ( accord

.

ing to Murray ) 9 3 9 feet ; Asia 31 8 9 feet ; Africa 20 21 , ,

feet ; Australia 80 5 feet ; N orth America 1 8 8 8 feet ;

, ,

S outh America 20 7 8 feet The mean depths of the great .

oceans are : of the N orth Atlantic feet ; N orth ,

P acific, feet ; S out h Atlantic and S outh P acific

( and probably the Indian O cean ) about feet , .

Th e Fo r m o f t h e Oce an s Bed — Fig 2 shows the gen

’
. .

eral form of the ocean s be d beneat h the large r oceans

’
.

From north to south along the middle of the Atlantic

, ,

there is a wide zigzag ridge or plateau conforming nearly ,

in trend to the American coast It lie s at a depth of 6 0 0 0 .

to feet while on e ithe r side the bottom slopes away

,

to depths m ostly between and feet In the .

area of 4 0 0 0 fathoms and ove r situated north of the ,

island of P uerto Rico the United S t ates C oas t Survey

,

s teame r Blake found in 1 88 3 a depth of , feet , .

This greatest depth and large areas of deep water exist

, ,

in the western par t of the ocean In the P acific O cean a .

,

S hallow area extends with little interruption from the

, ,

Malay Archipelago southeastward beyond the P aumotu

Islands and thence northeastward to the Isthmus of
,

P anama southeastward to P atagonia and southward to

, ,

the Antarctic The deepest parts of this ocean also a re

.

in its we stern half O n e deep area is east O f J apan ; another

. ,

south of the Ladrones ; others near the Friendly Islands ,

.

Northward in the northern hemisphere the ocean shallows

rapidly The depth in B ering Strait is not ove r 1 5 0 feet ;
.

and between Great B ritain and Iceland it does not e x ce ed

6 00 0 feet and is mostly u nder 30 0 0 feet
,
.

The ocean s bottom has no steep ridges like those of

’

ordinary mountai n scenery But broad elevations exist .

in so m e parts as found in the soundings of the Tuscarora

,

betwee n the Hawaiian Islands and J apan Besides thes e, .

12 P HY S I O G R A P HI C G EOLO GY .

there are m any mountain ranges rising somewhat abruptly

from the depths having the islands of the ocean as their
,

summits which rival in length those of the continents

, .

The Hawaiian range if the coral islands in the line

,

of the volcanic islands are included ( see Fi g has a .

length of 20 0 0 miles ; and it rises steeply from d epths of

to feet The mountai n s o f Hawaii have a
.

height ab ove the ocean of nearly feet and a depth ,

of feet was found but 5 0 miles south of the island ,

thus making the whole height nearly feet The .

islands of the tropical P acific m ake together a n i slan d

chain about 5 0 0 0 miles lo n g ; and they are the tops of a
m ountain chain of this great length .

Tru e O u t line o f t h e Oce a ni c De pre ssi o n — Along the .

oceanic borders the sea is often for a long distance out

, , ,

quite shallo w because the continents continue on unde r

,

water with a nearly level surface ; then comes usually ,

at a depth of about 1 0 0 fathoms or 6 0 0 feet a rather

, ,

sudden S lo p e to the deep bed of the ocean This is the .

case off the eastern coast of the United States east and ,

so u th of N e w E ngland Off N e w J ersey as is shown by

.
,

Fig 3 the deep wate r begins along a line about 8 0 miles

.
,

fro m the shore ; O ff Virginia this line is 5 0 to 6 0 miles

at sea ; and thus it gradually approaches the coast to the
southward : while to t h e northward it continues 8 0 to 1 0 0
miles O ff from the New E n gland coast and passes far out ,

side of N ova Scotia and N ewfoundland ( see Fig The .

slope of the bottom for the 8 0 miles o ff N e w J ersey is

, ,

only 1 foot in 7 0 0 feet The true boundary between

.

the continental plateau and the oceanic depression is the

commencement of the abrupt mp e The same abrupt
.

slope near the 1 0 0 fathom line exists in the Gulf of

-

Mexico The British I slands are situated on a submerged

.

portion of the E uropean continent and are essentially a ,

part of that continent the li m it of the oceanic basin

,

the 1 0 0 fathom line — bei n g 5 0 to 1 0 0 miles outside o f

-

S cotland and Ireland and exte n ding south around the

,
 THE E A R TH S F E AT U R E S .

B ay Of B iscay West of the E nglish Channel th e depth

.

increases in a distance of only ten miles from 1 0 0 fathoms

, ,

to 20 0 0 N e w Guinea is in a similar way proved to be a

.

part Of Australia S u ch facts occur on m ost coasts and

.

they teach that the oceanic depression is generally separated

from the continental plateaus by a well d e fi n e d outline -
.

F IG 3 . .

Bat hym e tri c c h ar t o f r e gi o n s o u th o f Lo n g Il d

s an .

S urf ac e s o f t h e Co nt inents — The surface of a conti .

nent comprises ( 1 ) p la i n s or lo wla n d s ( 2) p la te a u s or ,

ta ble la n d s and ( 3) m o u n ta i n r i dg e s
-
, The mountain ridges .

may rise either from the lowlands or the plateaus The .

plateaus are large areas of approximately level surface at

an altitude of a thousand feet or more above the sea .

They are often parts of the great mountain chains lying ,

14 P HY S I O GR A P HI C G EOLO GY .

between the ridges or forming the mou n tain mass out

,

of which the ridges rise For example the regions of .

,

northern and sou t hern N ew York are plateaus ( the

former averaging 1 5 0 0 feet i n height the latter 20 0 0 feet) ,

situate d on the western borders of the Appalachian chain ;

and the same is true O f the C umberland table land in -

Tennessee Between the Sierra Nevada and the Wasatch

.
,

there is a plateau of vast extent calle d the Great Basin , ,

having the Great Salt Lake i n its northeastern portion ;

its height above the sea averages 4 0 0 0 feet ; the Hum
boldt M ountains and other high ranges rise out of it It .

continues north ward into B ritish America and southward

into Mexico The eastern part of N ew M exico with the
.
,

western part of Texas is a plateau of about the same ele ,

vation c alled the Llano E stacado The D esert O f Gobi

, .
,

between the Altai and the K uen Lu n range is a desert -

,

plateau about 4 00 0 feet high while the plateau of Tibet , ,

between the K ue n Lu n range and the H imalayas is

-
,

to feet above the sea P ersia and Armenia .

constitute another plateau These examples are s u fi c i e n t .

to e x plain the use of the term .

S YS T E M IN T HE E A R T H S FE A T UR E S
’
II
'

. .

General R eli ef The continents are

o f t h e Co nt i ne nt s .
—

constructed on a common model : they have high bor

ders and a l ow cente r and are accordingly basin shaped, , ,
-
.

North America has the Appalachians on the eastern border ,

the C ordillera on the w est and between these t h e low ,

Mississippi basin Fig 4 illustrates this form of the con

. .

t ine nt In the section 6 represents the R ocky M ountain

.
,

chain on the west with its lines of ridges at summit ; a

, ,

the Sierra chain ( incl u ding the Sierra Nevada and Cascade
Range ) near the P acific coast ; 0 the Mississippi basi n ;
, ,

d the Appalachian chain on the east

, .

South America in a similar manner has the Andes o n

, ,

th e west th e Brazili an Mo untains on th e east and othe r

, .
,
 THE E A R T H S F E ATU R E S
'

heights along the north with the l ow region of the Ama

,

zon and La P lata making up the larger part O f the great

interior Fig 5 is a transverse section from west to
. .

e ast showing the Andes at a and the B razilian M oun

, ,

tains at b I n these sections the height as compare d with

.

the breadth is necessarily much exaggerated .

In the O rient there are mountains on the P acific side ,

others on the Atlantic ; and again the Him alayas on the , , ,

south face the Indian O cean and the Altai M ountains

, ,

F IG 4 . .

W a/

fil f N th Am i Pro e o or e r ca .

face the Arctic seas B etween the Himalayas ( or rather

.

the Kuen Lu n M ountains whic h are j ust north) and the

-
,

Altai lies the plateau of Gobi which is low compared with

, ,

the inclosing m ountains ; and farthe r west there are the

lo w lands O f the C aspian and Aral the Caspian lying even ,

below t h e level of the ocean The Urals divide the 6 0 0 0 .

miles of br eadth into two parts and s o give E urope som e ,

P fil
ro e o f So u th A m e ri ca .

title to its designation as a separate continent West .

O f their m eridian there are again extensive lowlands over

middle and southern E uropean R ussia In Africa there .

are mountains on the eastern border and on the western ,

border south of Guinea ; there are also the Atlas Moun

tains along the Me diterranean and the K ong Mountains ,

along the Guinea coast and the interior is rel atively l ow ,

although mostly 1 0 0 0 to 2 0 0 0 feet in elevation In Aus .

t r ali a a lso there are highlands on the eastern and western

, ,

borders and the interior is low All the continents are

, .
,

therefore constructed on the basin like model

,
- .
16 PHYS I O G R A P HI C G EOLO GY .

Th e Greater Mo u nta in s bo rde r t h e Gre ate r Ocean .

There is a second great truth with regard to the conti

n e n t al reliefs the highest border faces the largest ocean .

E ach of the continents sustai ns the truth announced .

N orth America has its great mountains the C ordillera on , ,

the side of the great ocean the P acific ; and i t s small ,

mountains the Appalachians on the side of the small

, ,

ocean S outh America also has its highest border on the

.
, ,

west The O rient has high ranges of mountains on the eas t

.
,

or the P acific side and lo w e r ranges as those of Norway

, ,

and other parts of E urope on the west ; and the H ima ,

layas face the great Indian O cean while the smaller Altai ,

range faces the small N orthern O cean I n Africa t h e .

,

mountains on the side of the Indian O cean are highe r

than those on that of the Atlantic In Australia the .

highest border is on the P acific side for the S outh P acific

fronting east Australia is greater than the Indian O cean
,

fronting west A ustralia H ence the basin like shape b e

.
-

fore illustrated is that o f a basin with one border much

higher than the other ; and with the highest border on
the side of the largest ocean .

The features described have a vast influence in adapting

the conti n ents for man America has its highest border
.

in the far west with all its great plains and great rivers
,

inclined toward the Atlantic ; for through the G ulf O f ,

Mexico the whole interior as well as the eastern border

, , ,

has its natural outlet eastw a rd The O rient instead of .

,

rising into Himalayas on the Atlantic border has its great ,

heights in the remote east ; and its vast plains e ven those ,

of Central Asia have their natural outle t westward over

, ,

E urope and through the Mediterranean o r toward the ,

same Atlantic O cean Thus as P rofessor Guyot has said

.
, ,

the vast regions of the world which are best fitted for ,

man by their climate and productions are combine d into

, ,

one great arena for the progress of civilization .

 PART II .
—
S TRUCTURAL G E OLOG Y .

T HE term r o ck in geology is applied to all natural

, ,

formations of mineral material whether consolidated like , ,

sandstones and slates or u nconsolidated like sand and

, ,

gravel All sandstones were once beds of loose sand ;

.

and there is every shade of gradation from the hardest ,

sandstone to the softest sand bed ; so that it is impossible

to draw a line bet w een the consolidated and the u n c o n s o li
dated Ge ology does not attempt to draw the line r e
.
,

garding consolidation as an accident in the history of the

earth s beds or deposits
’
— a n accident that probably hap

pened to only a s m all part of the sand beds and mud

beds that have existed and yet to enough of them in
,

each period for the preservation O f the wonderfully varied

records that are the materials of geological science .

R ocks may be studied simply as rocks — that is with , ,

reference to their composition — and collec tions may be ,

made containing specimens of their various kin d s Again .

,

they may be studied as rock masses spread out over the

earth and forming the earth s crust ; and with this in ’
,

vie w the condition structure and arrangement O f the

, , ,

great rock masses called ter r a ne s would come up for con

, ,

sideration The t w o subje cts under Structural Geology

.

are therefore :
,

1 T HE C O N S T I T U T I O N O F R O C K S
. .

2 T HE C O N D I TI O N S TR U C T U R E A N D A R R AN G E M E N T
.
, ,

O F R OC K M AS S ES O R T E R R AN E S
, .

17
18 S TR U C T UR A L G EOLO GY .

I . C O N S T IT UTI O N O F R O C KS .

M ine ra ls .

R ocksare generally heterogeneous being composed of ,

grains or particles O f d i He re n t materials The separate .

grains or particles which are homogeneous or nearly ,

so having a definite che mical constitution are called

, ,

minerals The minerals which constitute the principal

.

ingredients of the common rocks are included in three

groups
1 S IL I CA or silicon d ioxide
.
, .

2 S I L I CA T E S or compounds of silicon and oxygen with

.
,

other elements .

3 C A R B O NA T E S or comp ounds of carbon and oxygen

.
,

with other elements .

Besides these three other groups of minerals should

,

here be mentioned as sometimes constituting rock masses

, ,

and incl u ding materials O f special importance

4 C A R B O N A N D ITS C O M P O U N D S ( other than carbo
.

nates) .

5 C HLO R I D E S
. .

6 IR ON O R ES
. .

1 . S IL I CA .

Silica or silicon dio x i de ( S i O Z ) in its m ost comm on

, ,

molecular arrangement constitu t es the mineral qu a r tz , ,

Fm 6
which far exceeds all other minerals in
’ F 7
° IG ' °

abundance It is one of the hardest of .

common minerals ; does not m elt before

the blowpipe and does not dissolve in ,

water or in the ordinary acids , .

It is O ften seen i n crystals like Figs .

Q t u ar z
6 7 though generally occurring in mas
, ,

sive forms or in grains or pebbles

, It is distinguished .

o rdinarily by its glassy aspect whitish or grayish color , ,

 C O N S T ITU TI O N O F B OOKS . 19

and an absence of all tendency to break with a bright even

surface of fracture ( a quality possessed by many crystals ,

calle d cleavage ) : A lthough usually nearly colorless or

white it is O ften reddish yellowish brownish ( especially
, , ,

smoky brown ) an d even black ; and the luste r is some

,

times very dull as i n chalcedony flint and j asper The

, , , .

sands and pebble s of the seashores and gravel beds are

mostly quartz ; because quartz resists the wearing action
of waters bette r than any other common mineral Fo r .

the same reason most sandstones and c onglomerates con

,

sist mainly of quartz .

The hardness ( on account of which it scratches glass

eas i ly) infusibility insolubility in acids and absence of
, , ,

cleavage are the characters that serve to distinguish

,

quartz fro m the other ingredients O f rocks .

Bu t though quartz is so refractory it easily fuses into

, ,

glass when mixed with potash soda lime or an oxide of , , ,

iron O rdinary glass is made by mixing pow dered quartz

.

with soda and sometimes lime and subj ecting the mixture ,

to a high hea t .

Silica exists also in a di fferent molecular state in which ,

it is called op a l O pal a beautiful gem in some O f its

.
,

varieties does not occur crystallized has a little less hard

, ,

ness than quartz and is m ore easily soluble in a heated

,

alkaline solution The silica secreted by som e minute

.

plants as D iatoms and by Sponges and R adiolarians

, ,

among animals is O pal ; and in many places large beds O f

,

the min u te shells and spicules are formed by the growth

and death of the above mentioned organisms ( see page -

2 . S I L I C A TE S .

M ost of the common rock making m inerals are silicates -

that is combinations of silicon and oxygen with certain

,

basic elements as alum inium m agnesium calcium p o t a s

, , , ,

sium sodium iron and a few ot h ers

, , ,
.

Th e silicates which contai n n o metal exce pt alumi ni um

20 S TR U C TU R A L G EOLO GY .

are infusible as well as very hard B ut those which con .

tain one or more of the other metals mentioned are with

few e xceptions fusible .

The following are the m ost common of these silicates

.1 Feld s par — T he feldspars are silicates of aluminium
.

with one or more of the metals potassium sodium and , ,

calcium They are hard enough to scratch glass but less

.
,

hard than quartz They break easily or have cleavage in

.
, ,

two directions and the two lustrous cleavage surfaces meet

,

nearly or quite at a right angle The color is usually .

white or fle s h red rarely dark brown or greenish The

-
, .

specific gravity is to
The most common kind is a potash feldspa r a fi o r d i n g ,

on analysis silica alumina and potash and is called o rth o

, , ,

c la s e another name d a lbi te from its usual white color is

, , ,

a soda feldspar ; others as o lig o c la s e a n d e si ne and la br a

, , ,

d o r i te are soda lime feldspars

,
-
.

.2 Mi ca — M ica is a silicate of aluminium and p o t a s

.

sium but some kinds O f mica contain also magnesium and

,

iron Mica cleaves easily into tough leaves thinner than

.
,

the thinnest paper and some w hat elastic ; it fuses with

,

great di fficulty ; hence its common use in lanterns and doors

of stove s Its most common colors are whitish bro w nish
.
, ,

and black The m ost common kind of mica has a light

.

color and is called mu s co vi te from its old name Muscovy

, , ,

glass ; anothe r u sually black in color is called bi o ti te

, , .

S ome micas are hydrous ; that is they contain water ; and ,

these hy dr o mi ca s as they are called are pearly in lus ter

, , ,

feel a little soapy and are sometimes mistaken for t ale

,
.

The minerals quartz feldspar and mica are the con

, , , ,

s t i t u e n t s of granite ; and they may be distinguished in it

as foll ows : t h e grains of quartz by their glassy luster , ,

gray color and wa n t of cleavage ; the grains of feldspar

, ,

by their shining cleavage as is well seen when a surface ,

of fracture is held up to the sunlight ; the grains of mica ,

by their very easy cleavage by means of the point of a

knife blade into thin elastic leaves .
 C O N S T I T U T I ON OF R O CKS .

3 . H eo rnblend e e Hornblende and py ro x

an d P y ro x n .
—

ene are silicates of magnesium calcium and iron alumin , , ,

ium not being an essential constituent and when present , , ,

always in small amount The most c ommon variety of each .

of these minerals occurring as a principal constituent of ,

rocks is black or greenish black and

, , to in specific ,

gravity ; but white and light green varieties also are com
mon They are somewhat infe rior to feldspar in hard
.

ness ; unlike mica they are brittle The crystals or

, .

crystalline g rains have two e qually lustrous cleavages .

In hornblende the angle between the two is about

,

in pyroxene about ,Hornblende is O ften in long ,

slender crystallizatio n s and asbestus is a very fine fibrous ,

variety of it sometimes like wool B oth hornblende and

, .

pyroxene m ake hard and tough rocks P yroxene is a .

constituent O f some O f the m ost common igneous rocks .

4 Ch ry s o lite — A silicate of m agnesium with some

. .

iron It is generally of an olive green color and occurs

.
-
,

in many igneous rocks in disseminated grains or crystals ,

looking much like bits of green bottle glass .

5 Ch lo r
. ite — A silicate of magnesium aluminium and
. , ,

iron containing generally 1 2 per cent or more O f water

,
.

It resembles black mica in its crystallization and cleavage ;

but its folia are not elastic its color is usually dark green , ,

and it feels a little greasy It is O ften finely granular . .

6 Talc S rp
. e entine — Talc and serpentine are hydrous .

silicates of magnesium that is silicates containing water ,

.

They both have a greasy feel e s p e c i ally t a lc

'

— Talc is .

very soft so soft that it does not feel gritty to the teeth
,
.

It is often in foliated plates or masses like mica ; but the

folia or leaves though separating rather easily and fle x
, , ,

ible are not elastic The usual color is pale green

, .
.

S oapstone or steatite is a massive variety O f talc of

, , ,

whitish grayish or greenish color

, ,
.

S erpentine contains much water ( about 1 4 per cent) .

It is usually a dark green massive mineral or rock of ,

smooth fracture and soft enough to be cut with a knife

,
.
 S TR U CTUR A L G E OL OG Y .

7 The f ollo wing m inerals occur distributed in crystals

.

through many crystalline rocks though rarely forming ,

the principal constituents of rocks

G a rn e t — T he most common varieties are silicates O f
al u minium w ith iron calcium or magnesium They occur
, , , .

O ften in dark red bro w nish or black crystals O f 1 2 or 24 , ,

side s (dodecahedrons or trapezohedrons ) The first of .

F 8 IG .
these forms is represented in Fig
.
.

8 showing garnets distributed ,

through a mica schist .

To u r ma li n e contains besides sili ,

con and oxygen aluminium mag , ,

nesiu m iron boron and fluorine , , , .

It occurs generally ( Fi g 9 ) in .

G t a rn e
crystals which are prisms of 3 6
.

, ,

9 or 1 2 sides ; the most common color is black but it is

, ,

sometimes blue black brown green or red -

, , , .

A n d a lu s i te is simply an aluminium silicate and hence is ,

inf u sible It is found in imbedded crystals in clay slate

.
,

and sometimes in mica schist the form is nearly a s q uare

prism The interior O f the crystals is very fre quently
.

F IG 9 . F IG 1 0
. . .

To u m li
r a ne . An d lua si t e .

black or grayish black at the center and a n gles ( Fig .

while the rest is nearly white ; and this variety is call ed

macle or chiastolite
, .

Ug a ni te has the same composition as the preceding and ,

like it is infusible It usually occurs in mica schist or .

gneiss in thin bladelike pale blue crystals

, , ,
.
 C O N S TI T U T I O N OF R O CKS .

S ta u r o li te R elate d
to the last two minerals and i n
.
,

fusible but it contains some iron Its crystals are stout .

prisms of abo u t O f brown or brownish black color ;

they often have the form of a cross whence the name from , ,
’
a m u o s a cross
p ,
.

3 CA R B O N A TE S . .

1 . or Calcium carbonate ( C a C O 3 ) — The ma

Calci t e , .

t e r i al of limestone and marble It crystallizes in many .

forms a few of which are represente d in Figs 1 1 and 1 2

,
. .

It cleaves easily in three directions with bright surfaces ,

as may be see n on examining eve n the grains of a fine

white marble Its colors are various
. It is so soft as .

to be easily scratched with a knif e ; dissolves in diluted

F IG 1 1 . F
. 12 IG . .

l Ca ci t e .

acid ( hydrochloric ) with e ff ervescence that is with an , ,

escape of carbonic acid gas ( C O 2) ; and whe n heated ( as ,

in a limekiln or before the blowpipe ) it burns to quick ,

l i me without melting By its e ffervescence with acids it

.

di ffers from all the minerals before ment i oned .

2 Do lo mite C alcium magnesium carbonate ( C a Mn O fi)

.
,
-
,

di ffers from calcite in containing magnesium in place of

part of the calcium Very much of limestone is magnesian
.

limestone It closely resembles ordinary limestone but

.
,

may be distinguished by its e ffervescing scarcely at all

with acid unless heat be applied .

Fo r iron carbon ate ( siderite ) see page 27 .

24 S TR U C T UR A L G EOLO GY .

4 . C AR B O N AN D IT S CO MP O UN D S (O THE R T H AN CA R B O N A TE S ) .

Carbon occurs pure among mi n erals only in di a mo n d

and g r ap h i te It is the chief element in mi n e r a l c o a l but
.
,

1 8 combined in it with more or less of hydroge n and

oxygen and also some nitrogen Charcoal the c a r bo of
, .
,

the R omans is nearly all carbon , .

Carbon occurs in the atmosphere in the form of carbon

dioxide or carbonic acid ( C O Z)
, This gas constitutes .

about 3 out of parts of the atmosphere and is ,

carrie d from t h e atmosphere to the earth by the rains It .

is formed in the combustion O f wood t h e combustion con ,

sisting i n the combination of oxyg en with the constituents

of the wood It is also given out in the respiration of
.

animals the processes of life in animals being carried for

,

ward through a sort of combustion or a similar combina ,

tion O f oxygen with the materials of the tissues .

Aside from its occurrence in the carbonates the chief ,

form in which carbon occurs as a rock material is that of

mineral coal .

1 Di amo nd and Graph ite — These are both pure carbon

. . ,

but in different molecular states ; the former the hardest ,

of minerals crystallizing in octahedral and related forms

,

the latter one of the softest crystallizing in hexagonal

, ,

plates with nearly the easy cleavage O f mica and with

, ,

metallic luster Graphite is also called plumbago and

.

black lead and is the material of the misname d lead

,

pencils It occ u rs in crystalline rocks in scales and

.

masses and is ground up and subj ected to pressure to

,

prepare it for making pencils .

2 Miner al Co al
. Mineral coal is not a true mineral
. ,

being not a definite chemical compound but a mixture O f ,

various compounds of carbon with hydrogen and oxygen .

It constitutes beds in various rock formations an d has ,

been formed from wood or some kind of vegetable mate

rial There are three prominent kinds differing in the
.
,

amount of oxygen and hydrogen that is present with the

 C O N S T I T UT I O N OF R O C KS .

chief ingredient carbon and consequently in the amount

,

of inflammable gas given out i n burning This gas con .

sists chiefly of carbon and hydrogen and is essentially the ,

s ame as the gas used in illumination .

1 .A n th r a ci te contai n s generally over 8 5 pe r cent O f

carbon It yields little that is volatile and burns with a
.
,

feeble blue flame .

2 Bi tu mi n o u s c o a l has less hardness and luster than

.

anthracite contains usually 6 5 to 8 5 pe r cent of carbon

, ,

and gives out on he ating 20 to 5 0 per cent of volatile

matte r It therefore burns with a bright yellow flame
. .

When heated it will yield illuminating gas and also

, ,

mineral O i l Cannel coal is a compact bituminous coal

.

having a feeble luster ; it O ften yields 4 0 to 5 0 per cent

of volatile matter and is an available source O f mineral
,

oil Bituminous coal is called caking coal when it sof tens

.

in the fire and cakes at the surface so that a fire made of ,

it require s poking to make it burn freely ; non caking -

kinds h ave not this q uality and hence are preferable for
,

fuel .

3 B r o wn c o a l di ffers from bituminous coal i n yield

.

ing a brownish black powder and in containing much ,

more oxygen ( 20 to 30 per cent or more ) The min .

eral coal from rocks more recent than the Carboniferous

formation is often improperly called brown coal even ,

whe n it is good bituminous coal without a brownish ,

color to the powder The name lign i te is sometimes also

.

applied to it ; but true lignite is coal that retains the

fibro u s texture of the original wood .

3 Mine ral Oi l — This consists of liquid hydrocarbons

. .
,

and is chemically related to illuminating gas It was .

formed out of animal or vegetable materials Illuminat .

ing gas is O ften given O ff in great quantities from the

wells or sources yielding mineral oil and in some villages , ,

in O il regions the houses are heated and lighted by it

,
.

Many black shales yield mineral oil when heated They .

do not contain the oil but contain other hydrocarbons

,
26 S TR U C TUR A L G EOLO GY .

( not yet satisfactorily inves t igated ) which yield the oil

on heating M ineral O i l on long exposure to the air
.
, ,

combines with oxygen and may ultima tely become a ,

black fusible bitumen or a coal like substance having ,

-

little or no fusibility .

5 . C H L O R I DE S .

The only chloride forming rock masses is

Co mm o n S alt or R o ck S alt — It is sodium chloride
,
.

( N a C l) It is
. easily distinguished by its taste It .

constitutes beds more or less impure in strata of various

, ,

ages from the Sil u rian to recent time ; which is accounted

for by the fact that the universal ocean is an abundant
source of salt and only evaporation is required to deposit
,

it S ilurian rock salt occurs in western N e w York and

.
,

Upper C anada ; and a great deposit probably of Creta ,

c e o u s age nearly 4 0 feet thick and remarkably pure

, ,

occurs a t P etit Anse Louisiana near the Gulf of Mexico, , .

’
The saline constituents of the ocean s waters constitute
ab out parts in 1 0 0 ; of which about three fourths is
c ommon salt the rest being chiefly magnesium chloride
, ,

magnesium sulphate calcium sulphate or gypsum p o t as , , ,

sium sulphate magnesium bromide and calcium carbo

, ,

nate with traces also of other ingredients

,
.

6 . I R ON OR E S .

Iron ores are widely distributed in the rocks and some ,

of them form thick beds U nlike the mine rals mentioned .

above they have a specific gravity above

, The m os t
impor t ant are three oxides three sulphides and a car , ,

bonate .

The sulphides however are never u sed in the man n

, ,

facture of iron since no process is kno w n by which iron

,

can be econo m ically separated from sulphur .

1 He matite or ferric oxide ( Fe 2 0 3 )

.
,
It yields a .

red po w der whence its name given it by the old Greeks

, , ,

from a lg a , blood Its crystals have usually an iron black

'

- ~

.
 C O N S T I T UT I O N OF R O CKS .

color a n d high luster ; but it is deep red when earthy or

,

impure It is the source of the color in red sandstones

.

and some other red rocks .

.2 Li mo nite o r hydrous ferric oxide includes two equiv

, ,

a le n t s of Fe 2 0 3 united with t hree equivalents O f water .

It varies in color from black to brown a n d yellow but ,

yields always a brownish yellow powder While red ocher .

of painters is impure hematite yellow ocher is impure ,

limonite Limonite is the coloring ingredient in a large

.

part of brown and brownish yellow rocks a n d clays The .

water present goes o ff o n heating and hence t h e mineral , ,

and all rocks colored by it when heated turn red It , , .

is formed from the oxidation and hydration of various

iron bearing minerals ( page
-
and often makes de
posits i n marshes ( page
3 Mag netit e
. Magnetite has an iron black color like
.
-
,

hematite ; bu t unlike that ore it is attracted strongly by

, ,

a magnet and yields a black powder It consists of three

, .

atoms of iron and four of oxygen ( Fe 3 O 4 ) I t is common .

in grains in many rocks ( n o t in limestones ) a n d am ong ,

the sands of seashores and soils ; and like hematite con , ,

s t i t u t e s great beds among the older rocks .

Ferrous oxide ( Fe O ) never occurs as a mineral .

4
. P y r ite ; Mar ca site ; P y rr h o tite P yrite is an iron .

t u lp h i d e ( Fe S 2 ) of a brass yello w color and nearly as

,
-
,

hard as quartz It will strike fire with steel and was

.
,

named by the Greeks from 7 ri3p fire It is common in , .

rocks in massive forms crystals ( often cubes ) and grains

, , , .

M arcasite has the same composition as pyrite but a d if ,

fe re n t crystalline form P yrrhotite is the name of ano t her

.

com m on iron sulphide containing proportionally less sul,

phur ( Fe u S m) having the color of bronze so soft as to

, ,

be easily scratched with the point of a knife and somewhat ,

strongly attracte d by a magnet .

5 S d
. i erite — This mineral called also iron carb onate
. ,

( F e C O 3)
and spathic
,
iron has when crystallized a p p ro x i
, , ,

mately the cleavage and form of calcite The color is .

 28 S TR U C TU R A L G EOLO GY .

light gray but changes readily to brown on exposure

,

( y
b alte ration of more or less of the material to limonite ) .

It is much heavier than calcite its specific gravity being ,

to It e ffervesces like dolomite in heated dilute

, ,

hydrochloric acid .

The i ronstone or clay ironstone o f coal regions used

, , ,

as an ore of iron is ge nerally side rite ; that of other than

,

coal reg i ons 1 8 commonly hematite or limonite .

Ki nd s o f Ro cks .

P R EL I M I N A R Y D E F I N I T I O N S .

Fragmen al a d C y a
t n r st lline R o ck s — The minerals of .

which a rock consists may be e ithe r ( 1 ) in broken o r worn

grains o r pebbles like those of sand or mud or a bed
,

of gravel ; or ( 2) in crystalline grains i n which case they ,

were formed whe re they n o w are a t the time of the

crystallizatio n of the rock S uch crystalline g ra ins are
.

ang ular as may be seen on a surface of fracture and in

, , ,

the case of m os t mine rals excepting quartz S h o w surfaces ,

of cleavage . C ommon w hite marble and granite are good

examples of rock s having a crystalline texture ; and ,

among products of art such a texture is shown i n loaf

,

sugar and steel .

The rock s o f the first kind consisting of fragments of ,

othe r rocks are called fragmental rocks ; and those of the

,

latter kind crystalline r Oc k s Fragmental rocks are also

, .

called e las t i c rocks from the G reek x h a é w to break

,
’

, .

Besides rocks t h at are obviously fragmental and those

O bviously crystalline the re are othe rs O f fli n t c ompact
y ,

ness which S how no distinct grains and are therefore not

, ,

easily refe rred to eithe r division T o dete rmine the .

division to which such rocks belong t h ey must be studied ,

in relation to the rocks associated with them I f these .

associated rocks are fragmental then t h e c o m pac t beds are ,

‘

proba bly so also ; bu t if these are cry stalline the n the

‘

, ,

compact beds are probably crystalline The e x amina tio n .

 C O N S TI TU TI O N OF R O CK S .

of th in transparent slices with the microscope is O ften th e

only means of distinguishing the two kinds .

F ag
r m ent a l Rpck.s — These are the most comm on of
rocks constituting by far the largest part of the strata
,

accessi ble to geological study The wear and decomposi

.

tion of the O ldest rocks produ c ed fragmental material for

those of the next period and so on through geological
,

time ; and the rocks made of such material as for ex , ,

ample sandstones shales and conglome rates are frag

, , , ,

mental rocks They are stratified rocks also because they

.
,

are in beds They are also calle d sedimentary rocks

.
,

because the material was in m ost cases deposited as a

sediment from wate rs ; and detrital rocks because com ,

posed of the worn out mate rial ( d e tr i tu s ) of O lde r rocks

-
.

While the great maj ority of f ragmental rock s were

formed as sediments from wate r others have been formed,

of material transported by glaciers ( see page 1 6 2) o r by

wind ( see page S till othe r fragmental rocks have
resulted from the accumulation of the broke n rocks cin ,

de rs and ashes discharged in the explosive phase of

,

volcanic eruptions .

Cr y st all i ne R o ck s are either igneou s or metam orp h i c

( wit h the e xception of comparatively small accumulations
i n veins and elsewhe re formed by deposit from solution )
,
.

I gne o u s R o ck s inclu d e those which have come up

mel t e d through volcanic vents or through fissures opened
,
’
to som e seat O f melte d rock within the earth s crust .

B e sides those which have solidified at or near the surface ,

othe r igneous rocks have solidified at considerable d epth

below the surface S uch rocks must of course u n derlie
.

all superficial rocks . Igneous rocks solidified at great

depth may subsequently be laid bare b y extensive e rosion .

Igneous rocks include lavas m ost porphyry and granite

, ,

and othe r rocks described late r ( pages 36

The igneous rocks w hich have solidified at or n ear
the sur face are called vo lca n i c r o ck s ; those which h ave
solidi fi ed at great depth p lu to n i c r o e/cs In their more
,
.
30 S TR U CTU R A L G EOLO G Y .

typical f orm s the two groups are strongly distinguished

,

from ea ch other tho u gh indefinite gradations e xist b e

‘

tween them P lutonic rocks have cooled slowly ; and

.

the molecules have therefore had time to arrange them

selves into crystalline grains of comparatively large size
Such rocks are therefore somewhat coarsely crystalline .

Volcanic rocks have cooled rapidly and the process of ,

molecular arrangement was the refore interrupted by

solidification before large crystals could be formed Such .

rocks are therefore fi n e grained and more or less of the -

,

material ( sometimes nearly the whole ) is amorphous or

glassy P lutonic rocks have cooled unde r great pres
.

sure Thi n sections examined under the microscope sho w

.

innumerable minute cavities filled most commonly with ,

water more rarely with carbon dioxide or some other

,

material partly in liquid condition but with a bubble of

, ,

the same material in gaseous form floating in the liquid .

Volcanic rocks have coole d under little more than atm os

p h e r i c pressure I n such rocks . fluid cavities are want
ing since volatile materials enveloped in the mass have
,

been able to escape .

The name la va is applie d to volcanic rock s i n ge n eral ,

especially to those which have come from recent volca

noes and to those which show a vesicular or scoriaceous
,

s tructure ( page

Me t amo rph i c R o ck s have assumed their pres ent structure

under the action of heat and other subterranean agencies
without fusion The rocks so cha n ged were pro bably in
.

most cases ordinary fragmental rocks and li ni e s t o n e s The .

alteration when most perfect has consiste d in a complete

, ,

crystallization of t h e rock and when least so in i t s con , , ,

solidation ; between which extremes all gradations exist .

E xamples of metamorphic rocks are m a rb le mica schist , ,

gneiss and ( proba bly ) some granite

,
.

While metamorphic rocks have probably b een derived

for the most par t from the alteration of se dimentary
r cks , it
a ear cert ain that in s o me c as e s ro ck s g ene ra lly
o
p p s
 C O NS TIT UT I O N OF R OCKS .

inclu de d under this category have bee n formed by a r e

arrangement O f the mate rials of igneous rocks .

Ma ssi ve R o ck s . R ocks are terme d massive when there

is no tendency to part along parallel planes so as to ,

form sla bs or plates This is the case in general with the

.

coarser fragmental rocks as sandstones and c o n g lo me r

,

ates with most igneous rocks and wi th many limestones

, , .

Lamin at e d , S h aly , S laty , S ch ist o s e R o ck s — All these .

terms e xpress a tendency of the rock to part along parallel

planes so as to form slabs or plates
, .

I n laminated and shaly rocks the plane s of division are

,

those of deposition of the mate rial These structures .

belong accordingly to sedimentary rocks and are char

, , ,

a c t e ri s t i c of the fi n e grained sediments

-
The shaly s t ru c .

ture di ffers from the laminated in that the plates in the

forme r are thinner and more fragile .

I n S laty rocks the planes O f division or cleavage are

, , ,

independent O f the planes o f deposition and may cross ,

the latte r at any angle The S laty structure is the result

.

of pressure subsequent to the deposition and consolidation

of the rock .

In schistose ( or foliated ) rocks the planes of division ,

are determined by the parallel arrangement O f crystalline

grains of some cle avable mineral as mica hornblende , , ,

talc or chlorite This structure is characteristic of most

, .

of the metamorphic rocks In many cases it is undoubt .

,

e dl the re ul t of the original stratified arrangement of

y s

the material i n a sedimentary rock B ut in other cases .

s dc h a parallel arrangement appears to be due to pressure

or shearing causing a rearrangement of the materials of

,

the rock . A schistose structure may accordingly be , ,

developed in rocks O f igneous origin or in vein deposits .

The rocks exhi biting most typically the laminated ,

shaly S laty and schistose stru ctures are called r e sp e c

, ,

t i v e ly flag s t o n e s or flags shales slates and schists

, , ,
.

Po r ph y ri t i c R o ck s — A porphyritic rock is one hav

.

In
g distinct cr y stals ( usually of feldspar ) disseminated
32 S TRU C T UR AL G E OLO GY .

through a fi n e grained or compact mass so that when

-
, ,

polished the surface shows angular spots of a light colored

,
-

m ine ral usually between an eighth of an inch and two

,

inches in length These dissemina t ed crystals are called

.

phenocrysts The red po rphyry of E gypt and the green

.
,

p orphyry of the eastern borders of Greece much used for ,

ornamental purposes by the ancients are typical examples , .

This structure is very frequent in felsite but occurs also in ,

granite and many other rocks It is especially character .

i s t i c of igneous rocks The phen ocry sts formed slowly

.
,

while the remainder of the m aterial was still fluid L ater .

,

under other conditions the remainder of the rock solidified ,

m ore rapidly forming the fi n e grained or compact mass

,
-
.

Calcare o u s R o ck s C alcare ous rocks so n amed from

.
,

the Latin ca lx lime are the limestones To a great extent

, , .

they are of organic origin that is they have been formed ,

from broken or pulverized animal relics such as S hells and ,

corals and in this case they are properly fragmental beds ,

althoug h O ften so finely compact that this might not be

suspecte d from t h eir texture .

S ome limesto nes have been made from the a ccumula

t i on and consolidation of m inute shells calle d Rhizopods , .

These shells which are gene rally no larger than grains

,

O f sand are sometimes entire but generally m ore or less

, ,

broken Chalk is an example of a rock made of Rhizopod

.

shells.

Limestones made from fragments of earlier limestones

occur but are not very common Limestone c o n g lo me r
, .

ates are of this kind .

O ther cal careous rocks have been deposited from waters

holding the material in solution and are therefore of chem , , ,

ical origin O f this kind is the travertine of Tivoli near

.

R ome in Italy and of Gardiners River in the geyser

,

r egion of the Yellowstone P ark and similar beds in many ,

regions of m ine ral springs .

S i li ce o u s R o ck s — Silice ous rocks are those that con

.
.

s ist largely of silica in the form O f quartz or

( more rare ly )
 C ON S TI TU TI O N OF R O CKS .

O pal The n ame is from the Latin s i lex signifying flint

.
, ,

a variety of quartz Siliceous material like the calca

.
,

r e o u s is as state d on page 1 9 O f both mineral and organic

, , ,

origin but the mine ral is vastly the more abunda n t It .

sometimes occurs as a chemical prod uct as in the silice ous ,

depositions about geysers ( page The silica of

ch emical as well as that of organic origin is O ften
, ,

in the state of opal O pal by solution and consolida .

,

tion may become conve rted into true quartz as in flint

, , ,

which has f or the most part been made from the silica
, ,

o f Spong es .

Th e
principal kinds o f rocks are here described under
the three heads
1 FR A G M E N TA L R O C K S not calcareous ; 2 C R Y S T A L
, , ,

L I N E R O C K S not calcareous 3 C A L CA R EO U S R O C K S
, , .

l . FRAGME NTAL R OC KS , NOT C ALCARE OUS .

The fragmental material which the wear and d e c o m p o

s i t i o n of rocks ordinarily produces is either : 1 gra el
( ) v

or shingle ; ( 2) sand ; ( 3) mud earth or clay , , .

1 . Gr ave l — The pebbles in a gravel are often so coarse

.

as to be readily recognizable as fragments O f vari ous rocks .

E ach pebble may accordingly contain two Or m ore min

e ra ls When the disintegration of rocks proceeds to the
.

point o f pul verization each g rain is apt to consist entirely

,

of a single mineral .

2 S and — M ost sand consists c h iefly of quartz ; bu t

'

. .

in some sands many of the grains are O f feldspar and mica .

S ome contain m u ch clay or are argillaceous ( so named ,

from a rg i lla clay ) some are red or brownish yellow

, ,

owi n g to t h e presence of iron oxide and are called f e rr u ,

i n o u s ; some will e ffervesce slightly with acid owing to

g ,

the presence of some calcare ous material Beach sands

‘

O ften contain red grains of garnet and c ommonly black

grains of magnetite which a ma gnet easily attracts
,
- .
34 S TR U CTU R A L G EOLO GY ;

3 . Mu d , E arth , Clay
Mud a n d earth contain b e .
-
,

sides grains of quartz some pulverized feldspar or else , ,

clay with more or less of other minerals The terms

, .

argillaceous ferruginous calcareous are here applied as

, ,

above ; the calcareous grains are usually derived from

the grinding up of shells When black the color is d u e .
,

to carbonaceous material derived from vegetable or animal

decomposition The name s o i l is applied especially to
.

earth containing considerable quantities of such products

of organic decomposition whence its fertility is largely ,

derived .

C ommon clay is a mixture of pure clay with grains of

quartz feldspar and usually traces of hydrous i ron oxide
, ,

( lim onite ) or else iron carbonate

, O wing to the iron it .
,

burns red making red brick — heat changi n g the iron

,

mineral present to hematite ( page O ccasionally ,

as in certain Milwaukee clays the iron is in an iron S ili ,

cate so that the heat cannot oxidize it and consequently

,

the bricks it makes are not red Clays free from iron are .

requ i re d for white potte ry and clays free from grains of

feldspar for making fi re brick because the feldspar is
,
-
,

fusible .

P ure clay or k a o li n is white and feels greasy

, It is , , .

an aluminium silicate containing 1 4 per cent of water It .

results from the decomposition Of feldspar (pages 1 1 3 ,

It is used in making fine pottery and porcelain and also ,

in giving body to paper .

R ock flour is finely pulverized rock of any kind .

The consolidation of gravel sand and mud or clay pro , , ,

duces respectively conglomerate sandstone and shale

, , , ,
.

4 Co n glo me rate
. C onsolidate d gravel If the stones
. .

are rounded the rock is O ften called a pudding stone ; if

,
-

in the for m of angular fragments a breccia ; if the p c b ,

bles are of q u artz a siliceous conglomerate or w h en very

, , ,

firmly consolidated a grit ; if of limes t one a calca reous , ,

conglomer ate The stones may be a foot or more in

.

diam ete r thou gh usuall y much smaller

,
.
 C O N S T IT U T IO N OF R O C KS .

5 . S and sto ne
rock made of sand C ommon colors .
— A .

are red gray brown white If composed of quartz sand

, , , .
,

it is a quartzose or siliceo u s sandstone if O f granite

sand a granitic sandstone ; if fine earthy or clayey an
, , ,

argillace ous sandstone ; if containing some calcium car

bonate a calcareous sandstone It makes a durable build
, .

ing stone when firm if not much absorbent O f water when ,

im m erse d in it and if free from pyrite so as not to rust ,

on expos u re The brownish re d sands t one is O fte n called

.

freestone The sandstone used for grindstones is e ven

.

grained and m ore or less friable .

6 h
S a
. le — A rock resulting from the consolidation of
.

clay or clayey earth or fine mud and splitting readily into ,

rathe r thin la min ae parallel to the pla n es of stratification

(p age The colors are of all dull shades from gray
to red and black C arbonaceous shale is a blackish kind .
,

yielding mineral oil Al u m shale is a shale which has .

become impregnated with alu m through the decomposition

of the pyrite it contains .

7 Tu fa — A volcanic sandstone composed of volcanic

. .
,

sand or ashe s ( see page The color is usually brown

ish grayish or reddish
, , .

2 . CRY S TA LLINE ROC KS , NOT CA C RE OUS L A .

The m ost impor tant of these rocks may be arranged

conveniently in four groups according to their miner
alogical compositio n .

1 . R O C KS C O N S I S T IN G C H I E FL Y OF QU A R T Z (O R O P AL) .

1 .
Q u a rtzite — A metamorphosed quartzose .sandstone .

It is usually a very hard rock It may be distinguished .

from t h e accumulations O f quartz in veins by its granular

s t r imt u r e as seen under a lens or in thin sections under
( ,

the microscope ) Itacolumite or flexible sandstone is a.

, ,

laminated porous quartzi t e co n taining minute scales O f a

,

hy dro u s mica which render t h e rock some what flexibl e

,
.
 S TR UCT U R A L G EOLO G Y .

2 . Ch ert .
-
'

An
impure flint or hornston e o ccu rri n g i n
beds or nodules in some stratified rocks .

3 S i li ce o u s S i nte r
.
— D eposits o f silica from solution .

in water most commonly forme d by hot springs T h e

, .

sil i ca IS usually opal more rarely quartz The sinter , .

deposited by geysers (page 1 8 7 ) is often called g e y

scrite .

2 R O C KS C O NS I S T I N G
. OF P O TA S H FEL D S P A R , W I T H O R W I T H
O UT QUA R TZ , AN D U S U AL L Y W I T H M I C A O R HO R N B LE ND E .

1 . rock consisting O f q u artz feldspar and

i
Gran t e — A .
, ,

mica generally so coarsely crystalline that its ingredients

,

are conspicuous to the naked eye C olor u sually light or .

,

dark g ray or fle s h red the latter shade derive d from a

,
-
,

fle sh colore d feldspar ; the quartz uncleavable and usually

-
,

light grayish or smoky in color ; the feldspar white to ,

fle s h red and yiel d ing smooth shini n g surfaces by c le av

-
, ,

age ; the mica W hite to black and affording thin flexible

, , ,

leaves by cleavage M ost granite is igneous and exhibits .

,

most typically the characters of the pl u tonic rocks S ome .

granite appears t o be metamorphic S om e granite appears .

to constitute true veins ( page

2 G ne i s s
. Like granite in constitution bu t havi n g a
. ,

schistose structure owi n g to the arrangement of the min ,

e rals the m ica especially being in parallel planes

, , it has , ,

therefore a banded appearance on a surface O f transverse

,

fracture If the color of the gneiss is dark gray it is

.
,

banded usually with black lines c onsisting largely of black

mica Along the micace ous planes it breaks rather easily
.

into slabs which are sometimes used for flagging Gneiss

,
.

has probably been formed in most cases by the m e t am o r

phi em o f argillaceous sandstones But ot h er gneisses have .

been formed from granites by pressure or shearing by ,

which the ingredients have been forced into a parallel

arrangement .

3 Mi ca S ch i s t
. R elated to gneis s but consisti n g m ore
. ,

largely of mica with usually less quartz and very much ,

 Co Ns TITUTION O F O CKS
‘

R .

less feldspar and in conse q uence of the mica breaking

, , ,

into thin slabs The S labs have a glis t ening surface In

. .

regions of mica sch ist the dust of t h e roads is O ften full of

shining particles of mica M ica schist is generally a meta .

J n fllled e
-fl morphic rock and the same is probably tr u e of most of the
,
gy .

schists .

4 Hy dro mi ca S ch ist
. A S laty fi n e grained mica schist
.
,
-
,
T i ll. m onm .
feeli n g somewhat greasy to the fingers It used to be .

I n . I iiz mm r called talcose slate ; but it contains a hydrous mica instead

O f talc .

5 S l ate , Argil li t e , Ph y llit e

. The rocks included under .
-

these names form a transition be tween the shales and the

hydromica schis ts and m ay with about e qual propriety be
,

placed in either position in the classificatio n being the ,

result of a very feeble metamorphism The texture ap .

pears to the naked eye hardly crystalline They are fi n e .

graine d rocks ; and the kinds v alued as roofing slates and

"

drawing slates are hard smooth and not absorbent of , ,

water The color is usually dark gray p assing into

.
,

bluish greenish and reddish s h ades I n these rocks the

, , .

S laty structu re is most perfectly displayed A s already .

explained ( page the planes of S laty cleavage are inde

m
“gy n b g
huin a
pendent O f the planes of stratification and are due to ,

pressure ( page
P erfectly gradual transitions may be traced from granite
i
s l t of t
r n
a svere
s
to gneiss from gneiss to mica schist from mica schist to
, ,

hydromica schist fro m hydromica schist to slate and from

, ,

S late to shale .

6 Ho rnble nde Grani t e , Qu art z S y e ni te — A rock resem

. .

bling granite but containing hornblen d e instead of mica

,
.

Intermediate kinds occur in which both mica and horn ,

blende are present Generally plutonic like true grani t e

.
,
.

7 S y enite
. Like the preceding but with little or no
.
,

quartz P l u tonic
. .

8 S y enite Gneiss , Ho rn ble n de Gneiss

.
— R elated to .

hornblende granite precisely as gneiss is rel ated t o

granite .
 S TR U T U R C AL G E OLO GY .

9 Ho rnblen de S ch ist
. R elated to the prece ding as .
—

mica schist is related to gneiss the m icaceous and horn ,

b le n d i c series showing a close parallelism Generally a .

metamorphic rock S ometimes formed by alteration of .

diorite or some such igneous rock .

1 0 Fe lsite — A fi n e grained often porphyritic rock

. .
-
, ,

consisting chiefly O f orthoclase containing n o glass , .

When quartz is present in considerable quantity it is ,

called quartz felsite M uch of the s o called porphyry .

-

belongs here The colors are various grayish and red

.
,

dish shades being common A n igne ous rock . .

1 1 R h y o lite
.
— Similar in co mposition to a quartz fel
.

site but S howing under the microscope the presence of

,

glass indicating rapid cooling It is one of the common

, .

kinds O f lava .

1 2 Tr ach y te — C onsists like felsite chiefly of ortho

. .
, ,

clase but di ff e rs from felsite in containing some glass

, .

The feldspar is partly of a variety occurring in crystals O f

glassy luster called s an i d i n O n e of t h e most c ommon
, .

lavas .

1 3 Obsi di an
. A lava having substantially the chem i
.

cal composition O f a rhyolite or trachyte but cooled so ,

rapidly as t o be almost entirely glassy

3 . R O C KS C O N S I S T I N G O F A S O D A L I M E FEL D S P A R , -
W I TH
HO R N B LE N D E O R P Y R O X EN E .

1 i
D or
. ite — D i ffers from syenite in containing a soda
.

lime feldspar ( generally oligoclase ) instead of or t hoclase .

C oarsely or finely crystalline containing no glass It is ,

.

sometimes porphyritic and the classical red porphyry of ,

E gypt ( r o s s o a n ti co ) is here included R ather dark gray .

ish and greenish colors predominate It is generally an .

igneous rock though it may be sometimes metamorphic

,
.

2 An des i te — Similar in composition to diorite but

. . ,

partly glassy A common kind of l a va

. .

3 Gabbro — A coarsely crystalline rock consisting

. .
,

chiefly of a soda lime feldspar ( generally labradorite ) a nd

‘
-
‘
 C O N S T I TU T I O N OF R O CK S .

pyroxene O fte n containing magnetite and chrysolite as

,

accessory ingredients In its coarseness of crystallization .

it resembles granite ; and like granite is generally a , ,

pl u tonic rock .

4 Do lerite Di aba se — Si m ilar in composition to gab .

,
.

bro but n o t so coarsely crystalline

, O ften porphyritic . .

C olors dark — black shading into gray greenish or brown

, , ,

ish colors A n igneous rock very often occurring in

.
,

dikes This and othe r dark heavy igneous rocks are

.

O ften called trap .

5 Ba s alt
.
— S imilar in composition to gabbro and dole
.

artz fel
aqu rite but showing the typical volcanic character of contain
,

ing glass The rock ( or the ground mass when the rock
.
,

mwmm0n is porphyritic ) is S O fi n e grained as to appear compact to

'

3 _. i t
-

the nake d eye C olor black or nearly so O n e O f the

.
, .

most common kinds of lava .

6 Tach y lite — A lava substantially similar to basalt in

. .

chemical composition but cooled so rapidly as to be almost ,

P 0 m
comon entirely glassy
4 . R O C KS C O NS I S T I N G C H I E F L Y OF HY D R O U S M A GNE S I A N
S I L I C A TE S .

1 . Ch lo rite ist — A schistose rock of dar k green

S ch .

color consisting chiefly of chlorite It is connected by

, .

intermediate gradations with hydromica schist .

2 Talc S ch ist
. A schistose rock of
. grayish or green
“
ish color and greasy feel consisting chiefly of talc A , .

comparatively rare rock most of the rocks to which the ,

name has been applie d being hydromica schist .

3 S te a tit e , S o ap st o ne
. Like talc schist except in the .
,

lack of t h e schistose structure The fi n e r grained varieties .

-

are used for slate pencils and for various other purposes .

4 S er pentine — A rock consisting chiefly of the min

. .

eral serpentine In most cases it results from the hydra

.

tion of rocks co n sisting wholly or largely of anhydro u s

magnesian silicates R ocks containing chrysolite a re .

e specially li able to undergo this alteration .

 S TR U C T UR A L G EOLO GY .

3 . CAL CAREOUS R OC KS .

1 . N O N M E TA M O R P H I C
-
.

1 . Co mmo n Li mest o ne
A compact rock of grayish and .

othe r dull shades of color to black consisting eithe r of ,

calcite or dolomite but O ften impure from the presence of

,

clayey or earthy material It breaks with little or n o .

luster I f containing fossils it is called fossilife rous lime

.
,

stone if the fossils are C orals coral limestone if remains ,

of Crinoids crinoidal limesto n e When impure and there

, .
,

fore good for making hydraulic lime ( quicklime that will

make a cement which sets under wate r ) it is called h y d ra u ,

lic limestone Chalk is a variety of limestone soft enough

.

t o be used for marking and consisti n g chiefly O f shells of ,

R hiz op ods .

M any varieties of common limestone are polished and

used as marbles ; they have black reddish yellow gray , , , ,

and other colors kinds containing fossil shells are called

S hell marbles .

2 OOli te
. A limestone consisting of concret ions as
.
- -

small as the eggs in the roe of fish or smalle r — whence the ,

’
name from the Greek obo v egg O Oli t i c limestone occurs
, , .

in all the geological formations and is forming in modern ,

seas about the Florida Keys and in other coral reef regio n s -
.

3 S talactite , S t alagmite Tr a ve rtine

.
— Stalactites are a
c , .

cumulations of limestone hanging from the roofs of cave rns ;

and stalagmite is the same m aterial covering the floors ; both
are formed from the calcareous waters that come through
the roof and are sometim es called dripstone A similar
, .

deposit from streams or ponds is called travertine ; It is

sometimes used for a building stone .

4 Mar l
. Clay containing much calcium carbonate and
.
,

hence used as a fertilize r The term is used popularly for .

any rock material that can be so used Shell marl consists .

largely of shells Greensand marl is sand consisting largely

.

of g rains of a green silicate of iron and potash called

glauconite .
 R O C K MA S S E S , OR T E R R ANES . 41

2 . M E TA M O R P H I C .

Cry st al li ne Li me sto ne ;
Arch ite ct ur al and S tatu ary Mar
l
b e.
— Limesto n e having a crystalline te x ture and couse , ,

quently glistening on a surface O f fracture A pure white

, .
,

kind of fine grain is used for statuary and bo t h this

, , ,

and coarse r varieties for marble buildings Many of the .

clouded marbles are here incl u de d .

II . R O C K M A S S E S , O R T E R RA NE S .

The rocks above described are the material O f which the

great roc k masses or terranes of the globe consist These
, , .

rock masses are either strati fi ed or u n s t rat i fi e d .

Th e S trati fi e d Co n diti o n Stratified rocks are those .

w hic h lie in beds or strata The word s tr a t u m ( the .

singular of s tr a ta ) is from the Latin and signifies that ,

which is spread out .

III geology a strat u m includes all the beds of one kind

,

of rock ( as of li m estone or O f sandstone or of any other , ,

kind ) that lie in one continu ous series .

The earth s rocky strata are S pread out in beds of vast

’

extent many of them thousands of square miles in area

,

and thousands O f feet in thickness .

The stratified rocks exposed to view over the earth fa r

exceed in area the u n s t rat i fi e d They are the rocks O f .

nearly the whole of the U nited States and of almost all

of N orth America and not less of the other continents
,
.

Throughout central and western Ne w York and the states ,

south and west the rocks where ver exposed are seen to
, , ,

be made up of a series of beds And if the rocks are less .

,

dis tinctly stratified over m ost of N e w E ngland i t is in , ,

general only because the structure has been partly obscured

,

by the upturning and crystallization they have undergone

since they were formed .

Fi g 1 3 represents a section of the rocks alo n g the

.

river below Niagara Falls It gi ves some idea of the

‘

.
 S TR U C TU R A L G EOLO GY .

alternations which occur i n the strata In a total h eight .

O f 25 0 feet ( 1 6 5 feet at the falls at F on the right) , ,

there are on the left six di fferent strata in view and

, , ,

parts O f two others the upper and lower making eight in

, ,

all N umbe r 1 is shale ; 2 sandstone ; 3 shale ; 4 sand

.
, , ,

stone ; 5 shale ; 6 limesto n e ; 7 shale ; 8 limestone

, , , , .

O nly two O f these strata 7 and 8 are in sight at the Falls, ,

( at F ) .The alternations are thus numerous and various in

most regions of stratifie d rocks Along the c a fi o n of the .

Colorado there are in some places more than 8 0 0 0 feet of

,

consecutive stratified beds showing their edges in lofty ,

precipices and in the mountains t owe ring above the adj oin
,

ing plains Fig 1 4 represents one of the scenes along

. .

the ca h on .

F IG 1 3 . .

S ec ti o n l g th
a on e N ia g ara Ri ve r .

It must not be inferred that the earth is covered by a

regular seri es of coats the same in all countries for this
,

is far from the truth M any strata occur in Ne w York

.

that are not found in O hio and the states west and many ,

in sou t hern Ne w York that are not found in the northern

part M oreover a stratum of limestone may change in
.
,

the course of a few miles to one of sandstone or shale .

A layer is one of the subdivisions O f a stratu m A .

stratum may consist of an indefinite number O f layers .

I n many stratified rocks as in most limestones con , ,

glomerates and the coarser sandstones the strata or

, ,

layers are thick and the structure O f the rock is massive

,

( page But argillaceous sandstones and shales g e n

e r a lly split into thin layers showing t hus a laminated or ,

shaly s t ructure S ometimes the rock shows on cross frac

.
 R O CK MASS E S , OR T E R R AN E S .

ture a minutely bande d appearance due to variation in ,

the color or texture of the deposit even though the thin ,

layers may n ot be separable S uch minutely banded

_ .

rocks are said to be straticulate whether the layers are ,

separable or n o t .

FIG 14 .

W all o f C o l o rad o C a no n .

A sy s te m includes all the various kinds of strata that

were formed in one age or era as the Carbonife rous sys ,

tem or that of the C oal The term s er i e s is u sed like

, .

s y s te m but with m ost writers it denotes a less extensive

,

division S u bdivisions of a system or series are called

.

1
g r o u
p s ; a subdivision of a group a s tag e ,
.

1 Th e re i s no f
un i o r mity o f u s age a m o ng geo lo gist s , in regar d t o th e
o rder o f th e t erms d e fi n ed i n t h is p aragraph .
 S TR U C TUR A L G EOLO GY .

The term f o rma ti o n is O ften used instead of sy s te m or

s e r ie s
. B ut it is also employed to designate all t h e rocks
o f a kind making a continuous mass in a region as a ,

limestone formation a co ral formatio n a granite formatio n

, , .

Ori g i n o f S t at
r i fi c i
at o n — The strati fied structure is
.

due to changes at longe r or shorte r intervals in the

, ,

formations in p rogress ove r a region For a long time .

limestones may have been forming Then throug h some .

,

change in the conditi ons — i t may be a change O f level or ,

o f marine currents — sandstones were formed o ver the

,

limestone stratum A fte r anothe r change deposits O f

.
,

mud or clay or pebbles succeeded S uch al t ernations

, , , .

h ave bee n going on in one part or another of the seas over

the continental areas through all geological time , .

Changes also in kinds of species populating t h e seas

, ,

have helped to mark the distinc t ion in successive strata ;

though generally in connection w ith some physical or
geographical change as change of currents or of tem , ,

p e ra t u re in the wate rs or of t h eir puri t y,or of level , ,

increasing or diminishing t h e depth According as such .

c h ange s occur at long or short intervals the beds couse ,

quen t ly produced are of greate r or less thickness .

I n all cases the subdivisions are due to changes O f

,

conditions ; and for the ve ry thin layers of the s t ra t i c u

,

late stru cture those changes m a y be the daily alterna

,

tions or ebb an d flow of the t ides ; or the changes of

velocity i n the blas ts of wind ove r a region O f sand ; or
the successive throws of the breakers ove r a beach ; or
simply wavelike vibrations in any body of water For a .

wave h as its time of maximum and minimum m ovement ,

and ther efore its times O f unequal force i n the process of

depositio n and wate rs O f breakers d escending a beach
,

have their time of action succeeded by a time of rest .

I n v olcanic work also there are alte rnatio n s O u t

, ,
.

flo w s O f lava are separated from one another by intervals

of rest or by times when only steam other gases and
,
'
, ,

v o lcan i c as h e s are ej ected .

 R O CK M A S S ES , OR T E R R A NE S .

Th u s strata beds layers from the coarsest stratification

, , ,

to the finest straticulation have one general cause ; a n d

,

bedding is absen t from deposits only when alternations

did n ot occur during the deposition or whe n the mate ,

rials as those o f many conglomerates are too coarse to

, ,

admit of the finer bedding .

U sn t ra t i fi e d Co n d iti o n — Un s t ra t i fi e d rocks are those

.

w h ich d o n o t lie i n beds or strata M ountain masse s O f .

granite are usually without any appearance of s t rat i fi c a

tion The rock of the P alisades on the H udson stands
.
, ,

up with a bold columnar front and has n o divisio n into ,

layers M ost volcanic formations exhibit a sort of strati

.

fi c a t i o n due to the alternations mentioned above ; though

,

the name s tr a tifi ca t io n is not usually applied technically

to volcanic rocks B ut in some volca n ic regions the rocks
.

rise into lof t y summits without stratification Veins .

( page dikes ( page and other S pecial modes of

occurrence of u n s t rat ifi e d rock will be described hereafter .

R e lati o n o f S trati fi e d an d Un s t rat i fi e d R o ck s i n t h e

E art h s Cru s t — The relations O f the stratified a n d u n
’

’
s t ra t i fi e d rocks in the ear t h s crust will be understood
af t er conside ring t h e origin of the crust .

The u n s t ra t i fi e d rocks which o n ce formed the surface of

the globe were made by the solidification of the m olten mass .

Afte r the solidifying of the sphere at surface the ocean ,

commence d at once to make fragmental stratifie d rocks

o ver the exterior t hrough t h e wear of those primitive
u n s t ra t i fi e d rocks and the stratifying of the sand or mud
,

thus made The ocean thus worked over and covered up

.

with strata nearly all if not all the original u n s t ra t i fi e d

, ,

crystalline rocks H ence the areas O f the u n s t ra t i fi e d

.

ro c k s that were made i n the firs t solidification of the

globe are of very small extent over the continents if
, ,

visible anywhere .

Ge ology has for its study chiefly stratified rocks

, ,
.

Much the larger part of all the facts i n geological history

are derived from rocks of this kind and therefore the ,
 S TR U C TU R A L G EOLO GY .

various deta i ls with regard to their structure and arrange

ment are of the highest importance .

Co ncret i o n s R ocks O fte n contain and sometimes con

.
,

F IG 1 5 .
sist.
of small spheres or disks of mineral
,

matte r which are called concretions C on , .

c re t i o n s result from a tende ncy in matter to

concrete or solidify around cente rs S ome are .

no larger than grains of sand or the eggs in ,

the roe of fish as in o Oli t i c limestone ( page ,

A ph i l
S e r ca O thers are as large as peas or bullets
c o n cr e ,
mm ’

and others a foot or more in di ameter .

Fig 1 5 repre sents a spherical concretion Fig 1 6 a

. .
,

rock made up O f rounded concretions having a con ce ntric ,

F IG . 16 . F IG . 17 .

C o ncre ti o n s wi t h c o nce n tri c s tr u tuc re . Dis k h

-
S a pe d c o n c re ti o n s .

structure ; Fi g 1 7 one with flattened or disk shaped

.
,
-

con cretions .

Concretion s are made by the d eposit of calcium car

bonate or some oth er mate rial held in
F IG 1 8
solutio n or suspension by waters per
. .

c o la t i n
g through the rock They are .

usually spherical in massive sandstones ,

because solutio n s in such rocks spread

e qually in all directions ; but lenticular
in laminated rocks a n d flattened disks ,

in argillaceous rocks or s h ales because St t

,
ra a c o n“

in these rocks waters spread laterally

m ore easily th an vertically All these kinds are sho wn .

i n Fig 1 8 . .
 R OCK M ASS E S , O R TE RR ANE S .

The ball s are sometimes hollow and the disks mere ,

rings Frequ ently t h e concretions have a shell or other

.

organic O bj ect at c e nte r ( Fi g They are oft en cracked .

through the interior ( Fig 20 ) from drying ( some soft .

clayey muds contracting to a tenth O f their bulk) ; the

outside in such a case solidified while the inside was still
F IG . 19 . F IG . 20 . F IG . 21 .

C o ncre ti o n W i t h a fo s sil C o n c re t i o n w i t h G eo d e
h kg k
.

a t It s c e n t e r . S ri n a e c ra c s .

m oist The cracks may afterward become filled with other

.

min erals S ometimes they co n tain a loose ball within

.

a concretion within a concretion A cavity li n ed with .

crystals ( Fig 21 ) is called a geode ; but the hollow balls

.

so lined wi t hin are not generally concretions .

Jo i ts
n — . The rocks of a region are often divided very
regularly by numerous planes of fracture the most of them ,

F IG . 22
.

J o i n te d s tr u tu
c re , s h o re O f Ca yug a La k e .

parallel to one another and cutting thro u gh the strata , ,

perpendicularly or at various angles to great d epths

, , ,

but with the walls of the fissures generally in contact or

but slightly separated S uch deep unopened fractures .

may characterize the rocks over areas hundre d s of miles

in extent They are called j oints a n d a rock thus divided
.

is said to present a j ointed structure In many cases t here .

 S TR U C TU R A L G EOLO G Y .

a re two syste m s of j oints or d ivisional planes in the sam e

region crossing one another ; and the undermining of a
,

bluff O f j ointed beds and tumbling do w n Of masses lead

to t h e production O f forms like those of fortifications or
broken walls as show n in Fig 2 2 representi n g a view
, .
,

on the shores of C ayuga Lake The directions of such .

j oints are facts which the geologist notes down with care .

S lat y Cle av ag e — The peculiar structure of S lates and

.

allied rocks ( cleavage ) has been refe rred to on page 31 ;

and it has been s tated that the planes of cleavage are
usually not parallel to the beddi n g ; that is they c ross the ,

layers of stratificat ion more or less obliquely instead of ,

conforming to the layers of bedding like the divisional

planes i n the shaly structure Slaty cleavage is in this .

respect like t h e j ointed structure ; but it has the divisional

planes so numerous that the rock divides into slates i n
F IG . 23 . FIG 24 .

S l ty l
a c e ava e g .

stead of blocks ; and the two di ffe r in mo d e of origin .

Slaty cleavage is confined to fi n e grained rocks In Fi g -

. .

2 3 the li n es of bed d ing or stratification are shown at a b

, , ,

c d while the transverse lines correspond to the d ire ction

, ,

O f the cleavage The same is shown in Fi g 24 with the

. .
,

addition of a slight irregularity in the slates along the

j unction of two layers .

P OS ITIONS OF S TR ATA .

1 . Ho ri z o n ta l P o si t io n
Ori g in al P o siti o n of S trata .
— .

O rdinary stratified rocks were once beds of sand or earth ,

or of other rock material S pread out by the currents and ,

waves of the ocean or the waters O f lakes or rivers or

, ,

by the winds .
 R O C K MASS E S , O R T RR E AN E S .

. When the large r portion of the beds ove r th e North

American continent we re formed the contine nt lay to a ,

great exte nt beneath the ocean as the bottom of a great , ,

though mostly S hallow continental sea Th e pri n cipal

, .

mountai n chains — the R ocky M ountains and the Appa

lac h i a n s — had n ot been made and the surface of the ,

submerged land was nearly flat That those beds were .

really marine is proved by their containing i n most cases

, , ,

marine shells crinoids o r c orals the relics of marine life ;

, , ,

and that the continental seas had great extent is proved ,

by the fact that the beds cove r surfaces tens O f thousands

of square miles i n area some of them reaching from the
,

Atlantic borde r westward beyond the Mississippi In .

those large continental seas the deposits made by means ,

of t h e currents and waves were nearly or qu ite horizontal .

Wherever they reache d the surface like the sand flats O ff ,

m any modern seas h ores the sweep of the waters ove r ,

them during the incoming tide would tend to plane off and
keep level the uppe r surface of t h e beds whether a c c u mu ,

la t i o n s of sand or earth o r of shells or corals I f the bottom

, .

over the region were ve ry slowly S inking the accumulations ,

m i ght go on thickening and the beds continue to have ,

the same level or horizontal position Strata forme d along .

the borders of ri vers a n d lakes are nearly horizontal and ,

so are those on the borders of the ocean ; and for a like

reason that the wate r works with reference to its surface
, ,

wh ic h is horizontal M oreover the bottom of the border

.
,

of the Atlantic south of Lo n g Island for 8 0 mile s from

,
, ,

the coast line ( see Fig 3 page deepens only 1 foot for
.
,

every 6 0 0 to 7 0 0 ; and if the area were above the ocean

, ,

no eye would detect that it was not a perfect le vel .

The view of the rocky wall of the C olorado C a ii o n on ,

page 4 3 illustrates well the approximate horizontality of

,

the original bedding and sho w s that it was continued

,

through m any long period s for the series of rocks more ,

than 5 0 0 0 fee t thick represe nts a long succe s sion of geo

,

lo gical fo rma t ion s .

50 C
S TR U TU R AL G EOLO GY .

S ome beds were originally vast marshes like the m arshes ,

of the prese nt day only larger Such was the c ondition

,
.

of the beds that are now coal in the C oal formation .

Many coal beds contain stumps of trees rising out of the

coal ( Fi g . and they always stand pe rpendicularly
to the bed however much the latte r may be displaced
, ,

showing that the bed was horizontal when it was formed ,

or when the trees we re growi n g .

E x ep i
c t o n s t o a H o r i z o n t a l P o s i t i o n — Whe n a river
empties into a lake or sea the bottom of which near its , ,

F IG 25 . m o n t h is m ore o r less inclined the

.
, ,

deposits of detritus made by the river

will for a while conform to the slope
of the bottom as in Fig 26 Whe n , . .

a river falls do w n a precipice it makes ,

a steep bank of earth at the foot whose ,

C Ib d W i ‘h f
Oa e S “t m P layers if any are made have the slope
°SS S u S
, ,

of the bank In beach made deposits the layers have the

.
-

slope of the beach ( page B ut these and similar cases

of exce ptions to a horizontal position are O f small extent .

2 Dis lo cati o ns o f S trat a — M ost of the strata O f the

. .

globe have lost their original horizontal position so as

to be more or F 26 IG . .

less inclined ; and

some are even ver
tical They are
.

occasionally bent
I li d t t d p t d
nc t p l p ne s ra a e o sI e o n a s ee s o e
or folde d as a
.

quire of paper might b e folded only the folds are miles , ,

or scores O f miles in sweep , .

They have O ften also been fractured and the separated ,

parts have been pushed or else have fallen out of their , ,

former connections so that the portion of a stratum on

,

one side of a fracture is often inches feet or e ven m iles , , ,

above that on the other side .

The maximum thickness of stratified rocks is sai d

to be o ver 25 miles , though only a part o f this thick “
 R O C K MA S S E S , OR T E R R AN E S .

nes s e x i sts in any one region ( pages 4 2 If the strata ,

were all in their original horizontal position it is evident ,

that no such thickn ess of strata could be within the re ach

of observation The ma x i m um thickness of strata o b
.

ser vable under such conditions would be limite d by the

height of cli ffs formed by erosion or by the depth O f arti ,

fi ci al borings But the u p.

F IG 27 . .

’
turning which the earth s
crust has undergone has
brought the edge s of strata
to the surface and there is ,

hence no such limit : how

ever deep st ratified beds
may e xtend there is no , O t mp u c ,

reason why the whole

should not be brought up so as to b e exposed to view in
’
some parts of the earth s surface .

The following are explanations O f the terms used in

describing the positions O f strata :
Outcr op — The portions or ledges O f strata projecti n g
.

out of the ground or in v iew at the surface ( Fig

,
.

D ip — The slope O f incline d or tilted strata

. In .

Figs 2 7 28 dp is the direction of the dip B oth the

.
, ,
.

angle of slope
the a n gle between
the plane of s t rat i fi
cation and a horizon
tal plane ) and the ,

direction with refer

ence to poin t s of com
pass are noted by the ,

S tiec h w i g t u d f l d ip
o ns S o n
geologist
r e an
: thus it may
a se s .
,

be said of beds the ,

dip is 5 0 to the south or 5 to the northwest etc

°
,
°
,
.

When only the edges of layers are exposed to view it ,

is not safe to take the slope of the edges as th e slope of

'

the layers for, in Fi g 2 8 the ed ges on the faces 1 2 3 4

.
, , , ,
 S TR U C T UR A L G EOLO GY .

are all edges of the same beds and only those of the face ,

1 would give the right dip .

The dip is measured by means of instruments called

clinomete rs I n Fig 2 9 a bcd represents a square block
. .
,

of wo od having a graduated arc be and a plummet hung

, ,

below a P lace d on the mping surface A B the position of

.
,

the plummet gives the angle of dip This kind of cli n o m .

eter is O ften made in the form of a watch and combined ,

with a compass It is m ost convenien t fo r use when it

.

has a s q uare base O n e like that figured is easily made

.

m 29 e
out
.
O f .
a piece of
board ; it may be 3
to 4 inches on a side ,

and about half an .

inch thick T o avoi d .

errors from the u n

evenness o f a rock a ,

M u m t f l ip by l m t
e as re en o c
board may be laid
c i no e e r.
,

down fi rst and the ,

measurement be made on its surface B ut if the i n s t ru .

,

ment has a square base it is O ften best to measure the dip ,

by holding it between t h e e y e an d the rock with one ,

edge of the base in the directi on of the dipping layers .

S tri k e . Th e horiz ontal direction at right angles with

‘

the dip I n Fig 2 7 the d otte d li n e s t represents the

. .
,

direction of the strike It is measured by means of a .

small compass which usually forms part of the clinomete r

,
.

S u ch a compass may be set in a clinometer made like the

one sho w n in Fig 2 9 It need n ot be central in the
. .

square but S hould have the meridian line parallel to one

,

of the four sides If the edges o f t h e layers in view over

.

a ledge are in any part quite horizontal the d irectio n of ,

those edges will give the true strike b u t if they are at ,

all inclined the direction of a horizontal line must be de

,

t e r m i n e d o n t h e surface of one of the layers The cli .

n o me t e r may be used also for measuring the dip of rocks

that are rods distant and the slopes o f distant m ountains

,
 R O C K MASS E S , OR T E RR AN E S .

F a u lts — the making O f faults ( a a 66 Fig

In
'

.
, , .

there is a frac turing and a shoving up or down o f the ,

beds on one si d e of the frac ture ; Fm 30 . ,

that is a downthrow on one side

,

or an upthro w on the othe r The .

amount O f displace m e nt is the

amount of faul t ; it may be a
foot or less or feet or
,

more The friction atte n ding

.

the movement may cause a bend F ul t a ?»

ing of the layers in contact as alo n g the line 66 in Fig 30 , , . .

The deepest fractures and faults have been produce d in

connection with the making of mountains .

Fo ld s or F lex a r e s Folds or fle x u re s in strata are rep

/
.

resente d i n Fig 3 1 A B ; and in the natural se ctions

.
, ,

F IG . 31 .

l
An tic i ne s a nd S y li
nc ne s .

Figs 20 6 20 9 pages 21 2 2 1 3 from the Appalachian M oun

.
-
, , ,

tains a region of numerous fle x u re s on a grand scale as

, ,

well as of many faults ; some fle x u re s having a span of

several miles and others of only a few feet or inches
, .

In Fig 3 1 A a x represents the axial plane of the fold

.
, , ,

and the intersection of the surface of the strata by that

plane is the axis of t h e fold
F IG 32
.

The fle x u re very often has one

. .

side steeper than the othe r as illus ,

t rat e d above In some regions the .

,

O tu d f ld
ve r
push
r ne
by which
o
i t
s.
was made was
continued until the strata became
vertical and further still until the top was pressed over
, ,

beyond the vertical and fold of this kind followed fold as

, ,

illu strated in Fi g 32 In more extreme cases the push

. .
,
 S TR UCTUR AL G E O LOG Y .

was continued until there was produced a complete inve r

sion of the beds as is represented in Fig 33 a section
,
.
,

of the D ent de M orcles near M artigny in Switzer ,

land by G o lli e z
, The length of the section is about
.

fi ve m iles ; and the horizontal and the vertical scale of ,

the figure are equal The horizontal line at the base of

.

the figure represents the level of the sea The stratum 9 .

,

which before the folding was the uppermost stratum is ,

folded back on itself ; and 8 7 and 6 which were origi , , ,

nally underlying strata now overlie it upside down It, , .

is seen that the strata 6 and 7 are present only in the

overturned part of the fold ; these beds m ust have ex
F IG . 33 .

NW
. . S E
. .

l h k b
S ecti o n o f th e D e n t d e M o r c e s — l , M e tamo rp i c r o c s ; 2, Car o ni fe ro s ; 3 , T ri as s i c ;
. u
4 , L o w er Jur a s s i c ( Li as a n d D o gg
er) 5 , Upp e r Ju l
ra s s i c ( M a m ) ; 6 , Lo w e r C r e t ace o s u
u u ul
(N e o c o mia n) ; 7 , Upp er C r e tac e o s ; 8 , L o w er E o ce n e (N mm i ti c ) ; 9 , Upp e r E o ce ne .

tended n orthwest w ard between 5 and 8 but they have ,

been pinched out in the lower limb of the fold by the tre
mendons pressure to which the rocks have been subj ected .

At the extreme left of the figure stratum 6 is seen in its ,

normal position overlying 5 .

Flexures often have fractures somewhere along the

bend and the fractures are often lines of fault .

A n t i cli n e — A n u pward arching of the strata which

.
,

mp e away from the axial plane in opposite directions ,

as the layers either side of a re in Fi g 31 A : the axis is .

,

here called an anticlinal axis The word a n ti clin e is .

 R O C K MASS E S , OR T E R R AN E S .

from the Greek dw t in opposite directions and xAivco to , , ,

incline .

S y n cli n e A downward bend the strata sloping toward

.
,

the axial plane I n Fig 31 B the axes correspondi n g

. .
, ,

’ ’
to a x a x are anticlinal axes that corresponding to a x
, , , ,

between the others a synclinal axis The word sy n cli n e , .

is from the Greek togeth er and x Ai vw , .

M o n o cli n e — A form O f fle x u r e in which the strata slope

.

in only one direction as whe n a series of strata is elevated ,

( relatively ) in one area and depressed in an adj acent area

without fracture S uch monoclinal fle x u r e s pass by fine
.

gradations into faults A series O f strata having an .

appare ntly monocli n al attitude may be only a part of

'

an anticline or syncline of which the other side is con

c e ale d The word mo n o clin e is from the Greek no vo q
.
’

one and E xtr a)

, .

G e a n ti cli n e G e o sy n cli n e — B endings of the earth s crust

’
.
, ,

n t i c li n e an upward bend and n c lin e a downward

g e a g e o sy ,

bend T h ese words are from the Greek yi} earth and the
.
f
, ,

words a n ti cli n e and sy n cli n e .

In ordinary synclines and anticlines the fle x u re s involve ,

a varying thickness O f strata th e arches have a span of ,

a few miles at most and the height of the arches bears ,

generally a large ratio to the width In geanticlines and .

geosynclines the earth s crust is a ffecte d to a much

,
’

greater depth ( exte nding m u ch below the stratified por

tion or supercrust ) t h e arche s ha ve a span of scores or
, ,

hundreds of miles and the height of the arches is very ,

small in comparison with their width Within the limits .

of a single geanticline or geosyncline there may be a ,

number O f alternating anticlines and synclines .

The subj ec t of fle x u r e s and faults is best studied by

making models out O f sheets of moist clay ( or better of
paraffi n containing a little beeswax ) u sing lampblack ,

and red and yellow ocher for coloring the di fferent beds ,

and t h en making cross se ctions .

Efi e cts of De n u d a ti o n o n; E lect ed o r Up tu r n e d R o cks ;

 S TR U C TU R A L G EOLO GY .

D e cap i ta te d Fo lds If the top of the fold in Fig 34 wer e

. .

cut o ff at a b there would remain the part represen t ed in

,

Fig 35 , in which there Is no appearance of any fold and

.
,

mg , 34 ,
only a uniform series of dips ;
Fm 35, ,

and although appear to ,

be the lower strata of the se ries .

they are actually parts of l 2 , ,

3 A long series of such folds .

d
'

S h wmg ff t f d
e c ti o n s s o p i t ted p r e
ec
s so
e t o
g e t h e r
e ca
and t h e
a e
n d e c a
f) ,

f ld o
i t a t e d wo u ld make a series of uni
s'
,

form dips ( an apparently m onoclinal structure) ove r a wide

extent of country ( see Fi g .

The true succession has been further obscured by the

rem oval of the beds ove r great areas and the fil ling up of
intermediate depressions by soil ; so that the rocks are
visi ble only at long intervals ( as in Fi g Many of the .

di fficulties in the study of rocks arise from this cause .

F IG 8 6 . .

S e c ti o n s h o w in g di s c o n ti n u ity o f o ut cro ps .

Un co nf o rma ble S tr a ta
When strata have b een ele .
—

va t e d ( usuall y with more or less tilting or folding ) ,

after more or less erosion h ave bee n again depr ,

below the water level and subsequently hor i zontal beds , , ,

have been laid down over them the two sets are said 1to ,

be unconforma ble Thus in Fig 3 7 the be ds ef are un.

, .
,
»

conformable bot h with the tilted beds cd and with the b

folded beds a b so also the tilted beds cd are u n c o m f o rm
able wi t h those beneath .

It is plain that the folded rocks a t are the O ldest and ,

that the folding took place before the overlying beds were
deposited Again it is evide nt that the beds c d are Older
.
,

t h an the beds ef and also that they were t ilted and faulted
,

before the latte r were formed S up posing the upper most .

of the folded rocks a b we re of Carboniferous age and the ,

tilted be d s c d were Triassic the ge o lo gist wo uld conclude ,

 R O C K MASS E S , OR T E R R ANES .

that the upturning and folding of the earlie r rocks occurred

afte r the deposit of the Car boniferous strata and before
that of the Triassic .In like manner if the horizontal ,

stra t a ef were C retaceous the time of the til t ing a n d

,

fault n of the beds c d would be shown to be between

t h e Triassic and the C retaceous .

The special S ignificance o f u n e o n fo r m ab ili t y i n the inter

p r e t a t i o n of the geological record i s that i t always marks ,

a n inte rval of time during whic h ( in the region in ques

tion ) no rocks were formed The two sets of strata may

.

F IG . 37 .

U n c o n fo rm a bl e s t rata .

be richly fossiliferous and so bear testimony in regard to

,

the history of life i n their respective periods B ut for the .

,

i n ter val long or short in which the olde r series of strata

, ,

was ab ove the wate r level a n d w a s undergoing e rosion

, ,

there is at least locally a gap in the record

, ,
.

Over la p is the name given to the condition which exists

when the sea afte r depositing a series of s t rata has S pread
, ,

m ore widely over t h e lan d and has d eposited anothe r ,

series of beds with these new limits These changes o f .

sea le vel were going forward durin g the progress of mos t

formations an d conse q uently overlap should be common
, , , ,

tho u gh not always easil y distinguished .

THE ANIMAL AND V E G E TABLE KING DOMS .

S I NC E life has bee n an important agent dynamically in , ,

Geology and its history constitutes a chief part of the

,

historical branch of the science some knowledge of the ,

various kinds of animals and plants is of the highest i m

portance to the student A brief review of the c las s ifi c a
.

tion of the animal and vegetable kingdoms and of the ,

distri but ion of life over the globe is here introduced , .

C L A S S I FI C A T I O N .

Disti ncti o n s betw e en an An i mal and typical a Plant .

— A
animal ( 1 ) is sustaine d by nutriment taken into its inte
rior for digestion and assimilation 2
( ) It is capable . of
perceiving the existence of other obj ects through one or ,

m ore senses ( )
.3 It has ( except in some of the lower
species ) a head in which are the principal nerve centers
,

controlli n g voluntary motion and the m outh ( 4 ) It is

, .

fundamentally a fore and aft structure the he ad being

- -
,

the anterior extremity ; and it is typically forward

m oving . 5
( ) With its growth from the germ there is ,

an increase in mechanical power until the adult size is

reached . 6
( ) In the process of respiration it uses oxy ,

gen and gives out carbonic acid ( 7 ) It finds nutriment .

only in organic materials or tissues of plants or animals ;

,

never in mineral m aterial .

A plant ( 1 ) is s u stained by nutriment taken into the

tissues by absorption at the surface 2
( ) It is incapable .

of perception having no senses

,
3
( ) It has .no h e a d n o ,

68
 C L ASS I F I C A TI O N .

power O f voluntary motion no m o u th 4

( ) It is funda ,
.

mentally an u p and down structure an d with fe w e x c e p

- -
, ,

tions fixed
, 5
( ) In its
. growth from the germ or seed ,

there is no increase of me chanical power ( 6 ) I n the .

process of nutrition ordinary plants use carbonic acid

, ,

and give out oxygen with only an extremely small amount

proportionally of carbonic acid The Fungi and some .
,

other plants that are not green are an exception using , ,

oxygen and giving out much carbonic acid

, 7
( ) A plant .

finds nutriment in mineral material from which it makes ,

organic tissues .

T h e Ani ma l Ki ng d o m .

The nature of an animal requires for a full e x hibition ,

O f its powers the follo w ing parts

,

1 A stomach and its appendages to turn the food into

.
,

blood with an arrangeme nt for carrying o ff refuse mate

,

rial
.

2 A system O f vessels for carrying this blood thro u gh

.

out the body s o as to promote growth and a renewal of

,

the structure .

.3 A heart or forcing pump to send the blood through

, ,

the vessels .

4
. A means of respiration or of taking oxygen into ,

the system ( as by lungs or gills ) since the energy of the ,

body is derived from the combination of oxygen with the

elements contained in the food .

5 Muscles or contractile fibers to put the parts or

.
, ,

me mbers in motion by their contraction .

6
. A brain or head m ass of nervous matter to serve
, ,

as a seat of sensation and volition and a system of nerves ,

to convey sensory impressions to the brain and motor

impulses to the muscles .

I n the lo w est forms of animal life as some microscopic ,

P rotozoans the stomach is not a permanent cavity but

, ,

is formed in the mass of the tissue whenever and wherever

a p article of food comes in contact with the body In .
60 T HE AN I M A L AND V E G ETAB LE K IN G D O M S .

other words a stomach is extemporized as it is needed

, .

A nimals of a little higher grade as Anthozoans have a ,

mouth an d a stomach muscles an imperfect nervous sys , ,

tem and a means of respiration through the general

,

surface of the b ody ; but there is no heart and the animal ,

is ordinarily fi xe d to a support .

The subkingdoms or primary divisions of the animal ,

kingdom most commonly recogn i zed at present by z o Olo

,

gists are the following :

,

1 P R O T O Z O AN S ; 2 S P O N G E S
,
3 C mLE N TE R A TE S ; 4
, , ,

E C HI N O D E R M S 5 M OLL U S C O I D S 6 M OLL U S KS 7 V E R
, , ,

M E S or W O R M S ; 8 A R T HR O P O D S ; 9 T U N I CA TE S ; 1 0
, , , ,

1
V E R TE B R A T E S .

l PROTOZ OA NS .

The name P ro to zo a n s is derived from Greek 7 rp63ro s '

,

first and , animal and accordingly signifies the ,

S implest and lowest of animals According to the m od .

ern doctrine of e vol u tion some representatives of this ,

group must have been the first of animals in time and ,

the a n cestors of all m ore complex forms The P rotozoans .

are characterize d by their extreme simplicity the m inute ,

body consisting strictly of a single cell The P rotozoans .

that form communities by continuous budding or fission ,

and thus come to form masses of some size constitute ,

only an apparent e x ception to the above statement .

1 Th is i s p ro vis i o n ally a d o p te d as a m att er O f co n ve n i e nce ,

class i fi ca t i o n

l
s in c e i t i s b e ie ve d t o b e u s e d m o re ge n e rally t h a n a ny o t h e r i n r e ce n t

m a nu als o f z o o lo gy , th o u gh i t d o e s n o t p r e c i s e ly e x p res s th e vi e ws o f t h e
e d ito r In f o rm e r e d i t io n s o f t h i s w o rk , t h e S p o n ge s w e re i n clu d e d
.

am o n g t h e P
r o t o z o a n s ; t h e C oele n t e ra t e s a n d E c h i n o d er m s w e re u n i t e d

un der th e n a me R ad i at es ; t h e M o llu s c o i d s , M o llu s k s , a n d T u n i c a t e s

w e re u n i te d u n d e r th e n a m e M o llu s k s ; an d t h e V e rm e s a n d A rt h r o p o d s

w e re u n i te d u n d e r th e n a me A
rt i c u lat e s In t h e la t e s t e d it i o n o f t h e
.

M a nu a l , t h e C oe l e n t e rat e s a n d E c h i n o d e rms a re u n i t e d u n d e r th e n a me
R a d ia t e s ; t h e M o ll u s c o i d s M o llu s k s , a n d ( d o u b t f u ll y ) a p a rt o f th e
,

V e r me s are u n i te d u n d e r th e n ame No n A rt i cu la te s ; an d t h e re ma i nd er
-

Of t h e V e rm e s a n d t h e A rt h ro p o d s ar e u n i t e d u n d e r t h e n a me A r ti c u

lates .
 C L A S S IFI CA TI O N .

There is in these creatures nothing like the development

of the higher animals in which the egg ( originally a ,

F IG S 38 5 1 .
- .

FO R A M IN IFE R s z Fig 38 , Or
. bul i na u ni ve r sa ; 39 , G o i e ri n a r l bg ub ra ; 4 0 , Te x t ulari a o gl bu
l ; 4 1 R t l i gl bul ; 4 1 i d
o sa , e a a o o sa l a, s e vi e w O f R o ta i a B o u c a n a : 42, G ra mm o s t o m u m

p hyll d o; 43
es F d
, l i
a, ul i 44 T il li J h
ro n i c u a r a a nn d ar s , r o cu na o s e p i na ; 45 , N o o sa ri a v u l

g i ; 4 6 Li t u l
ar s , til id ; 47
o a na u F l b lli
o g O ; 4 8 C h y lid i
es , a g dt
,
a e na r u sa ,
r sa na ra a a ; 49 , a,

C u neoli p na i ; 50 N m m h t
avo n a u m mul i ; 5 1 b F lm yli d i
,
u u es n ar a a , , ns u a c n r ca .

single cell like a P rotozoan ) comes to be divided into

,

numerous cells of which the various tissues of the body

,

F IG . 52 .

FO RA M IN I F E R G l b ig
o e ri n a b u llo id e s .

are formed S ome of these m inute creatures form cal

.

c a re o u s or S iliceous skeletons and are therefore capable ,

of preservation as fossils .
 T HE A N I MA L A N D V E G E T A B LE K IN GD OM S .

Of the classes of P rotozoans only one is of any impor ,

tance in Geology — the R hi z op o d s , .

R h i zo p o d s The name is derived from the Greek

.
-

Fm 53 . _p i ga root and foot ’

and , re , ,

fers to the power which the ani

mal possesses of protruding the
j elly like protoplasm of which the -

body is composed into temporary ,

processes O ften slender and branch ,

ing like little roots These tem .

p o r ar
y extensions of the body ,

called pseudopods ( Greek J / e vdr c

j «
,

false and 7 7 0 159 foot ) envelop ,

-
, ,

F O R A I N I F E R R t l i w i th p
M : o a
p d ItI
a, Cl C S O f f OO d
se u and ‘

S C I
‘

V C RS ,
’

extemp oraneou s stomachs for its

digestion The power of e x tending the protoplasm of
.

the body in various directions enables the creature to

move with a sort of flowing movement .

T w o groups of R hizopods are e specially important in

Geology the Fo ra mi n if er s an d
-
,
F IG 54
the R a di o la r i a n s The Fo ra mi n i
. .

f e rs
( L atin f o r a m e n in allusion ,

to the minute pores in the shell

through which the pseudopods
are protruded ) have generally
calcare ous shells A number of .

the shells are represented in

Figs 38 5 1
.
— Figs 5 0 5 1 are
. .
,

of natural size and a few Fora ,

m in i f e r s have S hells e ven larger

R A DIOL A R I A N X i ph th x 50 : aca n a, .

than these The others are mag

.

n ifi e d m ost of the shells being no larger t h an grains of

,

sand Fig 5 2 represents ( much enl arged) the comm on

. .

species of G lo big e r i n a which lives at the surface of the ,

ocean over wide areas and whose dead shells accumulate ,

in the ooze at the bottom As shown in the figure the .

,

S hell when alive or u n broke n is covered wi t h radiati ng

, ,
 C L ASS I F I C A TI O N .

spines Fig 5 3 represents another livi n g species ( also

. .

much enlarged) sh o w i n g the pseudopods extended

, .

The R a di o la r i a n s ( Latin r a di u s in allusion to the ,

F IG S 55 57 .
radiated -
arrangement
.

of the pseudopods ) are

somewhat more highly
organized than the For
a m i n i fe r s the proto ,

plasm of their bodies

S howing m ore indica
R Fig 55 Ly h
A D IO LA R IA s i m ; 56 E
.
,t II of di fferen t iation
c n o ca n u , u

y ti d i m c; 5r7 H h ly
u p t a ca ra
into parts The y have
,
.

siliceous skeletons which are often exquisitely beautiful , .

Some of them are rep

F IG S 5 8 7 2 —

resented considerably
. .

magnified i n Figs ,
.

5 4— 5 7 .

2 . S PONGE S .

Th e Sponges S how
a higher grade of o r
g a n i z at i o n than the
P rotozoans S ince ,

they produce true

eggs which di
,

vide into numero u s

cells in the process of
d evelopment They .

attain however n o
, ,

such degree of di ffer

e n t i a t i o n of tissues and
S O N GE S F g 58 6 1 G di P ll d g ; P IC U LE S Z i s .
-
, eo a or a ie e n e ra

62 g l b t ll t p ul l t d t G di ; 63 S t l ,
o o s e a e s ic e , re a e o eo a ,
e

organs as is S hown in l t t ; 64 C t ll ; 65 66 T t ti ll id pi ul ; e a ,
ar e r e a , ,
e rac ne s c es

6 7 V t i ul it ; 6 8 R g di i ul t ; 69 Ti i en r c es a a n a a nn a a s
the higher animals p h i ; 7 0 t h m ; 7 1 R d.
i l ; 7 2 Pli t
,

h
on a ,
e sa
,

e ,
aco scu a ,
,

n o

The gelatinous body ll q u m F g 6 2 65 66 x 1 0 ; 6 8 x 6 8 ;

se a s a o sa . i s .
, , , ,

th x 34 Hi d o ers , . n e .

of a spo n ge is trav
e rs e d by a system of canals to which the sea water is ,
64 T HE A N IM A L A ND V E G E T A B LE K IN G D O M S .

admitted by numerous minute p ores and from which it ,

is discharge d through a smaller number of larger orifices .

I n most Sponges the gelatinous body is supported by a

network of horny fibers generally associated with minute
,

spicul es of S ilica The sponges used in bathing are the

.

horny S keletons of species which are destitute of siliceous

S picules In some Sponges the skeleton is en t irely com
.

p osed of silice ous spicules and still others have a cal ,

c a r e o u s skeleton The spic u les of Sponges have v arious

.

forms as S hown n Figs

, i 5 8 — 72 . .

3 . CCE LE NTE R ATE S .

The name is derive d fro m

x o ZAo q h ollow and é v r e o v
p , ,
'
'
,

intestine and refers to the fact that in these animals the

,

only cavity is the digestive cavity there being no body ,

cavity or perivisceral cavity such as is found in t h e

, ,

higher animals B y the posse s sion of a distinct mouth

.

and digestive cavity the C oelen terates S how a higher

,

grade than the preceding group s R udiments also of a .

nervous system appear The mouth is generally sur .

rounded by a wreath of radiating tentacles and in most ,

species all the organs are repeated in radial order .

Two of the classes of C oe lenterates are imp ortant in

geology — 1 Hy dr o z o a n s ; 2 A n th o zo a n s
, , , .

1 Hy dro o a
. z ns — The name ( from Greek fifipa hydra and
.
, , ,

animal ) denotes animals resembling the little fresh

water hydra In that little creature ( Fi g 7 3) the body
. .

is little m ore th an a tube with the O pening O f the mouth ,

at one end surrounded by a wreath of tentacles Fig 7 4

, . .

represents a s omewh at similar marine form In many .

cases communities are formed by budding the succes ,

s i v e ly forme d individuals ( zooids ) remaining permane ntly

attac h ed to each other These communities are O ften .

branching and look like delicate seaweeds They are

, .

often inclose d i n a delicate horny investment Two O f .

-

these horny skeletons are S hown in Figs 7 5 7 6 A few .

, .
 C L ASS IFI C A T I O N .

as Millepore ) form a calcareous S keleton or coral O ther

( .

Hydrozoans calle d J e lly fi sh e s or Medus ae have the

, , ,

gelatino u s body disk shaped or hemispherical and swim

-
,

freely with the mouth downward A Medusa is S hown in .

Fi g 7 7
. In m any species M edus ae are produced by bud
. ,

ding from a colony of hydra like z ooids In this case the - .

Medusa produces eggs from which the Hydroid com ,

munity is developed This alternation O f generations is

.

very common among Hydrozoa n s and occ u rs in some ,

other classes of animal s .

F IG S . 7 3- 7 7 .

mm

HYD R O O A N S F g 73 Hyd
Z ! i .
, ra , x 8 ; 74 , S y n c o ry ne ; 7 5 , S e r t u ari a ab i e ti na ; l a, me
sa ,

m g i fi d ; 7 6 S t ul
a n e ,
er a ri a r o s ac e a ; a , s ame , m a n i e g fid
; 7 7 , T i a ro p s i s .

. n
2 A th o o a z ns — The n ame ( from Greek dude s flower
.
, ,

and animal ) refers to the beautiful flo w e r like aspect -

given to many of t h e s e c re a t u r e s by their tentacles which ,

radiate like t h e petals of a fl ower ( Figs 7 8 7 9 and .

, ,

which are often brightly colored Anthozoans are d i s .

t i n g u i s h e d from Hydroz oans by havi n g an involution of

the body wall at the m outh form ing a short esophagus , .

leading into the main cavity or stomach ; and by hav

ing the latter cavity partly d ivided into radiating c h am
bers by partitions extending inward from t h e body wall .

Most of the Anthozoans form communities branching ,

( gF i . incrusting or m assive ( Fig , by buddin g or .

66 THE AN IMA L AND V E G E TAB LE K I N G D OMS .

fission S ome Anthozoans as the Sea Anemone ( Fi g

.
, .

have no hard parts M ost O f them however form corals

.
, ,

by the deposit of calcareous material in some part of the

body wall and in radiating plates ( septa ) extending into
,

the radiating chambe rs These radiating plates cause a .

coral to be marked by stars ( one corresponding to each

zooid in the community) as sho w n in Fig 8 0 which rep , .
,

r esents a piece of fossil coral M ost of the coral animals .

belong to the group of Z o a n th a ri a n s in which the ten ,

taeles and other radiating parts ar e indefinite in number

F IG S . 7 8—8 1 .

A NTHOZ OAs Fig 7 8,. A ti

c nia ; 7 9 , D e n d r o p h y llia ; 80 , Isas trsea bl g
O on a ; 81 , G o r g o nia .

( Figs .7 8 , and usually in multiples o f si x In the .

remarkable fossil group of Cg a th op kg llo i ds the parts were ,

in multiples of four The P recious C oral and th e S ea

.

Fans ( G o rg o n i a n s ) with their peculiar h orny skeletons b e

, ,

long to the A lcg o n i a r i a n s in which the tentacle s ( Fig 8 1 )

, .

are u niformly eight in number and pinnate in f orm .

4 . E CHINODERM S .

The name i s derived from Greek eXi vo c he dgehog an d ’ ‘

, ,

skin and refers to the armor of spines with which

,

many of the S pecies are covered ( Fi g The E ch ino .

derms di ff er from the C oelenterates in having a distinct

body cavity or perivisceral cavity within which the ali
-
, ,
;

mentary canal is contained They S how also a nervous .

 C L A S S IFI C A TI O N .

system much more highly developed consisti n g o f a ,

nervous ring around the mouth and radiating nerves

the passing to the several segments of the body As in the .

C o elenterates the organs of the body in general are

,

radially repeated The number of radial segments is gen

.

e r ally five I n some E chinoderms the radial segments

.
,

are very unequally developed and the ra dial symmetry ,

gives plac e i n large degree to a bilateral symmetry

_
.

Four of the classes of E chinoderms have considerably

developed external S keletons and are important in Geol ,

ogy : — 1 Cri n o i d s ; 2 Op hi u r o i d s ; 3 A s te r i o i ds ; 4 E chi

, , , ,

n o i ds .

F IG S . 8 2— 84 .

un fl afi m
C R IN O IDs z Fig . 8 2, C allo cy s ti te s J ew e ttii ; 83 , P e n t r e m i te s p y ifr mi s ; 84 , E n c ri n
or u s li lii
fo rmi s .

1 . The name is from Greek xp ivo v lily and

Cri no i ds . , ,

many of the species have been commonly called Stone lilies -

.

The species shown in Fig 8 4 is named the L ily E ncrinite . .

Unlike all other E chinoderms they are ( with perhaps a ,

fe w exceptions ) attached at least temporarily by a stem , ,

of greater or less length grow ing out from the pole of

the body opposite the mouth The C rinoids are a class .

almost extinct O n e of the few living species is r e p r e

.

sented in Fig 8 5 T w o of the three orders of the class

. .

( Cystoids and Blastoids ) are e ntirely extinct .

The Og s to i ds have the plates of the shell n o t regularly

radial in arrangement and the arms eithe r altogeth er
‘

,
 T HE AN I MA L A ND V E G E T A B LE K IN GD O M S .

wanting or feebly developed and not regularly radiating , .

O n e species is represente d in Fig 8 2 . .

The B la s to i ds ( Greek S h a m 69 bud ) have an aspect of -

,

which the name is beautifully descriptive The plates of .

the shell are arranged in regularly radial order The .

arms are wanting bu t are represent ed by five areas r a d i at

,

ing from the oral pole of the shell and bearing pinn u les ,
'

like those which are borne on the arm s in the Brachiates .

Fig 8 3 represents a Blastoid

. .

F IG S . 85- 8 7 .

C R IN O Ins z Fi g 8 5,
. P
e n ta c r i n s u c a p u t- du
m e sae ; a , b , c d , s e c ti o ns o f ,
s t e ms o fdi ff e re nt

P
s p e c ie s o f u
e n t ac ri n s — A S . TE R IOID Fi g 8 6 , P alaaas te r N i ag ar e n si s
. .
— EC HI N OID : Fig .

h u
87 , E c in s , x i .

The B ra c h i a te s ( Latin br a c h i u m arm ) have the plates ,

of the s h ell and the well developed arms arranged in -

regularly radial or d er The arms are typically fi v e in .

number but generally fork al most at the base and often

, ,
‘

branch repeatedly so as to seem very numerous Two , .

species are shown in Figs 8 4 8 5 .

, .

2 Oph i u r o i d s — The name ( Greek 6 4

. . 3m snake and , ,

o zi ci tail refers to the slenderness and flexibility of the

p ,)
rays which radiate from the small central disk B r ittle .

S ta r s an d S e rp e n t S ta rs are common names o f thes e

 C LASS IFI CA TI O N .

animals . The viscera do not extend into the s le n

der rays .

4 4 11 S
p f
ecto 3 . The scientific name ( Greek da r rfp
As t eri o i d s .
,

star ) is descriptive of the form of the body like the com ,

mi n The
. mon name S ta rfi s h A fossil spe cies is shown in Fig 8 6
. . .

The p ay s or arms blend with t h e central disk instead of

, , ,

being S harply distinguished from it as in the O phiuroids ; ,

m as B
achii ta and the appendages of the ali m entary canal and the other
viscera extend into the rays .

4 E ch in o i d s — The name ( from Greek é xi vo s hedgehog )

'

. .
,

refers to the spines which in some species are large and

,

conspicuo u s In Fig 8 7 they are sho w n on the left S ide

. .
,

having been remove d from the other S ide to S how the

arrangeme nt of the plates of which the shell is compose d .

In most of the E chinoids the plates are immovably a r ti c u ,

late d with each other so as to form a rigid shell In this

, .

they differ fro m the preceding classes in which the plates ,

( at least in the rays ) are m ovably articulated The E chi .

n o i d s are usually spheroidal or discoidal in form They .

are commonly called Sea Urchins .

5 M OLLUS COIDS .

The name implie s a resemblance to the Mollusks with ,

which the M olluscoids were formerly confounded The .

two groups agree in the absence of the radial repetition

of homologous parts which is characteristic of the t w o
,

preceding subkingdo m s and in the absence of the longi ,

t u d i n al repetition of homologous parts which is char ,

a c t e ri s t i c of m aii Vermes and of the Arthropods and

y
Vertebrates The M olluscoids di ffer from the M ollusks
.

in having a much less strongly developed nervous system ;

in not having particular parts of the body S pecialized for
locomotive and sensory functions ( foot and head ) as is ,

the ease in m ost of the M ollusks ; and in being generally

a ttached , while the M ollusks are generally locomotive .

E mine ntly characte ristic of the Molluscoids is a sort of

collar about the mouth sometimes n early
 T HE AN I MA L AN D V E G ET AB LE K I N GD O M S .

circular sometimes horseshoe shaped so m etimes produced

,
-
,

into a pair o f long arms bearing a fringe of tentacles or ,

cirri .

The M olluscoids include two classes both of which are ,

important in geology — 1 B rg o z o a n s 2 B r a c h i op o ds , , .

1 Br y o z o ans — The name ( G reek Bpé o v moss and {ai m

. .
, ,
}
,

animal ) is prettily de scriptiv e of the delicate mosslike

tufts which are formed by many of the communities of
these little creatures They multiply by budding ( as well .

as by producing eggs ) and the c ommunities thus formed ,

O ften greatly resemble those O f Hydrozoans The ani .

mals however are much highe r in their grade of o r

, ,

a n i z at i o n possessing an alimentary
F IG S 88 89 g ,

canal inclosed in a perivisceral cavity

.
,

and a well developed nervous gang -

lion The lophophore ( well shown .

in Figs 8 8 8 9 ) is circular or horse .

,

shoe S haped bears a w reath of rela -

,

t i v e ly long tentacles and is never ,

produced into a pair of long arms .

Rmr
m E h
o zo ; Fg 88
: The Bryozoan communities are some
sc ar a i .
,

m
fj ggggggg gggj g
f jfig
u

r
times destitute of any hard parts ,

f m it u m but generally secrete a horny or

Eg ;
M W S ro s ce i
o re

en r e

calcareous co ver i ng wh i ch m e lo s e s ,

each zooid in a little cell When the skeleton is calca .

r e o u s it form s a delicate sort of coral

,
.

2 Br ach i o p o ds
. The name ( from Greek Bpa xi ai v arm .
’

, ,

and w o rk foo t ) refers to the peculiar development of the

,

lop h ophore which in these animals is prod u ced into a pair

,

of long fringed ar m s which are spirally coiled within the ,

shel l In Fig 9 0 one of the arms is extended beyond the

.
'

.
,

margin of the S hell U nlike the B ryozoans the Brachio .

,

pods neve r multiply by budding The S kin is produced .

into two folds one on the dorsal and one on the ventral
, ,

side of the body which secrete the two pieces of a bivalve ,

S hell B rachiopods were formerly confounded with the

.

Lamellib ranchs among the M ollusks ( Clams Mussels , ,

 C L ASS IFI CA TI ON .

since these animals also have bivalve shells The valve s .

in the Lamellibranchs are right and left and are therefore ,

entirely di ff erent from those of Brachio

F 90 IG .
pods i n their relation to the body of the
.

animal This di fference of position is

.

correlated with characteristic di ff ere n ces

in the form of the shell In B rachiopods .

the two valves are never alike while in ,

L amellibranchs ( with a few exceptions ,

as the O yster ) they are nearly or exactly

alike O n the other hand each valve is
.
,

almos t always symmetrical in the B rachi

Opo ds neve r in L amellibranchs
, The .

shells of a number of B rachiopods are

shown in Figs 9 1 — 9 8 In many B rachiopods process es
. .
,

are developed from the interior of the dorsal val ve to ,

F IG S . 9 1—9 8 .

B R A C HIO P OD S : Fig
91, Wa
. ldh e i mi a fla ve s ce n s , i nt e ri o r V i e w ; 9 2, lo o p o f T e re rat b ul
a
vi t rea ; 93 , o o l
p o f T e r e b r at u li n a ca p t -
u u
s e rp e n t i s ; 9 4 , S p i ri fe r s tri at s ; 95 , s am e , i n t e ri o r
of d l l
o r s a va ve ; 9 6 , A tb y ri s c o n c e n t r i c a y ul
; 9 7 , A t r p a r e ti c a ri s ; 9 8 , sam e , i n t e ri o r o f
ve nt ra va ve .l l
support the arms of the lophophore The se arm supports .
-

may be looplike ( Figs 9 1 —93

)
. or spiral ( Figs 9 5 .
,

The B rachiopods are generally attached by a fleshy stem

 T HE AN I MA L AND V E G E T A B LE K I N GD O M S .

passing out between the valves or ( more commonly ) ,

through an aperture in t h e beak of the ventral valve

( shown at a in Fig In one recent species of L i n .

g u la the pedicel
, has bee n observe d to serve as an organ
of locomotion The Brachiopods are represented by but .

few living species but were immensely abundant in e arly ,

geological periods .

6 . M OLLUSKS .

Mollusks agree with the M olluscoids in the absence of

seg mentation either radial or longitudinal They S how
, .
,

howeve r a m u ch higher grade of organization Almost

, .

F I S 99 1 01 G .
al w ays there is a foot or specialized loco
-
.
,

motive portion of the body ; and gener

ally a head or specialized oral and se nsory , .

portion The nervous system is well . -.

developed Special respiratory organs are .

generally present most commonly in the ,

form of gills B udding is entirely n u .

known reproduction being s olely by ,

means o f eggs The integument is ge ner .

ally prod u ced into a fold or a pair of ,

folds called the m antle which secrete s a , ,

calcareous shell The shell is gene ra lly .

large eno u gh t o form a covering for the

body ; but is sometimes small and con
c e a le d i n the mantle and sometimes rudi
L mm m
i Figai x o n s : .
,

9 9 Cy p i. ; 10 0 T 1 mentary or wanting
r na . e .

lm ’ l m o m
a s a
O f the classes of Mollusks three are
’

important in Geology : — 1 L a me lli bra n ch s ; 2 G a s tr o , ,

p o ds ; 3, Cep h a lop o d s .

1
La . me i r n
ll b a ch s — The name ( from Latin la me lla and .

bra n c h i a ) refers to the form of the gil ls which in most ,

species are developed as two lamellar folds on each S ide of

the body The Lamellibranchs di ffer fro m the other classes
.

to be described in the lack of a d i stinct head and in the

, ,

lack of any masticatory apparatus connected with the

 M rs
.
C L A S S IF I C A TI O N . 73

!
m o n th The mantle is always develope d in two lobes
n
.

va l
( right and left ) and the,shell accordingly is always b i
val ve The distinctions between the shells O f the Lam e lli
.

b ranchs and those of the Brachiopods have been given on

page 7 1 The interior O f the S hell in Lamellibranchs bears
.

markings which give much information in regard to the

soft parts of the body The shell is generally closed by
.

two powerful muscles the anterio r and the p os terior a d

,

ductor These make deep impressions where they are

.

inserted into the S h ell ( 1 2 in Figs 9 9 , , S ometimes .

,

( as in the O yster ) the anterior adductor is wanting and ,

the n only o n e impression is S hown in the shell ( 2 in Fig , .

In most shells a somewhat disti n ct line extends

from one adductor to the other ( pp in Figs 9 9 , .
,

forme d where the m u scular b order of the mantle adheres

to the shell In some species the mantle lobes are entirely
.
,

separate along the ventral margin admitting t h e water ,

freely to the gill chamber I n others the m antle lobes .

,

are united along the ventral margin and their posterior ,

bo rder is produced into two tubes ( siphons ) by which r e ,

s p e c t i ve l
y wate r
, is admitted and expelled Thes e S iphons .

are gene rally m ore or less perfectly retractile ; and the

ma ntle impression shows a notch or sinus ( s in Fig , , .

marking the are a into which the S iphons are withdrawn .

These markings are ofte n cle arly shown in fossil shells .

2 G a stro po ds
.
— The nam e ( f rom ya a r fip belly and
.
f
, ,

n o ds foot ) refers to the fact that these animals generally

,

crawl on the ventral surface of the flattened foot as well ,

shown in Fig 1 0 2 representing a land Snail The head

.
,
.

is supplied typically with two pairs of sensory tentacles ,

one of which bears a pair of eyes In t h e S nail ( Fi g 1 0 2) . .

the eyes are borne on the larger posterior tentacles The .

two pairs of te ntacles may be more or less perfectly fuse d

into a S ingle pair R espiration is generally e ffecte d by
.

means of gills but in the land Snails there is an air sack ,

or simple lung ; and some Gastropods have no special

organs of respiration The g reat m ajo ri t v of t h e G a t r o
.
s
 THE A N I MA L AND V E G T E A BLE K I N GDO MS .

pods have shells in the form of a t u rreted S piral large ,

enough to cover the animal completely A number o f .

fossil species are shown in

F IG 1 02
Figs 1 0 3— 1 0 8 O thers have
. .

. .

shells flattened conical or of , ,

other forms The S hell may .

be small and concealed in the

mantle or may be entirely ,

GA S T RO P OD H l x
wanting e i .
.

In the P ter op o ds ( Greek

w r epo v wing and n o ds foot ) regarded by most z o Olo g i s ts
'
-
, , , ,

as an aberrant group of Gastropods though perhaps ,

deserving to be considered as a distinct class a pair Of ,

F IG S . 1 03- 108 .

G A S TR O P O D s : F IG b y
1 03 , P y ri f u s u s N e w e rr i ; 1 0 4 , 1 0 5 , B
. a ull s p e ci o s a ; 1 0 6 , Anc hu
ra

F l
(D re p an o eh eilu s ) A m e ri c ana ; 1 0 7 , a s ci o ari a b u cci n o i d e s ; 1 0 8 , M arg ari t a N e b ras c e n si s .

lateral appendages to the foot are developed as fins ( shown

i n Fi g . Unlike most M ollusks these little crea ,

tures are adapted for a free swimming pelagic F IG 1 0 9 -

, . .

life . At present the P teropods include only ,

a small number of species all of which are of ,

very small size In early ge ological times much

.

larger species existed .

3 Ce ph alo po d s — The name is from Greek P TE O P OD

. . R

x e a xfi head and foot In these most

a , w o ve , , .

highly organized of M ollusks the head is arme d with a ,

 C L A S S IFI CA TI O N .

circle of prehensile tentacles and bears two large eyes ,

O f remarkably elaborate structure R espiration is always .

by means of gills The water taken into the gill chamber

.

is expelled through a funnel ( shown at i in Fig .

The reaction of the water

F IG 1 1 0 ,

when forcibly ej ected propels

. .

the body in the opposite di

rec t i on a ffording one of the
,

means of locomo tion possessed

by these active creatures The .

Cephalopods are divided i n to

two orders both of which have
,

layed an important r Ole in

p
geological history .

" T N ut l ETR A B R A N C II : a i us
he Te tr a hra n ch s ( Greek .

p
T er a , four and d x, y i a gills ) have four gills
e
,Their .

tent acles are numerous but not armed with sucke rs or ,

hooks They have no ink bag They are defende d by

.
-
.

F IG . 1 11 .

D I B RA N CH : Lo i l g ulg
o v ari s , x 5 i, fu nn e l ; p , p en .

an external shell i n th e form of a tube which may b e

'

straight or coiled but wh ich is always divide d into

,

chambers by transverse partitio n s ( septa ) which are per ,

f o rat e d by a smalle r tube ( siphuncle Fig 1 1 0 shows

) . .

in section the coiled and chambered shell of N a u ti lu s the ,

only living ge n us of the order .

The D i br a n c h s ( Greek 8 59 twice and BpClYXt a gills) have , ,

'
,

two gills Their tentacles are eight or ten in number and

.
,

bear suckers or hooks making the m ve ry powerful weapons

,
.
 T HE AN I M A L AND V E G E T A B LE K IN GD O MS .

They secrete an inky fluid which is discharged thro u gh ,

the funnel when they seek to escape from pursuers With .

an apparent exception in a single genus they have no ,

external shell They gene rally however have some

.
, ,

sort of a shell concealed in the mantle This may .

be the horny pen of the S quid ( p in Fig the , .

S O called bone of the C uttlefish

-
or a chambered shell ,

resembling the shells of the T e t rab ran ch s .

7 . VE RME S , OR W ORM S .

The animals commonly included under this n ame are

a heterogeneous group S ome of them have the body .

divided into a longitudinal series of segments and the ,

nervous system constructed on the same plan as that of

the Arthropods with which the Segmented Worms are
,

pro bably closely related O thers ( including the numerous .

parasitic W orms) are not seg mented The only skeletal

'

structures possessed by any Worms are minute j aws which ,

are occasionally preserved as fossils O therwise they are .

,

indicated in the rocks only by trails left on the mud and

by remains of the tubes and burrows in which they have
i

lived Th e whole subkingdom is unimportant to the

.

ge ologist .

8 . AR THR OPODS .

'
The name is derived from the Greek ap dp o v j oint and , ,

97 0 6 9
,
foot and refers to the j ointe d appendages or limbs
, , ,

which are so conspicuous in the L obster and in m ost

Insects The body is composed of a longitudinal series of
.

j oints or segments well shown i n the posterior part of

,

a L obste r The segmented structure is O ften obscured

.

( especially in the anterior part of the body ) by a number

of the segments being fused together as in the anterior ,

part of a Lobster Typically each segment of the body

.
,

bears a pair of j ointe d appendages which may be antenn ae ,

( or feelers ) j aws access

, o ry mouth organs
, legs for wal k ,
M “
C LASS IFI CATI O N . 77

ing or swimming etc The nervous system consists t ypi

, .

cally of a pair of ganglions in each segment connected ,

by a double nervous cord along the v entral side of the

body though in many cases the ganglions of seve ral seg
,

ments come to be united .

Four of t h e classes of Arthropods are important in G e

o lo g y z — l Cr u s ta ce a ns ; 2 M er o s to me s ; 3 A r a ch n o id s ;
, , ,

4 , In s e cts .

1 . The nam e ( from L atin c r u s ta crust

Cru sta ce a ns .
—
,

or shell ) refers to the fact that the integument is gener

ally hardened by a deposit O f calcium carbonate so as to ,

F IG S . 1 12- 1 20

EN TO M O S T R A C A NS : Fi g 1 1 2, A na t i fa ; 1 1 3, Cy th e re A m e ri cana ; 1 1 4 , S app h i ri na ir i s , fema e

. l
1 15 , s am e , ma e , l ly
x 6 ; 1 1 6 C a me n e Blu m e nb ae h ii — MA LA COS TR A CA N s : Fig 1 1 7 , P o r
, .

l ll
.

c el i o ; 1 1 8 , S c r o s, xi ; 1 1 9 , O rc h e s t ia ; 1 20 , C an c e r .

for m a sort of shell The C rustaceans are aq u atic Arthro .

pods breathing by means of gills ( or through the i n t e g u

,

ment without special organs of respiration ) and having

, ,

typically the two an t erior pairs of appendages developed

as antenn ae .

The Crustaceans are divided into two subclasses the ,

E n to mo s tra ca n s and the M a la c o s tra c a n s In the former .

,

the number of segments of the body varies widely and ,

very rarely more than three pairs of appendages se rve as

jaws or o ther m outh organs In the latter subclass the .

numbe r of segments of the body never varies far from the

 T HE AN I MA L A ND V E G E TAB LE K I N GD O M S .

typical number and almost always four to si x pair s

of appendages function as mo u th organs .

Among the E n to mo s tr a ca n s the Tr i lo bi te s named from , ,

Greek T p ia three and , lobe in allusion to the

, ,

division of the b ody longitudinally into three lobes as ,

shown in Fig 1 1 6 are an order now extinct but i m

.
, ,

m e n s e ly abundant in earlier geological periods The .

‘

Trilobi te s appear to represent a very primitive type of

C rustacea and they perhaps deserve to rank as a distinct
,

subclass I n the Os tr a co id s ( Fig

. the integument is .

produced into a pair of folds right and left forming a , ,

bivalve carapace which reminds one of the bivalve shell of

,

a L amellibranch The name is from the Greek do Tpa x o v

.
-
,

shell . The Ci r rip e d s or Barnacles ( Fi g attach , .

themselves by means of modified antenn ae and become ,

covered by a hard S hell of se veral pieces looking some ,

what like the shell O f a M ollusk .

Among the M a la co s tr a ca n s is included the curious group

of the L ep to s tr a c a n s which are in many respects inter ,

mediate between the typical Malacostracans and the E n

t o m o s t ra c a n s The Lep t o s t racan s are n o w nearly extinct
.
,

though they seem to have been represented in earlier times

by numerous species some of the m being O f large size ,
.

O n e of them is shown in Fig 2 33 on page 249 The .

,
.

A r th r o s tra ca n s or Te tr a d c cap o d s ( Greek T é T pa four Bé /ca

, , , ,

ten n o de foot ) have four pairs of appendages developed

, , ,

as m outh organs and seven pairs as legs Here belo n g , .

’
the Sow bugs and Sand fle as -
Three S pecies are S hown -
.

i n Fig s 1 1 7 — 1 1 9 The highest order of the M ala c o s t ra

'

. .

cans is that of D e cap o d s ( Greek Bé /c a ten and w o ziq foot ) , , , ,

in which si x pairs of appendages are developed as mouth

‘

organs and only five pairs as legs Here belong the Lo b

, .

ste r and the C rab ( Fig the former representing the .

suborder of M a cru ra n s ( Greek ua xpo s long and o é pd tail ) '

, , , ,

1 E x clu s i ve Of t h e t els o n, at th e p o s t e ri o r e x tre m it y o f th e b o d y w h i ch ,

,

t h o u gh i t n e ve r b ea rs ap p en d ages , i s c o ns i d e re d b y m an y z o o lo gi s ts
’

a t ru e
s eg me n t .
 C L AS S IFI CA TI O N .

the latter representing the suborder of B r a chy u ra n s ( Greek

'
i
’

Bp xa i s short and
,
O i i
p a ,tail ) , .

2 Mero s t o me s — The name is derive d from the Greek

. .

’ ’

unp o s t h
, igh and o r o ua
, mouth and refers to the fact
, tha t ,

so me of the appendages have their basal j oints developed

as j aws and their terminal p ortions developed as legs .

The M e ro s t o m e s di ffe r from the C rustacea n s in the absence

of antenn ae The L i mu lu s o r H orseshoe C rab is the only
.
, ,

living genus of this class In early ge ological times the .

class was represented by the E u ryp te r i ds one of which is ,

shown In Fig 27 8 page 2 7 1 .

, .

3 Arach n o i ds — The n ame is from the Greek apdxvn

.
,

spider and the Spiders and S corpions are typical members

,

Of the class They are terrestrial Arthropods breathing

.
,

by means of air sacks ( lu n gs) or ramifying air tubes ( tra

c h e ae ) They have no anten n ae two pairs of m outh organs
.
, ,

and four pairs of legs The absence of antenn ae as well .

,

as certain o ther characters has been held by many z o Olo ,

gists to indicate a close relationship to the M e r o s t o m e s .

4 Inse cts
. Terrestrial Ar t hropods breathi n g by
.
,

means of trache ae They have one pair of antenn ae three

.
,

pairs of m outh organs and ( in the typical s u bclass ) three ,

pairs of legs The Insects are divided into two subclasses

.
,

My r i o p o d s and Hex ap o d s The Mg r i op o d s ( Greek .

6
’
v
u p i o s countless
, and 7 0 9 foot ) have numerous legs the
, , ,

series of legs extending to the posterior extremity of the

body They have n o wings The He x ap o d s ( G reek 35
. .
,

six and n o de foot ) have three pai rs of legs borne on the

, , ,

three segments of the body ( thorax ) next behind the head .

Most of them h ave two pairs of wi n gs ; but the Flies and

their allies ( D ip ter s ) have only one pair and some Hexa ,

pods are entirely W ingless .

9 . TUNIC T S A E .

The Tunicates have no skeletons and are unk nown ,

in fossil condition They appear to be a degenerate .

branch of the Vertebrate stem ; In adapting themselves

 T HE A N IM A L A ND V E G ET A B L E KIN GD OMS .

to a sedentary life they have lost most of the charac ,

t e ri s t i c s of Vertebrates though their relation to that ,

group is indicate d by their embryology .

10 . VERTEB R A TE S .

The Vertebrates or vertebrated animals take their name

, .

from the backbone or vertebral column The distinctive

, .

character of the Vertebrates is the division of the body

into a dorsal cavity containing the central organs of
the nervous system and a ventral cavity containing the ,

nutritive viscera separated from each other by an axial

,

skeleton I n the lowest Vertebrates as in the embryos

.
,

of the higher forms this axial S keleton appears as an ,

unsegmented chord ( n otochord ) But in all except the .

,

lowest Vertebrates cartilaginous or bony rings are devel

,

oped i n the sheath of the n otochord which encroach upon ,

it O ften to its entire obliteration formi n g the bodies of

, ,

the vertebr ae Cartilaginous or bony arches connected

.

with the vertebral bodies come to inclose m ore or less

completely the nervous cord on the dorsal side of the axis
and the viscera on the ventral S ide of the axis The axial .

skeleton and the nervous cord both undergo remarkable

modifications at the anterior extremity of the body form ,

ing the skull and brain .

Vertebrates are divided into the following classes — 1 ,

L ep to ca r di a n s ; 2, M a r s ip o bra n ch s ; 3 Fi s h e s ; 4 A mp h i bi, ,

ans ; 5 , R ep ti le s ; , 6 B i r d s ; 7 M a mma ls , .

’
1 . The name ( Greek h em o s thin and
i
Le pt o card a s n — .
-
, ,

c
’
a heart refe rs to the absence of a massive muscular
xa
) , ,

heart the blood being propelle d only by the action of

,

muscular tissue di ffused through various parts of the

arterial system The notochord S hows itself in very
.

primitive condition There are no bones scales teeth .

, , ,

limbs skull nor brain Having no hard parts these

, , .
,

animals have never been preserved as fossils They are .

,

howeve r profoundly interesting S ince they represent

, , ,

more nearly than any other animals what must have b een ,
 C L A S S IFI C A T I O N .

the primitive type of Vertebrates The class is r e p r e .

sented only by the A mp h i o x u s or Lancelet , .

2 Marsi po br an ch s
. The name ( Greek acipo m o s pouch
.
-
, ,
'
and Bpa yxi a gills ) refers to the form of the gills which
r
, ,

are a series of pouches on each side communicating with ,

the pharynx The Marsipobranchs S how a persiste nt n oto

.

ch ord with no vertebral bodies They have no limbs and

, .
,

the m outh is not provided with j aws The Lampreys .

are familiar examples of this class Their only hard .

parts are little teeth inserted i n the mucous membrane

of the mouth Such teeth might be preserved as fossils
.
,

but have not yet bee n recognized .

3 Fi s h es — These di ffer from the pre ceding classes in

. .

the development of cartilaginous or b ony vertebral bodies ,

and in the possession of j aws and ( gene ra lly ) two pairs of

limbs They di ffe r from the remaining classes in that the
.

limbs are developed as fins the respiration is by gills and , ,

r
"
miss (”11a the heart consists ( except in one subclass ) of one auricle
and one ventricle The teeth fin S pines scales and bones
.
, , ,

mg “ f h i of Fishes are among the important fossils in many forma

s -
O t e”

tions .

Fishes are divided into five subclasses 1 S e la c hi a n s ; ,

2, P la co d er ms ; 3, G a n o i d s ; 4 , Te le o s ts ; 5 , D ip no a n s .

The S ela c hi a n s ( Greek o exdxn, cartilaginous fishes )have

S keletons but slightly o s s i fi e d The vertebral column .

e x te n ds to the extremity of the tail fin generally bending ,

up into the upper lobe which is then comm only m uch ,

longer than the lower as shown in Figs 1 21 1 23 S uch

, .
, .

’ ’
tails are calle d heterocercal ( Greek é r epo s other and icepfc o s , , ,

tail ) . In some Selachians howe ver the vertebral column , ,

extends in a straight line to the extremity of a s y mm e t r i

cal tail fin This form of tail called diphyce rcal is
.
, ,

believed to be the primitive type .

Many Selachians have strong spines at the margin of

som e of the fins ( Figs 1 21 They all have a skin
.

roughened by minute toothlike p oints ( shagreen ) S ome .

of them have sharp cutting teeth as shown in Figs 1 24 ,

.
 T HE AN I MA L AND V E G ET AB LE KIN GDOMS .

1 26 ;others have flat pavement teeth adapted to crus h ,

the shells of M ollusks and C rustaceans ( Figs 1 29 .

Figs 1 27 1 28 represent a somewhat intermediate type

.
, , .

The gills of S elachians are developed as a series of

pouches through which the water passes from t h e pharynx
F IG S . 1 2 1- 1 8 1 .

S E L AC HIA s Fig 1 21 S p i nax Blai nV Illn

.
,
l fi ,
x }z ; 122 , S pi n e o f a n te ri o r d o rsa n, n at u l
ra

si z ; 1 23 C t
e ,
Ph i l i ppi 5 ; 1 24 t th f L m l g ; 1 25 C h
e s ra ci o n ,
x , oo O a na e e an s , a rc a ro do n

an g t id
us ; 1 26 N t d
e ns u p im g i ; 1 27 Hyb du m i ; 1 28 Hyb du
, o i an s r i e n us ,
o s no r ,
o s plica

ti lis ; 1 29 l w , j w f C t
o er aw h w i g p m t t th ; 1 3 0 t t h f A
o e s rac n, s o n a ve en ee ,
oo o c ro dus

m i i mu ; 1 3 1 A
n s du b l
, c ro s no i is .

to escape by holes in the sides of the neck The arrange .

ment resembles that in the M arsipobranchs I n most .

Fishes the gills are developed as fringes proj ecting freely

from the bra n chial arches O f the skull M ost of t h e .

Selachia n s are commonly known as Sharks and R ays .

The P la co d e rms ( G reek W A IE plate Bepaa skin ) have C , ,

’

,
 C L A S S IFI CAT I O N .

the body or at least its anterior part covered with an

, ,

arm or of large bony plates S ome of them are r e p r e

, .

sented in Figs 29 7 30 0 on page 285 As these creatures

.
—
, .

are known only as fossils their true nature is somewhat ,

doubtful S om e of them ( Figs 2 9 7 2 9 8 ) appear to have

. .
,

no lowe r j aw or at least none capable of preservatio n in

,

a fossil state and it is doubtful whether they are truly

Fishes O thers ( Figs 29 9 30 0 ) have a well developed
. .
,
-

lower j aw and are believe d by many pale ontologists to be

,

an aberrant group of D ipnoans .

The G a n o i ds ( Greek ydvo e luste r ) are generally covered f

,

by hard lustro u s enamele d scales most commonly Of

, , ,

F IG . 1 32 .

GA N OID Pl a aeo n i s c u s Frei e sleb en i , x

rhombic form ( Figs 1 32 Som e Ganoids however

.
, ,

are clothed with cycloid scales ( Fig 1 4 1 ) like those of .

many Teleosts from which they differ only in certain

,

anatomical details relating to the optic nerves the heart , ,

and the intestine The S keleton in the Ganoids varies

.

greatly in the degree of ossification sometimes becoming ,

as perfectly o s s ifi e d as in the Teleosts The tail is some .

times heterocercal ( Fig 1 32) or diphyce rcal In other . .

Ganoids the vertebral column stops at or near the base

of the tail fin whose lobes then appear nearly s y mm e t r i
,

cal ( Fi g . Such t ails a r e c alle d homocercal ( Gre ek ‘

Ono s the sa m e and Ic ep/c o s tail )

’ ’

, ,
The Ganoids are a gro u p ,

now nearly extinct though very abundant in early ge o ,

logical times .

’ '
Te le o s ts ( Greek TG AGOS perfe ct and Oo T eo v bone ) are so ‘

, ,
-
,
 T HE AN I MA L AND VE G ET A B L E K IN G D O M S .

named on account of the high degree of ossification of

their skeleto n s With few exceptions they are clothed .
,

with thin membranous scales which are called cycloid

, ,

Greek x ii /exe s circle ) when the posterior margin is

( ,

smoothly rounde d ( Fig and cte noid ( Greek a r e as .

’

comb ) when the margin is beset with teeth ( Fig .

Teleosts with very fe w exceptions have homocercal tails

, , .

The great mass of familiar Fishes belong to this subclass .

D ip n o a n s resemble the Ganoids in many respects but ,

have the air bladde r developed into a functional lu n g the ,

auricle of the heart divided into two and a distinct pul ,

F IG S . 1 83- 1 4 2 .

G A N O IDs : Fig 133 ta i

. l , o l
f A s pi d o rh y n ch u s ; 1 34 , s c a e s o f Ch e i ro le pi s Trailli i , x 1 2 ; 1 3 5 ,
Pl ia aeo n s c u l p du u
s e i u
r s , x 6 ; 1 36 , i nn e r s rfa c e O f s a m e h
1 37 , p ave m e nt te e t o f G y ro d u s
um b il i u c s ; 138 , t o o t h d u u
O f C ri c o d u s ; 139 , Le pi o s t e s o sse s ; 1 4 0 , se ct i o n O f sa m e ,

l gd
e n ar e . yl d l
T E LE OS Ts : 1 4 1 , c c o i s c a e ; 1 4 2, c t e n o i s ca e d l .

m o n ary circulation In these characters they S h ow a .

transition to the Amphibians They also di ffer from .

most Fishes and agree with the higher classes of Verte

,

brates in the mode of articulation of the j aws with the

,
'
skull The name is from the Greek Sis twice and 7 rve w
.
, , ,

to breathe in allusion to their possessing both gills and

,

lungs .

4 Amph i bi ans
. The name ( Greek anal on both sides .
, ,

Bio s life ) re fers t o the fact that m ost of these animals are
,

partly aquatic and partly terrestrial in habit M ost O f .

the m undergo a strongly marked metamorphosis In .

 THE ANIM A L A ND V E G ETABLE K IN G D O MS .

t ilian of Mammals Like most R eptiles they are o vi p a .

,

rous and in many points of their anatomy they greatly

resemble R eptile s They are now represented only by
.

the D uckbill ( Orn i t h o r hg n c h u s ) and the Spiny Ant eater -

E c h i dn a both of which live in Australasia

( ) , .

I n the subclass M a r s up i a ls ( La t in m a r s up i u m pouch ) , ,

the you n g are produced viviparously but in the absence ,

of a placenta the development is not far advanced before

,

birth The young are accordingly in most species carried

.
, ,

by the mother for a time in a pouch formed by folds of

skin within which the teats are situated
, W ith the .

exception of the O possums which live in Amer i ca the , ,

Marsupials are n o w con fi ned to Australasia where they ,

are represented by Kangaroos P halangers Wombats etc , , , .

Formerly they existed in all regions of the globe .

I n the P la c e n ta ls or typical Mammals provision is , ,

made for the nutrition of the embryo before birth by ,

means of the structure called the placenta ; and the young

are accordingly born in a more advanced stage of devel
Opm e n t In this subclass are included all the familiar
.

Mammals ( w ith the exceptions above indicated ) as well ,

as Man himself .

T h e V e g e t a bl e Ki ng d o m .

P lants are commonly divide d into the two groups ,

Cryp to g a ms and P h a n e r o g a ms .

1 P
CRY TOG AM S .
1

The name ( from Greek secret and y dno s , ,

marriage ) was given to these plants by Linn aeus in ,

allusion to the fact that the reproductive organs appeared

1
T h e gr o u p o f C ry p t o ga m s i s re t a in e d s i m ply asm at te r o f c o n ve n
a

ie n ce . It i s a h e t e ro ge n e o u s a s s e m b la ge li k e t h e a s s e m b l a g e o f In ve r te
,

b rat e s am o n g a n i m a s l . But t h e lo w e r p la n t s p l a y s o u n i mp o r t an t a r Ole

i n G e o lo gy , t h a t i t i s no t w o rt h w h ile t o t ro u b le t h e b e gi n n e r i n G e o lo gy
w i t h t h e t e c h n i ca i t i e s l o f t h e m o d e rn c la s s ifi ca t i o n .
 T HE A N I MA L AND V E G ETAB LE K I N G D OMS .

D i a to ms are unicellular Alg ae which secrete silice ous

S keletons They abound in both salt and fre sh water
.
,

and their remains ofte n accumulate so as to form deposits

of conside rable thickness S ev
F IG S 143 148
.

eral species are represented in

. .

Figs 1 4 3— 1 4 8 An interesting . .

group of fossil D iatoms is shown

in Fig 440 on page 39 2 .
, .

D e s mi d s are unicellular A lg ai ,

somewhat resembling D iatoms ,

but destitute of any silice ous

skeleton They are sometimes .

m u h i ghly m g i fi d Fig 143

o n s,
fou n d
a n
fossil e
in flint and
:
c li e rt .

Pi ul i p g i ; 1 44 Pl
nn ar a e re
Co r a lli n e s and N u llip o r e s are
r na , e u ro

Si gm g l t m ; 1 4 5 A ti
a an u a u p , c no

ty h c i u ; 146
u s se nar ma s “ Alg ae wh i ch conta i n i n the i r t i s
s , a , n ,
-

2533
{
2 ridRgii fi gfihgifi sue s a large amount of calcium
1 r n
: a

carbonate .

The Fu co ids include many large species of Alg ae whose

f ronds have a leathery consistency Casts of these are .

found fossil in many strata .

2 Bry o ph y tes — The name is f rom Greek Bp ri o v moss

. .
, ,

a n d ( a rdy plant The plants here included are the L iver

t , .

worts and M osses In the M osses the habit of growth .

,

resembles that of the higher plants in the development

of an axis of upward growth forming a leafy stem The , .

Bryophytes however agree with the Thallophytes in

, ,

being destitute of wood A woodless terrestrial plant .

has little chance of preservation in fossil condition and ,

the Bryophytes are unimportant to the geologist .

3 Pteri do ph y tes , o r Acro gens

. The former name is .
-

from Greek n r é pi q fern and (v Cv plant ; and the plants , , ,

here included are the Fe rn s E qu i s e ta and Ly cop o d s In , ,

.

these plants as in the P hanerogams the stems are strength

, ,

ened by bundles of woody fiber Such plants are much .

less perishable than the cellular plants and accordi n gly ,

are much m ore important in Geology In the Fe rn s of .

temperate climates the s tem s ar e mo stly undergroun d so ,

“minus .
C L A S S IFI CAT I O N .

that th e fronds spring from the ground ; but in some

tropical Tree Ferns the fronds spring from the summit of
a trunk fif ty feet or m ore in height The E q u i s e ta of the .

present time ( often called H orseta ils or S e c u ri n g Rushes ) ,

are slender plants with hollow j ointed stems The ,

.

Ly co p o d s are often calle d Club M osse s or Ground P ines ,

.

D
awnsisshow
n All living species of E quiseta and Lycopods are small
plants rising only a few inches above the ground
,
In .

former geological times both g roups were represented by ,

large tree s .

2 . PHANER OGAM S , OR P HIE NOGAM S .

’
B oth names ( one from Greek ¢ a vepo 9 manifest and , ,

ai o c marriage the othe r from i to appear and

r
y u , ; a vai , ,

d
y / )
«
toe refer to the fact that the reproductive organs are
conspicuous and the reprod uctive processes have long
,

been well known The essential reproductive organs are

.

the stamens and pistils and these with the floral e n ve ,

Pi ss If these 318 lopes which are generally present and ofte n conspicuously
,

colored constitute the flowers

, The pistils bear the .

ovules which develop into see ds

, A seed contain s an .

embryo plant already formed In most P ha n erogams as .

,

in the higher C ryptogams there is a definite axis of u p ,

ward growth and a distinct d i fi e re n t i at i o n of root stem

, , ,

and leaves ; and i n all P hanerogams as in the P t e r i d o ,

h
p y t e s m
, ore or less of wood is developed In the .

arrangeme nt of the wood cells and ducts ( fi br o va s c u lar

bundles ) P hanerogams exhibit two distinct types In .

ex o e n o u s stems
g ( Greek E‘
Ew outward yé vw to,grow ) the ,
r
, ,

c u lar bundles are arranged in a hollo w cylinder

a central pith If the ste m continues to grow for

.

ve years each season of growth adds a layer of

,

between the outermost of the previous layers and

rk A transverse section of such a stem ( Fig 1 49 )
. .

a series of rings corresponding to the successi ve

of growth In en do g en o u s stems ( Greek é vBo v
.
’

and yé vw ) the fi bro va s c u lar bundles are dis

f
,
 T HE AN I MA L AND V E G E T A B LE K IN G D O MS .

tributed through the stem without any definite arrange

ment in concentric z o n es ( see Fig .

P hanerogams are divided into two classes G y mn o ,

s
p er ms ai i d A ng i o sp er ms .
1

“
1 Gy mn o s per ms
The name ( from Greek yvuvo s i anrieu a
'
Iitl
. .
— r u .

,
’
naked and a n epua seed ) refers to the fact that the seeds
, ,

are not enveloped in a closed case or ovary In the P ines , .

and other C onifers the pistil is simply a scale upon whose ,

surface the ovules are borne The dense clusters of very .

simple flowers form the

F IG S 1 49 1 5 2 -

s o called cones in these

. .

plants The mode of .

L
ilies aIidOItL t

growth of the G y m n o
sperms is exogenous .

The w ood consists al

most exclusively o f a
single kind of cells ,

showing under the mi

C r O S C O P? p C CIII l a P m a rk
F g 1 49
i ti f g u t m ; 1 50 m f
s ec on O exo e no s s e sa e o

lSK
.
, ,

d g u ; 1 5 1 w d ll f th C f Ings
( d ) W h h are APH
m
en o e no s oo ce S s ol c e o n i e r,
GEOGR ICA
Li
, ,

far. ara azrr seSh a

s
really ..
pits in the wall
of the cell ( see Figs .

1 51 , This structure may be recognized even in

petrified wood of Gymnosperms In one group of the .

C o n i f e rs t h e A r a u ca r ioe the disks are arrange d alter

, .
,

n at e l
y ( g F i and fossils
. of that group have been
recognized by that character .

The two principal orde rs of Gymnosperms are the Co n i

f e r s
( P ines Spruces Cedars
, etc ) and the C y c
, a d s
( often , .

mistakenly called Sago P alms) .

2 An g i o s pe rms — The name ( from Greek a y yei o v

’

.
r r
.
,

vessel and , seed ) refers to the fact that t h e pi stil

forms a closed case or ovary in which the ovules and , ,

1 M an u al o f G e o lo gy an d i n t h e p re vi o u s e d i ti o n s o f t h i s w o rk
In t h e , ,

th e P h a n e ro gam s a re d i vi d e d i n t o E x o ge n s a n d E n d o ge n s E x o ge n s are .

e q u i va l e n t t o G y mn o s p e rm s a n d D i c o t y le d o ns , an d E n d o gen s t o M o n o

co ty le d o ns o f t h e p r es e n t c las s i fi cat i o n
, .
 G EO G R A P H I CA L D I S T R I B U T I O N O F MAR IN E L IF E . 91

seeds are developed The wood is more comple x in its

.

“
structure than in the Gymnosperms consisting in part O f ,
bu
very slender thick walle d cells ( the ordinary wood cells )
,
-
,

and in part of cells of somewhat larger diameter ( du e t s ) ,

with a variety of m i crO S C Op i c markings due to the thick

cuing of parts of the cell wall .

The Angiosperms are divided into two subclasses -

Mo n o c o ty led o n s and D i c o ty le d o n s .

In M o n o co ty le d o n s the embryo in the seed bears only a

-
,

single leaf ( cotyledon ) and the growth is endogenous 1

ma
, .

M
-
ii i an
a The leaves are ge n erally parallel veine d P alms Grasses -
.
, ,

Lilies and O rchids are examples of this subclass

, .

In D i co ty le d o n s the embry o in the seed bears a pair of

,

Opposite leaves ( cotyledons ) and the gro w th i s exogenous , .

The leaves are ge n erally net veined T o this group -

.

belong the great maj ority of the trees and S hrubs of our
forests and of the herbs of our fields and gardens .

G E O G R A P H I C A L D I S T R I BU T I O N O F M ARIN E
L I FE .

R an g e of Life i n De pth
investigations have.
— R ecent
shown that living species not only inhabit the border
regions of the oceans but also extend widely and abun,

da u tly over a large part of the ocean s depths Fishes ’

.
,

Crabs and other Crustacean s Worms E chini S t arfi s h e s , , , ,

C rinoids C orals are abundant to depths of

, , to
feet and some of them to
, feet Crusta .

c e an s of large size allie d to Shrimps many of them with

‘

, ,

good eyes have been found at all depths to 29 0 0 fath

,

and large Cra bs with perfect eyes at 1 7 0 0 fathoms

, ,
.

species have a very wide range in depth one C oral

e c o rr e lat i o n o f m o n o co ty le d o n o u s d o ge n o u s s te ms ,
e m ry o s
b w i th en

d ico ty le d o n o u s e m b ry o s w i t h e x o ge n o u s s t e ms , h o ld s go o d iii
o m e m e mb e r s o f e a c h g r o u p t h er e a re i n s t a n ce s o f s t e ms

o r le s s co mp le t e ly t o s h o w t h e t y p i c al c h ara ct e r .
 T HE A N I MA L AND V E G ET AB LE K IN GD OMS .
mm
(i a

h cti s s mme tr i c a
( a disk shape -
d kind B a t g a
g , ) occurs ( states
M oseley ) at d epth s from 30 to 29 0 0 fathoms .

Ch ar acte r o f t h e S ea Bo tto m The material most widely.

di ff u sed over the ocean s bottom is a fine red or gray ’

mud or cl ay B ut over vas t regions less than

. feet
in depth occurs the G lobigerina ooze At these and .

greater depths occur areas of D iatom ooze especially in ,

the Antarctic seas i n a zone between 5 0 and 7 0 south

,
° °

la t itude ; and areas of R adiolarian ooze especially in ,

tropical and warm temperate regions -

.

The character of the bottom shows that sediments from

the rivers of the continents are not carried far out to sea .

Stones of a pound weight and larger occur 1 0 0 miles , ,

southeast of Long Island ; but these are supposed by

Verrill to have been carrie d out by shore ice Clay .
,

with some fine quartz sand and particles of mica make s ,

up the gray mud ; and the winds may be a principal

source of the sand and mica P umice and fine materials .

of volcanic origin are also widely distribu t ed indicating ,

that the drif t ings by the wind from volcanic islands have
been to great distances and over very large areas The .

reddish color of m uch of the oceanic clay is attributed to

the oxida t ion of the iron in volcanic C inders Grains and .

nodules of oxide of manganese are very common over the

’
ocean s bottom .

The b ottom is the receivi n g place of all the dead remains

’
of the ocean s life both plant and animal exclusive of the
, ,

very large part that does not have a chance to re ach the
b ottom because of the eaters In the Challenger e x p e
, .

dition in the S outh P acific the trawl brought up at one

, , ,

haul more than 1 5 0 0 Sharks teeth and fragments ( not

,
’

counting very small fragments ) and about 5 0 ear bones of

Cetaceans Am ong the S li a rk s teeth found in th at re
.
’

gion m any are believed to be of E ocene age ; and their

,

bei n g buried not more than a foot altho u gh lying there ,

since the early Tertiary is regarded as evidence of t h e , .

very small amount of detritus that falls over the bottom .

 G EO G R A P HI CA L D I S TR I B U T I O N OF MA R I N E L IF E . 93

Cau ses li mitin g Distr i b u ti o n — The two prominent phys .

ical causes l imiting distri bution are the amount of ( 1 )

heat and ( 2) light
,
.

1 Te mp e ra tu re — The temperature of the water varies

.

1
( ) with the zones from 9 0 F in,the tropics to 3 2 F °
.
,
°
.
,

i t these and and eve n 28 F in the polar seas ; ( 2 ) with the d is t ri bu

°
.
,

tion of marine currents the w arm currents fro m the e q ua ,

“
mlill south t o ri al regions and the cold fro m high latitudes ; ( 3 ) with
,

the depth the t emperature diminishing downward to 35

,
°

F as a general thi n g but in some places to 28 in the

.
,
°

polar regions and polar currents There is even i n the .

v mh mmm tropics a tempe rature of and often of within 3 0 0

fathom s of the surface and almost e verywhere of 4 0 or ,
°

less below 1 0 0 0 fatho m s so that from 1 0 0 0 fathoms to

, ,

the greatest depths the variation is only from 4 0 to 32

,
° °

F or in e xtreme c as e s to 2 8 F
.
,
°
.

The influence of marine currents on the temperature is

great Th e Gulf Stream a deep Atlantic current carries
.
, ,

heat from the tropical to the polar seas The portion of .

the broad current whi ch passes through the Florida Strait

is as deep as the strait ( 4 0 0 fathoms ) and 8 3 to 44 F ,
° °
.

in tempe ra t ure and has a maximu m velocity of 5 miles an

,

hour It washes the deep water border of the Atlantic

.
-

erthB basin at depths between 6 0 and 30 0 fathoms O ff S outh Caro

“m ov

lina and between 6 0 and 1 5 0 fathoms ( Verrill ) so u theast

,

of N e w E ngland ; crosses the ocean northeastward to the

B ritish seas and has a temperature of 4 5 off the Faroe
,
°

Islands at a depth of 6 0 0 to 8 00 fathoms ; and thence con

t i n u e s on poleward From the polar regions the waters
.
,

chilled do w n to 39 to 28 F flow back as the Labrador

° °
.
, ,

Current along the east coast of America and also south ,

’
ward beneath the warmer c urrent ove r the ocean s depths
to the equator and beyond C omparatively little goes .

out through Bering Strait because the depth is only 1 5 0 ,

In the P acific the re IS a warm or tropical cu r rent on the

,

w est S ide answe ring to the Gulf Stream of the Atlantic

, .
 T HE AN I MA L AND V E G E TAB LE K I N GD O M S .

Again on the east side of the South P acific a reverse flow

, ,

exists a cold water current from the southwest strikes the

-

submarine slopes of southern S outh America and carries ,

cold to the equator and thus narrows the region of tropi

,

cal waters .

The range of temperature favorable to any marine

species is small — generally not over 20 F and O ften °
.
,

less than 1 5 F Within the favora ble temperature the

°
.

S pecies thrives ; approaching the limit the size usually ,

diminishes ; and beyond it growth and egg development ,

-

cease A current too cold for S pecies within its reach is

.

destructive eve n more so than one of too much warmth

, .

2 L ig h t
. Light is the chief limiting cause as to depth
.

( Fuchs ) If it were temperature

. multitude s of species ,

might grow hundreds of feet belo w their present level .

Light has been found by experiment to penetrate down

ward i n the ocean a little more than 2 0 0 fathoms but
the light becomes very feeble long before this limit is
reached The specie s of shallo w waters di ffer to a large
.

extent from the deep sea species ; they are ( as stated by -

Fuchs ) the species of the light the latter the species of ,

the darkness The two groups of species the ocean border

.
,
-

species ( or those of the light ) and the deep sea species ( or -

those of the darkness ) are mingled somewhat bet w een

depths of 30 and 9 0 fathoms and some shore species ex ,

ten d down t o a much greater depth .

The eye s of animals o f the dark sea depths are O ften

rudime n tary or else unusually large The blindness is
,
.

evidence of darkness ; and the large eyes of adaptation ,

to the very feeble light of the regions B ut this feeble .

light may be as D r C arpente r Wyville Thomson and

,
.
, ,

others have supposed that of phosphorescence since , ,

many Cr u staceans A lc y o n i a r i a n s S t arfi sh e s and other

,
-
, ,

1
animals are brightly phosphorescent .

1 Th e f o llo w i ng a re e n u m erat e d as th e mo s t ch aracte ri st i c t y p e s Of th e

d ar k se a d ep th s — Oi C o ra lsO cu li n i d ae , C ry p t o h e li a , a n d vari o u s s o i tary
,
l
s p e ci e s th e V i t re o u s S p o n ge s C ri n o i d s (P e n t acrinus , Rh i z o crin us , Hy o
 G EO G R A P HI CA L D I S TR I BUTIO N OF MA R I N E L IF E . 95

’
Th e Bo rde r R e g i o n the ocean s border region .
— O ve r
I not only is the dive rsity of temperature between t h e
equator and the poles felt in full force but als o that ,

produced by the warm and cold curre nts O ff eastern .

N orth Ameri ca down to C ape Hatteras the cold L abrador -

,
1° my m
arin
e current cools the waters over the border region betwee n
the Gulf Stream and the shore line ; while south of this
cape the Gulf Stream has p ossession .

The other causes limiting d i stribution in the b order

regions O f the ocean are : ( 1 ) the condition of the water ,
m n its rachis whether pure or impu re from sediments and fresh waters
,

received from the land ; ( 2) the character of the bottom ,

whether of mud sand or rock an d whether firm or easily

, , , ,

stirred by waves or currents .

R eef forming C orals grow only in the sea border regions

- -

of tropical seas and at shallow depths They extend from

, .

the equator to about latitude on the average where the ,

sea temperature of the coldest month is not belo w 6 8 F °

.

O w ing to the warm Gulf Stream they occur in the Atlan ,

tic i n32 north latitude B ermuda being of coral formati on ;

°
,

and owing to the cold waters off western South America

, ,

they are excluded from that coast south of Guayaquil In .

depth the limit is 20 to 25 fathom s A vast variety of .

tropical animals live and find shelter among coral reefs .

-
“
w I ‘

MW Seaweeds like most other plants are species of the

, ,

light ; they grow mostly within 1 0 fathoms of the sur

face and rarely beyond 3 0
, .

Th e S e a De pt h s In this region the range of tempera

.
-
,

ture is for the m os t part small 5 5 to O nly two

°

well marked divisions exist : that of the cold depths the

-
,

temperature below 4 5 F and that within the ra n ge of °

.

the tropical currents ( as the Gulf Stream in the N orth

Atlantic ) the temperature mostly 4 5 to 5 5 F
,
° °
.

c ri nu s , B at h y cri n u s ) ; o f E ch i n o i d s , E ch i n o t h u ri ae , P o u r tale s i ae , An an ch y
t i d ae ; f A s t e ri o i d s , Br i s i n ga ; Ho lo t h u ri a n s Of s u b o r d e r E las m o p o di a ; an d
o

F i s h e s , ri bb o n lik e i n f o r m , o f t h e f am ili e s L e p id o p i d ae , T ra c h yp t e ri d ae ,
Ma cruri d ae ,
an d O p h i d i i d ae .
 T HE AN I MA L AND V E G E TA B LE K IN G D O M S .

The border Of the Atlantic basin where swept by the

Gulf Stream ( page both on its west side a n d in the
B ritish seas is crowded with life
, species of C rustaceans
-
,

E chinoderms P olyps M O llu s k s Worms Fishes

, , , a n d some,

kinds are larger than any O f the same groups found in

shallowe r waters Wyville Thomson mentions his bring
.

ing up specime ns O f one species O f Sea U rchin at

one haul and Verrill and Agassiz state parallel facts from
the American seas .

The life from the cold and warmer regions di ffers to a

great extent in species ; but the m ore comprehensive
groups represented in the two are largely the same The .

colde r depths are muc h less profuse in life fail of some ,

prominent groups and contain many species Of very

,

peculiar characte r .

The cold and warm c u rrents are in places in abrupt con

tact The pushing O f the forme r along t h e eastern sub
.
,

merged border of N orth America over the narrow warmer,

area in consequence O f a severe storm was probably the

, ,

cause O f the destruction of Fishes C rustaceans etc that , ,

.
,

took place during the winter O f 1 8 8 1 — 8 2 ( A E Verrill ) . . .

 {Mp foundin
PART III . DYNAMI CAL G E OLO G Y .

s limdlfiers ti) 8
D YN AM I CA L G EOLO GY treats of the c auses or origin of
events in geological history that is O f the origin of
-
,

rocks O f distu rbances O f the earth s strata and the ac

,
’

companying e ffects of valleys O f mountains O f conti

, , ,

neuts and O f all changes i n the earth s features climates

,
’
, ,

and living species The agencies O f m ost importance

.
,

next to the universal powers O f Gravitation and C ohesi ve

and Chemical Attraction are Life the Atmosphere Water
, , , ,

and Heat .

The following are the subdivisions of the subj ect here

a dopted
ll V il
l)
194 3(A r
e r
8
- .
1 L IF E ; 2 T HE C HE M I CA L A C T I O N O F T HE A T M O S
, ,

P H E B E A N D W A T E RS ; 3 M E C HAN I CA L E FF E C TS O F T HE
,

A T M O S P HE R E ; 4 M E C HAN I C A L E FF E C T S O F W A T E R ;
,

5 A C T I O N O F H E A T ; 6 MO V E M E N T S IN TH E E A R T H S
’
, ,

C R U S T including the folding and uplifti n g O f strata and

, ,

the origin O f mountains and of the earth s general features ’

.

I . LI F E .

Lifehas done much ge ological work by contributing ,

material for the making of rocks Nearly all the lime .

s tones O f the globe all the coal and so m e siliceous beds

, , ,

s portions of rocks O f other kinds have been formed ,

the remains of living organisms B oth a n i m als and .

have been sources of the m aterial The skeleto n s .

,

n secretions O f animals after fulfilling the

y , p u r
,

97
 D YN A MIC A L G E OL O G Y .

poses Of life have been turned over to the mineral king

,

dom to be made into minerals and rocks Similarly

, .
,

from vegetable structures have come beds of stone as ,

well as beds O f coal M oreover fossils or relics reve al

.
, ,

ing t h e form or structure of once living creatures are ,

comm on in the rocks This is the formative work of life

. .

Life has done ge ological work also through its protective

and its destructive effects .

1 . Fo rma t i ve W o rk .

Aq u ati c S pe cies t h e Pr i n ci pal R o ck mak e rs — The kinds -

.

O f life whic h have contributed m ost m aterial to the earth s

’

rock formations and which are m ost comm on as fossils

, ,

are the aquatic and particularly the marine This is so

, .

for several reasons .

1
( ) The accumulati on of material for beds of rock has
been d one m ostly by the sea .

2
( ) The species which have the m ost stony matter in
their structures viz Corals Crinoids Mollusks and
, .
, , , ,

M olluscoids are with inconsiderable exceptions aquatic

, , , ,

and the great maj ority are marine .

3
( ) The animal rem ains which are covered by the
wate r itself or by the sediments deposited therein are
, ,

protected from the chemical action of the atmosphere ,

and from various other destructive agencies C oal has .

been made only where the plants grew in or near marshes

or S hallow lakes or were drifted into bays or lakes for
,

the leaves that fall in the dry woods undergo complete

decomposition and pass a w ay in gaseous combinations
, .

The bones of animals dropped over the land disappear by

becoming the food O f other animals as well as by decay , .

Bu t those of Mammals Birds and R eptiles livi n g about , ,

the shores O f lakes have O ften become b u ried in lacustrine

,

deposits O f sand or mud and thus have b een preserved , .

M astodons have been mired in marshes and their skeletons ,

preserved whole w hile the thousands that died over th e

,
 stone, a
s

‘ O. ”
Q .

s 1 33 5 3 — T
h8 knds i
 D YN A M IC AL G E OL O G Y .

shells o f many species also abound with m ore or less o f

,

Millepores and Nullipores Whatever the species the

.
,

process is the same An account of the formation of

.

limestone from coral reefs will therefore serve as a gen

eral illustration of t h e subj ect .

CO R AL R EE F S AN D I S LAN D S .

In tropical regions corals grow in vast plantations

,

about most oceanic islands and along the shores of conti

nents with a profusion O f other marine life In the
, .

shallow waters the patches or groves of c oral are usually

distributed among large r areas O f coral sand like small ,

groves O f trees or shrubbery in some sandy plains .

The coral plantations are swept by the waves an d with ,

great force when the seas are dri ven by storms The .

corals are thus frequently broken and the fragments ,

washed about until they are either worn to sand by the

friction O f piece upon piece or become buried in the holes
,

among the grow i n g c orals or are washed up on the beach

, .

C orals are not inj ured by mere breaking any more than ,

is vegetation by the clipping O f a branch and those that

are not torn u p from the very base and reduced to frag
ments continue to grow .

The fragments and sand made by the waves and by ,

the same means strewn ove r the bot t om along with the ,

shells O f M ollusks and other calcareous relics are spread ,

out in a bed in the shallow water lik e any sedimentary

material The bed consolidates as accumulation goes o n
.
,

and thus becomes a bed O f limestone .

As the corals continue growing over this bed fragments ,

and sand are constantly forming and the bed O f limestone

,

thus increases in thickness until it reaches the level O f low

tide B eyond this it rises but little because corals can
.
,

not grow where they are liable to be left for hours wholly
out of water and the waves have too great force at this
level to allow of their holding their places if they w ere ,
 L IF E .

able to s t an d t h e hot and drying sun A bed of lime

'
.

stone is thus produced which is the coral reef ,

.

The coral reef at or j ust above lo w tide level is often -

covered with a thick growth of Nullipores Millepores .

and Corallines sometimes grow in large patches among

the other corals O f the plantatio n O ccasionally as has .
,

been obser ved at Bermuda and Florida the tubes of ,

Worms ( S e rp u lae) furnish imp ortant contributions of

material .

The limestone beds made from corals and shells are not
a result of growth alone as in the case of the deposits forme d
,

from microscopic organisms but of growth in connection ,

with the breaking and wearing action O f the ocean s waves ’

and currents C orals and shells unaided could make

.
, ,

only an open mass full of large holes and not a compact ,

rock There must be sand or fine fragments at hand

.
,

such as the wate rs can and do constantly make in such

regions in orde r to fill up the spaces or interstices b e
,

tween the corals or shells I f there is clayey or ordinary .

siliceous sand at hand this will suffice but it will not

, ,

make a pure limestone ; in orde r to have the rock a pure

limestone the shells and c orals must be the source of the
,

san d or fine fragments for these alo n e yield the needed

,

calcareous material or cement The limestone made in .

this way by the help of the waves may be and often is of , ,

imp alpable fineness of grain having been formed in such , ,

a case of the finest coral sand or mud I n other cases it

, .
,

contains some imbedded fragments in the solid bed ; in

others it is a coral conglomerate ; and over still other
, ,

large sheltered areas it is a mass of standing coral s with

,

the interstices filled in solid with the sand and fragments .

Along the shores above low tide the sands are a gglu t i
, ,

mated into a beach sand rock and the beds hav e the S lope
-
,

of the beach or 5 to ,
°
The waters contain calcium
bicarbonate in solution ; and as the sands wet at high , ,

tide dry again when the tide is out the calcareous cement
, ,

is deposited between the grains as calcium carbonate and ,

 D YN AM IC A L G E OL O G Y .

so consolidation goes forward The cement coats each .

grain with calcium carbonate and in this way the rock ,

sometimes takes the character of an o o lite .

The calcare ous sands left dry on the upper part of the
beach may be blown inland by the winds and piled in ,

dunes consolidating into a wind drift rock or aeolian

,
-
,

rock This has occurred on a large scale at Bermuda and

.

the B ahamas ( page

FIG . 158 .

re w o ra h g h l d b d d by
i i s an ,
o r e re co ra l r e e fs

The coral formations of the P acific are sometimes broad

reefs around hilly or m ountainous islands as s hown in ,

Fi g 1 5 3
. To the left in the figure there is an inner reef
.
, ,

and an outer reef separate d by a channel of water the

, ,

inner (f ) called a fringin g reef and the outer ( b) a barrier ,

reef. They are united in one beneath the w ate r At .

intervals there are usuall y openings through the barrier

FIG 1 54 . .

l l d
C o ra i s an , o r at o ll
.

reef as at h h which are entrances to harbors

, , , The .

channels are someti m es deep enough for ships t o pass from

harbor to harbor S ome islands are surrounded only by
.

a fringing reef close to the shore ; others only by a bar

,

rier reef separated from the shore by a channel se veral

,

miles in width .

Many coral reefs stand alone in the ocean far from any ,

other lands A view of one of these coral islands or atolls

.
, ,
 ‘l
m m wb is show n in Fig 1 5 4 and a map in Fi g 1 5 5 An atoll
.
, . .

consists of a reef e ncircling a salt water lake called the -

,

lagoon O n the windward side the reef first rise s above

.

the surface and becomes covered with vegetation Ve ry

, .

often as in Fig 1 5 5 the leeward part of ,

F IG 1 55
.
,

“V i i t a al
n ign the belt is dry only at low tide or wooded ,
. .

only in spots so as to be a stri n g of green

,

islets There are sometimes deep open

.

ings through the reef on the leeward side ,

as at ( 6 ) in Fig 1 55 so that S hips can

.
,

enter the lagoon and find good anchorage .

Fig 1 55 is a m ap of one of the atolls of

.

the Gilbert ( or K ingsmill ) Islands in the A p i f th G lb t a, o e i er

g u p P ifi ro ,
ac c.

The P aumotu Archipelago east northeast of the S ociety ,

-

Islands contains between 7 0 and 8 0 atolls ; the C arolines

, ,

with the R adack B alick and Gilbert groups o n the east

, , ,

mm ana b d
roa
and southeast as many more ; and others are scattered
,

over the intervening ocean Most of the high islands .

m l
| m _ w bml e
l nee
between the parallels of 28 n orth and south of the equator °

( where the seas are suffi ciently warm page 9 5 ) have a ,

fringe or barrier o f coral reefs .

The extent of some of the moder n reefs matches nearly

that of the largest P aleozoic reefs O n the north of the .

Fij i Islands the reef grounds are 5 to 1 5 miles in width .

The barrier reef of N e w Caledonia extends 1 5 0 miles north

of the island and 5 0 miles south A long northeastern .

Australia the reefs extend although with many interrup ,

0 miles .

the reef forming corals grow only where the

-

not more than about 1 5 0 feet the thickness of ,

cannot much exceed that amount if the sea ,

e m ai n s at a constant level But in the vicinity .

y barrier reefs and of atolls in general so u ndings

, ,

depth of hundreds or thousands of feet apparently ,

ing for the reefs a thickness vastly exceeding the

which is the limit of coral growth D arwin e x .
 D N Y A M IC AL G E O LO G Y .

plaine d th e facts by the theory of a subsidence o f the

'

ocean bottom in the region of t hese barrier reefs and

" ’
a tolls he author s own observatio n s upon numerous
.

coral formations in the P acific led him to adopt the same

view If a fringing reef .

F 15°
had formed about a v ol
IG -

c an i c island a subsidence ,

of the botto m at a rate

not faster than the rate
o f up w ard growth of the
D i g m i llu t ti g
a ra ig i f t ll
s ra
reef W
n O ll ld
or certainly C OD
n o a o s . , .

vert the fringing reef into

a barrier reef and ( if the subsidence continued until the
,

original island was submerged ) into an atoll The the ory .

is illustrated diagramm atically in Fig 1 5 6 the dotted .

,

lines showing the successive levels of the water and the ,

letters F B and A marking the successive sta g es of the

, ,

1
reef ,
— fringing reef barrier reef and atoll , , .

DE E P -
SE A C AL C A R E O U S FO R M A T I O NS .

In the deep ocean the Globigerina ooze is limestone

material and the shells of Globigerin ae are so small that
they do not n eed pulverizing for the making of a rock .

The beds contain also molluscan shells and other re lics

from the pelagic species of the ocean and those of its
1 D arw in s t h eo ry’
mple t ely th e o b s e rve d f act s w i t h r egard
e x plai n s c o

t o c o ral f o r ma ti o n B u t i t a s s u me s t h e f a c t o f a grea t o c e a n i c s u b s i d e n c e
.
,

w h i c h t h o u gh n o t a p r i o r i i mp ro b ab l e ( s e e p age
,
h a s n o t b e e n i nd e

p e n d e n tly p ro v e d M o r
.e o v er , i t h a s b e e n s h o w n b y M u rr a y , A g a s s i z ,

a n d o t h e rs t h a t u n d er c e r ta in c o n d i t i o n s , b o t h b ar ri e r r e e fs a n d a t o lls
, ,

may h a ve b e e n f o r me d w i t h o u t s u b s id e n c e A c o ral fo rmat i o n gro w i ng

.

o n a s h o al o f s mall a re a w o u ld a s s u me t h e f o rm o f a n a t o ll b y re as o n o f

th e m o re lu x u r i an t gr o w t h o f c o rals a t t h e m argin o f t h e s h o al, w h e re

t h e w at e r w o u ld b e p u r e s t M u rray h as s u gge s t e d t h at s u c h a s h o al may
.

h a ve b ee n p ro d u c e d b y th e e r o s i o n o f a vo lc a n i c p e a k w h i c h o n c e ro s e
a b o ve t h e s e a le ve l ; a n d t h a t , i n o t h er c a s e s , s h e lls o f R h i z o p o d s a n d

th e s t o ny s e c re t i o n s o f o th e r f o r m s o f mari n e li f e m a y h ave b u ilt u p p o r

t i o ns o f t h e s e a b o t t o m t o w i t h i n 1 00 o r 1 5 0 f e e t o f t h e s ur f a c e — th e
 L IFE .

depths ; and amo ng them those of P teropods , pelagic

species are common in some places
,
“

FR E S H -
W ATE R S H EL L L I M E S T O NE .

Fresh water shells especially those of the genera Sp here ,

m l 3 subsidence
.
r ia m L i mn aea s P hy s a P la n o rbi s an d P a lu di n a make
, , , , ,

white often chalky beds on the bottoms of small ponds

, ,

which as the pond shallows be come overlain by a growth

, ,

of peat I n such accumulations the shells are sometimes

.
,

but little broken and they then make shell limestone ,

.

The large shells of the Um o group the Fresh water M us

'

-
,

sels of rivers occasionally make beds but seldom of much

, ,

extent .

PHOS PHATIC F ORMATIONS .

Vertebrate animals have contrib uted very little material

to the rocks compared with inferior tribes of animals
, .

B ut they have been an important source of calcium phos

phate and the dep osits are often worked be cause the
, ,

m i ni m “ material is valuable as a fertilize r B ones scales and .

, ,

various tissues of both V ertebrates and Invertebrates con

tain phosphatic material The mineral apatite common .
,

in m any crystalline limestones is a calci u m phosphate , ,

and is sometimes O f organic origin Guano which owe s .

,

its value largely to its phosphates has been made chiefly ,

d e pt h at w h i ch ree f c o rals c an gro w, — an d t h at o n ly th e u pp er 1 50 f ee t

c o n s is ts o f T h e gr e a t d e pt h o f t h e la go o n s i n m an y o f t h e
c o r al r o c k ‘

la rge r a t o lls i s n o t ve ry s at i s f ac t o ri ly e xp la i n e d o n M u rray s t h e o ry a n d

’

man y f ac ts i n r e gar d t o co ral f o rm at i o n s — as , f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e s u c ces s i o n

o f s mall a t o lls , la rge a t o lls , b a rri e r f
re e s , a n d fri ngi n g re e s , f
i n pa s s i ng
o u t wa r d f ro m t h e ce n t ral a re a O f t h e P a c i fi c , w h ic h i s l d es t i tu te o f i s a n d s
-
a re b e tt e r e x p lain e d o n t h e t h e o r y o f s u b s i d e n ce A f e w b o ri ngs i n a .

c o ral is la n d t o a d e p t h o f 5 00 o r 1 0 0 0 f e e t , w i t h a d r ill la rg e e n o u g h t o

g ive a c o re s i x i n c h e s i n d i a me t e r f o r e x a m i n a t i o n , w o u l d s e tt l e t h e q u e s
t i o n a s t o w h e t h e r th e r o c k b e lo w i s o f c o r a l r e e f o rigi n o r n o t Th e -
.

n o t i o n f o r me rly e n t e rt a i n e d , t h a t a t o lls h a ve b e e n f o r m e d u p o n t h e

ri ms o f s u b ma ri ne c ra t e rs , i n vo lves s o ma n
y i mp ro b ab i li t ie s t h at i t h as
be e n u n ive rs ally ab a n d o ne d .
 D YN AM IC AL G E OLOG Y .

from the e x crements of B irds in dry regions where the

B irds long had undisturbe d possession ; as on some small
coral islands in the ce ntral P acific islands o fi the P eruvian ,

coast the coast of equatorial Africa and in the Caribbean

, ,

S ea O ver the coast regions of S outh Carolina Georgia

.
, ,

and Florida there are large phosphatic deposits of great

,

commercial value .

C oprolites or isolated excrements of R eptiles and Fishes

, ,

and sometimes of other animals occur in many rocks , .

The shells of certain Brachiopods — L i ng u la and some

related genera — are largely phosphatic These shells .

and the shells of C rustaceans when fossilized are usually

, ,

black because of the large am ount of animal matter they

,

c ontain this portion becoming carbonized

, .

Vegetable tissues also afford phosphates the ashes of ,

o r dinary meadow grass a fi o r d i n g 8 parts of phosphoric

acid in 1 0 0 of rye straw 4 parts ; of clover 1 8 parts ;

, ,

o f seaweeds 1 to 5 parts
, .

S ILICE OUS F ORMATIONS .

Siliceous beds of organic origin are made chiefly fro m

the accumulation o f the shells of D iatoms and in the , ,

tropical ocean m ore especially from those of R adiolarians

, .

D iatom deposits are common in marshes beneath the peat

of the m arsh They were made while the marsh was in
.

the state of a pond The deposit looks like chalk but

.
,

shows under the microscope that it consists chiefly of the

shells of D iatoms M oreover the material does not e ffe r
.
,

vesce with acids like chalk or limestone It is used as a .

p olishing powder also in m aking giant powder or dyna

,

“
mite preparations also for making soluble S ilica .
”
,

S ome Alg ae living in the geysers of the Yellowstone

P ark secrete silica and thus m ake siliceous growths and
,

accumulations as first observe d by W H Weed

,
. . .

Such deposits of organic silica often become solidified

by infiltrating wate rs and so converted into opal or chal
,

c e d o ny .
 L IF E .

O rganic silica has been largely distributed through

Mnsom
esm
‘

au limestones while they were in the process of formation ,

because D iatoms Sponge s and R adiolarians were living

, ,

in the same waters that supplied the shells corals and , ,

other materials of the limesto n es Through the tendency .

of particles of the same kind of matte r diffused through a

rock to collect and concrete together being carrie d by ,

percolating waters in a state of solutio n or suspension t h e ,

limestones are now fille d with siliceous c oncretions The .

flint which constitutes concretions of irregular form in

some beds of the E nglish chalk and the chert or horn , ,

stone o f many limestones have been thu s derived M ore

, , .

over i h the petrifaction of t h e fossils of a limestone or

,

othe r rock by silica the silica has often come from this
,

organic source .

A
C RB ON ACE OUS F ORMATIONS ; PE AT , A
CO L, E TC .

The m ost abundant contrib u tions from the vegetable

kingdom to rocks are those co n stituting beds of mineral
coal coal being made from woody tissues as the res u lt of
,

a more advanced stage of the same p rocess by which peat

is forme d ( as explained below) Mineral O i l has in part.

t h e same source but is chiefly of animal origin

, Graphite .
,

which is pure carbon is ofte n also of vegetable origin

, ,

coal sometimes occurring changed to graphite when it has

been s u bj e cted to high heat under pressure Carbonaceous .

matter of vegetable or animal origin gives the black color

, ,

to black limesto n es and shales as it does t o soils This is

,
.

prove d by the fact that when such rocks are burnt they
, ,

beco me white owing to the combustion of the carbonaceous

,

part.

P E A T FO R M A T I O N S .

P eat is an accumulation O f half decomposed vegetable -

matter formed in wet or swampy places In temperate .

climates it is due m ainly to the growth of mosses of the

genus S p h ag nu m These m osse s form a loose spongy
.
,
 D YN A M IC A L G E OL O G Y .

turf and as they have the property of d yi ng at the

,

extremities of the roots while increasing above they may ,

gradually form a bed of great thickness The roots and .

leaves of other plants or their branche s and stu m ps and

, ,

any oth er vegetation present may contribute to the a cc u mu

,

lating bed The small C rustaceans Worms and various

.
, ,

other organisms livi n g in the waters including often fresh ,

water Sponges add to the material ; the siliceous S picules

,

of the Sponges may generally be found in the ashes of the

peat The carcasses and excrements of large animals at
.

times become included D ust may also be blown over the

.

marsh by the wi n ds .

In wet parts of Alpine regions there are various fl o w e r

ing plants which gro w in the form of a close turf and give ,

rise to beds of peat like the m oss In Tierra del Fuego

, .
,

although not south of the parallel of there are large

marshes of such Alpine plants the cool summers which ,

prevail in that latitude in the souther n hemisphere giving

the vegetation an Alp ine character even at low altitudes .

The dead and w e t vegetable mass slowly undergoes

a change becoming an imperfect coal of a brownish black
, ,

color loose in texture and ofte n friable although com

, , ,

m o n ly penetrated with rootlets In the change the woody

.

fiber loses a part of its oxygen and hydrogen ; but unlike ,

th e typical varieties of coal it still contains usually 25 to

,

38 per cent of oxygen O ccasionally it is nearly a true

.

coal.

P eat beds cover large surfaces of some countries and ,

occasionally have a thickness of forty feet O n e tenth of .

Ireland is covered by them ; and one of the mosses of “

the Shannon is stated to be fifty m iles long and two or

three miles broad A marsh near the mo u th of the L oire
.

is described by Blav i e r as m ore than fifty leagues in cir

c u mfe re n c e O ver many parts of N e w E ngland and other
.

p ortions of N orth America there are exte n sive beds The .

amount of peat in Massachusetts alone has been estimated

to e x ceed cords M any of the marshe s were
.
 L IF E .

originally ponds or shallo w lakes and gradually becam e ,

swamps as the water from some cause diminishe d in

, ,

depth .

P eat is often underlain by a bed of whitish shell marl ,

consisting of fresh water shells — mostly spe cies of Li m

-

me u s P hy s a and P la n o r bi s — which were livi n g in the

, ,

lake B eds of white chalky material consisting of the sili

.

c e o u s shells O f D iatoms referre d to on page 1 0 6 are often

, ,

found beneath peat .

P eat is used for fuel and also as a fertilizer , M u ck .

is another name O f peat and is use d especially when the

,

material is employe d as a manure ; but it incl u des all

impure varieties not fit for burning being applied to ,

any black swamp earth consisting largely of decomposed

vegetable matter .

P eat beds sometimes contain standing tre es and entire ,

cu m
inwhich skeletons of animals that had sunk in the swamp The .

peat waters have an antiseptic p ower and flesh is some ,

times changed by the burial into adipocere .

2 . Pro t e c t i ve a nd De s t ru c t i ve Eff e c t s .

Slopes are protected from erosion by a covering of tur f

s and b ills from the winds by tufts O f grass and other
, ,

vegetation ; S hores from the surf in many places by a

, ,

mfly
mea gro w th of lo n g seaweeds ; and the outer margins of coral
lb
inn
reefs by a growth of Nullipores over the exposed surface
, .

Further forests keep a vast amo u nt O f moisture in the

,

wet ground beneath them which is gradually supplied to ,

the streams as from a reservoir making them serviceable ,

for mills and other purp oses through the ye ar ; whereas ,

if the forests are cut away the rains fill sud d enly the ,

river channels producing disastrou s floods and the lon g

, ,

drough t s which intervene are seasons of dwindled and

useless waters And besides the floods carry away t h e
.
, ,

soil from the steep hillside s and may reduce a productive ,

region to one of rocky ledges These e vils are already a .

 D YN A M IC A L G E OL O G Y .

reality in portions of N orth America and are on the ,

increase .

The common E arthworm as D arwin has shown ,

m oves a great amount of earth or soil in the pellets it ,

discharges at the surface He found that the weight .

per acre in a year in four cases was

and tons L obworms on seashores . are even , ,

greater workers according to C D avison who reports

, .
,

that the amount of sand carried up each year on the shores

of H oly Island N orthumberland was equivalent to 1 9 1 1
, ,

tons per acre M armots ( Sp e r ma top h i lu s E ve re

i n the C aspian steppe s bring great quantities of ,

earth to the surface In a f e w years after their i n t r o du c

.

tion they had brought up cubic meters of earth to

the square mile ( M u s ch k e t o ff The loosening of ,

the soil by such means allows it to be m ore easily washed

away by rains .

R ocks where j ointed or fi s s u r e d or laminated are often

, ,

torn asun d er or upturned by the growth of a seed in a

crevice and the subsequent enlargement of the root and
,

stem — trunks sometimes growing to a diameter of sev

eral feet and gradually opening the crevice and thus dis
, ,

placing great masses The same agency opens crevices .

to moisture an d so promotes decomposition ; and it pre

,

pares for the action O f freezing i n winter ( page

B oring animals cause destruction in various ways The .

M ole M ouse and some other animals tunnel embank

, ,

ments and open channels which the e x it of the confined

,

waters rapidly enlarges and sometimes a vast amount of

erosion is occasioned by the waters thus discharge d The .

levees of the Mississippi are thus tunneled by C r a w fi s h ,

occasioning great floods and devastations B oring shells .

,
'

as the S ax zca va weaken the parts of rocks exposed to the

,

surf.

The decay of vegetable and animal matters in the soil

produces organic acids as well as carbonic acid which ,

c orrode rocks a n d promote their decomposition .

 C HEM I CA L AC T I O N O F T HE A IR AND W ATER S . 111

‘ l i m onthe
O F T HE
'

II . C HE MICAL A CTI O N A IR A N D
W ATER S .

G eological work of a destructive kind is carried forward

1 11 a quiet way through the chemical action of the con
’
s t i t u e n t s of the earth s atm osphere and waters preparing ,

thus for the rougher mechanical work of these agents ;

and the same processes have their formative e ffects .

1 . De s t ru c t i ve Eff e c t s .

Oxy ge n is a consti tue nt bothof air and water it being ,

i x e d ( in the proportion of per cent by weight )

m oi arthto with nitrogen to form air and combined ( in the propor ,

tio n of per cent) with hydrogen to form w ater

n g n washed H
( Z ) O M. any substances in minerals or rocks have an
intense a ffinity for oxygen .

Iron rusts because of its tendency to combine with

oxygen ; and iron in the protoxide state or ferrous oxide ,

( F e O ) will
, take m ore oxygen and so pass to the sesqui ,

oxide state or ferric oxide ( Fe 2 0 3)

, Consequently a .
,

mineral containing iron in the former state as pyroxene , ,

hornble nde or black mica often goes to destruction

, ,

through this a ffi nity and hence rocks containi n g these

minerals like trap usually suffer easy decomposition for
, ,

disturbing one constituent is like taking a stone from an ,

arch destruction to the whole The other ingredients of

, .

the iron bearing mineral are set free to make earth and
-
,

commonly the associa t ed mine rals participate in the decay

and add to the earth The ferric oxide may make a red
.

earth ( re d ocher ) w hich is one form of the species hema

,

tite Bu t it ge n erally combines with water and becomes

.
,

a brownis h yello w earth which is yellow ocher or the, ,

mineral called limonite The hem atite or limonite may

.

be pure but it is usually mixed with the other materials

,

of the rock or ma kes ocherous stains over the surfaces of

,

fissures or j oints .
 D YN AMIC A L G E OLO G Y .

In this process of oxidation moisture as well as ai r ,

must be present ; the oxygen taken up is usually derived

from the moisture .

Again iron when combined with sulphur constitu ting

, ,

a sulphide of iron like pyrite or marcasite ( Fe S z) or

, ,

pyrrhotite ( Fe n S m) oxidizes readily ( unless in the fi rm e s t

,

crystals ) and passes to the same state of yellow ocher

, ,

or limonite . The sulphur also oxidizes and becomes ,

sulphuric acid which is a destructive agent owing to its

, ,

tendency to take into combination many of the ingredients

of minerals as li m e magnesia soda potash alu mina and
, , , , , ,

iron oxides making sulphates ; and it hence aids much

,

in the work of destruction This acid may combine with .

the iron and so make green vitriol ; but as its a ffi nity for
, ,

the other substance s above enumerated is stronger than

for iron the iron is usually left in the ocherous state
, .

Now iron sulphide in the form of pyrite or m arcasite

, ,

is disseminated more or less abundantly through nearly

all the rocks of the globe He nce rocks in all lands are
.
,

undergoing destruction through this agency M any a .

fair looki n g stone is worthless for building on account of it

-
.

It is the most universal of rock destroyers W hen the .

minute grains of pyrite in a granite or sandstone oxidize ,

the other mineral particles of the rock are set loose and ,

become discolored with the ocher th at is made ; and the

sulphuric acid formed at the same time eats into some
, ,

of them to cause their decomposition Thus the granite .

either ( 1 ) disintegrates into a loose granitic sand or ( 2) ,

becomes decomposed to earth or clay Blocks of trap have .

a thin decomposed crust which is incessantly receivi n g

,

additions inside while losing outside .

The decomposition of iron sulphide in shales or clays

often forms alum and makes alum clays because of the
, ,

combinatio n of the sulphuric acid that is for m ed with the

alumina of the rock and u sually with some other element
,

in the protoxide state as potash soda m agnesia etc

, , , , .

When ir on carbonate ( siderite) is left exposed to the

 C HE M I CA L AC TI O N O F THE A IR A ND W ATE R S . 113

air and m oisture the iron oxidizes and the surface color
, ,

changes from grayish white to brown yellowish or black , , ,

owing to the formation of limonite An exposure to the .

weather for a year is su ffi cient to cause a s u perficial change ;

and by continued exp osure the whole m ass become s limon
ite. Crystalline limestone when pure calcite ( C a C O g) ,

or pure dolomite ( C a M g C Z O 6 ) is a durable rock C ol ,

.

umus statues and pinnacles as in the marvelous M ilan

, , ,

cathedral will stand exposure to the weather alm os t i n

,

definitely B ut if the limestone contains one per cent of

.
,

iron combined with the calcium the iron will soon sho w ,

itself over the exposed surface by giving it an iron rust -

color and the destruction of structu res made O f it is sure

,

to follow If manganese is pre sent instead O f the iron the

.
,

destruction of the rock is e qually certain but the stains ,

produced are black T o prevent evil to marble buildings

.
,

blocks O f such limestone are sometime s smeared with tar

over all their surfaces except those exposed to view , .

Carbo n Di o x i de and Or g ani c Aci d s Carbon dioxide .

is present in the atm osphere about 3 parts in ,

consisting of this gas It is present i n all rain wate r .

,

t h e r a i n w a te r d eriv i n g it from the atmosphere It i s .

present in the soil being produced where ver the mate ,

rial O f pla n ts and animals is un d ergoing decomposition ;

and thence it is give n to the waters percolating through
soils By all the m ethods mentioned and also through
.
,

animal respiration the sea derives carbonic acid M ore

, .

ov er in the earlier ages O f the globe the amount of car

, ,

boni o acid in the atmosphere a n d waters was far greater

than at present O rganic acids result from the d e c o mp o
.

s i ti o n of vegetable and animal materials in the soil ; and ,

like carbonic acid are carried by the waters of the soil

,

downward through the porous rocks .

Carbonic acid tends strongly to form combinations with

magnesia lime potash soda and with iron in the protoxide
, , , ,

state H ence a feldspar since it contai n s potash soda or

.
, , ,

lime is liable to have its alkali carried off by percolating

,
 D YN A M IC AL G E OL O G Y .

w aters ; and with such a loss the mineral changes to a

,
,

hydrous clayey mineral calle d kaolin — the material used

in m aking porcelain C ommon feldspar yields on analysis
.

1 7 per cent of potash of alumina and , of silica ; ,

and kaolin yields no p otash 1 4 per cent of water 4 0 of , ,

alumina and 4 6 of silica Granite and other rocks are

, .

O ften eaten into by this process s o as to be fr a gile to the ,

depth of a foot or m ore and sometimes to a depth of 5 0 ,

or 1 0 0 feet L ike results are produced by organic acids

.

in percolating waters .

The depth of decomposition is determined by the depth

to which moisture is absorbed ; so that the architectural
value of a stone is i n
FIG 1 57 FIG 1 58 v e rs el as its absorb
y
. . . .

ent quality All .

cracks or j oints by
which water enters
may have a d i s c o l
ored border ( Fig .

D m p i ti
e co f k l g k
os on o ro c and the Pr o
s a on c ra c s .

cess goes on by this

means in some granite trap and other rocks until the
, , , ,

mass becomes reduced to what looks like a pile of large

spheroidal concretions ( Fi g and ends finally in .

making earth or loose sand of the whole

, ,
.

The decomposition O f iron bearing minerals is promoted -

by the action O f ca rbonic acid or of organic acids con ,

t a i n e d in the soil waters These acids extract the iron .

protoxide and make with it a soluble salt of iron and thus , ,

by the aid of streamlets may carry the iron away The , .

salt of iron generally becomes oxidized in the low places

or marshes to which it may be carried and forms there a ,

yellow or brown or brownish black deposit of limonite or

a rela t ed ore .

In regions of d ry climate like a large part of the R ocky ,

M ountain region the w aters percolating through porous

,

rocks as sandsto n es brin g to the surface of the rock the

, ,
 C HE M I CA L AC TI O N O F T HE A IR AND W AT E R S . 115

soluble iron compounds produced within it by decomposi

tion ; and by the deposit of the iron in the form of ferric
,

oxi d e give to the lofty walls and bluffs of c afi o n s a n d

,

plateaus brilliant colors of bu ff yello w orange vermilion , , , ,

and other shades and often the tints are in vertical ban d s
or stripes owing to the descent of the solution along the
,

vertical surfaces These colors prevail through Colorado

.
,

Utah M onta n a Wyoming and other states north and

, , ,

south They gave the name of Yellowstone to the large

.

lake and river so called and to the Yellowstone P ark in

,

northwestern Wyoming Were rains abundant the iron

.
,

made tints would be washe d out by the descending waters ,

and only the commonplace grays and dull reds remain .

The organic material of the soils owing to its using oxy ,

gen when de composing will take it from any Fe Z O 3 pres

,

ent and may thus change it to Fe O and this Fe O may then

, ,

combine with the organic acid or carbonic acid at hand .

Many re d beds of rocks have lost the re d color in spots

2[dfl (F
0
'
ig.
or s c am s or along cracks by this method of deoxidation
, .

W hen calcareous grains or fossils are distributed through

beds of porous siliceous sandstone percolating waters will ,

carry O ff the grains and fossils But if the rocks are not .
, .

porous such fossils remain for indefinite time M oisture

,
.

usually penetrates a compact rock to a very small distance

generally less than an eighth of an inch — and only to ,

this depth does change go fo r ward The freque n t preser .

vation of calcareous fossils and the unaltere d state of the

,

minerals of much granite and trap show that infiltration ,

and change have ordinarily very narrow limits .

W aters containing carbonic acid readily erode limestone .

The limestone is converted into calcium bicarbonate ,

which is soluble O n exposure to the air the bicarbonate

.
,

loses its excess of carbonic acid and the limestone taken ,

up is again deposited Thus limestone strata are eroded

.
,

and caverns made ; and by the depositions the caverns

, ,

with stalactites and floored wi t h stalagmite .

40,
 D Y N A M IC A L G E O LO G Y .

2 . Fo rm a
t i ve Ef fe c t s .

De p o s i t s Fo rme d decomposition of iron

.
— 1 . By t h e
bearing limestone or iron carbonate as explained in the ,

preceding section great beds O f limonite of the purest

, ,

quality have been made sometimes over 1 0 0 feet deep

, , ,

and they O fte n lie in place that is they occupy the place ,

of the rocks from whose decomposition they were deri ved .

Those of R ichmond and West Stockbridge in Ma s s ach u

setts of Salisbury in C onnecticut of Millerton and other
, ,

places in eastern N e w York and of many locali ties south ,

of Ne w York in P e nnsylvania and Virginia are of

this kind .

Fig 1 5 9 represents the decomposition here described

.
,

as it is now going on at
F 1 59 IG . .

the Amenia ore pit in

Dutchess C ounty east ,

ern Ne w York .

Ag ain the iron salts ,

carrie d for long periods

to marshes — the pockets
Im p u lm t Am i
nég f a region have O f t en
rn en a

ftcgr g
es o a
e
re i
O —
cl ev

made large beds of bog

ore a variety of lim onite Such ore is likely to contain
, .

sulphur and phosphorus ( from the decomposing organic

m aterials present in a marsh ) and hence the iron a fforded ,

is generally of inferior quality .

2 From the decomposition of feldspar have come large

.

beds of kaolin or porcelain clay , S ome of the best .

and largest have been made from quartzites containi ng

disseminated feldspar as on the southern m argin of New ,

M arlboro Massachusetts the kaolin being removed by per

, ,

c o lat i n
g waters and deposited in, the valleys of streams .

O ther beds of kaolin have resulted from the decomposition

O f the feldspar in granite and allie d rocks .

3 Carbo n ated waters besides formi n g stalactites and

.
,

stalagmites have made large beds O f limestone like the

, ,
 C HE MI C A L A C TI O N O F T HE A IR AND W A TE R S . 117

travertine of Tivoli near R ome and the deposits of , ,

Gardiners R iver Yellowstone P ark ,S uch deposits are .

formed in many rivers that flow through limestone coun

tries and in lakes into which such rive rs flow
,
.

4 In dry countries lakes without outlets often occur

.
, ,

the inflo w of water being balanced by evaporation so that ,

the water in the lake is unable to rise to a level at which

it can find an outlet In s u ch lakes the soluble materials
.

present in river waters may accumulate to s u p e rs at u ra

tion and be deposited In regions where marine sedi
,
.

ments are the prevailing rocks the soluble ingredients ,

taken up by the rivers will be largely the same that exist

in sea water as common salt ( sodium chloride ) and gypsum
,

( calcium sulp h ate ) In regions of volcanic

. rocks alkaline ,

carbonates derive d from the decomposition of the feld

,

spars and allied minerals will be m ore abundant than ,

chlorides Salt lakes may also be form ed by the isolation

.

of portions of the sea by elevation of portions of the

earth s crust ’
In t h e p rogress ive concentrat i on of salt
.

lakes gypsum is first deposited being comparatively little

, ,

soluble and afterwards the salt

,
D eposi t s of salt and .

gypsum m ay be formed also in salt marshes and lagoons

along seashores .

Co ns o li dati o n o f R o ck s — Carbonate d waters beside s .

,

serving in the consolidation of limestones ( page

Often also consolidate sand beds gravel be ds and clay , ,

beds when grains of limestone are eve n sparingly present

, ,

through alternate wetting and drying V ery comm only .

the solidification in beds of clay and sand takes place

around centers ( some gra i n or it may be fossil se rving , ,

as the nucleus ) making concretions ( page 4 6 ) in the bed

, .

The making of concretions may end in complete consolida

tion Again consolidation takes place to some exte nt
.
,

thro u gh the de position of limonite over the surfaces of

pebbles in gravel B u t the m ost com m on method O f
.

solidifying such fragmental deposits is t hrough siliceous

waters ( page
 D YN AM IC A L G E O LO G Y .

II I . M E CHA N I CA L E F FE CT S O F T HE
ATM O S P H E RE .

The Atmosphere does mechanical work in denudatio n .

t ransportation and deposition O f rock material

, It also .

accomplishes indirectly important geological work by

, ,

the transportation O f moisture Its work is called JE o li an .

work from the classical name for the god of the winds
, .

1 . De n u d a t i o n, T ra ns p o rt at io n, De p o s it i o n .

The force of the wind in its m ovements aga i nst obj ects
varies as the square of the velocity S upposing the air .

’
to be of mean density at 6 0 F near the ocean s level the °
.
,

pressure it exerts on a square foot at a velocity of 5 miles

an hour is e qual to about 2 ounces ; at a velocity of 1 0
miles or that of a light breeze 8 ou n ces ; of 2 0 miles a
, , ,

good steady breeze 2 pounds ; of 4 0 miles a strong gale

, , ,

8 pounds ; O f 6 0 miles 1 8 p ounds ; of 1 0 0 miles 5 0

, ,

pounds .

B ut the density diminishes with increasing temperature ,

and with increase of height ab ove the sea level The .

diminution is one half at a height of 3 % miles .

en
D u da oti n — The work of denudation is carried on
.

by the winds by ( 1 ) the direct impact O f the air and

, ,

2
( ) abrasion by means of transported sand and pebbles .

Great e ffects from impact require that broad

of unstable structures ( as the side of a house ) s
exposed to the m oving air and the e ffect is greater where ,

the surfaces struck are concave B road tracks of pros .

trate trees across a forest are examples of such work .

Moreover loose stones may be dislodged from natural

,

walls by the same means besides the sand and fragments ,

made by slow decomposition or weathering over their

surfaces .

Abrasion by trans ported material is another important

 4 denudation
.

m D
eposit on
 D YN A M IC A L G E O L OG Y .

Tran s po rtat i o n The streets of m ost

a nd Depo s i ti o n .
—

cities as well as the roads of the country O ften a fford

, ,

examples of the drifting powe r of the winds ; and the

burial of ancient R ome and O f E gyptian m onuments is
among its e ffects The moving sands of seashores and
.

deserts afford the best opportunity for the study o f its

methods of work .

The transporti n g powe r of air is small compared with

that of wate r because of its lightness and want of c o
,

h e s io n .O rdinary stony m aterial such as c ommon sand , ,

is 21 0 0 times heavie r than dry air while only to ,

times heavie r than wate r A strong breeze i s therefore .

required to raise the dust of a road for transportation and ,

a still stronge r bree ze t o raise quartz sand ; w hile large

pebbles are seldom lifte d fro m the ground .

The winds m oreover are extremely irregular in their

, ,

m oveme nts and action The trades ove r the ocean have .
, ,

a d egree O f uniformity But they have a velocity gener .

ally O f only 1 0 to 20 miles an hour The winds that do .

the chief part O f aeolia n geological work are those of

storms whose velocity pe r hour is from 4 0 to m ore than
,

1 0 0 miles Such winds are ve ry unsteady in action blow

.
,

i n g i n blasts or gusts in which the re is a sudden increase

,

to a maximum and a slower decline to a mi n imum The re .

is no constancy in force even for an hour and no uni ,

formity over large areas .

I n these and other Ways air manifests its u nsteady ,

character as a geological agent and contrasts strongly ,

with water A s a consequence the transporting power of

.
,

the strong winds undergoes rapid variations The wind .

that carrie s and d rops pebbles a few minutes later carries ,

o n ly san d for deposi t ion and fine r sand follows coarser, .

A s a consequence aeolian deposits are generally s t rat i c u

,

late fine r an d coarse r lamin ae succeeding each other in

,

indefinite alternations But there is not the evenness of

.
-

layer characterizing aqueous d eposits even w h en made ,

over level surfaces To make beds without straticulation

.
 M E C HAN I CA L E FF E C TS O F THE A T MO S P HE R E . 1 21

would require winds without these irregularities little —

’

varying and long co n tinuing — such as few regions have

, , ,

e x cept those that have winds of too moderate velocity to

carry any b u t the fines t particles The gusty winds tend .
,

by their denuding as well as transporting work to make ,

wavy rather than plane upper surfaces M oreover any .

,

barrier as a proj ecting rock or led ge or a stump or

, , ,

group of trees causes a heaping of the sands around the

,

obstacle and makes curving surface s in the heaps owi n g

, ,

to the eddies that are made in the air .

O n seashores the loose sands of the beach are driven

i n land by the winds and thereby often form parallel ridges
,

u
. maturationand
, called dunes They are grouped somewhat irregularly
.
,

owing to the course of the wind among them and also to ,

little ine qualitie s of compactness or to prote ction from ,

vegetation They form especially ( 1 ) w here the sand is

.

almost purely siliceous and t herefore only slightly adhesive ,

even whe n wet and n ot good for giving root to grasses ;

,

and ( 2) on wind ward c oasts .

The stratification in such drift hill s is of the kind rep

resented in Fig 1 6 1 S uccessive layers dip i n various
. .

dire ctions and are ab ruptly c ut

,
FIG 1 61
short S howing that the growing . .

hill was O ften partly cut do w n by

storms and was again a n d again
,

completed afte r such disasters .

O n the southern shore of Long

I gul l mi ti i d i ft d d rr e ar a na on n r e san .

Island series of such sand hills

, ,

1 0 to 4 0 feet high extend along for 1 0 0 miles , They are .

partially anchored by straggling tufts of grass The .

coast southward to the Chesapeake i s similarly fronte d

by sand hills They occur also on the east coast of Lake
.

M ichigan where some are 1 0 0 to 2 0 0 feet in h eight In

, .

Norfolk E ngland between Hunstanton and We y bourne

, , ,

the sand hills are 5 0 to 6 0 feet high In desert regions the .

,

drift ing of sand takes place on a far m ore exte n sive scale .

D rift hills of calcare ous sand from the disinte g ration o f ,

1 22 D Y N A M IC A L G E O L OG Y .

shells and corals in B ermuda have a height of 1 00 to 25 0

, ,

feet S imilar drift hills occur at the Bahamas S uch

. .

hills of calcareous sands co n solidate through alternations

of wet and dry a n d thus exhibit well in sections the
,

irregular dip of the layers .

The drifting of sand is a means of recovering lands

from the sea Th e appearance of a bank at t h e water s
.
’

surface Off an estuary at the mouth of a stream is followed

by the formation of a beach and then t h e raising of hills ,

of sand by the winds which enlarge till they sometimes

,

close up the estuary exclude the tides and thus aid in the
, ,

recovery of the land by the deposition of river detritus .

Lyell observes that at Yarmouth E ngland thousands of , ,

acres O f cultivated land have thus been gained from a

former estuary In all such results the ac t ion of the
.

waves in fi rst formi n g the beach is a very imp ortant part .

D rif t sands sometimes overwhelm and destroy f orests

and cultivated lands E ast of Lake M ichigan the sand
.

hills extend to a height of 1 0 0 to 20 0 feet above the lake

and even 21 5 feet a t Grand Haven where according to , ,

A Winchell the forest has been buried so as to leave

.
,

“
only the withered tree tops proj ecting a few feet above
-

”
the waste of sands I n N orfolk E ngland between
.
, ,

Hunstanton and Weybourne the sands have traveled ,

inland with great destructive e ffects burying farms and ,

houses They reach however but a few miles from the

.
, ,

coast line and were it not that the seashore itself is being
,

undermined by the waves and is thus m oving landward, ,

the e ff ects would soon reach their limit .

D ust is carr i e d by storm W i n ds sometimes hundreds of ,

miles D ust from Africa has fallen on ships m ore than

.

1 0 0 0 miles fro m the coast and at points 1 6 0 0 miles apart

,

in a north and south direction ( D arwin ) Volcanic dust .

was carried in 1 8 35 from Guatemala to J amaica 8 0 0 miles ,

.

In one dust shower ab out Lyons in France

, pounds ,

of dust fell ; and of this consisted of D iatoms and

other organic relics ( E hrenberg ) .
 ME C HA N I CA L E FF E C TS O F THE A TM OS P HE R E . 1 23

2 . W i nd s as T ra ns p o rt e rs o f Mo i s t u re .

The atmosphere takes moisture from the ocean and

land proportionally to its temperature and transp orts it
, , .

If the air increases in temperature as it passes over a

continent it keeps taking up moisture and so dries up
, ,

the land ; if on the contrary it loses in temperature its

, , ,

capacity for moisture is lessened and it drops it making , ,

ru mo oi hills rain and mists over t he land I f the warm wind strikes .

the cold S ide or summit of a mountain the moisture is ,

largely dropped so that little remains for the region on

,

erd
znv etrtu
s i .
the opposite side O f the m ountain which therefore e x p e r i ,

e n c es drought .

n w: m
indfrom The trade winds are movements O f the air within the
tropics westward against the east side of the continents
, ,

they are warm winds well charged with moisture , C on .

se quently in those latitudes the eastern p ortions of con

,

t i n e n t s are regions O f much rain ; and the farther back

from the east coast the higher mountains are set the larger ,

the surface benefited by the rains The position Of the .

Andes on the extreme western margin of S outh America

, ,

accordingly gives to nearly all the tropical portion of that

continent an abundant rainfall making it the greatest ,

forest region of the globe .

The prevailing winds in middle latit u des on the other ,

hand m ove eastward being southwest winds in the nor th

, ,

ern hemisphere and northwest winds in the southern

,

hemisphere The great warm water area of the Gulf

.
-

of M exico is thu s of immense service to eastern N orth

America furnishing to the southwest winds the abundant
,

water supply which make s the eastern half of the conti

nent a region of moist climate and abundant forests .

The arid climate of the Great B asin and much of the

eastern slope of the R ocky M ountains and th at of the coast ,

of P e ru and the plains of southern Argentina illustrate ,

the other side of the working of the same laws .

Thus th e Winds are lar gely the distributors o f f ertility ,

1 24 D Y N A M IC A L G E O LOG Y .

the locators of great fore st regions and deserts and the ,

limiters of distribution for the living species of the land ;

and they have done their work essentially in the same way
through all past time and in general with like ge o , , ,

graphical e ffects over the same regions from one ag e to

another .

IV . M E C HAN I CA L E FF E CTS OF WAT E R .

Water does me chanical work in the conditions of

1 . F R E S H W A T E R or that of R ivers ; ,

2 . T HE O C E A N ;
3 . F R O Z E N W A TE R S or Glaciers and Icebergs , .

1 . Fre s h W a t e rs .

S o urces of R ive r s
The water of rivers descends in
.
—

the form of rain and snow from t h e cl ouds and the clouds
derive it by evap oration from the surface of the land
, , ,

its soil lakes rivers and foliage and more abundantly

, , , ,

from the ocean The water rises in v a por in t o the u pper

.

regions of the atmosphere and becoming condensed into , ,

raindrops or snowflakes falls over the hills a n d plains ,

.

The drops gathe r first i n t o r ills ; these as they descend

'

, ,

unite into rivulets ; these again if the region is elevated , ,

or m ountai n ous into torrents torrents flo w ing down the

, ,

di fferent m o untain v alleys combine with other torrents ,

to form rivers and rivers from one mountain chain some

times j oin the rivers from another and make a common ,

stream O f great magnitude and great drainage area lik e ,

the Mississippi or the Amazon .

The M ississippi has its tributarie s among all the eastern

heights O f the great R ocky M ountain chain throughout ,

a distance of 1 0 0 0 miles or between the parallels of 35 N ,

°
.

and 5 0 N ; and a n other set of tributaries gather waters

°
.

from the Appalachian chain between western N e w York ,

and Alabama R ills rivulets torrents and rivers com

.
, , ,
 M E C HA N IC A L E FF E C TS O F WA TE R .

bine over an area of

,
s quare m iles to make ,

the great ce ntral southward flo w i ng stream of the N orth -

American continent .

The am ount of water poured each year into the ocean by

1
the Mississippi averages 1 9 5, trillions -

of cubic feet varying from 1 1 trillions in dry years to 2 7

,

tril lions in wet years This amount is about 25 per cent .

ff WATER
. of that furnished by the rains the rest being lost m ostly ,

by evap oration The pitch of the river from M emphis

.

d own its last 8 8 5 mile s is inches per mile at low

water .

The Amazon extends its arms north of the equator to

m ini m the parallel of
drainage area of
and south to that of and has a
square miles e qual to a third ,

of all S outh America Starting within S ixty m iles O f the .

P acific it flows as a m ountain torrent t h rough the gorges

,

of the eastern range of the An d es and then the navigable ,

part O f the rive r co m mences the lengt h of which to the ,

Atlantic is over 3 30 0 miles It discharge s into the ocean .

five times as much w ater as the M ississippi because of ,

the large precipitation ( 5 0 inches ) over mu ch of the area .

For 30 0 0 miles the m ean pitch of the stream is less th an

,

an inch a mile the d escent in this distance being only

,

21 0 feet .

Snowy mountains deal out water gradually under the ,

control of the sun and winds day and n ight and summe r ,

and winter making alternations in the supply to th e

streams Forest regions also are like reservoirs in hold
.
, ,

ing long and yielding up gradually the waters supplie d

, ,

to them Lake s are literally reservoirs storing water f o r

.
,

slo w discharge .

THE M E CHANICAL WORK OF R IVE RS .

W o rk i ng P o we r
The worki n g power of a rive r
.

depends primarily on ( 1 ) the volume of flowing wate r ,

and ( 2) the amount of fall in the descent to sea level o r

,
,

to the final outlet A ccording to the mathematical law

.
1 26 D YN A M IC AL G E O L OG Y .

respecting falling b odies the energy should vary as the,

product Of volume and heigh t of fall This working .

power is expended in friction between the water and the ,

be d of the water way between the water and the atmos

,

p h e re and
, between the m olecules of the water itself ;
and in transportation of rock material ( which must mean
while be supported i n opp osition to gravitation ) In .

these ways the energy of a stream is generally so far

,

used up that it has very little velocity as it approaches

its outlet .

Ki d o f W o k
n s r — The kinds of work done by streams
are the following
1 . Tra n sp o r t a ti o n of earth and stones and O ften also ,

of logs and leaves for deposition down stream

, .

2 E x c a va ti o n of a waterway by the impact O f the mov

.
,

ing water and by that of the transported stones and earth

, .

3 M u tu a l a br a s i o n of the transported stones and

.

earthy particle s reducing them in size and rendering

, ,

them thereby easier to transport .

The action of running waters in wearing down the

elevate d portions of the eart h s surface toward sea level ’

is calle d denudation or degradation ,

.

Nearly all valleys of the world owe their formation

in large degree to excavation by run n ing water E ve n .

valleys which had their origin in di fferential elevation

’
of the earth s crust have been considerably modified by
,

river erosion .

DE NUDATION .

Cau ses an d Co n d iti o ns i nflu en cin g Den u dat i o n .

— D e nu
da t ion is carried on chiefly by the process O f abrasion .

D irect blows of the water are efficient in rapid plung ,

ing streams espe ci ally where the rocks are much j ointed
, ,

fissile or fragile and w here cavitie s or recesses exist

, ,

to receive the blo w s ; but over firm rocks of flat or

convex surface they have little effect Blows of sol id .

material as grains of sa nd or stones are m ore e ffective

, ,
 M E C HA N IC A L E FF E C TS OF WA T E R .

than those of water Hence up to a certain limit abra

.
, ,

sion is increased by the l oad of sediment which the stream

is carrying B eyond that limit however the load of sedi
.
, ,

ment so far diminishes the velocity of the stream as to

diminish or entirely abolis h its power of erosion .

M ore ove r the decomposing and dissolving action of

,

water and other agencie s gives important aid in the work

of denudation D ecomposition and disintegration ( pages
.

1 1 1 — 1 1 5 ) are going on over almost all expose d surfaces of

wn i u bvstream
rocks thus making softened material for the abrading and
,
s
transporting rills and rivers S olution also has c o n s i d .

crable e ffect especially in limestone regions ; it helps

,

much in the excavation of valleys and finds in the j oints ,

of the rocks a chance to begin the work ( page

The rounded stones gravel and e arth of fields and , , ,

also the ma terial of most geological formations have been ,

made to a large degree by the wearing action O f waters

-
either those of streams over the land or those of the ,

ocean B u t this action is and ever has been greatly

m t)“
.
, ,

a aided by t h e processes of decomposition and disaggrega

tion due t o the elements causes that are su fficient alone
to turn angular blocks of most rocks into rounde d masses .

R ivers do the chief part O f their work in times of floods .

Many a torrent is a quiet brook at other seasons or per ,

haps only a string of pools At lo w water the pitch O f .

the stream or that O f its uppe r surface is at its minimum

,
-
, ,

while t h e ratio of friction to the amount of water is at a

maximum so that the wate r O ften lies almost still between
,

its banks But at flood height the pitch is increased and

.
,

the friction relatively decreased ; and hence comes the flood

velocity The C onnectic u t fro m Hartford to the S ound
.
, ,

3 6 miles ( in an air line ) is a tidal stream zero in working

, ,

force at low tide and l ow water ; but in its highest flood

, ,

( 30 feet at Hartford ) it has a mean pitch of

, 1 0 inc h es a
mile and flows O ff with great rapidity O n m ountain
, .

streams the transition is O ften from almost or quite zero

to a succession of c ataracts of vast wo rking force .
 DYNA M IC A L G E O L O G Y .

W o rk of De n u dat i o n . D enudation
commences with t h e
raindrop ; for a shower of rain consists of an i n fi n i tu d e
of li t tle waterfalls each having p ower to denude by strip
,

ping O ff grains from the surface of soft or weathered rocks ,

F 1 62 IG .
and to
.
excavate where it falls on a
mud flat or sand fla t recently laid
bare ( as by the ebb of the tide ) and ,

make the raindrop impression The .

quick succession of drops ordinarily

obliterates the special work of each ;
but in a shower of large drops and
,

S hort duration they remain so that , ,

rain prints ( Fi g 1 6 2) are not u m .

c ommon markings o u the surface of

strata .

The next sweep of the waters

over the surface may fill the cavi
R i p i t a n r n s.
tie s with fine mud or sand and so ,

they may become buried records .

A wind may give the drops greater e fficiency in abra

sion . At the same time it may register its direction in
the elliptical form of the rain prints .

When the drops strike a gravel bed stones in the gravel ,

may protect the material directly be FIG 1 63 . .

neath while the surrounding material

,

is eroded Thus S lender columns are

.

left each capped with a pebble or

,

bowlder .

Fig 1 6 3 shows a miniature exam

.

ple O f this phenomenon It was O b .

served by the author i h 1 8 8 7 near t h e 1 2123

t
,
0 11 5 , n a u ‘

path which leads down to the bottom of

the crater O f Kilauea on the Island O f Hawa i i The drops
, .

had fallen from shrubbery wet by the heavy mist con ,

d e n s e d from the steam of the volcano In other localities .

,

columns scores of feet in height have bee n carved by rai n

drops i n glacial drift and similar materials .
 M E C HA N IC A L E FF E C TS O F WA TE R .

The raindrops make rills and rivulets ; and the se as

‘

they hurry on thei r way carry off ligh t earth or sand

, ,

and so make channels and deepen their beds This may .

be well seen along many a roadside or over sand banks ,

during and after a shower .

Torrents from combined rivulets work with greater

, ,

power tearing up rocks and tree s as they plunge along

, (
,

FIG 1 64 . .

v: 1 $3 M mi
i i ll

E astern p art o f th e Is l d
an o f M aui Haw aiian
,
Is l d
an s .

and in the course of time m aking deep gorges or valleys

, ,

in the m ountain slopes ; and rivers when in full action , ,

work with vast power making wide valleys over the

,

breadth of the continent The slopes O f a lofty mountain

. ,

exposed through ages to the action described fi nally ,

become reduced to a series of valleys and ridges with ,

towering peaks and crested heights — all these e ffe cts

ori gi nating in t h e fall of r a indrops or snowfl ak e s .
 D YN A M IC A L G E O LO G Y .

The successive steps in the degradation of m ountains

are well illustrated among the volcanic cones of the
P acific The surface of such mountains is kept free from
.

rive r channeling as lo n g as the volcano is active because ,

of the successive outflows of lava This is illustrate d in .

FIG 1 6 5
. .

h
N o rt w e s t p e ni n s ul a o h
f Ta i ti , th e co ra l f
re e s e x clud e d (th e l o wer si d e i s th e no rt h ern) .

Mauna Lo a on the Island of Hawa i i ( see map Fig 1 98

, , .
,

page D enudation has its chance only after the vo l

ca mic activity has begun to decline The waters of the .

rains ( which are always most copious about the summi t s

of high m ountains) beginning in rivulets down the S lopes
, ,
 M E C HA N IC AL E FF E C TS OF WATE R .

first gather su ffi cient strength for e ffective denudation to

ward the base O f the mountain .

In the eastern volcanic cone of Maui ( see m ap Fig , .

the process of valley making has commenced The chan - .

nels of the rivers of the north side as the map indicates , ,

extend only halfway up the m ountain ; on the northeast ,

or the most rainy side they extend up to a level j ust b e ,

low the summit ; while O n the west side they are merely ,

narrow trenches and are dry through n early all the year
,
.

The last eruption of the volcano took place according to ,

tradition about 25 0 years since

,
.

Fig 1 6 5 represents the topography of the northwest

.

peninsula of Tahiti one O f the S ociety Islands , The .

volcano has been long extinct — long enough for the

extension of the rive r channels to the summit and for ,

the continued excavation of these channels until they

'
have become valleys 1 0 00 to 30 0 0 feet de e p w i th spacious ,

amphitheaters or cirques at their head reducing the island

, , ,

to a group of knife edge ridges an d steep sided gorges- -

.

The h i gh e s t p e ak s (a and b on the map ) are parts of the

'

narro w ridges thinned down to a breadth at top of one to

ten feet while 8 0 0 0 and 7 0 0 0 feet in altitude They face
, .

with a nearly vertical front at one point at least 4 0 0 0 feet ,

high two of the grandest of the amphitheaters The

, .

a mphitheaters or cirques are made by water alone in a

, , ,

tropical region and S how that the help of glaciers is not

,

required as som etimes supposed for such re sults

, , .

Fo r ms o f Valle y s ; Ch anne ls and Flo o d Gro u nd s o f R i v

ers. The valleys excavated by mountain streams have
a V shaped cross section B u t when the river flows into
-
.
,

a region of gentle declivities or plains the waters lose ,

in velocity and m ay even deposit sediment over the bed

, ,

instead of deepening it by excavation At the same time .

,

the waters no longer able to deepen their channel begin

, ,

to erode laterally u ndermining their banks and making a

, ,

flood plain over which the waters spread in their annual

,

o r occasional freshets .
 D Y N A MIC A L G E OL OG Y .

Nearly all stream s over the plains and lower S lopes of

the land have narrow channels for dry times and flood ,

grounds which they cove r in times of great rains or melt

ing snows The alluvial plains of rivers are in part these
.
, ,

plains formed by lateral erosion but covered by deposits ,

left by the flooded stream ; in part areas reclaimed from ,

sea or lake as in the formation of deltas (pages 1 38

,

FIG 1 66 . .

M arbl e C ano n , C o l d
o ra o Ri ve r .

Ca s cades Cascades are often formed where in the

.
—
,

c ourse O f arapid stream there are alternations of hard and

,

soft rocks The hard rocks resist wear while the soft ones
.
,

easily yield ; and thus a plunge begins which increases in ,

force as it increases in extent R ills and rivulets made by

.

a showe r of rain a long roadsides or sand banks O ften illus

trate this feature of great m ountain streams .
 M E C HA N IC A L E FF E C TS OF WATE R .

Cafi o n s When a region has been recently elevated t o

.
—

a high altit u de giving the streams powe r for rapid e rosion

, ,

especially if the rocks are nearly h orizontal the valleys cut ,

by the rivers have usually bold rocky sides In many .

parts of the Rocky M ou ntains the streams have worke d ,

their way down through the rocks for hundreds and in ,

some places even thousands of feet S u ch a valley is , .

called a c afi o n .

These c afi o n s have great depth and magnitude on the

C olorado R iver over the west slope of the R ocky Moun
,

tains between longitude 1 1 1 W and 1 1 5 W

,
°
For m ore .
°
.

than 30 0 miles there is a nearly continuous ca h o n 30 00 ,

to 6 0 0 0 feet deep The preceding sketch from one of

.
,

the excellent photographs of the region by the artist O f

’
P owell s E xpedition rep resents a portion of it called the
, ,

Marble C a ii o n The rocks stand in nearly vertical preci

‘

i c e s on either side of the stream and the height above

p ,

the water to the top of the blu ff see n in the distance is

5 0 0 0 feet The deep gorge is the result of erosion by the
.

stream .

Fig 1 6 7 pre sents a view of another part of the canon

.
,

and shows better the details of the stratification in its

lofty walls .

In many places the wall of the ca h on is carved into

,

alcoves and buttresses in i n finite variety S ome of the .

larger proj ecting masses imitate on a colossal scale the

forms of oriental temples All these picturesque features .

are the work of the sculpturing waters since the time

of the early Tertiary Moreover over the country to the .
,

northward rise plateaus and m ountains in which the

, ,

strata are piled up to an ad d itional alti tu d e of 5 0 0 0 to

7 0 0 0 feet and these are portions of grea t formations that
,

once spread across the whole region .

S cu lp tu re o f Mo u nt a i n Fo r m s ; Mo u nt a i n s o f Cir cu m
d e nu dati o n Given a great elevated plateau in a region
.

of rai n s a n d mountain sculpturing will go on about it

, ,

an d continue until all is ridge and valley not a s quare ,

 D YN AM IC A L G E OL O G Y .

mile of the original plateau retaining its flat surface ; and

the resulting crested ridges may rise thousands O f feet
ab ove the bottoms of the valleys if the plateau was one ,

of su fficient height The Catskill M ountains N e w York

.
, ,

are an example of mountains O f circumdenudation .

FIG . 1 67 .

W all o f Co l d
o ra o C ano n .

The following figures by Lesley illustrate some of the

, ,

results O f sculpturing by water in both horizontal and ,

upturned or flexe d strata In the production of such

.

erosion forms the ocean has sometimes taken part during

,

the submergence of a continent but the fi nal res u lts are ,

in almost all cases due to the chiseli n gs of fresh waters

,
.

The figures here given are small but the elevations they ,
 NIE C HA N IC A L E FF E C TS OF WA TE R .

represent as illustrated in the Appalachians J ura and

, , ,

many other mo u ntain regions are often thousands of feet ,

in height .

When the beds are horizontal or nearly so but of unequal , ,

hardness the softer strata are easily worn away and by

, ,

this means the harder strata become undermined Table .

FIG 1 68 . . FIG 1 69
. .

E ro s i o n fo rms i n n e ar ly h i z
or o n tal s t ra ta .

shaped mountains are often thus formed having a top of ,

the harder rock and the declivities banded with proj ecting
,

shelves and intervening S lopes Figs 1 6 8 1 6 9 represent . .

,

the common character of such hills Such fla t topped .

-

elevations in the Colorado region have been called mesas ,

from the Spanish for table .

When the beds are inclined between 5 and there °

is a tendency to make hills with a long back slope and

bold front ; but with a much larger dip the ridges are
, ,

more nearly symmetrical .

When the dipping strata are of unequal hardness and ,

FIG S . 1 7 0- 1 75 .

E r o si o n fo rm s i n s y li l
nc na s t rata .

lie in folds there is a wide diversity in the results on the

,

features of the landscape .

Figs 1 7 0 1 7 5 represent the e ffects from the erosion

.
-

of a synclinal region consisting of alternations of hard

and soft rocks The prote ction of the softer beds by
.

the harder is well shown .

 D YN A M IC A L G E O L OG Y .

Anti clinal strata give rise to another series of forms ,

in part the reverse of the preceding and equally varied , .

Figs 1 7 6 1 7 9 represent some of the si mpler cases When

.
-
.

the back of an anticlinal mountain is divided (as in Figs .

176 the mountain appare n tly loses the anticlinal

FIG S . 1 7 6 - 1 79 .

E ro s i o n fo rm s in a n ti c li lna s tra ta .

character and the parts are in aspect S imply monoclinal

, , ,

ridges In Fig 1 7 9 the anticlinal character is distinct in

. .

the central portion while lost in the parts on either side

,
.

In Fig 1 7 9 to the right the protection a ff orded to softer

.
, ,

strata by even a vertical stratum of hard rock is illus

t ra t e d : the vertical stratum form s the axis of a low
ri d ge .

A
TR N S P ORTATION AND DE POS ITION .

Fact of has been stated that t h e

Tran s po rt at i o n .
— It
massive m ountains have been eroded into ridges and val
leys by running water The material worn out has been .

transported somewhere by the same waters .

. P art of the transported mate rial in all such operations

goes to form the great alluvial plains that occupy the
river valleys especially in the lower part of their course
, .

P art is carried to the sea into which the river empties ,

where it meets the counteracting waves an d currents and ,

is distribute d for the m ost part along the shores filling ,

estuarie s or bays or making deltas and extending t h e

,
.

bounds o f the lands or to lakes with or without outlets ,

.

The m ountains of a continent are ever on the move

seaward and thus contribute to the enlargement of the
,

seashore plains The continent is losing annually in mean

.

h e i gh t b u t gaining in W idth or extent of dry land

p ,
.
n 38 1i: a
nt cl
i lina

a ll

t
q y m
onoclin
al
1 38 D YN AM IC AL G E O LOG Y .

328 0 The salts held in solution are often about one half
.

calci u m carbonate and the rest calcium sulphate sodium

, ,

chloride ( co m mon salt ) sodium carbonate and magnesian

, ,

and potash salts with traces of silica and other i n g r e d i

,

ents In some cases the rivers carry the salts to inlan d

.

seas or lakes which have no drainage toward the ocean

, ,

and which therefore are saline ( page M oreover arid ,

plains become saline because of the capillary action which

bri n gs mo i sture from below to the surface as e vaporation ,

goes on a bove depositing the containe d saline ingredients

, ,

such as the sodiu m chloride sodium carbonate and mag , ,

mesian salts of such places .

Allu vi al o r Flu vi al Fo r mati o ns — The deposits made .

by the transported mate rial which now constitute the ,

alluvial plains of the rive r valleys cover a large part of ,

a continent since rivers or smaller streams are almost

,

everywhere at work They are m ade up of layers of

.

pebbles or gravel and of earth silt or clay especially

, , , ,

of these finer materials Logs le aves shells and bones

.
, , ,

occur in them : but these are rare ; for whatever floats

down stream is widely scattere d by t h e waters and to a ,

great extent destroyed by wear and decay The level of .

the alluvial plain is ordinarily about that of the level of

the higher floods The spreading waters by here losing
.
,

their velocity owing to friction build u p the deposits

, , .

The river margin is O fte n a little above flood level owing ,

to the shrubbery growing along it and to the ab u ndant ,

deposit of sediment W here the water flowing Outward from

the channel onto the flood plain receives the first check to ,

its veloci t y .

Ter ra ces — R iver valley or fluvial formations often

.

have the form of terraces Terraces are in general rem .

nant s of old flood plains the rivers having deepened ,

their channels on account O f elevation O f the land ; and

seashore flats and beaches and horizontal lines of wave ,

erosion on cli ffs have often been left high in the same
,

movements .
 M E C HA N IC AL E FF E C T S O F WAT E R .

E stu ary and Delt a Fo rmat i o n s

The detritus discharge d
.

by the river at its mouth tends to fill u p the bay into

which it empties and make wide flats on its borders and
, ,

thus contr ac t it to the bre adth merely o f the river current .

Where the tides are feeble and the river large the de ,

posits about the mouth o f the stream gradually encroach

on the ocean and make great plains and m arshy flats
, ,

which are inte rse cted by the many mouths of the river
1 40 D YN AM IC AL G E O LOG Y .

and a network of cross channels S u ch a formation is .

called a delta Fig 1 8 0 represents the delta of th e

. .

Mississippi the white lines being the wate r channels and

, ,

the black areas the great alluvial plains The delta prop .

erly commences below the m outh of Re d R iver where the ,

Atchafalaya Bayou or side channel of th e rive r begins

, , .

The whole area is about square miles ; about one

t hird is a sea marsh only two thirds lying above the level
,

of the gulf .

The deltas O f the Nile and the Ganges are similar in

gene ral feature s to the delta of the M ississippi .

The detritus poured into the ocean where the tides or

curre nts are strong and a considerable part of that where
,

the tides are feeble goes to form seashore flats and sand
,

banks and o ffshore deposits In their formation the

.

ocean takes part through its waves and currents and hence ,

they are m ore conveniently described in connection with

the remarks on the work of the ocean .

HIS TORY OF RIVE R S .

Yo uth a nd Old Age R ivers

The work of excava
of .
—

tion tends to w ard the lowering of the bed of a stream to

the sea level The process involves the wearing away of
.

waterfalls and rapids ; the draini n g of t h e lakes along

the river course as far as these have their beds above sea
,

le vel ; and the filling up O f lake basins even those tha t ,

descend below that level R educing the slope of the bed

.

dep rive s the waters of working powe r and finally the ,

stage is reached when abrasion and deposition over the

bed balance each other Thus rivers pass from youth to
.

O ld age.

The condition of balance between erosion and deposi

tion h a s been called by P o w ell the condition of ba s e le ve l ;
and he has formulated the important general law that a
river always works toward its base level eroding its bed ,

when it is too hi gh and fi llin g it u p when it is too low

, .
 M E C HA N IC A L E FFE C TS OF WA T E R .

When the river ends in a lake without ou t let the ,

process terminates at the lake but is otherwise the same ,

as above described .

The history of a river is often modified by continental

changes of level An eleva t ion m ay rej uvenate streams
.

that are approaching old age or a subsidence may bring ,

the streams to a p remature O ld age .

In a regi on which has unde rgone subside nce the lower ,

part of a river s course may be below base level In that

’
.

case dep osition will be in excess and the level of the bed
, ,

will be annually raised C onseque ntly during floods the

.
, ,

waters along the region of the shallowed channel will

'

spread more and more widely as the years pass ove r the , ,

country either side with disastrous encroachme nts on

,

forests and whatever is in their way M an to protect his .

,

buildings and cultivated fields raises the banks or build s , ,

dikes or levees along them ; but the waters cannot be

crowded and at intervals they sweep away the confining
,

levees to the confusion of the dwellers on the recovered

,

lands .

Again the extraordinary floods of a Glacial period have

,

given temporary increase of vigor to enfeebled rivers .

M oreover changes of level have sometimes j oine d the

,

head of one stream to the trunk of another ; or made

a northward flo w i n g stream of one that had previously
-

flo w ed southward ; or converted a region of once active

. rivers into a vast lake R ivers were few and
. small when
lands were small and multiplied and extended and finally
became combine d into great drainage systems with the ,

growth and completion of the continents .

The e ffect of the long work of the waters ove r the land
is the gradual degradation of the hills and m ountains ,

reducing great regions to approximately level plains

en e la i n s from the Latin almost and um
p p ( p e n e
p l a n , , ,

plain ) as they have been called by W M D avis ; and

, . .

finally in the ory at least the reduction of the whole

, ,

continent to the condition of a base level plain -

.
1 42 D YN A MIC AL G E OL OG Y .

Cau s e o f Di rect i o n o f Flo w

The simple explanation o f
.

the direction of flo w in a river is that it was determined

by the slope of the land But in many cases the course is
.

due n o t to the present slopes and conditions but to others ,

that existed at some earlier time The working wate rs .

have sometimes started on their way to the sea when the ,

topography was very di fferent from the present ; and they

have kept their old course in spite of such obstacle s as
folds or faults developed transversely to their course .

S uch drainage has been called by P owell a n tece den t

drainage ; and that which is a consequence of existing
conditions co ns e qu en t drainage Whe n a stream has cut
, .

through the entire thickness of the formation upon which

it commenced and is flowing now in unconformably u n
,

d e rly i n g rocks without regard to their structure the

, ,

drainage is said to be s up eri mp o se d .

A
S UB TE RR NE AN WATE RS .

Ori gi n and Co urs e of part

S ubt erranean W aters — . A
’
of the water that falls on the earth s surface — o u its
mountains as well as its plains — sinks through the ground
and into the rocks beneath wherever there are openings
,

or crevices or looseness of texture and thus becomes

, ,

subterranean The waters usually pass easily through

.

san d stones ; but over a clayey or other compact stratum

they accumulate and often make wet springy soil above
, ,

or if the stratum is inclined they may descend to great

, ,

depths or come to light again wherever it outcrops at a

,

lower level The descending waters sometim es gather

.

into subterranean streams which have powers of abrasion

, .

O ver large areas in some limestone regions and in m any ,

volcanic regions surface streams are wanting because of

, ,

the cavernous recesses ; the waters carry on an under

ground system o f drainage Thus come springs s u bt e r
.
,

ranca h streams large and small and copious outflows ,

beneath the sea level along coasts .

 M E CHAN IC AL E FFE C TS O F WATE R .

A region of horizontal limestone abounds in sink h oles -

,

as well as caverns ; and sometim es r i vers plunge down

the openings into the recesses below an d are lost or
, ,

emerge again in fuller flo w a mile or m ore away .

FIG 1 81
. .

ther course
i
m
.

m ar ina t e

J W WW
“
1 44 D YN A M IC A L G E O LO G Y .

O rdinary waters easily erode limestone because they ,

contain carbonic acid ( page Through the j oints or

fissures the waters find a way downward and the erosion ,

they produce widens the j oints O ften forming funnel ,

shaped S ink holes -

At the bottom of the sink hole the
.
-

waters work laterally eroding channels and chambers in , ,

long series and varying directions ; and if later they , ,

succeed in penetrating to a still lowe r level another tier ,

O f chambers is begun U ndermining also goes on causing.

,

falls of rock which are sometime s large e nough to make

,

feeble earthquakes O ccasionally some part of the roof

.

caves in and the cavern with the river inclosed becomes

, , ,

O pen to the light and thus a ff ords an example of one

,

m ethod of making limestone gorges .

’
The preceding map ( modified from H ovey s C elebrated
American Caverns with additions by R E Call ) shows
,
”
. .

the passages and chambers O f Mammoth Cave K entucky ,

.

This cave occupies an area of several square miles in the

S ubcarb oniferous limestone The length of the caverns .

in this limestone in Kent u cky ( a rock 20 0 to 1 0 0 0 feet

thick ) is e stima t ed by P rofessor S haler at miles .

Luray Cavern in Luray Valley V irginia is comparatively

, , ,

small ; but as described by M r Hovey it is one of the most

, .
,

remarkable in the world for the beauty of its stalactitic ,

hangings an d the grandeur of its subterranean chambers .

In many caverns bones of the animals that have i n ,

habited them including sometimes those of Man with his

, ,

implements of stone or shell or other m aterial are found ,

buried beneath or within the stalagmite that covers the

flo o r — the perpe t ual dripping keeping up its constant
deposition ( pages 4 0 ,

Caves exist in the elevated coral reefs O f the P acific ,

which are certainly of comparatively recent origin O n e .

,

“
on the island of Atiu near Tahiti h a s interminable , ,
” “
windings and many chambers with fretwork ceilings ,

of stalactite ( J Williams )
”
There are others on O ahu
. .
,

which give a passage to streams .

 M E C HA N IC A L E F F E C TS O F WATE R .

The erosion may be helped forward ( 1 ) by the oxida

tion of pyrite ( page 1 1 2) where it is present the result ,

ing sulphuric acid turning limestone into gypsum ; and

also ( 2) by the formation of nitric acid ( probably from
the nitrogen of the air by m eans of micro organisms ) ,
-
,

"a mi umbers in
n
, which corrodes the limestone making calcium nitrate , .

The caves of K entucky and Indiana have afforded a large

amount of this nitrate for the making of niter .

S ubterranean waters often become mineral waters .

They are made calcareous by limestones along their course ;

saline by the saline ingredie nts O f rocks sulphurous by
, ,

d e c o m p o s i hg iron sulphide s ; carbonate d by any acid as , ,

sulphuric attacking a limestone and setting carbonic acid

,

free ; chalybeate by the re duction of ferric oxide in pres

,

ence of organic matters and the formatio n of ferrous ,

bicarbonate magnesian by the decomposition of minerals ,

containing magnesium They may become warm waters .

through subterranean heat and may receive vapors and ,

various mineral materials from the depths below .

Artesi an W e lls — W hen strata are inclined and water

.
,

descends along one of the layers between others that are

s u fficiently impervious to confine it t h e pressure increases ,

with the depth ; so that the wate r will rise through a bor
ing made down to it ,
F 1 82 IG
and sometime s in a . .

high j et The princi

.

ple is illustrated in
Fig 1 8 2 in which a b
.
,

is the water bearing -

stratum be the boring

, ,

and e b the amount O f S ti i llu t ti g A t i w ll ec on s ra n r e s an e s .

descent The height O f

.

the j et falls much short of be chiefly on account of the ,

underground friction .

Such wells are called Artesian wells or borings from the ,

district O f Artois i n France where they were early made , .

Th e A rtesi an well o f Grenell e i n Pari s is 1 7 9 8 feet dee

p ,
1 46 D YN A M IC A L G E OL O G Y .

and when it was first m ade the water darted out to a

height of 1 1 2 feet O n e at St L ouis has a depth of 38 4 3%
. .

feet but without getting water because the region for

, ,

many miles aroun d is one of horizontal rocks A boring at .

W heeling West Virginia has been carried to the depth of

, ,

4 5 0 0 feet without finding water A well at S ch lade nb ac h .

near L eipzig is 5 7 36 feet in depth Such wells are made .

for agricultural and m anufacturing purposes in many dry

regions and they have proved successful even in Sa h ara
, .

Land s li de s L andslides are of di fferent kinds

.
-

1 . The sliding of the surface earth or gravel of a hill , ,

down to the plain below This e ffect may be caused by.

the waters of a severe storm wetting the m aterial deeply

and giving it greatly increased weight besides loosening ,

its attachment to the more solid mass below .

2 The sliding down a de clivity to the plain below of

.

the upper layer of a rock formation This may happen .

whe n this upper l ayer rests on a clayey or sandy layer ,

and the latter becomes very wet and greatly softened by the
waters ; the upper layer slides down on the softened bed .

3 The settling of the ground over a large area

. This .

may take place when a laye r of clay or loose sand be comes

wet and softened by percolating waters and the n is pressed ,

out laterally by the weight of the superincumbent layers .

B ut such a result is not possible u nless there is a chance

for the wet laye r to move or escape laterally S ometimes .

par t of a wet clayey layer presse d t o one side in this way, ,

is left very much folded while the associated sandy layers

,

have their usual regular bedding .

2 . The O c e an .

The ocean is vast in e x tent and v a st in the power which

it may exert B ut its mechanical work in Geology is
.

mostly confined to its coasts and to sou ndings where alone ,

material exists in quantity w ithin reach of the waves Or

c urre nt s .
 M E C HAN IC AL E FF E C T S O F WA TE R .

The saltness of the ocean gives it a density of to

that of pure fresh water being 1 It is slightly .

the gr eatest in the tropics because O f the e vaporation ,

.

A cubic foot weighs about 6 4 pounds There are three .

conse quences of the saltness slightly greate r trans

porting power than fresh water on account of its density ; ,

2
( ) much quicker deposition of the finest sediment the salt ,

causing a flocculation and rapid precipitation of minute

clayey particles which in pure water remain in suspension
,

f o r an indefinite period 3
( ) a supply of common salt and
magnesian salts etc for making deposits of salts and for
,
.
, ,

use in chemical changes attending the making of rocks

and minerals the ocean being so to speak the largest of
, , ,

l h i ts loosening
m ineral springs .

The mechanical e ffects of the ocean are produce d by its

wave s and currents .

E ROS ION AND TR NS A PORTATION .

1 . W aves .
— G
The f orce in oceanic
ener a l A ct io n .
—

waves is a constant force Night and day year in and .

,

year out with hardly an intermission they b reak against

, ,

the beaches and rocks of the coast ; sometimes gently ,

sometimes in heavy plunges that have the force of a

Niagara of almost unlimited breadth The gentlest .

movements have some grinding action among the sands ,

while the heaviest may dislodge and move along up the ( ,

shores rocks many tons in weight Niagara wastes its

, .

power by falling into an abyss of waters but in the case

of the waves the rocks are bared anew for each successive
plunge The waters are O ften loaded with gravel and
.

sand when they strike and thus carry on abrasion Cliffs ,

.

are undermined rocks are worn to pebble s and sand and

, , ,

through mutual friction san d is ground to the finest pow ,

der R ocky headlands on windward coasts are especially

.

exposed to wear since they are Open to the battering forc e

,

fro m di fferent directions .

 D YN A M IC AL G E O LO G Y .

L evel of G r e a tes t E r o di ng A cti o n The eroding action .

is greatest for a short distance above the height of

half tide and except in violent storms it is alm o st null
, , ,

below low tide le vel -

Fi g 1 83 represents in profile a . .

cli ff having its lower layers near the level of low tide ex
, , ,

tending out as a platform a

F“ 1 83
hundred yards wide As the
°

tide commences to move in ,

the waters while still quiet , ,

swell ove r and cover this

platform and so give it their ,

C l i ff N w S u t h W l
, e p I Ot C C tI
o O II and the
a es force
.
O f '

wave action which is great ,

est above half tide is mainly expended near the base of ,

the cli ff j ust above the le vel of the platform B ut to give

,
.

opportunity for much battering e ffe ct a coast should be

shelving so that the waters may ad vance up the slope If
, .

the water is deep alongside of a cli ff there is simply a ,

r i se and fall with little ab ras ro n

, .

A c ti o n L a n dw a r d — Waves on shallow soundings have .

some tra n sporting power and as they always move ,

toward the land their action is landward They thus , .

beat back little by little any detritus in the waters pre

, , ,

venting that loss to continents or islands which would

take place if it were carried out to sea .

Ej e c t o n th e Ou tli n e of Co a s ts ; N o E x ca va ti o n of N a r
r o w Va lle s — As the action of waves on a coast tends to
y .

wear away headlands and at the same time to fill up bays , ,

with detritus it usually results in making the outline m ore

,

regular or e ven There is nowhere a tendency to e x c a

.

vate narrow valleys i nto a coast like those occupied by ,

rivers S uch valleys are made by the waters of the land

. .

If a continent we re sinking slowly in the ocean or rising ,

slowly from it wave action would still be attended by the

,

same results for each part of the surface would be suc

c e s s i ve l
y a coast line and over each there would be the
,

s ame wea rin g awa y o f h e adl an ds and fi llin g o f bays i n .

,
 M E C HA N IC A L E FFE C TS OF WATE R .

stead of the excavation of valleys The chasms or pur .

,
”
t ri e s sometimes made on a rocky coast where a dike
g a o , ,

of trap or a thin slice of rock included betwe en parallel

,

j oints yields to the disintegrating action of the waves are

, ,

of course readily distinguished from true valleys .

2 Ti dal Cu r rents — Tidal currents O ften have great

. .

strength when t h e tide m o ves through channels or among

islands and then they are a means of erosion and trans
,

r t a t i o n daily in action wherever there is rock mud or

p o , , ,
ad
n cover this
sand within their reach .

The o u t flo w i n g current from bays or that connected ,

with the ebbing tide is deeper in its action and has , , ,

therefore more excavating and more transporting power

,

than the i n flo w in g or that of the incoming tide The

, .

la t ter m ove s on as a great swelling wave and fills the ,

bays m u ch above their natural level ; but the o u tflo w i n g

current begins along the bottom before the tide is wholly
in owing to the accumulation of waters ; and when the
, ,

tide changes it adds to the strong current m ovement

,

already in progress .

The piling up of the waters i n a bay by the tides or by ,

storms produces e specially if the entrance is not very

, ,

broad a stro n g o u t flo w i n g current at bottom which tends

, ,

to keep the channel deep and clear of obstructions .

The i n flo w i n g tide sweeping along a coast che cks partly

, ,

or wholly the outflow of the rivers This causes the dep o .

sitiou of more or less of t h e detritus which the rivers

transport near or against the shores or flats j ust beyond
,

t h e rive r channel ; and thus it often makes great sand

flats which encroach on the entrance If a long point
,
.

projects on the side of the mouth first reach ed by the i n

flo w i n g tide the tidal flow may carry the detritus far
,

beyond the river s mouth ; but i f no such point exists

’
, ,

and the Opposite cape is the longer the detritus will be ,

into t h e throat of the stream and the entrance ,

m ore or less choked The river mouths of the .

of L ong Island
 D YN AMIC AL G E OL O G Y .

S o u nd along which the i n flo w i n g tide m ove s westward

, ,

well illustrate these facts The two largest of the rivers

.
,

the Connecticut and H ousatonic are of the unfortunate ,

kind as they have no eastern cape ; while the harbor of

,

N ew Haven although it receives only very small streams

, ,

is much better O ff as regards depth of water for entrance

, ,

be cause of a proj ecting eastern cape .

The bore or eager of some great rivers is a kind of tidal

, ,

flow up a stream It is produced when the regular rise

.

of the tide in the bay at the m outh of the rive r is o b

structed by the form of the entrance and its sand banks ,

together with the outflow of the river so that the waters ,

are for a while prevented from e ntering until finally all , , ,

those of one tide rush in at once or in a few great waves , .

The eagers of the Amaz on the Ho o gly in India ( one of

,

the mouths of the Ganges ) and the Tsien tang in China

,
-
,

are am ong the most remarkable In the case of the Tsien .

tang the water moves up stream in one great wave plung

, ,

ing like an advancing cataract four or fi ve m iles broad ,

and 30 feet high at a rate of 25 miles an hour The

, .

boats in the Irli d dle of the stream simply rise and fall with
the passage of the wave being pushe d forward only a
,

short distance but along the shores there is often great

d evastation the banks being worn away an d animals
, ,

sometimes surprised and destroyed .

. 3 Cu r re nts made by W i nd s — The great currents of the

.

ocean such as the Gulf Stream are attributed by most

, ,

physicists to this source But besides these there are

.
, ,

local currents along many coasts prod u ced by win d s espe ,

c i all when there are long and violent storms or winds

y ,

blowing f o r m onths i n one direction Such currents .

,

sweeping by a coast transport from one place to another

,

in their course more or less O f the sand of the shores ,

often m aking long sand flats or spits Off the shores to lee
ward as on the sou t h coast of L ong Island and along the
,

more southern parts of the Atlantic border The action .

is aided by the tidal currents In some cases the drifted

.
 ME C HA N IC A L E FF E C TS OF WATE R .

sand may be in part carried back again when the season

changes to that in which the wind blows from the
opposi t e direction O ther portions of detritus may be
.

carried away from the land and distri buted in the deeper
vvat e r s .

niczforentrance,
‘
The great currents of the ocean are for the most part so
distant from the borders of the continents that little de
t r i t u s comes within their reach As these currents have
.

great depth — O ften a thousand feet o r m ore — their ,

course is determi n ed partly by the deep water slope s of -

the submerged border of a continent so that when the , ,

border is shallow for a long distance out ( as O H N ew

J ersey and Virginia where this distance is eve n 5 0
,

to 8 0 miles) the main body of the current is e q ually

,

Wherever it actually sweeps close along a coast ,

bear away some detritus to drop it over the bot

,

the neighboring waters The flow of the Gulf

.

against the submerged slope of the oceanic basin

rate of a mile or m ore p e r hour ) is su fficient to
e bottom free from loose detritu s Verrill h as .

rr o w i n
g of fishes for food aids th e

loosening the m aterial .

The oceanic currents flowing from polar seas produce

important e ffects by means of the icebergs which they bear
into warmer latitudes These icebergs are sometimes
.

freighte d with earth and rocks and wherever they m elt , ,

they d rop all to the ocean s bottom The sea about the
’
.

Newfoundland banks is one of the regions of melting

icebergs ; and there is no doubt that vast submarine ac
o f such material h ave bee n made there b y

A A
UTION OF M TE RI L, AND F ORM TION OF M RINE A A
A
AND F LUVIO- M RINE DE OS ITS P .

of Mate ri al. The material used by the waves

nts is either ( )
1 the stones gravel sand clay , , , ,

the wear of coasts or ( 2) t h e dehri

 D YN A M IC A L G E OLO G Y .

tus bro u ght down by rivers and poured into the ocean as ,

explained on pages 1 36 1 4 0 —
.

The latter i n the present age is by far the m ore i m

, ,

portant B ut in the earlier geological ages when the dry

.
,

land was of s mall extent rivers were small and were but ,

a feeble agency .

The decomposition or disintegration of exposed rocks

through the agency of air and moisture must have aided
in degradation formerly more than now since in P aleozoic , ,

t ime and earlier carbonic acid the chief agent of destr u o

, ,

tion was much more abundant in the atmosphere than it

,

is now This agent is carried to the earth s surface by

.
’

the rains and it is still effe ctive in the decomposition of

,

granite gneiss and many other rocks The higher tem

, , .

e r a t u re of the atmosphere in early geological times was

p
also favorable to rapid chemical action .

Fo rc i n c o
es A ti n — In the distribution of the materi al
.
,

the waves and marine currents have either worked alone ,

in the manner explained on the preceding pages or in ,

conj unction with river currents wherever these existed

Mari n e Fo rm at i o ns The marine formations are of the
.

following kinds
1 . B e a c h A c cu mu la i n
t o s — Beaches are made of the ma .

t e r i al borne up the shores by the waves and tides and left

above low tide level This m aterial consists of stone s or
-
.

pebbles sand mud earth or clay It is coarse where the

, , , , .

waves break heavily because although trituration to pow , ,

der is going on at all times the powerful wave action and ,

the undercurrent carry off the finer material into the o ff

shore shallow waters where it settles over the bottom or ,

is distributed by currents It is fine where the waves are .

gentle in movement as in sheltered bays or estuaries the , , ,

triturate d material remaining in such places near where i t

is made and O ften being the finest O f m ud
,
.

2 . S a n d B a nk s , or R e ef s ; S h a llo w w a te r A c cu mu la ti o n s
-
.

— Shallow water accumulations may be produced in b ays

-
,

estuarie s or the inne r cha nnels of a coast and over the

, ,
 M E C HA N IC AL E FF E C TS OF WATE R .

bottom outside They consist usually of coarse or fine

.

sand and earthy detritus but may include pebbles or ,

A! them
ore im stones when the currents are strong The material consti .

tuti ng them is derived from the land through the wearing

" m ed i erebut and transporting action either O f the waves and currents
or of rivers The accumulations may increase u n der wave
.

action in shallo w water until they approach or rise above ,

low tide level and the n they form sand banks

-
, Such sand .

banks keep their place i n the face of the waves for the ,

same reason as the platform of rock mentioned on page 1 4 8

”

and illustrated in Fig 1 8 3 . .

3 Flu vi o ma r i n e Fo r ma ti o n s — M ost O f the accumula

.
-
.

tions in progress on existing shores whether sand banks , ,

or estuarine or O ff shore deposits especially about well

,
-
,

g n
na time
s w
ae watered continent s contain more or less of river detritus
, ,

and are modified in their forms by Fm 1 84 . _

the action of river currents Along .

the whole eastern coast of the

United States south of N ew E n g
land and on all the borders of the
,

Gulf of Mexico the formations in B h t u tu e ac s r c re .

,

n ly flu v i O marine — that is the combined -

,

rivers and the ocean The coast region of the .

is n o w S lowly widening through this means ,

been widening for an indefinite period This .

is lo w flat O ften marshy full of channels or

, , ,

facing the ocean there is a barrier of sand .

pour out their detritus espe cially during their

d t h e ocean s waves and currents m eet it as the
’

in with a counter action or one from the sea

, ,

land w ard between the two the waters as they lose their , ,

veloci t y drop the detritus over the bottom Where t h e

, .

river is very large and the tide s feeble the banks and reefs ,

extend far out t o sea The Mississippi thus stretches its

.

many branched mouth ( Fi g 1 80 ) fifty miles into the Gulf

-
. .

Where the tide is strong sand bars are formed and the ,

s tron er the tides the closer are the sand bars to the coast
g , .
 D YN A M IC A L G E O LO G Y .

Where the stream is small the ocean may throw a sand

,

bank quite across its mouth S O that there may be no egress

,

to the river waters except by percolation through the sand ;

or if a channel is left O pen it may be only a shallow one
, , .

S TR UCTURE OF THE F ORMATIONS .

Beach Formations are very Irregular in stratification in

t h eir upper portions where they are made by the toss of
,

the waves combined with drifting by the winds The .

layers — as sho w n in Fig 1 8 4 have but little lateral ex

.

tent and change in character every few feet B u t the

, .

sloping part swept by the

F
IG . 1 85
waves below high tide
.

level is very e venly strati

fi e d parallel to the sur
face ; and since this sur ,

face dips usually at an

a ngle O f 5 to the °

beach made beds have the -

same dip The coarsest .

beaches have the stee pest

slopes .

The sand banks and

reefs made in shallow
R ip p l m k
e- ar s.
waters along a coast have
a more regular and m ore
nearly horizontal stratification an d are m ostly composed
,

of sand with som e beds of pebbles They often vary

.

much every mile or every few miles The extent and .

regularity of level of the submerged area off a coast will

determine in a great degree the extent to which the uni
formity of stratification may extend ; and in this respect , ,

the conditions were much more favorable for the deposit

of uniformly stratified sediments over wide areas in for
mer geological ages than at present si n ce large areas of
,

the continents were formerly submerged at shallow depths .

 D Y N AM IC A L G E O LO G Y .

Mu d -
cr a ck s , E a r th -
a mu d flat is ex
cr a ck s .
— V h en V

posed to the air or sun to dry as by the ebbing of a tide ,

or the s u bsiding of a freshet it becomes cracked to a few ,

inches or feet in depth Fig 1 8 9 represents mud cracks

. .
-

in argillace ous sandstone S uch cracks may subse q uently

.

FIG 1 88 . .

Fl o w -an d -p lu g n e s tr u tu
c re .

become filled with stony m aterial either sediment or ,

material in solution and as such fi llings are O ften harder ,

than the rock itself they may stand as prominent ridges

,

above a weathered surface of the rock It is actually .

FIG . 1 89 .

M ud -
c rac k s .

network of veins b ut of very shallo w veins that wer e

,

filled from above In regions of long droughts the earth

.
,

cracks over prairies and alluvial flats are sometimes many

and deep and ove r a foot wide
, .

The imbe dded shells and other animal relics i n a beach

are commonly broken ; those in the bays or offshore
 DYN AM IC AL G E O L OG Y .

by K err ) a downward m ovem ent of earth and gravel on

slopes with rearrangement of the materials
, .

Fro zen W ater The effects of ice and snow are con
.

v e n i e n t ly considered under three heads — 1 Th e Ice of ,

L a ke s an d R i vers ; 2, G la ci e r s ; 3, Ice berg s .

1 . ICE OF L AKE S AND RIVE R S .

The ice of lakes and rivers O ften forms about stones

along their shores and sometimes over those of the bot
,

tom ( then calle d anchor ice ) making them part O f the ,

mass ; and other stones sometimes fall on sh ore ice from

overhanging blu ffs The ice serves as a float to the.

stones ; and in times of high water or floods it may , ,

carry its burdens high up the shores or over the flooded ,

flats to leave them there as it melts L arge accumula

, .

tions of bowlders are sometimes made by this means on , ,

shores far above the ordinary level of the waters .

2 . A
G L CIE R S .

Glacie rs are Ice S tre ams ,

or rivers in which the moving
material is frozen instead of liquid water .

L ike large rivers they ordinarily have their sources

,

in high m ountains and descend along the valleys ; but

,

( )
1 the m ountains m ust be high enough to re ceive snow
from the clouds instead of rain ; and ( 2) they must be
extensive enough to receive annually a large supply of .

snow so that it may accumulate to a great depth ; and

,

3
( ) the region mus t be one of su fficient precipitation
‘

As in the case of rivers m any tributary streams coming ,

from the different valleys may unite to make the great

stream .

As with rivers their m ovement is dependent on gravity

, ,

or the weight of the material ; but the average rate of

motion instead of being several miles an hour is generally
, ,

in summer but 1 0 to 1 8 inches a d ay or a mile in 1 8 to ,

20 years Twelve inches a d ay co rre s p o n d s t o a mile

‘

.
 M E C HA N IC A L E FF E C TS OF WATE R .

in 1 4% years The rate in winter is about half of that in

.

s u m m er .

As with rivers the central portions move most rapidly

, ,

the sides and bottom being retarded by friction .

The snow of the mountain tops called n é vé or fi rn , , ,

which is perhaps hundreds of feet deep becomes c om ,

p a c t e d and converted into ice mainly by its own weight ,

with the aid of water penetrating it derived from partial ,

melting and thus the glacier begins Through alternate .

melting and freezing the change to ice is m ade more

,

complete As the glacie r starts on its course the clouds

.
,

furnish new snows to keep up the supply and help press

on the moving mass .

D ces ent e
b lo w n
th e S o w L i ne — The height in the .
,

Alps of the snow line or that belo w which the snow

,
-
,

annually precipitated m elts during the year is about 8 4 0 0 ,

feet on the north side O f the Alps and about 88 00 fee t on ,

the south S ide ; and the glacier may descend below this
line 5 0 0 0 feet or more The ice resists the melting heat
.

of summer because of its mass like the ice in an ice house ,

-
.

Though starting whe re all is white and barren it passes ,

by regions of Alpine flowers and often continues down to ,

a country of gardens and hum an dwellings before its course

is ended Thus the G la ci er d e s B o i s an upper portion O f
.
, ,

which is called the M e r d c G la ce rises in M ont Blanc and ,

other neighboring peaks and te rminates like seve ral other

, ,

in the vale of Chamouni In a similar manner .

,

t glaciers descend from the heights of the Bernese

the G rindelwald valley j ust south of I n terlake n .

9 1 represents one O f the ice streams of the M onte

Rosa region in the Alps from a view in P rofe ssor ,

Agassiz s work on Glaciers It shows the lofty regions

’
.

of perpetual snow in the distance the bare rocky slopes

that border it later on its co u rse and the many crevasses
,

that intersect the surface of the ice stream .

Fr actu res a tt en d in g t h e Mo ve me nt ; Crev a sses — E very .

valley has its ridgy sides its sharp turns its abrupt nar
, ,
 D YN A MIC AL G E OL O G Y .

rowings and w i d e n i n g s its irregular bottom ; and the sti ff ,

ice compelled to accommodate itself to these irregularities

, ,

forms by its rupture profound crevasses besides multi ,

tudes O f cracks that are not visible at the surface There .

are crevasses on the convex side of every bend in the

glacier ; transverse crevasses crossing even its whole ,

breadth where the ice plunges down a s t eep place in an

,

ice cascade ; and longitudinal crevasses where the ice , ,

escaping fro m a narrow gorge spreads laterally over a ,

broad valley or plain Indepe n dently of any local i rr e g u .

la ri t i e s the more rapid motion O f the central part of a

,

glacier causes a diagonal strain ( theoretically in a d i re c

tion at an angle of 4 5 with the axis of the
°

FIG 1 90. .

glacie r) which pro d uces a series of marginal

,

crevasses having the direction indicated by ,

Fig 1 9 0 . .

Again crevasses once formed m ay close up

,

again whe n the form O f the valley is such

,

that a portion of the i ce is subj ected to

pressure in a direction in which it has formerly
D i g m iii m t been subj ected to tension
a ra us .

i g m gi l
n ar
Gl acier To rren t — The melting of the gla
na

C POV E S S OS .

cier especially during the warm season gives

, ,

rise to streams of wate r flowing beneath it which finally ,

unite in a torrent O f considerable size emerging to the ,

light from beneath the bluff of ice in which the glacier

terminates Thence it continues on its rocky course down
.

the valley .

Met h o d o f Mo ve me nt — The capability of motion in a .

glacier is dependent ( 1 ) partly on a d egree of plasticity

in ice Ice may be made through pressu re to C opy a
.
, ,

seal or m ay be drawn out into cylinde rs ; or if a slab is

, ,

supported only at the S ides it will become bent downward , ,

through gravity The apparent plasticity of glacier ice is

.
,

however in great part due to the processes referred to in

,

the next two paragraphs .

2
( ) The movement depends i n great part upon the facil
 M E C HA N IC A L E FF E C TS O F WA TE R .

Wlthestiii ity with which ice breaks and afterwards reunites into a
‘

solid mass whe n the broken s u rfa ces are brought into con
tact This property of regelation was first noticed by
.

Faraday It is easily S ho w n by breaking a lu m p O f ice

.

and bringi n g the surfaces again into contact : if m oist as ( ,

they are at the ordinary temperature they at once become ,

firmly united A glacier moves on and accommodates

.

FIG 19 1
. .

w . ld ml dme
'
up

G l ac i er o f Z m att ,
er or C o rne r G l a ci e r .

itself to its u neven bed by breaking ; and however frac ,

t u r e d it may be it becomes when the parts are pressed

, ,

together as solid as before

, .

( ) The movement of the ice is facilitated by alter

3
melting and freezi n g in the interior O f the glacier .

cry stalline grains of which the glacier is composed ,

o u n d to increase from the almost microscopic size of

 D YN A M ICA L G E O L OG Y .

the crystals of the snowflakes on the mountain s u mmits

to a diameter of several inches near the end of a glacier ;
and this indicates a great amount of melting and f reezing .

This process goes on most rapidly when the greatest

amount of heat is communicated to the glacier H ence .

the m otion is more rapid in summer than in winter .

( )4 A glacier may here and there ,at times slide along , ,

its bed yet only portions at a time

, .

Trans po rt a ti o n by Glaciers ; Mo ra i nes Glaciers b e .

come laden with stones and earth falli n g from the heights
above or coming down in avalanches of snow and stones
, .

The stones and earth make a band along either border of

a glacier and such a band is called a moraine When two
, .

glaciers unite they carry forward their bands of stones

,

w ith them ; but those o n the uniting sides combin e to

make one m oraine which is calle d a medial moraine i n
, ,

distinction f rom the lateral moraines on the margins of

the glacier A large glacier like that in Fig 1 9 1 may
.
, .
,

have many moraines one more than the number O f trib

u t a r i e s by whose union the trunk glacier has been formed .

In the lower part of a glacier the se veral m oraines gen

e r a lly lose their distinctness through the melting of the
,

ice and also by reason of the fact t h at the glacier is gen

,

e r ally compressed in its lowe r part to a width very much

less than the aggregate width of its tributaries The sur .

face O f the glacier accordingly O ften becomes covered

, ,

with earth and stones for the greater part of its brea d th .

The blu ff of ice which forms the foot of a glacier is ofte n

a dirty mass scarcely reveali n g supe rficially its real nature
, .

S ome of the masses of rock on glaciers are O f immense

size O n e is m entione d containing over
. cubic feet
which is e quivalent in cubic contents to a building 1 0 0
feet long 5 0 feet wide and 4 0 feet high
, , .

B esides the superficial moraines a glacier also gathers ,

rock material from the bottom ove r which it m oves The .

disintegrated and decomposed rock is mostly scraped from

the surface masses of rock are torn Off from j ointed ledges
, ,
 M E C HA N IC A L E FF E C TS O F WATE R .

main511t ; and soft rocks in the path of the gla cie r are deeply abrade d .

The materials thus gathered from the be d O f the glacier ,

with a d ditions fro m stones which have falle n into the

crevasses from ab ove form the ground moraine or mo r a i n e
, ,

r of o n d e
p .

The final m elting leave s all the e arth and stones in u n

s t r at i fi e d heaps or deposits which m ay be further trans
,

ported abraded and deposited by the stream that flows

, , ,

FIG 19 2
. .

V i e w o n R o ch e -
u
m o t o nn é e C r e e k , Co l d
o ra o .

from the glacier The mass of such deposits dropped at

.

the foo t of a glacier is called the terminal moraine .

E ro si o n by Gla cier s — A glacier lade n with stones

5
will have stones in its lower surface and sides as well as ,

in its mass A s it moves down the valley it consequently

.
,

abrades the exposed rocks over which it passes smoothi n g ,

and polishing some s u rfaces covering others closely with ,

scratches and O ften plowing out broad and deep

,
 D YN A M IC A L G E O LO G Y .

channels besides having its abrading bowlders scratched

,

or polished .

D eep plowing is accomplished chiefly ( 1 ) where the rock

beneath is soft or fragile or ( 2) where i t is j ointed rifted , , ,

or laminated In the latter case the action is rending

.
,

rather than abrading and by this m eans the larger part of

,

the direct e x cavation by glaciers has been done .

The rocky ledges over which the ice has moved are
often redu ced to rounded prominences they then look in ,

the distance like groups O f crouching sheep and hence

, ,

have been called in French r o cbe s mo u to nn e e s T h ey are

, ,
’
.

exhibited on a grand scale in some of the valleys of the

high ranges along the summit of the R ocky M ountains ,

where were formerly extensive glaciers ; and Fig 1 9 2 .

represents such a scene in the region of the M ountain ,

of the H oly C ross ( the remote summit near the center

of the view) as photographed by the photographer O f the
,

expedition under D r Hayden Fur ther the stones in

. .
,

the ever shifting ice are worn and become rounded at the
-
,

angles and the very fine rock flour derived In part from
the transported stones and in part from the bed rock is ,

carried down by the glacie r torrent to make beds of clay ,

or earth and give a milky hue to the rivers flowing from

,

a glacier region .

Glaciers d eepen and widen the valleys in which they

m ove Bu t i n this work they are ai d ed by frosts ava
.
,

lanches an d especially by the torrents beneath the glacier

, .

Glaci er R e g i o ns — The best known of G lacier regions

.

are those of the Alps in one of which M ont Blanc stands

, ,

with its summit feet above the sea There are .

glaciers also in the P yrenees the m ountains of N orway , ,

Spitzbergen Greenland Alaska and other Arctic regions

, , , ,

in the Caucasus and Himalaya i ii the southern Andes in , ,

the Cascade R a nge a n d in the R ocky M ountains of B ritish

,

America Greenland is a great glacier covered land send

.
-
,
'

ing many large streams of ice through the fi o rds O i the

border region to the polar seas .
 ME C HA N IC A L E FFE C T S O F WATE R .

wa rsscratched

3 . ICE BE R G S .

'
h l
erct erccr
vn

When glac i ers l i ke those of Greenland term i n ate In

, ,

the sea the icy foot becomes broken O ff fro m time to time ;
,

and these fragments O f glaciers floate d away by the sea , ,

are icebergs The geological effects of icebergs have been

.

stated on page 1 5 1 Seashore ice sometimes carries stones

.

and gravel far out to sea .

S u mma ry . Fo rm a t i o n o f S e di me nt a ry S t ra t a .

The following is a brief recapitulation O f the explana

tions of the origin of deposits given in the preceding
pages Igneous and other crystalline rocks are not here
.

included .

1 S o u r ces o f Materia l — The greater part of the ma

. .

01 2 9
0 3 1
19” e t e ri al of sedimentary rocks has come from the degradation
of pre existing rocks B ut an other part ( as limestone
.

and inf u sorial earth ) has been take n up from a state of

solution in the ocean or in fresh waters through the ,

agency of life yet the waters have received the i n g re di

ents from the rocks either whe n the ocean first began to
,

exist or subsequently through the dissolving action of

,

streams on expose d rocks ( page

.2 Me ans o f De g r ad ati o n T he principal means o f .

ra d a t i o n are the following 1 E rosion by moving

( )
ers either those of the sea or la nd ( pages 1 26
, ,

E rosion by ice chiefly in the condition of glaciers ( page

,

( 3 ) P ressure of the wate r descending into fissures ;

Formation of substances for example oxide of iron in , ,

to O pen and deepen t h e cracks ; ( 5 ) Growth

o o t le t s roots and trunks of trees
, , in crevices result , ,

i n O pening and tearing apart rocks and O ften produc ,

extensive des t ruction of rocks especially when they ,

j oin t ed ( 6 ) Freezing of wate r in fiss u res ( page

C hemical decomposi t ion of one or more of the ingre
ock in the course of which process the rock
,
 D YN A M IC A L G E OLOG Y .

becomes crumbled or reduced to earth ; ( 8 ) R emoval by

solution as of limestones by carbonated waters ( 9 ) Un
,

d e r m i n i n g O f rocks by any method ; ( 1 0 ) E xpansion and

c ontraction by heat ( page
3 Fo rmati o n o f De p o sits — The principal methods by
. .

which deposits have been formed are the following

1
. B y th e Wa te rs of th e S e a 1
( ) Through .the sweep
of the ocean over the submerged portions of the continen t s
( pages 1 2, 1 5 4 ) making sandy or p ebbly dep osits near or
at the surface where the waves strike or at very shallow ,

depths where swept by a strong current ; argillaceous or

shaly deposits near or at the surface where sheltere d from ,

the W aves and also at considerable depths out of m aterial

, ,

washed Off the land by the waves or currents ; but not

making coarse sandy or pebbly deposits over the deep bed
O f t h e ocean as ev en great rivers carry only silt to the
,

ocean ; and not making even argillaceous deposits over the

’
ocean s bed except along the borders O f the land unless ,

by the aid of a very great river like the Amazon though ,

even in that case the greater part of the detritus is thrown

back on the coast by the waves and currents In former .

geol ogical periods the submerged borders O f the conti

,

n en t s, on which sedimentation mainly takes place were ,

much more extensive than at present .

( )2 T h rough living species and mainly

, M ollus k s M ol ,

lu s c o id s Crinoids C orals and R hizopods a ff ording cal

, , , ,

c a r e o u s material for strata ; and D iatoms R adiolarians , ,

and Sponges affording siliceous m aterial M ost rocks

,
.

made O f C orals and the shells of M ollusks h av e r e q u i re d ‘

the help O f the waves at least to fill u p the interstices

,
.

2 B y t h e Wa te r s of L a k e s
. Lacustrine deposits are
.
-

essentially like those of the ocean in mode O f origin u nless ,

the lakes are small when they are like those of rivers
,
.

3 B y t h e R u nn i ng Wa te r s of t h e L a n d
. Filli n g
the valleys with alluvi al deposits an d moving the earth ,

from the hills over the plains ( page 2

( ) Carry i ng

detritus to the sea or to lakes to make in conj unction , ,

 HE AT .

" “lR the action of the waters of sea or lake deltas and
em
,

f l
ova b
y shore ac cum ulations ( page s 1 38 ,

B y Fr o z e n Wa te r s 1
( ) Acti.n g in the condition o f

and thus spreading the rocks an d earth of the

ve r the lower in definite lines of m oraine
, ,

11 sheets of drift bearing onward in the process blocks

, ,

of great size as well as finer material ( page

,
;

2
( ) Acting as icebergs ; and in this condition
, transpor t ,

ing stones and earth to distant parts of the ocean as ,

from the Arctic regions to the Newfoundland Banks and ,

so contributing to sedimen t ary accumulations in deep or

shallow water distinguished by their containi n g huge
,

blocks of stone besides pebbles and earth

, .

V . H E AT .

1 . So u rc e s o f He at .

The crust of the earth derives heat from three sources

1 Th e S u n an external source 2 Th e E ar th s He a te d
’

, , ,

In ter i o r ; 3, C h emi ca l a n d M e ch a n i ca l A c ti o n .

1 Th e S u m — This agency is peculiar i n

. bei n g regu
larly variable through the alternations in day and night
, ,

in the seasons in the time of aphelion and perihelio n a n d

, ,

in the eccentricity of the earth s orbit The amount O f ’

.

imparted to the earth and retaine d by it varies also ,

changes in the atmosphere ; since the atm osphere

bs a part of the heat radiated to the earth from the
stars and absorbs in greater proportion the heat
,

extremely great wave length radiated from the

The following are some of the causes to which
in climate has been attribute d
gradual diminution in the heat of the su n through
Such a change must have taken
is believed by L ord Kelvin and others that
en adequate to produ ce a very considerable
’
the earth s climate S ince the be ginning of P aleo
 D YN AM IC A L G E O L OG Y .

2 . Variatio n s in the condition of the surface of the sun ,

causing periodical alterations in the amount of heat radi

ated and thus producing alternating cold and w arm eras
, .

S uch changes are p ossible though their occurrence has ,

not been proved .

’
3 Variations i n the level of the earth s surface
. - In .

any latitude the highlands are colder than the lo w lan d s S O ,

that very appreciable changes of climate must have been

produced by the great m ountain elevations of the Tertiary
era and by the extensive cha n ges of continental levels in
,
thy ? 3! i l L Z
fil “
the Quaternary B u t e ven m ore important may be the
.

indirect effects of crustal movements when a change i n ,

the level O f the land or sea bottom diverts the oceanic

currents from one course to another E levating the sea .

bottom between E urope and Greenla n d would shut out ,

the warm Gulf Stream from the A rctic region and i n ,

’
crease its cold For accordi n g to Croll s calculations
.
, ,

t h is stream contributes to the N orth Atlantic O cean 7 7 ,

foot pounds O f e n ergy in the form

-
,

O f heat per day , Such a change might the refore make

.
, ,

a glacial climate for large areas in the northern hemi

sphere O n the c o n t r ary aa subsidence Opening B ering
.
,

Strait for the free passage of the tropical current of the

P acific would ameliorate the Arctic climate .

’
4 Variations in the constitution of the earth s atmos
.

p h e re A S
. already stated the atmosphere absorbs
, a part
of the heat ra d iated from the sun to the earth but absorbs ,

in greater proportion the heat rays of very great wave

length emitted from the earth The effect of the atmos .

p h e r e is to make the temperature of the surface of the

earth m ore uniform and on the average higher than it

, ,

would otherwise be This absorptive action is chiefly due

.

to the carbon d ioxide and water vap or in the at m osphere .

It has been inferred that the effect of a larger amou n t of

these constituents ( which must have existed in early
geological time ) would have been to make the earth
warmer than at present The researches O f Langley . ,
 HE AT .

howe ver have S hown that the law of selective absorption

,
”
M i bar
in of heat rays by the atmosphere is m ore comple x than was
formerly supposed ; and the inference as to the climatic
effect of the greater amount of water v apor an d carbon
dioxide in former times is somewhat doubtful,
.

5 Variations in the eccentricity O f the earth s orbit

’
. .

The earth through all such variations receives the same

, ,

amount of heat annually from the sun but not the same ,

fo r the winter as for the summer The m axima of cecen

.

t r i c i ty are une q ual and are passe d at variable periods

,

ranging from about to somewhat m ore than

years The earth is at present near a minimum
.
,

and the distance from the sun is about millions of

miles in aphelion ( which comes now in summer) and ,

nearly m illions in perihelion — the di ff erence about ,

3 mil lions . About years since a maximum o c ,

curred with the aphelion and perihelion distances

,

Oceanllr
an d millions of miles — the di fference 8 4 millions ;
gM
,

and years S i nce an extreme m a x rm u m W i th these

, ,

d istances and millions — the di fference ,

millions of miles When the aphelion comes in the winter

.

of the northern hemisphere the cold of the winters in that

m ,

creased the amount of heat received being

,

square of the distance ( which ratio gives

winter during the extreme maximum r e
,

fi ve sixths of that now receive d in that

the wi nter part of the year ( from
nal to the vernal equinox ) is at the extreme ,

36 days longer than the summer part ( from

to the autumnal e quinox ) ; whereas at present
is 8 days the longe r At the same time the
.
,

are h otter but shorter In the southern hemi

, .

the reverse in each respect is true

, The cold
, .

a c i al period has been t hus accounte d for and also ,

r m t h O f warm eras by Croll ; but o thers rej ect

,

ory The the ory re quires several Glacial epochs in

.

here during one prolonged time of ma x imum

 D YN A MIC A L G E OLOG Y .

eccentricity since the e ffect of precession and revolution

,

of the apsides is to reverse the relation of the seasons of

each hemisphere to aphelion and perihelion twice in a
cycle of about years In an age O f maximum .

e ccentricity Glacial epochs should accordingly occur alter

,

h ately in the northern and the southern hemisphere cul ,

m i n a t i n g at intervals of years .

’
6
. A change in the earth s axis has bee n suggested as
a possible cause of variation in climate Bu t calculations .

by G H Darwin Haught o n and others have shown that

. .
, , ,

no such change can have taken place su fficient for any

marked result .

2 Inte rn al He a t — The fact of a high temperature in

. .

’
the earth s interior is e stablished in various ways .

1
. The for m of the earth is a S pheroid and a spheroid ,
’
of j ust the shape that would have resulted from the earth s
revolution on its axis provided it had passe d through a ,

state of fusion and had slowly coole d ove r its exterior

, .

Hence is drawn the inference that it has passed through

such a state of fusion which is stre n gthened by the other ,

evidence here given Another conclusion also follows ; .

namely that the earth s axis had the same position ( or at

,
’
,

least very nearly the same ) when cooling began as now

,
.

There is no evidence that there has been at any time any

considerable change .

.2 In deep borings for water and in shafts sunk in ,

mining it has been found that the temperature of the

,

earth s crust increases on an average one degree Fahren

’
, ,

heit for 5 5 to 6 0 feet of descent S uch a rate in the .

,

latitude of N e w York would give heat enough to boil ,

water at a depth of less than two miles ; and at a depth

of 35 miles the temperature would be 3 0 0 0 F or that of °
.
,

the fusing point of iron S ince however the fusing tem .

, ,

e r a t u re of nearly all substances increases with the pres

p
sure a zone of universal fusion in the earth if such a z one
, ,

exists at all must be at a much greater depth than would

,

be suggested by the figure s given above .

 HE A T .

3 . The great P acific O cean has nearly a complete girdle

of volcanoes extinct or active and all of its many islands
,

that are not coral islands are volcanic e xcepting N e w

, ,

Z ealand and a fe w others of large size in its southwest

a
” "V
part Volcanoes occur along many parts of the Andes
‘

Q
.

from Tierra del F uego to the Isthmus of D ar ren ; In Ce n

tral America in Mexico California O regon and beyond
, , , ,

in the Aleutian Islands on the north ; in Kamchatka ,

J apan the P hilippines N ew Guinea N e w Hebrides and

, , , ,

New Z ealand on the west ; and in Antarctic lands south

of New Z ealand and S outh America The volcanic region .

thus bounded is almost a hemisphere and besides there , ,

are volcanoes in m any parts of the othe r hemisphere .

O utlets O f molten matte r so extensively distributed seem

to indicate that there is some world wide region O f heat -

beneath .

’
4 The fle x u r e s which t h e earth s crust and its strata
.

have undergone over regions of c ontinental e xtent and ,

even as late as the C enozoic have been held by some ,

to prove that there have been up to the middle Cenozoic, ,

if n o t later great regions of liquid rock beneath the

,
’
earth s crust ; though most physicists and ge ologists be
lieve those m ovements to be compatible with a condition
of substantial solidity of the globe .

3 Ch e mi cal and Me ch ani cal Acti o n

. In the upturning .

and fle x u r e of rocks attending mountain making there -

,

have been movements on a grand scale and through the ,

t ransformation of t h is motion into heat the rocks have ,

received in some cases a high temperature su ffi cient to ,

promote through the m oisture present the consolidation

, ,

of rocks and even their crystallization o r metamorphism

, ,

and also in the view of Mallet thei r fusion on a scale

, ,

grand enoug h to originate volcanoes This is probably .

one c h ief source of the heat through whic h the m e t a m o r

p h i s m and consolidation of rocks have been produced the ,

other chief sou rce being the internal heat .

Heat is produced by condensa t ion as when vapors ,

 D YN A M IC A L G E O LO G Y .

become li q uid or solid or when liquids ( as water) become ,

solid It is also produce d in many chemical changes

.
,

as in the oxidation of pyrite and other substances .

2 . Ef f e c t s o f He a t .

The following are the e ffects of heat he re considered

1 , E xp a n s i o n a n d Co n tr a c ti o n ; 2, E rup ti o n s of Ig n e o u s R o ck,
a n d a s s o c i a te d h e n o me n a ; 3, M e ta mo r h i s m ; 4 F m
p p , o r a

ti o n
f o Ve i n s .

The subj ect of movements of the earth s crust and ’

,

the evolution of continents and mountain ra n ges might ,

be incl u ded here since these movements probably result

,
’
from the reaction of the earth s heated interior u pon its
surface ; but the subject is so comprehensive that it has
been deemed best to give it a distinct chapter ( page
1 . E XPANS ION AND CONTR ACTION .

1
( ) Heat fro m any subterranean source penetrating
up w ard may cause wide changes of level Lyell has cal .

c u lat e d that a mass of sandstone a mile thick raised ,

in temperature to 1 0 0 0 F would have its upper s ti r fac e °

.
,

elevated 5 0 feet Fractures and displacements would be

.

likely to attend such movements 2

( ) The diurnal varia .

tion of tempe rature which in some countries amounts to ,

8 0 F or more and also the annual variation is a force

°
.
, ,

always at work The ex pansion and contraction may .

gradually move bl ocks of rock from their places It will .

move the heated side O f the block outward ; and if this ,

o u ter part so move d cannot beca u se of wedging or fric ,

tion return with the succeeding contraction the mass

, ,

will move to it or have its edges fractured Blocks lying .

on a mp e will tend to crawl downward since gravitation ,

will make the downward movement slightly exceed the

up w ard in both expansion and contraction The Bunker
,
.

Hill obelisk at Charlesto w n in Massachusetts has been

proved to swing back and forth with the passage of the .

s u n ov er it 3
( ) The alternating
. action of e xpansion and
 HE A T .

contraction peels O H the grains or outer surface of rocks ,

and is especially in dry climates an important means of

, ,

rock disintegration .

S h ri n k a g e Cra ck s In
. the cooling of liqui d rocks
shrinkage cracks are prod u ced Fm 1 9 3 , .

and thence comes the colum nar

structure of trap basalt etc, ,
.

F
( g i. The columns show
a te n dency to the form of hex
agonal prisms sinc e less e x p e n
,

di t u re of force in the rupture

n 105
08 3 5 “
i of cohesion is required to p r O
duce a hexagonal network of
C lu m t u tu o nar s r c re .

cracks than one of any other

form The cracks tend to be propagated in a direction
.

perp endicular to the cooling surface ; and the position

’
the column s is thereby dete rmined Fingal s C ave .

FIG . 19 4 .

1 « fl m m
a n
ou t
s i
l l

forte

l
Ba s a ti c co lu m ns, ll
I aw arra , New So u th W l a es .

and the Giant s Causeway are familiar exam ples of c o

’

lu mn ar structure in great perfection Fig 1 9 4 ( from . .

a sketch by the author i n 1 84 0 ) illustrates the same

phenomenon at Illawarra on the coast of N e w S outh
Wales ( 2) Similar columnar forms are sometimes pro
.

du c e d in sandstone after heating though in ge neral only ,

irregular cracks result ( )

3 H eat penetrates
. rocks over
 DYN AM IC A L G E OL O G Y .

wide regions W herever metamorphism is in progress ; and

the subse quent cooling and contraction may leave multi
tudes of fractures in long lines or in reticulations the
, ,

subsequent filling O f which may make veins .

D rying is another source of shrinkage cracks It makes .

the shallow mud cracks ( page -

and the soil cracks -
,

sometimes yards in depth in countries O f fertile prairies ,

that have a long hot and dry season ; and may produce
far deeper jo i n t li k e cracks in mud made rocks ( shales -

and argillaceous sandstones ) as they become slowly dried ,

by the action of subterranean heat Further the drying .

,

of beds produces a sinking of the surface A soft mud .

may contract to a tenth of its bulk All mud beds will .

s u fl e r a large diminution in thickness on drying ; but the

pressure of overlying strata may preve nt shrinkage cracks

from forming .

2 . P
E RU TIONS OF IG NE OUS R OCK , AND AS S OCIATE D PHE NOM E NA .

G E N E R A L N A TU R E OF VO L C A N O E S AN D T HE IR P R O D U C TS .

Volcanoes are mountain elevations of a somewhat coni

cal form which have a crater at the summit and ej ect
, , ,

from time to time vapors and melted rock If the s jcc

,
.

tions have long since ceased the volcano is said to be ,

extinct .

The cavity or pit in the top of a volcanic mountain ,

called the crater where the lavas may often be seen i n

,

fusion is sometimes thousands of feet deep but may be

, ,

quite shallow and in extinct vol canoes it is O ften wholly

wanting owing to its having been left filled when the
,

action ceased .

The liquid rock issuing from a crater and the same ,

after becoming cold and solid is called lava ,

.

An active crater even in its m ost q uiet state emits

, ,

vapors These vapors are m ostly steam or aqueous vap o r ;

.
,

but in addition there are usually sulphur g ases and som e ,

 HE AT .

times carbonic acid hydrochloric acid and more rarely

, ,

other gases .

In a time of special activity fiery j ets are sometimes

“I! r ts
thrown up to a great height which are made O f red hot -

tm
I kes
,
a .
a
fragments — the fragments O f great bubbles of lava pro
d u c e d by the escaping vapors The fragments cool as .

they descend about the sides of the crater an d are then ,

called cinders or ashes according as they are coarse or fine

,
.

Whe n a shower of rain ( which often results from the

condensation of the escaping steam ) accompanies the fall
of the ashes the result is a m u dli k e mass which becomes
, , ,

on d rying a brownish o r yellowish brown rock called tufa

, .

Tufa is O ften much like a soft sandstone except that the ,

materials are O f volcanic origin .

The materials produced by the volcano are then ,

1 L a va s ; 2 Ci n d e r s and a s h e s ; 3 Tuf a s ; 4 Vap o r s or

, , , ,

a ses
g .

m mmm “ The lavas are of various kinds They are O ften more .

na
or less cellular — s ometimes light cellular like the scoria ,

"mPO
RDCE
U of a furnace but more co mm only heavy rocks with some
, ,

scattered ragged cellules or cavities through the mass A

m
.

w 'h
f t 00
Stream of lava O f this m ore solid kind has often a few
.

mé l

inches of scoria at top as a running stream of sirup may

,

have its scum or froth The m ost of the scoria has this
.

scum like origin P umice is a very light g ra yish scoria

-
.
,

full O f long and slender parallel air cells .

When lava cools rapidly it sol idifie s as a glass — o b

,

sidian or tachylite ( pages 3 8 W hen it cools S lowly

, ,

it forms a truly crystalline rock B etween the extremes .

are various gradations .

The stony or crystalline lavas may be divided into

, ,

three groups according to their chemical and mineralogi

,

cal constitution O f which basalt andesite and trachyte

, , ,

considered types The lavas of the first group

.

pyroxene and labradorite They contain .

l amount of silica are d ark and heavy ,

ave an average
 D YN A MIC A L G E O LO G Y .

fusion point of about F Those of the second group

2 25 0
°
.

consist chiefly O f hornblende ( or pyroxene ) and oligoclase

or andesine I n percentage of silica specific gravity and
. , ,

fusibility t hey hold an intermediate position Their aver

,
.

age fusion point is about 2 5 2 0 F Those of the third °

.

group consist chiefly of orthoclase and sometimes con ta in ,

some quartz They have a high percentage of silica and ,

.

c
pi
n edw
t phh fi
a speci fi c gravity belo w They are often light colored -
.

Their fusion point is about 2 7 0 0 F and some of them are °

.
,

considerably viscid even at a temperature of 3 1 0 0 F °

.

FIG 1 95 . .

linclhe linmln .

M o u nt V e s u vi u s : fro m a s k t h by th u th
e c e a or J u 1 834
in ne , .
— Cl
,
th e m a i n c o ne ; b,
MH
N SL H '

u mm it ci n d 0, M t S mm p t
on e o a, ar o f f mor u tl i
er o ne o f c r at e r ; d, He rm i ta e
g
s e r c o ne ;
( w Ob
no s e rvat o r y) e, f ,
P t i dR i
o r ic an e s na , c o v e r n i g th it e s e o f He rc ul an e um g , T o rre

d e l G re c o .

A volcanic m ountain is made out of the ej ected m ate

rials : either — ( l ) of lavas alone ; ( 2) of cinders alone ;
( )
3 O f tufas alone ; or 4
( ) of alternat i ons of two or more
Of these materials As the ej ections flow o ff
. or fall m ore
or less sym metrically around the vent the form of a vol ,

c an i c peak necessarily tends to b e c o nre conical .

The angle of slope of a lava cone is from 3 to 1 0 of a ° °

tufa cone 1 5 to 30 ,
of a cinder °
cone 3 0 to 4 2° of mixed ,
° °

cones intermedi a te inclinations according to

,
t h e i r c o ns t i »

tu tio n .
 D YN A M IC AL G E O L OG Y .

General De s cri pti o n of Ha w a i i

Hawa n is m ade up .
—

mainly of three volcanic mountains — two Mauna K ea ,

and M auna L o a ( Figs 1 9 6 1 9 7 page . nearly , ,

feet high ; and one ( the western ) Mauna Hu alalai about , ,

feet Mauna K ea is alone in being extinct

.
.

Mauna Lo a has a great crater at its summit and ,

another independent one 40 0 0 feet above the level of

the sea The latter is the famous K ilauea called also
.
,

L u a P e lé or P é lé s pit Pé lé being in the mythology of

’ ’
, , ,

the Hawaiians the goddess of the volcano

, .

The accompanyi n g map of H awaii ( Fig 1 9 8 ) shows .

the positions of M auna L o a and Mauna K ea and of the ,

crate r O f K ilauea .

Ki lau ea — The crate r Of K ilauea is literally a pit It ‘

. .

is three miles in greatest length and nearly two in great ,

est breadth and about se ven and a half miles in circuit

, .

The pit has nearly vertical sides of solid rock ( made

of lavas pile d up in successive layers ) and has been , .

1 0 0 0 feet i n depth after se ve ral of its eruptions and 4 0 0 ,

to 6 00 feet previous to its eruptions The bottom is a .

great area of solid lava with one or m ore lakes or pools

,

of liquid lava or crater like O penings from which vapors

,
-
,

rise The largest lake in 1 8 4 0 was 1 0 0 0 feet in diameter

.
, , .

The interior may be surveyed from the brink of the pit ,

even when in most violent action as calmly a n d safely as ,

if the landscape were one of houses and gardens .

Acti o n i n Ki lau e a — The ordinary action in the inter

.
,

vals between the great e ruptions is simply this The , .

lavas i n the active pools are in a state of ebullition j ets ,

rising and falling as in a pot of boiling water with this

di ffere n ce that t h e j ets are 30 to 1 0 0 feet high Such j ets
,
.
,

in lava as well as water arise from the e ffort of vapors to

,

escape in water the vapor is steam derived from the water

itself ; in lavas it is chiefly steam from waters that have
gained access to the lavas but also gases and vapors de ,

rived from materials in the lavas or from depths belo w , .

The lavas of the pools or lakes overflow at times and

1 80 D YN A M IC AL G E OLO G Y .

1 8 23 and 1 8 32 and between 1 8 32 and 1 8 4 0 the bottom

, ,

was raised 4 0 0 feet or more above the lowest level so that ,

the depth was reduced from 1 0 0 0 feet to 6 0 0 feet or less .

The addition of 4 0 0 feet to the height of the column of

liquid lava in the crate r cause d a corresp onding increase
O f pressure against the sides of the mountain The amount .

of this pressure is at least two and a half times as great

as that which a column of water of equal height would
produce The mountain m ust be strong to bear it The
. .

lavas at such times may be in a state O f violent activity ,

and a large addition to th e pressure against the sides O f

the mountain comes from the force of the imprisoned
vapors .

The consequence of this increase of pressure both from ,

the lavas and the vapors may be and has several times , ,

been a breaking of the sides of the mountain O n e or

, .

more fractures result and out flows the lava through the,

openings Thus simple have been the erup t ions

. .

In the eruption of 1 8 4 0 the lavas first appeared at the

surface a few mile s below Kilauea and then again at other ,

points somewhat more remote ; finally a stream ( r e p re

sented on the map Fig 1 9 8 ) began at a point about 1 5
, .

miles east of the great crater and extended to the shores ,

at N anawale Here on encountering the waters the great

.
, ,

flood O f lava was shivered into fragments and the whole ,

heavens were thick with an illuminated cloud of vapors

and cinders the light coming from the fiery stream below
,
.

The lavas which escaped at this relatively small eruption

amounted to at least cubic feet .

This eruption of K ilauea took place it will be O bserved , ,

not over the sides of the crater but t h ro u gh breaks in the ,

’
mountain s sides below ; and the pressure of the column
of lava within and that of the escaping vapors appear to
, ,

have caused the break .

S u mm i t Cr a ter o f M a u n a Loa — E ruptions have also .

taken place from the summit crater of the same mount ain
( Mauna L o a
) which is nearly
, f eet above the s e a ;
 and in each case there has been not an overflow from the ,

crater but an outflow through breaks in the sides of the

,

mountain In 1 8 5 2 there was first a small issue of lavas

.

near the summit and then another of great magnitude

,

about feet above the sea level At this second .

outbreak the lava was thrown up in a fountain or mass of ,

j ets two or three hundred feet high and thus it continued

,

in action for several days The forms of the fountain of.

liquid fire were compare d by R e v T C oan to the clustered . .

spires of a Gothic cathedral Similar lava fountains have

.

been O bserved also at other eruptions of the volcano

“impi
.

n r! f
i rson
e d The pressure producing the j et in the case above men
t i o n e d so far as it was hydrostatic was that of the column
, ,

of lava between the point of outbreak and the level O f the

lavas i n the summit crater 3 0 0 0 to 4 0 0 0 feet above The
, .

same pressure in connection with confine d vapors must

have caused the breaking O f the mountain in which the
eruption began .

U sually no great earthquakes accompany the Hawa i i an

,

eruptions s ometimes not even slight ones the first a n

, ,

n o u n ce m e n t being merely
“ a light on the m o u ntain ”

m m m(
i 3
ep
r e
r .

But the eruptions of 1 8 6 8 and 1 8 8 7 from the summit ,

crater of Mauna Lo a were preceded by earthquake s of

,

considerable violence When the summit crater is in

.

action K ilauea though

, , feet lower on the same
mountain and even a larger pit crater commonly shows
, ,

no agitation no signs whatever of sympathy

, .

At some of the eruptions of Mauna Lo a the lava has

continued down the mountain to a distance of 5 0 or 6 0
miles .

The shaded bands descending from near the summit on ,

the map ( Fi g S how the courses of several great out

.

flows O f lava .

Co nclu si o ns These cases of eruption indicate ( 1 )

.

that the lavas go on gradually increasing the pressure

in t h e interior by their accumulation while augmented ,

activity in the production of vapors still further increases

 DYN A M IC AL G E O LO G Y .

the pressure ; and that finally the m ountain when it can ,

no longer resist the forces within somewhere breaks and ,

lets the heavy liquid out They S how ( 2) that W hile

.
,

earthquakes may attend volcanic action they are no n e ce s ,

sary part of it They S how ( 3) that lavas may be so very

.

liquid that no cinders are formed during a great crup

tion ; for in the ebullition of the lava in t h e boiling lakes
,

of K ilauea the j ets ( made by the confined vapors ) are

,

usually thrown only to a height O f 30 to 1 0 0 feet a n d on ,

falli n g back the material is still hot ; it either falls back

,

i nto the p ool or lake or becomes plastered to its sides

, .

The liquidi t y O f the lavas is shown by the j etting out

som etimes from small holes of drops but a fourth O f an
, ,

inch thi ck which fall back on one another a d here and so

, , ,

make a model O f a fountain .

Ves u vi u s — Vesuvius is an example O f another type

.

of volcano The c h aracteristic of the Hawaiian type of

.

volcanoe s is the comparatively perfect liquidity of the

lavas The lavas are O f the m ost fusible ( basaltic ) type
.

and the temperature is so high that they are completely

fused In the case of less fusible lavas the t emperature
.
,

is generally insu fficient for perfect liquefaction s u ffi c i n g ,

only to bring them to a viscid semifused condition I n , .

Vesuvius the lavas are S O viscid that j ets cannot rise

,

freely over the surface : the vapors are therefore kept

confine d until they for m a bubble of great dimensions ,

and when such a bubble or a c ollection of them bursts

, , , ,

the fra g ments are sometimes thrown to a height of thou

sands O f feet The crater at a time of eruption is a
.
, ,

scene of violent activity and cannot be approached , .

D estructive earthquakes O ften attend the eruptions .

In many of the er u ptions O f Vesuvius there has been ,

no outflo w of lava streams the lava emitted being all pro

,

j e c t e d into the air by the violence of the explosions and ,

falling as cinders ashe s or tufa This app e ars to h ave

, , .

"

been the case in t h e famous eruption in the year 7 9 in ,

which P ompeii and Herculaneum were overwhelmed .

 HE AT .

Before that catastrophe there was a large circular crater , ,

the northern half of whose inclosing rampart r e m arn s as

the ridge of M onte S om m a ( c Fi g In the e x p lo , .

sions of that eruption the so u thern half of the old ram

,

part disappeared .

I n the minor activity Of the mountain duri n g the inter ,

vals between the great eruptions the same explosive char ,

acter shows itself Instead of quiet outflows from lakes

.

of lava as in Kilauea there are gene rally explosive dis

, ,

charges O f cinders building up small cones S uch a cone

,
.

is sho wn at b in Fig 1 9 5 . .

The lavas at Vesuvius may flow directly from the top

of the crater ; but they gene rally escape partly if not ,

entirely through fissure s in the sides of the mountain

, .

i
a u xn .

Some volcanoes as those of J ava are characterized even

, ,

more strongly than Vesuvius by the predominance of the

explosive type of eruption The eruption of K rakatoa in .

1 88 3 was a remarkable example of this type The ashes .

,

according to Verbeck ascended to a height of more than

,

feet and are supposed to have been carrie d around

,

the world and to have caused the red sunset glows of the
,

autumn following E ven K ilauea is known to have had

.

one violently explosive eruption probably ab out 1 7 8 9 ,

.

B esides the d i fl e r e n c e in the composition of the lavas ,

other circumstances as the size of the conduit the tem

, ,

p e r a t u r e of the subterranean reservoir etc a fi e c t the , .

,

character of the eruption Such extremely violen t e x plo .

sions as that of K rakatoa are probably due to the sudden

access of a large amount of water to the m olten mass .

O f the two causes of eruption — hydrostatic pressure

.
,

and elastic force of confined va pors — the latter appears

'

to be the most e He c t i v e in V esuvius while the former may ,

be in Hawaii The vapors in Mauna Lo a appear to be

.

supplied mainly by the fresh waters ( rains ) which fall

over the m o u ntain and descend through the rocks ; while
Vesuvius is in part at least supplied by salt waters from
, ,

the Mediterranea n as is proved by the pre s ence of hydr o

,
 D YN AM IC A L G E OL O G Y .

chloric acid in its vapors and O f chlorides among its saline

,

incrustations .

Tra ch y t i c Do mes —
. Trachytic lavas are less common
in modern volcanoes than t h e basaltic They have in .

som e cases pre ceded basalt in the history of a volcanic

cone I n some cases these trachytic lavas ( which owing
.
,

to the predominance of orthoclase in their constitution are ,

much less fusible than the basaltic ) have come up through

fissures in so pasty a state that they have swelled up into
steep domes and coole d in this form D omes of this kind .

occur in Auvergne ; also in the Black Hills O f S o u th

D akota ( N ewton and J enny ) .

Late ral Co nes o f Vo lca n o e s In eruptions through fi s

.

sures the lavas may c ontinue issuing for some days or

weeks through the widest or m ost freely open part of the
fissure and consequently form at this poi n t a cone of cin
,

ders or lava . Thus have originated innumerable c ones

on the l p e s O f E tna and other volcanic m o u ntains .

S ub ma rine ti
E ru p o n s — . E ruptions may sometimes take
place from the submarine slopes O f the m ountain when
it is situated near the sea as has happene d with E t n a an d
'

Mau na L o a ; and in such cases acc u mulations of tufa or

O f solid lava may form under water about the opened vent .

The n umerous volcanic islands of the ocean of co urse

commence d with submarine eruptions Fishes and other .

marine animals are usually destroyed in great numbers by

such submarine eruptions .

S ub si den ce o f Vo lcan i c R e g i o n s ; Overw h e lmi ng o f Cit i es .

Among the attendant e ff e cts of volcanoes are the sink

ing O f regions in their vicinity that have been under
'

mined by the outflo w O f the lavas ; the tumbling i n of

the summit of a mountain ; and earthquakes or vibra ,

tions of the rocks in conse q uence of fractures A nother

,
.

is the burial not only of fields and forests but even of

, ,

cities and their inhabitants by the o u t flo w i n g stream s or

, ,

by the falling cinders and accumulating tufas P om peii .

and Herculaneum are two of the cities that have been

 HE AT .

buried by Vesuvi u s ; and every few years we hear of

some n e w devastation O f habitations or farms by this
“19 1385 common uneasy volcano P ompeii is covered only by the tufas of
.

the eruption in which it was destroyed ; H erculaneum is

covered also by tufas and lava stream s of several later
eruptions .

S U B O R D IN A T E V O L C A N IC P HE N O M E N A .

1 . S o lf atar a s
In the vicinity of volcanoes and some
. ,

times i n regions in which no active volcanoes exist there ,

are areas where steam sulphur vapors and perhap s car

, ,

b o n i c acid and other gases are const antly escaping

, Such .

areas are called solfataras ( from the Italian s o lf o sulphur , , ,

and te r m earth )
,
The sulphur gases deposit sulphur in
.

crystals or incrustations about the fumaroles ( as the steam

h oles are called ) ; and alum and gypsum ofte n form from
the action O f sulphuric acid ( derive d from the oxidation
of the sulphur gases ) on the rocks .

2 Ho t S pri ng s ; Ge y ser s
.
— Fountains or springs of hot
.

water are commo n in volcanic regions and are O ften so ,

abundant as to be used for baths Such springs occur

,
.

also in many othe r parts of the world especially in regions ,

of upturned or of eruptive rocks I n some cases the heat .

is produce d by chemical changes in progress beneath or ,

by friction and crushing O f rocks in the upheavals which

have taken place ; but O ften the source is the residual heat
of great masses of lava .

When the heated waters are thrown out in intermittent

jets they are called geysers The Yellowstone P ark in the
, .

Rocky M ountains ( between the parallels of 4 4 and 4 5 N

‘
° °
.
, ,

and the meridians of 1 1 0 and 1 1 1 W ) is the most

° °
.

remarkable region of geysers in the world , far exceeding

that of Iceland O n e of the geysers — the B eehive
.

is represente d i n action in Fig 1 9 9 The Beehi ve j et . .

is 20 0 feet high Its eruptions occu r at somewhat irreg

.

ular intervals but generally two or three times In a d ay

, .

The periods of other g eysers vary from less than a minute

‘
 D YN A M IC A L G E OL O G Y .

to several weeks The eruptions of some are very regu

.

la rly periodical while others are very irregular

,
.

The action of geysers is due to the condi t ion that sub

terranean waters have access to h o t rocks ( as the interior
FIG 199 . .

l m 1,
iliceousco u n
S

Be e h i ve Ge y s e r i n a c t i o n.
 HE A T .

"I mag ing“ . of gre at lava sheets retaining a high temperat u re on

,

T
M . account of the poor con d uctivity of the material ) and ,

that the conduit communicating with the surface is so

m i s theinterior
“
narrow that convection currents cannot be freely estab
li s h e d
. The heat accordi n gly increases in the deeper part
of the colum n of water u ntil steam is formed by w hose , ,

expansion the cooler waters above are explosively ej ected .

After an eruption the water flows back into the under

,

ground passages and gradually becomes heated up for

,

a nother explosion .

Heated waters act on the rocks with which they are in

contact and decompose them and as most rocks espe
,
—
,

i
c a yl l volcanic rocks — contain some kind of feld spar the ,

waters become slightly alkaline through the alkali O f the

feldspar and so are enabled to take up silica an d make
,

siliceou s solutions T h e silica taken into solution is de

.

posite d again around the geyser in m any beautiful forms ,

and make s the bowl or crater from which the waters are
thrown out .

When the material in the vicinity of a boiling pool con

sists of earth or mud mu d cones are formed as in some
, ,

p arts of the Yellowstone P ark and also at Geyser Ca non , ,

nort h of San Francisco California , .

Besides hot springs that deposi t silica there are others ,

that deposit calciu m carbonate making thu s the kind O f ,

porous limesto ne called travertine as on Gardiners R ive r , ,

Yellowstone P ark .

In some cases the action of t h e heated waters on the

,

rp c k s expose d to the m gives origin to deposits of uartz

q
agate opal and di fferent silicates and other
, ,

i n e r als .

IG N E O U S E R U P TIO N S N O T V O L CAN IC .

It has been stated that eruptions of volcanoes generally

place through fissures Fissure eruptions have o c .

ed also in regions remote from volcanoes ; and they

the western slope of
 D Y N A M IC A L G E O LO G Y .

the R ocky M ountains vastly greater than any from volcanic T “!

is h a
centers . The n a rro w mass of igneous rock that fills
such fissures is called a d ik e The liquid rock has some .

times m erely filled the fissure without overflowing ; but ,

in other cases it has sp rea d widely over the surface making ,

sheets of great extent and thickness The o u tflow of liquid .

rock has O ften been followed by sedimentary deposits and ,

then anothe r outflo w has taken place ; thus making alter

natio n s o i fi re made and water made strata In that case
- -
.
,

the sheets of igneous rock are said to be c o nte mp o ra n e o u s ,

“
or extr u s i ve B eds of tufa or ash beds may also be ”
.
, ,

included in the series In other cases the strata h ave

.
,

been parted along a plane of stratification and m olten ,

rock has forced itself in Such sheets are called i n tru s i ve

. .

In the case of intrusive sheets both the overlying and ,

the underlying strata are a ffected by the heat of the igne

ous rock ( local metamorphism page in the case of ,

contemporaneous sheets only the underlying strata ,

.

The rocks m ost commonly occurring in dikes are felsite ,

diorite and dolerite ( pages 38

, The igne ous rock is ,

very often with out cellules or air cavities ; and if any are ,

p resent they are in general neatly formed instead of

, ,

being ragged like those of lavas I f the cavities in such .

a rock are filled by the deposit of minerals ( as quartz cal ,

cite zeolites
, it is calle d amygdaloid The rock of
,
.

an amygdaloid is usually hydrous ( and chloritic ) through

out ( owing i t is supposed to subterranean wate rs gaining
, ,

access in some way while the eruption was in progress ) ;

and the cavitie s were forme d in the outer or upper part ,
’
where the diminished pressure allowed of the water s pass
ing to the state of vapor .

D ikes are common on all the continents especially in ,

the regions between the summits of the border mountains

and the ocean which are usually between 30 0 and 8 0 0
,

miles in breadth ; as fo r example betwee n the A ppalach

, ,

ians and the Atlantic and between the R ocky M o u ntains

,

and the P acific .

 HE A T .

The P acific slope of the R ocky M ountains ( 5 0 0 to 8 0 0

miles wide ) is remarkable for its lava floods S ome of .

them are around volcanoes or volcanic vents but many

, ,

were from fissure eruptions remote from any volcano .

The largest continuous area extends from the Yellowstone

P ark in Wyoming westward along the Snake R iver
,

through southern Idaho and then spreads northward over

,

most of O regon and a large part of Washington and ,

southward into northern C alifornia Its bo u ndaries have .

not been exactly determined but its area is estimated to

,

be between and square miles O n the .

western margin are the lofty volcanoe s of the C ascade

Range and a number of smaller volcanoes are dotted over
,

various parts of the region ; but it is evident that these

li n
he o y g
.n t v
er and were not the source of the widespread lavas The C olum .

bia River is bordered for long distances by walls 1 0 0 0 to

20 0 0 feet high made of ranges of basaltic columns ; and
, ,

in the vicini t y of M ount H ood the thickness is 35 0 0 feet

, .

Again in northern C alifornia south of the combined v o l

, ,

5m g; rock18
cani o area of Mount Shasta and Lassens P eak on the west ,
5
slope of the S ierra the lavas were so copious as to o bli t e r
,

ate the deep valleys of an old system of drainage and ,

force the streams to make new channels The erosion .

then begun has since cut out valleys 1 0 0 0 to 300 0 fee t

deep partly along new routes leaving the remnants of the
, ,

lava field as caps of “ Table M ountains The miners .

”

have tunneled beneath the lava cap for gold bearing -

gravels and found rich deposits in the beds of the Old

,

streams ( J D Whitney )
. . N evada southern U t a h Colo
.
, ,

rado Ne w Mexico and Arizona have other wide lava fields

, , .

Still more wonderful are the fissure eruptions of the

Deccan in India where a railway out of B ombay runs for
, ,

51 9 miles continuo u sly over a lava field ; its area is not

less than square miles .

In eastern N orth America outflows thro u gh fissures ,

es on the Hudson ; long narrow ranges

including among the sum
 D YN A M IC A L G E O L OG Y .

mits M ount Tom and Mount H olyoke ; ridges in Nov a

,
s wab :

Scotia ; o t hers similar at intervals from Ne w J e rsey to

, ,

North Carolina ; and others in the vicinity of Lake ,

Supe rior In E urope examples are seen i n the rocks of

.
,

Salisbury C rags near E dinburgh and of the Giant s C ause ,

’

’
way and Fingal s Cave .

The intrusion of igneous rock has at time s lifted the

overlying strata high e nough to make subterranean dome
shaped masses 1 0 0 0 to 4 0 0 0 feet high ( name d la cco li th s ,

from the Greek Mai/m o s cistern and M 9 0 9 stone ) ; as in the

, , ,

Henry M ountains in southern Utah where denudation

, ,

has exposed to v iew some of the laccoliths ( G K Gilbert) . . .

Ten thousand feet of strata are said to have been thus

lifted — evidence of the vastness of the erupting force .

3 ME TAM ORPHIS M .

The term me ta mo rp hi s m signifies ch ange or alteration ;

an d, in Geology specifically a change in rocks u nder
, , ,

the action of heat and other subterranean agencies ( but

w ithout f usion ) generally i n t h e direction o f greate r
,

induration or more highly crystalline structure The .

rocks which have s u fle re d such a change are probabl y f or

the most part ordinary stratified rocks mechanical and ,

organic B ut lavas and other igneous rocks tufa beds

. , ,

and chemical deposits have also in many cases under gone

,

alteration to a condition in which they are undistinguish

able from metamorphose d sediments Such changes may .

be eithe r local or regional .

Lo cal Meta mo rph is m L ocal metam orph i sm has often

.

taken place in the walls of dikes of igne ous rocks or ,

in the adj oining parts of the strata over or betwee n

which they have flowed in consequence of the heat from
,

the melted and cooling rock Near dikes o f trap the . ,

rock is sometimes made cellular by escaping steam and ,

filled with S hri n kage fissures m ade on cooling or drying ;

and besides these e ffects various minerals h ave been
, ,

often f ormed as epidote , Chl orite hematite tourmaline

, , , ,
 HE A T .

ar n e t out o f t h e ingredients present in th e adjo i n i n g

g ,

stratifie d rock or the trap or both T h e waters o f h o t

, ,
.

mineral S prings have often produce d metamorphic e fi e ct s

in the rocks and man y miner al species have been formed
,

means .

R e gi o nal Metamo rph i s m In regional metamorphism

.
,

the regions undergoing change have ofte n been thou

sands of square miles in area and the depth to which ,

the alteration has e x tende d has sometime s e x ceede d

feet. The rocks were originally i n great part , ,

uncrystalline limestones shales sandstones c o n glo me r

, , ,

ates They are changed to cry stallin e limestone or marble ,

.

q uartzite gneiss m ica schist and t h e like

, , , They w er e .

originally in horizontal strata ; they are n o w upturne d

or folded and are ofte n inters ected by veins
,
.

Ne w E ngland is m ostly covered by metamorphic rock s ;

and they spread over the eastern border of Ne w York t o ,

Manhattan Island T h ey occur in t h e Adirondacks and

.
,

over a large area in Canada ; in the Highlands o f N e w

J ersey and P utna m C ounty New York ; i n the Blue R idg e
,

and the Black M ountains and the P iedmont region east o f

,

those mountains ; in a large area south of Lake Superior ;

“ne w in high ranges along the summit of the R ocky M ountains
and in the Sierra Nevada in California They occur also .

in Scotland Wales C ornwall S candin avia and variou s

, , , ,

other regions .

In some cases conclusive proo f that such crystalline

,

rocks are metamorphosed stratified rocks is a ff orde d

by the occurrence of unobliterated fossils in som e por ,

tions of a metamorphic stratum where the change is least ,

complete : as in part of the marble of West R u tland and

other places in Vermont in the limestone and schists near
psie and elsewhere in D utchess C ounty New ,

r d s t o n Massachusetts ; in the Sierra

,

in Nor w ay ; in the Alps ; and in several other

in E urope .

er cases a sedimentary origin has bee n in fe rred

,
 D YN A M IC AL G E OL O G Y .

f ro m th e bedded structure which has b ee n s u ppo s ed t o

,

correspond to the original s tratification B u t an appear .

ance of bedding is by no means conclusive proo f of t h e

sedimentary origin of a rock Gneisses and allied rocks.

are undoubtedly derived in some cases from granites and

other plutonic rocks a schistose s tructure being devel
,

oped by pressure or shearing When the planes of appar

.

ent be d ding in gneis ses and schists are parallel to the

planes of contact of t h ese rocks with quartzites or crystal
line limestones the probability that the structure r epresents
,

a true stratification is strengthened While the pres ence .

of a schistose structure is not always proof of origin from

se diments the absence of such structure is not always
,

proof of igneous origin Granite and other massive rocks

.

may be in some cases only the extreme term of m e t am o r

p h i s m of sediments . It is not always possible to deci d e
wit h certainty whethe r a mass o f crystalline r ock is of
igneous or of sedimentary or 1 g i n .

E ff e cts — The e ffects of metamorphism include

1 Simple compacting a n d soli d ification ; as in mak ing
.

q uartzite from quartzose sandstone or a rock looking like ,

granite from granitic sandstone .

2 A change of color ; as t h e gray and black o f common

.

limestone to the white color or the clouded S hadings , ,

of marble ; and th e brown and yellowish b r o w n of some

sandstones colore d by iron to re d making red sandstone
, ,

and jasper rock .

3 In most cases a part ial or complete e x pulsion of

.
,

vy ater .

4 An evolving and expulsion o f mineral oil or g a s ; as

.

when bituminous coal is change d to anthracite or graphite .

5 An obliteration of all fossils ; or of nearly all if the

.
,

metamorphism is partial The obliteration is usually pre

.

cede d by the compression and distortion of the fossils .

6 O ften a change i n crystallization with little or

.
,

none in chemical constitution ; as w hen a limeston e is

turned to white statuary marble ; and a sandston e or
 HE A T .

argillaceous rock made from the disintegration of granite

, ,

gneiss and related rocks is changed to granite or gneiss

, ,

again Grains of pyroxene may be changed into horn

.

blende the two minerals being substantially identical in

,

chemical composition though diffe ring in crys t alline form , .

.7 In many cases a change of constitution ; for the ,

ingredients subj ected to the metamorphic process often

enter into new combinations ; as when a limestone with ,

its impurities of clay sand phosphates and fl u orides , , , ,

gives rise under the action of heat not merely to white

, ,

granular limestone but to various crystalline minerals ,

i m ng
xd oi criginfinm disseminated through it such as mica feldspar scapolite , , , ,

pyroxene apatite chondrodite etc

, , , .

It is thus seen that metam orphism may fill a rock with

crystals of various minerals E ven gems are O ften among .

m 5mileto d
ecide its results What is of more value it makes out of rude
.
,

sandstones and limestones crystalline rocks as granite and ,

’
marble for architectural and other u ses Man s imita
, .

tion s of nature are seen in his little red bricks .

Pro ce ss The principal agencie s in metamorphism are

'

— .

h ea t w a te r and me c h a n i c a l a cti o n
, , .

He a t is important : ( 1 ) in order to prod u ce that weak

e nin of cohesion among the particles of a rock which is
g
the preparatory step toward a re crystallization ; and ( 2)
in orde r to bring about the chemical changes that are
re quired nearly all demanding a higher than the ordinary
,

temperature though less than that of c omplete fusion

, .

Wa te r is important because : ( 1 ) dry rocks ( as illus

t r a t e d in a fi re brick ) are bad cond u ctors of heat ; ( 2 it
-
)
helps greatly in the we akening of c ohesion ; ( 3) it t akes
up silica and alkali from all rocks containing feldspar
( page if heated ( and little heat is necessary ) and ,

thus becomes a siliceous solu t ion which on cooling may , , ,

deposit the silica as a cement among t h e grains of the

rock and so promote its s o li d ifi c a t i o n — as in altering
,

sandstone to quartzite and may also deposit quartz in ,

cavities or fissures ; (4 ) at higher tempe ratures in the ,

 D YN A M IC A L G E OLOG Y .

state of steam of high pressure it decomposes readily ,

many of the silicates or the ordinary minerals of rocks

, ,

and so prepare s for the formation of new minerals — thus

making sometimes feldspar mica hornblende etc The , , , .

quartz grai n s of a sandstone have ofte n been converted

into minute crystals of quartz by the dep osition of silica
over the exterior .

The water is for the most part that c ontained in the rocks
them selves ; for beds of sandstone limestone etc con , , .
,

tain before alteration on an average at least 2 per cent of

, ,

water ( independently of a n y in spaces between the beds) ,

which means 2 pints of water to 1 0 0 pounds of the rock .

The heat is ( 1 ) partly the result of mechanical action

for metamorphism has generally taken place where the
rocks have unde rgone shoving folding and faulting and , , ,

sometimes crushing ( see page and ( 2) partly also the ,

’
heat of the earth s interior conducted upward into the beds
( page for metamorphism has generally taken place
where the strata have accumulated to ve ry great depth .

These are some of the various ways in which heat and

water have O perated in metamorphic changes D irect .

experiments have S hown that crystallization does result

from the action of heat and water Quartz crystals feld .
,

spar mica and othe r m inerals have bee n artificially made

, ,

by the subjection of the ingredients to highly heated

moisture .

Alkaline waters dissolve silica e ven at very m oderate

temperatures ; and wherever such solutions exist they
, ,

may work at consolidating altering and dis solving min

, ,

e rals ,and making geodes and ve ins of quartz Large .

corals in Florida have been hollowe d out by this means ,

and the cavities lined with quartz crystals or agate .

T h e fossils of a limestone have been s i li c i fi e d and flint

nodules made even in cold waters The ordinary d e c o m .

position O f a feldspar or m ica of hornblende or pyroxene

,

— one or m ore of which silicates occu r as c o n s t i t u e n t s o f x

g rani t e syenite
,
trap,
porphyry trachyte
, and tufa —
,
S ets , ,
free silic a to make opal or q uartz ; and in some tu fas of ,

California and C olorado the clustered tree trunk s of a

‘

former forest as well as scattered logs and stumps have

, ,

been petrified by silica from such a source .

P r e s s u re is requi site for m ost metamorphic changes .

Limestone heated without pressure loses its carbonic acid

and becomes quicklime but u nde r pressure as has been
, ,

proved by experiment the carbonic acid is not driven O ff

, .

The needed pressure may be that of an ocean above ; it

may be that of the superincumbent rocks and a few h u n ,

dre d feet w ould suffice .

Cru s ta l mo veme n ts have operated i n metamorphism ,

partly by prod u cing heat through the crushing of rocks ,

but also by producing rearrangement of the materials of

rocks The schistose structure which is so characteristic
.
,

of metam orphic rocks is doubtless O ften produced in this

,

way ( dy n a mi c me ta mo rp h i s m) S ometimes the crystalline

.

plates of mica and other minerals are force d by pressure

into a position at right angles to the direction of pressure
sometimes the rock has been sheared and the crystalline ,

plates drawn out along the planes of shearing .

The similarity of an argillaceous sandstone to gneiss or

granite is often m uch greater than appears to the eye .

When a sandstone has been m ade out of a gneiss it may ,

have the quartz feldspar and mica of the gneiss merely

, , ,

pulverized with little or 11 0 chemical alteration ; so t hat

,

the change produced in it by metamorphism m ay be mainly

a change in state of crystallization By simply heating a .

bar of steel and cooling it slowly or rapidly it may be

, ,

made coarse or fine steel the process causi n g the molecules

,

of the small grains to unite into larger grains in the coarser

kind and the reverse for the finer There is somethi n g
, .

analogous in the change above described of an argilla

, ,

c e o u s sandstone to gneiss or granite It cannot be as .

se r t e d howeve r that the feldspar grains in the sandstone

, ,

will al w ays remain feldspar they m ay contrib u te to t h e

making of mica or some other mineral .
 D YN A M IC A L G E O LOG Y .

O ften ,however the material derive d from the wear o f

,

gneiss and granite and other rocks is not only pulverized ,

but also more or less de comp osed The feldspar for exam .
,
200-903rpm
ple may h ave lost its alkalies or the mica its oxi d e of
, ,

iron and alkalies and in such a case the process of meta

morphism cannot of course restore the original rock
, , .

The new rock made can contain no feldspar or mica if ,

the alkalies have been wholly rem oved but it may turn ,

out an argillite or S late ; or i f mu ch oxide of iron and ,

magnesia are present a hornblende rock o r a chlorite , ,

-

rock or some other kind from which the alkalies potash

, ,

and soda are absent, .

4 . F ORMATION OF VE INS .

Nat ure an d Ori gi n of S pace s o ccu pi ed by V e i ns .

Veins like dikes are fillings o f spaces in the rocks but

, ,

they di ffer from dikes in the manner i n which the filling

has taken place D ikes as explained on page 1 8 8 are fi s
.
, ,

s u res filled with igneous rock inj ected in a state of fusion .

The mode of formation of veins will be explaine d later .

The spaces filled by veins are usually cracks or fissures

made ( 1 ) by uplifting or disturbing forces ; ( 2) by the .

expansion or pressure of vapors ; ( 3) by shrinkage from

cooling or drying ; they may be ( 4 ) openings between
the la y ers or lamin ae of a rock produced in the flexi n g of
the beds like those between the leaves of a quire of paper
,

when folded over ; or ( 5 ) open space s made in rocks by

solution as caverns are made
, .

The uplifting and flexing of rocks which have resulted

in fissures and openings are often accompaniments of ,

metamorphic change and the fissures m ay have become,

filled before t h e era of metamorphism had passed The .

heat concer ned in such a case may be as explained above , ,

that derived from the movements in the strata in connec ,

’
tion with th at of the earth s depths .

Veins are large or small deep or S hallow single or like , ,

a com plex net w ork according to the character of the

,
 D Y N AM IC A L G E O LOG Y .

Mat erials Ve i ns — Quartz is the most co mmon be

of .
,
:

cause siliceous solutions are easily ni ade requiring little ,

heat Granitic material requiring higher heat is also

.
, ,

c ommon but especially in veins intersecting the more

,

crystalline rocks ; and vein granite is usually much coarser

in crystallization than ordinary granite O ther materials .

of freque nt occurrence are calcite barite ( barium sul ,

phate ) and fluorite ( calcium fluoride ) ; but Where these ,

occur quartz may als o be present Along with the earthy

, .

minerals may occur gold or various ores of copper l ead , , ,

silve r a n d other metals besides pyrite ( iron sulphide )

, , ,

which is almost universally present in ore bearing veins -

,

or lodes The earthy minerals are called the gangue of

.

the ore .

Many veins have a banded structure like Figs 204 and , .

20 5. M etallic veins especially are oft en thus banded , , ,

and have the ores lying in one or more bands alternating

with other bands consisting of different minerals or rock
material .

In Fig 20 4 representing a vein at Valparaiso the

.
, ,

bands numbered 1 3 and 6 are quartz ; the others are , ,

granite I n Fig 20 5 representing a vein at Godolphin

. .
,

B ridge C ornwall a is a band of quartz b b are bands of

, , , ,

agate c is crystallize d quartz d is chalcopyrite mixed with

, ,

q uartz .

O g
r i i n o f V e i n D epo sits — The m aterial of veins has .

been deposited from solutions or vapors The solutions .

or vapors are generally hot This is always the case in .

large vei n s or in veins ex t ending down to any consider

,

able depth S uch veins may be divided into two classes

.
,

according to the source of the heat .

1. Wh ere th e He a t i s n o t De r i ve d f r o m E rup ti o n s of
Ig n e o u s R o ck S uch veins are apt to occur in regions
.
-

of metamorphic rock and the h eat like that in regional ,

’
metamorphism is the result of movement s in the earth s
,

crust or is the general heat of the interior of the globe

,
.

In th i s class are included nearly all veins of q uartz and

 HE AT .

granite whethe r containing metallic ores or not and

,
"

most banded mineral veins The fissures or openings are .

a result of profound disturba n ces such as give rise also to ,

metamorphism The ma t erial of the vein is brought into

.

the opening either from the rocks directly adj oining or ,

from those of depths belo w The fi s s u re d rocks being .

heated as above stated all wate r or vapor present tends

, ,

to decompose the rock material near the fissure it takes

alkalies from the feldspars and so becomes siliceous and
, ,

f e w minerals will withstand its action The water or .

vapor presses into the fissures or openings carrying the ,

mineral material it can dissolve and depositing it ; and it ,

keeps on supplying material until the fissure is filled or

the supply of material is e xhausted I t is natural that .

veins in gneiss and mica schist fille d in this way should

often be granitic veins for these rocks contain the q uartz
, ,

feldspar and mica of granite ; and that they should often

,

be quartz veins simply w hich they are likely to be if the

,

temperature is n o t high enough to m ake or dissolve feld

spar and mica The veins of extremely coarse granite or
.
,

pegmatite appear to be in origin so m ewhat intermediate

,

bet w een ordinary veins and dikes Under the j oint action .

of heat and water the material was probably in a condi

,

tion somewhat intermediate betwee n fusion and solution .

The various phases of a q u e o igneous fusion form in fact a

-
, ,

complete series of gradations between fusion and solution .

Under the action whateve r metallic ores or constituents

,

of gems the fi ss u r e d rock contains are carried into the ,

fissure with the othe r mineral material ; and additions may

be received largely through solutions or vapors rising
fro m its deeper parts .

By such means veins have been supplied with their gems

and ores The quartz veins i n the slate rock s of a gold
.

region have in this way beco me gold bearing veins the -

,

gold and quartz having been brought in by the same

moisture and both having been gathered from the adj oin
,

ing or underlying rocks These openings in the case of

.
,
 D YN A M IC A L G E OL OG Y .

aurif e rous quartz veins were often openings between layers

,

of the slate ma de in the folding or upturning Quartz .

veins are the usual original so u rces of gold ; and the gold
bearing gravels which a fford the metal by simple washing
, ,

and have yielded the larger part of the gold in use are ,

the detritus made out of the gold bearing rocks The -

.

same gravels O ften a fford platinum iridium and diamonds , , .

While fissures filled by this lateral inflow of material in Pennsylvania

.

connection with emanations from the depths below may ,

be uniform in material across as in many quartz veins , ,

they may also consist of bands of d i fi e re n t minerals as in ,

many metallic veins ( Figs 20 4 '

In the formation
.
,

of banded veins the process has brought in for a while

,

one kind of urin e ral as quartz and deposited it ove r the

, ,

walls of the fissure ; then through some change some , ,

other mine ral or ore as an ore of lead or one of zinc or

, , ,

o n e of copper ; the n q uartz again or fluorite or calcite ; , ,

and so on u ntil the fissure was filled In a normal banded .

vein the succession of bands from each side to the middle

is identical or nearly so as illustrated in Fig 20 4 In the
, . .

case shown in Fig 20 5 the fissure appears to have been

.
,

opened and filled at two different times the band d being ,

virtually a separate vein from the adj oini n g bands b c b , , .

’
The above is one of the methods by which the earth s
precious metals have been gathered out of the rocks in ,

which they were sparingly disseminated into generous ,

vei n s and thereby placed within reach of the mine r

, .

2 Wh e r e th e Hea t i s D e r i ve d f r o m E rup ti o n s of Ig n eo u s
.

R o ck .
( )
a D ikes of porphyry dolerite and related
,
rocks ,

sometimes determine the courses of veins of metallic Ores .

The veins are generally situated near the walls of the dike -
,

and either in th e igneous rock or in the rock a dj oining .

The veins ( 1 ) may have been made when the dike was
m ade ; or ( 2) they may occupy fissures made subsequently ,

but during t h e same epoch of disturbance ; or ( 3) they

may have been formed later the Old plane of fr ac tirre ,

being a plane of weakness liable to be opened ane w The .

 HE A T .

metallic materials of the vein have bee n brought u p as

solutions or vapors either from the depths that a fforded
,

the igneous rock itself or more probably from the walls

, , ,

of a deep part of the fissure .

The veins of native coppe r at K eweenaw P oint those ,

containing ores of the sa me metal in the red sandstone

( Triassic ) of the C onnecticut Valley N e w J ersey and , ,

P ennsylvania those of silver ores in Nevada and other

,

localities along the Rocky M ountains and Andes thus ,

originated — that is in connection with igneous ej ections ;

,

the ores not coming up as a consti t uent part of the

igne ous rock but throug h the agency of vapors and sub
,

terranean waters .

6
( ) Fre q uently in regions
, of igne ous ej ections fiss u re s ,

have been made that have received not igne ous rock but ,

only vapors or mineral solutions from below a n d thus ,

have become metallic veins E ach of the regions j ust .

mentioned contains examples of such veins .

The filling may continue in progress long after the

igneous rock is cooled or as long as hot water or vapor
,

continues to rise through the fissure Shrinkage cracks .

and o ther openings in the rock adj oining the fissure

may S pread the mineral depositions widely on eithe r side .

The vent m ay continue as a source of heat to surface

waters making hot mineral springs and steaming pools
,

or basins about or fro m which deposits m ay take place

,

of a veinlike character as is going on now in Nevada and

,

California .

S u pe rfi ci al V eins — Besides the veins thus far con

.

s i d e re d which occupy fissures extending to some c o n s id

,

crable depth and whose formation involves the action of

,

heat in considerable degree there are numerou s small ,

superficial veins which m ay have been formed without

any considerable elevation of temperature Shrinkage .

cracks and other small cracks in rocks h ave been filled

with calcite or other minerals brought in by infiltrating
waters f rom the immediate vicini t y .
 DYN A MIC AL G E OLO G Y .

D epositions o f galenite or lead ore ( sometimes: with

,

zinc ores ) have taken place in cavities or caverns in lime

,

stones as i n Wisconsin Illinois and Missouri In these

, , , .

deposits the source of the ore is somewhat uncertain ; but it

,

is apparently derived fro m the concentration of ores which

had bee n di ffused through the sedimentary strata since ,

the cavities d o not have the character of fissures extending

to great depths Such deposits often have great extent
.
,

and are a valuable source of ore as i n the localities men ,

tio ne d. D uring the deposition of the ores the limestone ,

unde rwent much corrosion from acid s o lu t i On s concerned

in or resulti n g from the process .

Many cases of extensive bodies of ore in cavitie s in

limestone appear not to be of the above mentioned kind -
,

but to be vein deposits of the ordinary sort They may .

i n some cases have originated i n fissures which produced

ore deposits only where they intersected limestones be , c i
lthescultur
p n:
cause only limestones were easily rendered cavernous by
the c orroding waters or vapors so as to a fford spaces for
, mrns
ou

the ores .

S o calle d Ve i ns t h at are no t Tru e Ve i n s

-
In the .

’
course of the earth s rock making metallic ores have -
,

ofte n bee n deposited along with the detritus when a

sedimentary bed was in progress of formation ; they
have been brought into marshes or spread over confined ,

sea margins and mud flats by running waters which took

,

up the metal ( in some soluble state of combination ) from

the decomposing rocks of the region around D eposits of .

iron ores are thus made at the present time ( page and
ores of zinc cobalt nickel a n d copper were so deposited
, , ,

in early geological ages When strata containing such

.

metalliferous layers have under g one uplifts and c ry s t alli

z at i o n
, the nearly vertical beds look like veins M any .

of the great deposits of he m atite and magnetite in the

Arch aean terranes are probably beds not veins nor dikes ,
.

Wide cracks opening to the surface have sometimes been

fille d with sand or earth Such deposits have sometim e s
.
 ~

CRUST AL M O VE M E NTS .

d f a ls e vein s They have the character o f neither

.

di kes though both these names have been applied

,

VI . C R USTA L M O V E M E NT S ; E V O LUT I O N OF
C O N T IN E N TS A ND M O UN TAIN S .

l ti
E x p an a o s al ady g
n r e iven — In the preceding chapters
.

the origin of many geological phenome n a and of some ,

of the earth s features have been briefly explained

’
, .

1 Ch a ng e s of le ve l have been described as caused ( 1 ) by

.

change of temperature this cause producing the e x p an

,

‘
c a mities in sion and contraction of rocks ( page 2
( ) by u nder

mining due to subterranean water (page 3

( ) by
N m m Thcymay
.
undermining due to volcanic outflows ( page
2 Mo u n ta i n f o r ms have been described as often a result
.

o f the sculpturi ng of ele vated plateaus of nearly horizontal

by streams as exempl ified among some of the m ost

,

n t a i n s of the globe page

(
of be d s has been shown to have been caused ,

3 —In the clayey soft and wet by a lateral move

if! 1 5 ,
, , ,

c d through the pressure of superincumbent

f a u lti ng s of s tr a ta have been at

and

to undermining by di ffere nt methods ( pages

( ) to contraction or expansion by change of
2
ture ( 3) to shrinkage on drying producing deep ,

o w fractures page 4 to the expansive

( ( )
of vapors ( page 5
( ) to the hydrostatic pres
o f a column of lava ( page and to other

M e ta mo rp h i s m has been described as produced on a

scale ( 1 ) in the vicinity of dikes of igne ous rock
, ,

the heat of the rock when it was cooling from

or m oisture were present to aid ( page
neighborhood of hot S prings ( page
a large scale ( regional meta morphism )
 D YN A M IC A L G E OL O G Y .

has been said to occur in connection with great crustal

movements ( p . but no explanation has been given of
the cause of those moveme nts .

6 E a r th qu a k e s have been stated to result from frac

.

tures of rocks in subterranean regions consequ ent ( 1 ) on ,

undermining by the solvent action of water ( page

or by the extrusion of lava ( page or ( 2) on the
e x plosions attending volcanic action ( page
B u t none of the causes that have bee n considered explain
the great changes O f level involving large parts of conti
n e n t s or of oceanic areas or the phenomena attending the
making and U plifting of mountain ranges ; or the earth
quakes that have shaken a hemisp h ere .

R e lati o n i n S ize between t h e E arth and i t s S u rf ace

Fe at u res . O n a globe twelve feet in diameter the height ,
’
of the earth s loftiest mountains would be represente d by
an elevation of about one tenth of an inch ; the whole
difference of level between the deepest part of t h e oceanic
basin and the highest point of the land by twice this ,

amount and the mean depth of the ocean by a depression ,

of one nineteenth of an inch The deformation of the .

S phere produced in the making of the contine nts and

mountains was therefore very small

, ,
.

Pr o b able Co ndi t i o n o f t h e E arth s Inte ri o r

’
It is almost .

certain that the central portions of the earth are now

solid The enormous pressure in t h ose central p or
.

would raise the melting point far above any

ture which can be supposed to exist there I nd .

probable that when the material of the globe

gated itself together the central portions we
,

solid fro m the effect of pressure so t h at the ,

never been completely liquid Whether there is n o w

.
,

presumably there once was a liquid stratum between t

,

solid nucleus and the solid crust is a question on w h i ,

there is much difference of op i nion .

It is urged by many physicists though no ,

the earth has become solid

 CRU ST AL M O V E M E N TS . 20 5

the conclusion bei n g based on the ground that if the ,

earth were liquid within the crust would yield in con

,

s i d e r a ble degree to the tide producing force of the moon

-

and sun and he n ce the tides of the ocean wo u ld be dif

,

fe r e n t in am ount from what they actually are .

It is claimed on the other hand that geological facts

, ,

ca n not be explained on the basis of absolute solidity .

Great subsidences like that of , feet or more which ,

nae b ideMltxplain was a prelude to the making of the Appalachians cer ,

t ai n ly suggest the idea that plastic rock exists beneath to ,

be pushed aside so as to render s u bsidence possible .

Many have urged that there must have been in past time
a plastic layer between t h e crust and a solid nucleus or at ,

least the remains of such a plas t ic layer wherever the ,

great m ovements have taken place This argume n t how .

,

ever is weakene d by the consideration that solid metal

,

and rock when under pressure yield through molecular

, ,

movement as first illustrate d by Tresca When holes are

, .

punched in plates of cold iron the cores punched out may,

be less than half the thickness of the plates and not i h ,

crease d i n density sho w ing tha t there has been a flow of

,

the metal outward from the punch In this way the .

apparent plasticity of the subcrustal regions may proba

explained .

over it is claimed that if a plastic layer e x ists and

, , ,

st above it is thin — say twenty fi v e miles the -

,
-

ould rest on the mobile sea underneath it lik e a

and hence it would be presse d down by any
to its weight howe ver slight ; that it could
,

o u n t a i n elevations unless the lower ar of

, p t
the m ountain we re flexe d downward
was flexe d upward It seems to be .

a crust so mobile as above described ,

pressure generated within it could have pro

no lo n g range of mountains u n der one commo n
(1 of action ; nothing of that u niformity of results

ted in many great regions from Arch aean time

 D YN AM IC A L G E O L OG Y .

onward ; no m ountain borders for the continents ; no

general system of feature lines for the globe .

The fac t s would appear therefore to prove that if a , , ,

liquid or plastic subcrustal layer exists the crust must ,

be thick enough to possess so m e considerable degree of

rigidity And probably whatever the condition of the
.
, ,

plastic layer underneath the crust may have been in past

time only mere remnants of it now exist the greate r
, ,

part of it ( if not the whole ) having become solid .

O n the supposition that the liquid subcrustal layer

which once existed has mostly solidified there must still ,

remain at no great depth a zone w here the temperature is

, ,

j ust below the melting point and where fusion would be ,

produce d by any local diminution of pressure or increment

of heat such as might result from m ovements of the crust
, .
hat am
T “

Such regions of liquefaction may f u rnish the supplies for

volcanoes and other forms of igneous eruption .

Evo l ut i o n o f t h e Ea rt h ’
s Fu nd a me nt a l Fe at u re s .

Whether its interior be substantially solid or exten ,

s i v e ly liquid the earth is belie ve d to be capable of adj ust

,

m ent to gravitational pressure through molecular flow ,

and to owe its shape primarily to the principle of gravita

t i o n al equilibrium The condition of equilibrium to which
.

gravitation tends to reduce the earth has been calle d by

D utton i s o s ta sy .

Or i g in o f Co ntine nt and Oce an Th e greatest i rre .

q ualities of the earth s surface —

’
continental plateaus and
oceanic basins — are probably dependent on the principle
of isostasy O bservations on the force of gravity in di f
.

f e re n t localities appear to show that the materials under

lying the oceans are denser than those underlying the
continents The downward pressure on the oceanic radii
.

may thus equal that on the continental rad i i the denser ,

material compensating for the inferior height of the

column .

O n this view the distinctio n betw een the continental

,
 AL
CR U S T M O V E ME N TS .

“
f “tinents; n
o
plateaus and the oceanic basins must have been deter
J i
mmy ,
mined by the original distribution of material in the mass
of the earth He n ce continents and oceans must have
.

been substantially p efm a n e n t Though the continental

.

plateaus have been extensively covered by shallow seas ,

u nf hn baninpasc they have probably always bee n for the m ost part ele
va t e d regions as compare d with the real oceans .

i 31 m m O gri in o f Mo u nt a i n R n e
a g s — It is here assumed that
the cause of the movements in mountain making is the -

contraction of the cooling globe Although that theory .

is not without di ffi culties and is not universally accepted

, ,

it gives a far more satisfactory explanation of the facts

than any other the ory which has been proposed .

m
lthec st
That contraction must be going on within the earth ,
u ns a
follows from the high temperature which has been shown
to exist there Heat m ust escape to the s u rface by con
.

duction and there appears to be no internal S ource of

,

heat which can make good the loss H ence t h e ea rth s .

’

skin like that of a drying and shriveling apple comes to

, ,

be continually too large for the shrinki n g interior .

Lo cati o n o f Mo u nt a in Ch a ins — The compressive force

.

is universal in the superficial zone of the earth Ne ver .

t h e le s s the wrinkles which result from it have in general

,

a direct r e f e r e n be to continental lines .

The oceanic area besides being m uch depressed below

,

th e continental h as rather abrupt sides as explained on

, ,

p age 1 2. The change of curvature of the surface along

the borders between continents and oceans must have
made those borders line s of weakness in the crust The .

pressure in th e cr u st being universal over the

but greatest in the oceanic basins si n ce these have ,

been the regions of greatest subsidence the force ,

ocean i c crust must have acte d obliquely upward

the crust of the contin ental border The action .

a shove or thrust from the direction of the

oceanic area was somewh at proportional
ct u re s ,
 D YN A M IC A L G E OLO G Y .

foldings of strata earthquakes mountain making became

, ,
-
,

eminently features of the continental borders and most ,

prominently so of the borders which face the largest

oceans .

Co ntinent al E v o lu t i o n , as il lu stra te d in No rth Amer

i ca — The two s y stems of forces engaged in the progress
.

of N orth America we re those from the direction of the

Atlantic and the P aci fi c basin — the latter the greater
hichtheins
.

w
U nder their action the V shaped A r ch ae an a r e a ( see map -

‘
,

page 237 ) was first defined one branch stretching north ,

Eachrddcdaa
eastward to L abrador and the other northwestward to the
.

Arctic seas an d thus facing respectively t h e Atlantic and

,

P acific areas while linear areas of Arch aean rock extend

, ,

i n a series approximately parallel with the eastern arm of

the V from Newfoundland to Ge orgia and in another
, , ,

series approximately parallel with the western arm of the

V along the course of the western C ordillera It follows
, .

fro m the courses of the ar ms of the V and of the oth er ,

Arch aean areas that the Atlantic force acted mainly from
,

the southeastward and the P acific from the southwest ,

ward and the two therefore nearly at right angles to

, , ,

one another It is also apparent th at the P acific force

.

even then was the greater and hence the P acific O cean ,

t h e larger ; for the northwestward branc h of the V is far

the longer .

Thus the Arch aean nucleus w as outlined and the posi ,

tion of H udson Bay determined within the arms of the V .

From this nucleal dry land progress went forward south

eastward o r toward the Atlantic and southwestwar d
, , ,

or toward the P acific successive form ations being ad ded , ,

and the dry land gradually extending ( though with many

oscillations ) under changes of level caused mainly by the
same forces .

Then when the Lower Silurian closed appeared the

, ,

mountains of the Taconic system ; and w hen P aleo zoic ,

time w as closing appeared the Appalachian system , ,

parallel to the eastern branch of the Arch aean heights .

 CRUST AL M O V E M E N TS .

Again on the P acific side other ranges were made

, , ,

parallel to the course of the R ocky M ountain chain ;

among them — after the J urassic era the Sierra N evada ; ,

afte r the C retace ous era the ranges of the L aramide ,

system ; and still later Te rtiary ranges toward the coast

, , ,

I .
q
.

‘ l m(heprcgress each epoch adding new parallels to the western branch of

the Arch aean nucleus Finally in the course of the Ter
.
,

t i ary era occurred the vast geanticlinal movement in

,

which the mass of the R ocky M ountains rose to its full

height abo ve the ocean .

E ach added range as is seen proves th at the m ountain

, ,

making forces continued to act to a large degree from the

same directions as in Arch aean time .

Thus the continent made progress adding layer after ,

layer to the rocks over its surface and range afte r range ,

in parallel lines to its heights until finally the continental ,

area reached its limit and the great interior basin had its
,

mountain borders completed on the side of the Atlantic ,

the low Appalachians ; on the side of the P acific the ,

massive and lofty C ordillera .

O n this V iew the e volution of the features of the sur

,

face went forward through one system o f forces o r i gi n at

ing in one single cause — the earth s contraction from ’

cooling N orth America which is here appealed to for

i fimm v fm
.
,

v
i
fi explanations affords th e truest and clearest illustration of
,

the principles involve d in the system of evoluti on because ,

it lies alone betwee n the two oceans The progress on .

-

this accou n t went forward with gre at regularity each age ,

repeating the precedi n g in the direction of all oscillations

or uplifts It was a single isolated individual m aking
.

systematic progress throughout until its final completion ,

and exhibits truly the system in the earth s development ’

,

wh atever the true theory of that development E urope .

,

in contrast has A frica on the south and A sia on the east ;

,

it is therefore full of complexities in its feature lines and

, , ,

in the succession of events that make u p its geolo gical

history .
 D YN A M IC A L G E OL O G Y .

S t ruct u re o f Mo unt a in Ra ng e s .

It has already been state d that m ountain makin g move -

ments result from the c ompressive force exerted u pon the

crust of the globe by reason of the cooling and conse quent
contraction of the hot material beneath ; and that in gen
eral that force manifests itsel f most conspicuo u sly near
the continental borders as a thrust from the direction
o f the oceans . Before giving more detailed explanation of
the process of mountain making it i s necessary to give
-
,

some account of the characteristic structure of m ountain

ranges .

nee doneteal
R an g e , S y s t em, Ch ai n , Co rdi lle ra — A m ountai n range
.

includes all the ridges resulting from a single orogenic

m ovement that is in general as will be explained here
, ,

after ( page the structure resulting from the crushing

and u pfolding of a single geosyncline R anges are the .

individuals or units in m ountain structure .

A m ountain system includes all ranges in any one region

m ade in di ffe rent m ore or less i ndependent geosynclines
, , ,

at the sam e epoch Thus the Appalachian range t h e

.
,

A cadian range in Newfoundland and N ova Scotia and ,

the O uachita range in Arkansas and the Indian Territory ,

form toge ther the Appalachian sys t em .

A mountain chain is a combination of approximately

parallel ranges or m ountain systems of di ff erent epochs .

Thus the Appalachian chain is th e whole mountain border

of the Atlantic side of N orth America — including h igh
lands o f Arch aean age the Taconic system of mid Paleo
,
-

zoic age and the Appalachian system of post P aleozoic

,
-

age .

A combinatio n of two or m ore mou ntain chains const i

t u t e s a cordillera . The complex m ass which inclu d es the
chain of the R ocky Mountains on the east and the Sierra ,

Nevada and the C oast ranges on the west is an e x am pl e ,

of a cordillera .
 CR U S T AL M O V E M E N TS .

The study o f th e structure and history of a m ountain

range gives then an understanding of the whole subj ect
, , ,

since systems chains and cordilleras invol ve only repeti

, ,

tion of ranges . The subj ect will be illustrated chiefly

from the Appalachian range e x tending ( under various ,

names ) from New York to Alabama — a typical and classi

cal example o f m ountain structure .

Th i ck nes s o f S trat a A marked characteristic of moun

.

tain s tructure is the immense thickness of the strata .

The P ale oz oic strata of which the Appalachians are built

have a thickness of to feet while the strata ,

of the same age in parts of the Mississippi Valley d o not

e x ceed one tenth of that thickness M ore over these strata .
,

were all forme d in water of no great depth showing that ,

during their deposition oc curre d a progressive subsidence

to a depth m ore than twice the mean depth of the ocean .

Di st u rbed Co nditi o n o f t h e S trat a The following .

are among the characteristic features of the Appalachian

region
1
. Strata have been upraised and flexed into great folds ,

some of the folds a score or m ore of miles in span .

2 D eep fissures of the earth s crust have been opened

’
.
,

and faults inn u merable have been produced some of the m ,

of to feet .

.3 R ocks have been consolidated ; and in the region of ,

the Green Mountains sandstones and shales have been

,

crystallized into gneiss mica sch ist and other related

, ,

rocks a n d limestone into architectural and statuary

,

marble .

4. Bituminou s coal has been turned into anthracite .

Figs 20 6— 2 1 0 illustrate the folds and faults in the strata

.

of the Appalachian r a nge .

Figs 20 6— 20 8 represent sections i n the coal regions of

.

P ennsylvania . In Fi g 20 7 the Carboniferous beds are

.
,

the uppermost beds at the left numbere d 1 4 ; the rest ,

are beds of underlying P aleozoic formations as e x plaine d ,

under the figure .

 DY N A M IC A L G E OLO G Y .

Fig 20 8 represents a section of the anth racite region

.

between N e s q u eh o n i n g Valley ( on the west left in section ) ,

FIG 206 . .

S ec ti o n at Tr e vo rto n G ap , P e nn s yl va ni a , th e d kb d
ar an s r e p re se n t i n g co a lb de s.

H
ills); theh ”
. l

and Ma u ch Chunk ( from the R eport of C A A s h bu rn e r . .

,

of the Geological Survey of P ennsylvania unde r P r o fe s

sor Lesley) The le n gth is about 36 0 0 feet ( the scale
.

FIG 20 7 . .

Manh a t t an

Y mm
ILD

huylk ll P yl
S e cti o n o n th e S c i , e nn s van i a : P , . P t t ll
o svi e 2 , C a m b ri a n 3 , 4 , Lo w e r S i lu ri an ;
g ld b g
5 , N i a ara ; 7 , L o w e r He e r e r ; 8 , O r i s k y ; 10
an ,
Hami lt on ; 1 1 , 1 2, U pp er D e vo n i an ;
1 3, Sub b u b
c ar o n i fero s ; 1 4 , C a r o n i fe ro s u .

of the figure being 1 0 0 0 feet to the inch ) The fle x u re s .

to the west have their summits pushe d westward 4 0 be °

yond the vertical The folded rocks consist of beds of

.

FIG 20 8 . .

S ecti o n o f th e P th
an er Cre e k A th n ra c i t e b a si n a t Nes q u h o ni ng t u nn l
e e .

anthracite and intervening strata of shale and sandstone

“
and the anthracite beds include the great Mammoth
bed ( lettered at its outcrop E E E ) which is 1 3 to 2 7
1 2
, ,

l F2 F3
feet thick and the bed F ( outcropping also at F
,
.
, ,
 C R US T AL M O VE M E NTS . 21 5

is altered to graphite — an e ffe ct which may be produced

in ordinary coal by the heat of a furnace .

n '1 1 These facts lead to the following conclusions

1 The movement producing these vast results was due
.

to lateral pressure the folding having taken place j u st as

,

it might in paper or cloth under a lateral or pushing

movement .

2 The pressure was e x erted at right angles to the

.

courses of the folds as is the case when paper is folde d

,

in the manner mentioned

i m orperilld
.

u r
3 The pressure w as exerted from the ocean S ide of the
.

Appalachians ; for the results in foldings and m e t amo r

p h i s m are most marke d toward the ocean .

F IG . 21 1 .

Upt u d
rn e s trata o l l d
f th e w e s t s o p e o f th e Elk M o u n tai n s , Co o ra o Th e i t-s a e
. l gh h d d t t u m
s ra ,

J ura- Tri as h h b u h l
t at t o t h e rig t o f i t , Car o n ife ro s ; t at t o th e e ft , Cre tace o us .

4 The force was vast in amount

. .

5 The force was slow in action and long continued

.

not abrupt or paroxysmal as when a wave or series of ,

waves is thrown up by an earthquake shock on the sur

o f an ocean For the strata were not reduced by it
.

to a state of chaos but retain their stratification and show

, ,
. fl i
comparatively little confusion even in the regions of ,

greatest disturbance and alteration .

6 The action of the force was attended by the produc

.

tion of heat For without some heat abo ve the ordinary

.
,

temperature it is not possible to account for the consoli

,

dation and crystallization of the rocks .

The ch a rac te ristic features of mountain structur e w h ich

 D Y N A M IC A L G E O LO G Y .

have thus been illustrated from the Appalachian reg i on ,

are repeated with variations in detail i n most m ountain

, ,

regions M ountain ranges in general consist of masses o f

.

strata of enormous thickness folded and faulted O ften ,

with great complexity and often showi n g intense meta ,

morphism Fig 33 on page 5 4 illustrates a very com usin l

l
llfi l
l f
lfl h
. .
, , g
plex fold in the Alps Fig 2 1 1 is an illustration of
. .

folded and overturned stra ta in the R ocky Mountain

regio n.

M oreover the unsymmetrical character which has been

, on
corresp ding
pointed out in the d escriptions of Appalac h ian structure ,

is generally m ore or le ss strongly marked in othe r moun lne w

ouldinm
pa

tain ranges The fle x u r e s are in general more numerous

.

and steeper and metamorphism and igneo u s eruptions

,

more extensive on one side than 0 11 the other ; and the

fle x u r e s themselves are very commonly ine quilateral .

Pro cess o f Fo mat i o n

r o f Mo u nt a n i Ra ng e s .

A Ge o sy n cline , o r Do wnw ar d Be nd o f t h e Cru st , th e

Fi r S p
st te in in
O d a y
r r M o u nt a in m ak i n g
— In the making -
.

of the Appalachians there was first a slowly progressing

,

subsidence ; i t began in or before the Cambrian era and , , ,

continued in progress until the Carboniferous era closed .

As the trough deepened deposits of sedi ment and some , ,

times o f limestone were made that kept the surface of

, ,

the region near the water level ; and when the tro u gh ,

reached its ma x imum there were ,to feet in

thickness of stratified rock i n it (page and this ,

therefore was the depth of the trough The Taconic

,
.

Mountains began in a similar subsidence and at the same ,

time ; and the tro u gh was kept full with deposits as it

progressed ; but it reached its maximum or the era of ,

catastrophe at the close of the L ower Silurian The his

,
.

tory of most other mountain ra n ges is similar to these .

The subsidence in suc h a geosyncline has been attrib

u t e d by some geologists to the weight of the accumulatin g
 C RU S T AL M O V E M E N TS .

sediments in accordance with the prin c iple of isostasy ;

nm
,
- usi
m
ou n but the gradual down w ard bending of t h e crust may be
better explained as a result of the same later al pressure to
which the final catastrophe is due .

Th e Bo tt o m o f t h e Ge o s y n cline we ak ene d by t h e He at
.

ri sin g i nt o it fr o m b e lo w As planes of e qual temperature

.

within the eart h are approximately parallel to the sur

n
«
at
“
mm
0 face the accumulation O f sedimentary beds in a sinking
,

trough would occasion as H erschel long since urge d the

, ,

corresponding rising of heat from below so that with , ,

feet of such accumulation s a given isothermal ,

plane would be raised feet Unde r such an a o .

cession of heat the rocks at th e bottom of the troug h

,

would be greatly weakened If the lower surface of the .

crust dipped down six or eight miles into a zone of plas

tic material beneath i t it would be actually melte d O ff
, .

E ven on t h e supposition that the earth is completely

solid and no subcrustal plastic laye r exists the weak
, ,

e nin
g of the geosyncline by the rise of the isothermal
planes would be n o less real For in the formation .
,

of the geosyncline a great thickness of anhydrous crys

, ,

t alli n e , refractory rock would be replace d by water

loaded sediments capable of su fferi n g a q u e O igneous -

fusion ( or at least pastiness ) at a comparatively low tem

p e r a t u re . The lateral pressure acting against a trough ,

thus weakened would end in causing a collapse — that is

, ,

a catastrophic crushing of the trough and a folding of the ,

stratified beds wi thin it And with this the shaping o f .

the mountain range would begin .

Ch ar acter o f t h e Mo u nt a in th u s m a de Unde r such cir .

-

cu m s t a n ce s the stratified rocks lying in the ge osynclin e

,

or trough would be folded profou n dly broken shoved , ,

along fractures and pressed into a narrower space than

,

they occupied before The fle x u r e s were fle x u re s in t h e

.

st rata that filled the geosyncline not in the subj acent mass , .

They were simply anticlines and synclines as distinguished ,

from geanticlines and ge osynclines ( page They b e

 D YN A MIC AL G E OL O G Y .

came une qual sided as represented on pages 21 2 21 3 and

-
, , ,

the mountain range itself ine quilateral ( pages 2 14 ,

because there was a pushing side in the mountain making -

,

the force coming mainly from one direction ( the oceanic in ,

the case of the Appalachians ) Such a mountain range

.
,

begun in a geosyncline and ending in a eatastrophe of dis

,

placement and uptur n ing has been named a sy n clin o ri u m

, .

( The word is from the Greek words from which syncline

is deri ved and , m ountain ) .

O n the side away from the chief source o f m ovement ,

and beyond the profoundest faults the Eleva tions that ,

have taken place have commonly made vast plateaus of

nearly h orizontal beds like the Cumberland M ountain
,

region of Ten n essee and its continuation through western

and northern P e nnsylvania to the Catskill M ountain
plateau of southern New York on the outskirts of the ,

A ppalachian range In such elevated areas several thou

.
,

sands o i feet above the sea level and of wide e x tent , ,

running waters have had their opportunity for s c u lpt u r

ing and have thus made som e of the most maj estic
,

m ountain groups of ridges and peaks in the world In .

Tennessee the region of great folds and faults dire ctly

,

east of the Cumbe rlan d plateau was at first beyond doubt , ,

of far greater heigh t than the plateau ; but owing to the ,

vast amount of fracturing as well as the less resistant

‘

character of the rocks denudation has finally made it

,

“
lo w er and it is now the Valley of E ast Tennessee ”
, ,

“
while the plateau is C umberland Mountain Not less .

was the denudation in front of the Catskill plateau .

Metam o r ph is m an d o th er Atte ndant Eff e cts — The heat .

developed through the transformation of motion added ,

to that rising into the strata from below would pro ,

duce all the consolidation and crystallizatio n that is ,

all the metamorphism — w h ich has been in any case

observed and on a scale as vast as that of th e mountain
,

range so developed It gives a full explanation ther e

.
,

f ore of the origin of regional metamorphism

, .
 CR U S T AL M O V E M E N TS .

‘
R fl
fl i
hi ani
i Th e heat might be su fficient i n some parts to re duce a
rock to a plastic state and so obliterate all its original,

bed di ng O n e result of this would be t o make a massive

.

ro c k like granite in place of gneiss or other schistose

, ,

kind ; and another result i f the overlying rocks were ,

fractured and so fissures O pened down to the plastic rock

, ,

would be to fill the fissures with t h e plastic rock making ,

dikes of gran ite or of other material according to the

‘
, ,

kind of rock so fused It might possibly give a long core

. ,

or central mass of granite to a mountain range

,
— a con

d ition of the Sierra Nevada which has been attributed by

s ome to thi s cause .

S laty Cle avage J o i nte d S tru ct ur e Slaty cleavage has .

been proved by experiments to result whe never fi n e

grained material is subj ected to pressure ; and to be due
to the flattening of all compressible particles and the ,

w
la
lh
era t ou
can sev arranging of all flat grains in planes at right angles t o
th e pressure Since it occurs in fi n e grained rocks that
.
-

have been upturned or flexed and since it is parallel to ,

the axes of the folds the pressure producing the u pturn

,

ing or fle x u r e and the concomitant m ountain making has -

,

been generally the cause The cleavage conforms to the .

bedding whenever the bedding is as a c onsequence of the ,

upturning at right angles or nearly so to the pressure

, , , .

A j ointed structure on the large scale observed in many

,

regions has been another result of the slow uplifting or

,

lateral pressure S ometimes a region .

r av e r s e d by a single series of nearly

ints in other cases two such series of j oints

c e d nearly at right angles to each other ( a
which as shown by D au br é e may be due to
, ,

the strata ) S ometimes j oints are produced in

.

rections no system being traceable

, .

i n Mo u nt ai n mak i ng — In the movements -

.

crust there would necessarily be upward

that is geanticline s as ,

e progress of th e Appa
 D YN A M IC A L G E OLO G Y .

lach i an geosyncline geanticlines were in progress both

,

east and west of the subsiding area In the eas t ern .

geanticline the Atlantic border from N e w York south

, _

westward beyon d Virginia emerged and continued appar ,

ently to be dry land until the middle of the C retaceous .

The western geanticline — the Cincinnati uplift — made

t w o large islands in the mediterranean sea which then
covered much of the continent one in the region of ,

Cincinnati the other in Tennessee The present altitude

,
.

of the Appalachians in spite of the enormous denudation

,

they have suffered is probably due in part to a geanticlinal

,

movement which lifted the eastern border of the continent

i n the Tertiary era .

The R ocky Mountains in the Cretace ous era within the

, ,

area of the Unite d States were feet below their

,

present level the sea covering large areas over what is now
,

the summit region ( page They were raised as a

whole during the T e rt i ary and it must have been through
,

a broad and gentle gea n ticline While the Tertiary moun .

tain ranges were in progress the part of the force not ex ,

pended i n producing them appears to have carried forward

an upward bend or gean ticline of the vast R ocky M oun
, ,

tain region as a whole .

As a m ountain range resulting from the crushing of a

ge osyncline is called a synclinorium ( page a region
raised to a high al t itude by a geanticlinal movement may
be called an a n ti cli n o r i u m The same region may e x pe
.

ricuce both kinds of movement in the course of its history

,
.

The R ocky Mountain region as a whole is an an t i c lin o

ri u m. Many of its component parts are typical
noria .

The m ovements over the continent s in Cenozoic

were characterized in general by the vast areas O f t h
gions a ffected Great geanticlinal movements in the
.

'

t i a ry gave to some of the great mountain cha

part of their altitude Areas of continental e .
 CR U S T AL M O V E M E N TS .

the Quaternary If D arwin s V iew of the formation of

.
’

atolls is true ( see page the coral island subsidence

— affecting an area in the P acific ove r 5 0 0 0 miles in its

longer diameter may well have bee n the counterp art of

. f ih Cretacecns . the vast geanticlinal movements over the continents in the
later Tertiary and early Quaternary .

i n “Q ‘l
ll
tl ll l
l l !l E rup o ti ns of I g ne o u s R o ck — The
. great fractures as
s o c i a te d with mountain making m ovements have O ften
-

extended down to regions of molten rock and given pas ,

sage for eruptions This seems to have been especially

.

true in connection with the great geanticlinal movements

of later geological time The greatest lava floods of which
.

we have evidence as those of the D eccan and of the north

,

western United States ( page belong to late Meso

zoic or to Cenozoic time .

S ch:
S uch are the general steps of progress and their e x pla ,

nations according to that theory of mountain making

,
-

M ay
r ann which attribute s the m ovement to a lateral thrust in t h e
’
earth s crust as a result of contraction in cooling The .

universality of system in the features of continents and

c m
k: RkyMilim '
the characters of mountains has as yet no other probable
e x planation .

To obtain an adequate idea of the slo w progress of the

earth in the maki n g of its mountains it is necessary to r e
,

member that o r o g e rri c disturbances have taken place only

after immensely long periods of quiet and gentle oscilla
tions After the beginning of the Cambrian the first p e
.
,

ri o d o f disturbance in N orth America of special note was

that at the close of the L o w er Silurian in which the ,

Taconic M o u ntains were finished ; and if time from the , ,

of the C ambrian to the present included only ,

of years ( page the interval between the

of the C ambrian and the uplift and m e t am o r
Taconic M ountains was at least 20 millions
of disturbance w a s that at the
era in which the rocks of the
,
 D YN A MIC AL G E OL OG Y .

A ppalachian range were folded up on the above estimate

of the length of time it occurre d about 36 millions of
,

years after the commencement of the C ambrian ; so that

the Appalachians were at least 36 millions of years in mak
ing the prep aratory subsidence having begun as early as
,

the beginning of the Cambrian Thus whatever the

.
,

mountain making force an exceedingly long time was r e

-
,

quired in order to acc u mulate a sufficient amount to pro

duce a general yielding and plication or displacement of
the beds and start a new range of prominent elevation s
,
’
over the earth s crust .
 PART IV HI S TORI CAL G E OLOGY .

H IS TO R IC AL G E O L O G Y treats of the order of succession

’
in the strata of the earth s crust and of the changes that ,

were going on during the formation of each bed or stratum

— that is of the changes in the oceans and the land
, ; of
the changes in the atmosphere and climate of the changes
in the plants and animals I n other words it is an his
.
,

t o r i c al V iew of the events that took place during the

earth s progress derived from the study of the successive
’
,

rocks It is sometimes called s tr a tig r ap h i ca l geology ; but

.

this term properly denote s only a description of the nature

’
and arrangement of the earth s strata .

It has already been explained that t h e rocks of the

earth s crust are historical records as to the p ast condi
’

’
tions of the earth s surface In order that the records .

may afford an intelligible history there must be some way ,

of arranging them in their p roper order ; that is in the ,

order of time The determination of this order is one of

.

the first things before the geologist in his examination of

a country .

Many diffi culties are encountered .

1 The strata of the same period — calle d e quivalent

.

strata because approximately e quivale n t in age — differ

, ,

even on the same continent Sandstones and shales were

.

often forming along the Appalachians in P ennsylvania and

Virginia when limestones w ere in progress over the Missis
,

sippi Valley The Cretaceous formation in E ngland c o n

.

22 3
 HIS TO R IC A L G E O LO G Y .

tains thick strata of chalk ; but in eastern North America

the same formation exists without any chalk .

2 When rocks have been forming in one region there

.
,

have been none in progress in m any others Hence the .

series of strata serving as records of ge ological events is

nowhere perfect In one country one part may be very
.

complete ; in another an other part ; and all have their,

long blanks — th at is large parts of the series entirely

,

wanting In New York and the states west to the Missis

. stated

sippi there is only part O f the lower half of the series

, .

In New J ersey there is part of the lower half and part of

the upper half with wide breaks between O ver a large
, .

part of northern N e w York there exist only the very

earliest of rocks .

3 The rocks of a country are to a great extent c o v

.

ered with earth or soil so tha t they can be examined only ,

at distant points .

4 The strata in many regions have been displaced

.
, , ,

folded fractured faulted and even crystallized exten

, , ,

s i v e ly adding greatly to the di fficulties in the way of the

,

geological explorer .

The following are the methods to be used in d e t e rm i n

ing the true order of arrangement
1
( ) In sections of the rocks exposed to view in the sides
of valleys or ridges the order of superposition should be
,

directly studied and each stratu m traced as far as possi

, ,

ble through all the exposed sections

, .

When through large inte rvals a covering of soil or

, ,

water prevents the tracing of the beds other means nru s t ,

be used .

The order of superposition when not directly Ob s e rv ,

able may often be inferred by observa t ion of strikes and

,

dips at the various accessible outcrops Fo r ins t ance a .

,

stratum dipping east must underlie anoth er stratum with

the same dip whose outcrop is farther east ( unless the
strata have been disturbed by faults or overturned folds ) .

The validity of the criterion of superposition is self

 HIS TO R IC A L G E OLO G Y .

“i
xltli i m
ericn evident The overlying stratum must be newer than the
.

underlying B ut it is obvious that this criterion is only

.

applicable within a single district F or the comparison .

of the age of rocks in different regions some other means ,

are necessary .

2
( ) The aspect or composition of the rock m ay help to
dete rmine w hich strata are identical B u t this method .

should be used with great caution for the reason already ,

“
m a n i la stated — namely that rocks made at the very same time may
,

be widely di fferent ; and c onve rsely those made in very

, ,

diff erent periods may look precisely alike in color and

texture Within a small area the resemblance of the
.
,

rocks at two or more outcrops may often be satisfactory

proof that they are really parts of the same stratum .

Bu t the value of this test dimi n ishes rapidly as the dis

tance increases In one class of cases the character of a
.
,

rock affords unquestionable e vidence in regard to its age .

A rock including fragments of some other rock is n e c e s

s ar ily later than that other rock
1m
4 1 l ext
e n .

Fossils a fford the most generally applicable means

of determi n ing t h e age of rocks This is so because of the
.

d m in fact already mentioned that the fossils of an epoch are

d in t , ,
l ee r
very similar in genera — i f not also i n specie s — the world
over ; and those of d i fi e re n t ep ochs are di fferent The .

geologist by studying the fossils of the several beds at any

,

locality learns wh at kinds are characteristic of each be d

, ,

and the order of s u ccession Then by comparing the beds

.
,

of di fferent localities he ascertains whether any are essen

,

t i ally alike i n species and therefore of like age or period ;

,

and from this determination he continues further his study

of the order of succession By pursui n g this course for all
.
,

accessible localities in different countries geologists have ,

ascertained the characteristic kinds of fossils for the suc

c e s s i v e strata through the long series of formations ; and

the lists which have been thus made serve for t h e i d e n tifi
cation o f strata in widely distant regions By a comparison .

of fossils it w a s prove d that the Cretaceous formation exists

 HIS TOR IC AL G E O L OG Y .

in eastern N orth America although there is no chalk to be

,

found there In the same manner the equivalents in

.
,

America of the principal subdivisions of the rock series

of Great B ritain and E urope Asia and even Australia are
, , ,

approximately ascertained ; for this means of determination

is a universal one applying to the equivalency of rocks
,

in di ff erent hemispheres as well as those on the same

c ontinent .

This method has its uncertainties O n e continent may .

have received part of its species by immigration from

another lo n g after their first appearance in that other ; and
species may have survived in one continent long after they
have become extinct in another M oreover especially in .
,

the later ge ological periods the prog ress of evolution ,

seems to have been more rapid in some regio n s than in

others The mammalian fauna of Australia at present
.

consists almost exclusively of Marsupials and Monotremes .

In a former geological period the same was true of E urope

,

and North A merica O ther continents have apparently

.

outstrippe d Australia in the march of evolution Again .

,

there are doubts arising from the fact that in any period , ,

the life of one locality ev en Of marine animals is very

, ,

di fferent from that of another on account of d i fi e r e n c e s ,

in depth or purity of waters muddy or rocky bottom and

, ,

temperature and the range of terrestrial and fresh water -

species is generally m ore local and their value as criteria ,

of age accordingly less than that of marine species The

, .

removal of all doubts and the determination of the exact

,

parallelism of the minor subdivisions of the ge ological

series in di fferent continents or distant parts of the same
continent are not to be looked for Yet by proceeding
, .
,

with care and using not isolate d facts but the whole
, ,

ra n ge of evidence afforded by the fossils animal as well ,

as vegetable the general chronological order may be deter

,

mined with a satisfactory degree of approximation .

The chronological order of events recorded in the

various strata being determine d by the metho d s already
 HIS T O R IC A L G E OL O G Y .

Rt mdnlkto be explained it becomes possible to divide ge ological tim e

,

into a series O f ages each of which is characterized by,

’
a particular stage i n the earth s progress and particularly ,
’
in the evolution of life The progress of the earth s his .

tory like that of human history has been continuous the

, , ,

idea characteristic of one age being always foreshadowed

in the previous age The boundaries of the various aeons
.
,

eras periods and epochs recognize d in geological history

, ,

are therefore necessarily in some degree arbitrary In .

many cases a great and relatively rapid geographical

change as the elevation of a range of mountains serves
, ,

as a time boundary ; and such changes are ge nerally indi

c a t e d at least in the more disturbed areas by u n c o n f o r m a
, ,

bi li t y in the strata .

Geological time is thus divided into four aeons

1
. In the rocks of the earliest ae on only doubtful trace s ,

of life are found Fo r a long time after the formation of

.

’
the earth s crust the high temperature must have ren
,

dered the existence of life impossible Before the close .

of the aeon some low forms of vegetable and animal life

,

d oubtless appeared B ut the rocks are in general more

.

or less strongly metam orphic ; and whatever fossils they

may once have contained have bee n entirely destroyed or , ,

left i n condition doubtfully recognizable This aeon is .

called A r c h aea n ti me from the Greek apxnj beginning It

, , .

may be considere d the earth s p r e h i s to r i c age ’

.

2 The rocks of the next aeon reve al the fossil remains

.

of an abundant fauna and flora In the early part of t h e .

aeon ,the animals were exclusively marine Invertebrates .

Before the close of the time however Insects Fishes and , , , ,

Amphibians became abundant and a few R eptiles made ,

their appearance in the closing period At first the plants .

,

were only Seaweeds ; but plants of higher grade appeare d

later and the closing era was characterized by a luxuriant
,

development O f Acrogens and Gymnosperms B irds , .

Mammals and Angiosperms were entirely wanting This

, .

aeon is called P a leo z o i c ti me f rom the Greek w a k a i o s ,

'
,
 HIS T O R IC A L G E OL O G Y .

ancient and (can life It represents the earth s a n ci en t

, , .
’

history .

3 The next aeon is characterize d by the immense de

.

v e lo p m e n t of reptilian life the class of R eptiles showing ,

a greater number of specie s and O f ordinal types greater ,

size and hi gher grade of organization than ever before or

, ,

after Birds and M ammals ma d e their first appearance

l
.
,

bu t a t t a i n e d only a feeble development Among plants .

,

Gymnosperms were predominant in the early part of the

aeon but Angiosperms becam e abundant i n i t s C losing era
, .

This aeon is called M e s o z o i c ti me from the Greek uea o s ,

’

middle and é anj life It represents the earth s me d i oe va l

,
’

, .
’

history I t may fi tly be called the Ag e of R ep ti le s

. .

4 The last aeon is characterized by the great develop

.

n re n t of M ammals among animals and of Angiosperms

;

among plants In the latter of the two eras into which

.

it is divide d Man hi m self appeare d as the crown O f the

,

animate creation With the beginning of this aeon we

.
,

find species introduced which have continued to the

present time whereas the species of the former aeons are
,

all ( or nearly all ) extinct This aeon is called Ce n o z o i c .

'
ti me from t h e Greek ica w o s recent and ga y life
, It , , , .

represents the earth s mo d e r n history ’

.

E xtensive up t urnings of rocks in various regions mark

the close of the three earlier aeons so that in many locali , ,

ties strongly marked unconformabilities separate the rocks

,

of successive aeons from one another In N orth America .

,

the elevation of the Appalachian m ountain system marks

the close of P aleozoic time and the ele vation of the ,

L aramide mountain system the close of Mesozoic time ,

.

P aleozoic time is divided into five eras Mesozoic time ,

into three and C enozoic time into two

,
.

The eras of P a le o z o i c ti me are the following

1 Cambri an
. In this era the ani m als were exclusively
.
,

marine Invertebrates and the plants were exclusively Sea ,

weeds .

2 Lo w er S i lu ri an, o r Ordo v i ci an
.
— In this era appeared .
 HIS TO R IC A L G E OL O G Y .

a few Fishes Insects and terrestrial plants — a sort of

, ,

prophecy of the life of succeeding eras Bu t the land .

areas were as yet small and the development of terrestrial

,

life insignificant The C ambrian and L ower Silurian eras

.

may be called the Ag e of In ve r te br a te s .

er i ri n — In this era Fishes Insects and

3 Upp
. S lu a .
, , ,

land plants became nro r e abundant .

4 Dev o ni an
. In this e ra Fishes S howed a further
.
—
,

increase in number of species and diversity of type .

Amphibians seem to have made their first appearance .

The lan d areas be came more extensive and were clothed ,

in part with a forest vegetation consisting chiefly of Acro

gens but with a few Gymnosperms The Upper Silurian
,
.

and D evonian eras may be called the Age of Fi s h es .

i
5 Carbo n f ro u s
. e — A luxuriant forest and swamp
vegetation of Acrogens and Gymnosperms furnished the
material for most of the great coal beds of eastern N orth
America and of E urope Amphibians became abundant .
,

and a few R eptiles appeared in the closing period of the

era The Carboniferous era may be called the Ag e of
.

A cr o g e n s or the Ag e of A mp h i bi a n s
, .

P aleozoic time may be divided into two s ections the ,

E op a le o z o i c and the N e op a le o z o i c the former including the ,

first two eras and the latter the last three The y are
, .

characterized respectively by the almost complete absence

, ,

of terrestrial life in the former and its considerable de ,

v e lO p m e n t in the latter E xtensive upturnings of rocks

.
,

and conse q uent u n e o nf o r mabi li ty in many regions mark ,

the transition In eastern N orth America the elevation

.
,

of the Taconic mountain system forms a well d e fi n e d time -

boundary be t ween the two sections of P aleozoic time .

The eras of M e s o z o i c ti me are the following :

1 .Tr i a ssi c —
. Ih this era R eptiles first became abun ,

dant and the earliest M ammals ( probably M onotremes )

,

made t h eir appearance .

2 Ju r a s si c
. In this era R eptiles be came still more
.
—
,

abundant and presente d a greater di versity of type The

, .
 HIS TO R IC A L G E O L O G Y .

FIG . 21 2 .

JE O N S . E R AS . A ME RI C AN P RI D F R IG
E O S . O E N E QU IV A L NTSE .

C ar b f us o r
o ni e ro ,
C ar b f us o r
o n i e ro ,

Co a l M ea s u re s Co a l M eas u re s

S ub b ca r o n if e r o u s

C h mu g
e n

Ham i lt on Old R e d S an d s to n e

C o rni fe ro u s

Nia g ara

Tre n t o n

C an a i an d
Ptd o s a m

A d ca i an

g
G e o r i an
 HIS TO R IC A L G E OLO G Y .

FIG 21 2 (co n ti n u ed )
. .

E ON S . E R AS .
AM E RI C AN P RI D
E O S . FO R IG
E N E QU I V A LE N TS .

ca lcium;
M i o c ene

E o ce n e

U p p e r Cre t ace o u s

L o w er Cre tace o u s

l
O o i te

class culminated at the e nd of this era or at the beginning ,

of the next Birds made their first appearance G y m n o

.
.

sperms were the dominant type o f vegetation .

3 Cret ace o u s
. The appearance of Angiosperms gave
.
-

to the vegetation a modern aspect Fishes of m odern .

type ( Teleosts) bec a me abundant .

The eras of Ce n o z o i c ti me are the following

1 Te rti ary — In this era there is still no evidence of
. .

the existence of Man The Invertebrates were in large .

part of species which still exist but the Vertebrates were ,

all of extinct species The Tertiary era may be called the

.

Ag e of M a mma ls .
 HIS T O R [ C A L G E O LO G Y .

2 .
Q u ater n ar y Man himself and other
.
—
existing spe ,

cies of V ertebrates made their appearance The era may

, .

be called the Ag e of M a n .

The successive strata in the formations of an era are very

diversified in character limestone s being overlain abruptly ,

by sandstones conglomerates or shales or either of these

, , ,

last by limestones ; and each may be very di fferent from

the following in its fossils These abrupt transitions in .

the strata are proofs that there were great changes at times
in the conditions of the region where the s t rata were
formed and the transitions in the kinds of fossils are e vi
,

dence of great destruction at intervals in the life of the

seas . Such transitions therefore naturally di vide the , ,

e ras into smaller portions of time or p e ri o ds as they are , ,

called By transitions similar in kind but not so great

.
, ,

periods may generally be subdivided into still smaller

parts or ep o c h s ; and even the epochs often admit of still
,

m ore minute subdivision .

The preceding summary of the life of the successive

mons and eras will suggest to the student two important
generalizations .

1 . There has been a continuous approximation to the

life of the present day as shown through all ge ological , ,

time by the increasing number of c la s s e s and other com

prehensive groups identical wi t h those now existing and , ,

finally in C enozoic time by the gradual introduction of

, ,

S e ci e s that still survive

p .

2 The re has been on the whole a progress from lower

.
, ,

to higher forms of life .

These facts will be recognized as strikingly in harmony

with that theory of the origin of species by evolution or ,

descent with modification which is generally adopted by ,

the naturalists of the present time The subj ect will be .

discussed more fully when the student is in possession of

the facts in s o nre degree of detail .

The aeons eras and periods recognized in American

, ,

geology are exhibited in the following table

 HIS TO R IC A L G E O LOG Y .

The ideal section on pages 230 231 will further illus

, ,

trate the succession of eras and periods and will also i n ,

‘

d i ca t e to some extent the E uropean ( especially B ritish )

e quivalents for the divisions recognized in this country .

The names of the periods in the first part of the section

( those of the P aleozoic ) are mostly derived from the
names of American rocks or localities The names in .

the other part are mostly E uropean as the series of rocks

,

it includes ( those of Mesozoic and C enozoic time ) is more

complete in E urope than in America .

It will be observed that the same names are in use on

both continents for the eras and to some extent for the
,

periods since approximate correlations have been estab

,

li s h e d for the larger divisions of geological time all over

the world It is however impossible to establish such
.
, ,

correlations in regard to the smaller subdivisions Hence .

,

the names of periods to some extent and of epochs and ,

minuter subdivisions universally di fi e r in d i fl e r e n t coun

,

tries and even in different parts of the same country .

The names of several of the eras are derived from localities

in Great Britain a region in which the series of forma
—

tions is displayed with remarkable completeness and in ,

which the study of stratigraphical geology was first devel

oped . In somewhat analogous fashion the American ,

names o f periods and epochs in the P aleozoic are i n

great part derived from localities in the State of New
York — the series of Silurian and D evonian rocks in that
state being remarkably complete and having been thor,

oughly studied in the beginning of ge ological work in

this country .

The map on page 235 represents the distribution of

the rocks of the difi e r e n t ages as surface rocks over
, ,

part of the U nited States and C anada The areas indi .

c at e d by the different kinds of shading are stated on the

map The areas left white are of unascertained or doubt

.

ful age .

Silurian strata m ay underlie the Devonian and both ,

 lm
: til e is cr
c

!
a tun
e a ovll
er

w 0
5
313 2
3 . H
en
ce ,
 HIS T O R IC A L G E O L O G Y .

Silur i an and D evonian may underlie the Carboniferous .

The black areas of the Carboniferous period d o not there ,

fore indicate the absence o f D evonian and Sil u rian but

, ,

only that the C arboniferous strata are the surface strata

over the region .

I . A R C H IE A N T IM E .

Arch aean time in geology commences with the earth

, ,

already a solid globe or at least having a solid crus t for

,

the conditions of only such a globe are Within reach of

geological investigation There must have been an earlier
.

time in which the earth was superficially liquid and ,

astronomy leads us back to the still m ore a n cient time

when the earth formed a part of the nebula of which the
sun is the central residue .

When the earth s crust was first formed its temperature

’

must have exceeded 25 0 0 F The atmospher e must then°

.

have contained all the wate r of the globe all the carbon ,

( in the form of carbon dioxide ) now stored in solid form

as coal and other hydrocar bon compou nds and as car
b o n at e s and various other materials which have since
,

formed solid compounds When the ocean was first .

forme d by condensation from the atmosphere its tem ,

p e r a t u r e may have been as high as 5 0 0 F the atmos °

.
,

h e ri c pressure being still perhaps 3 0 times as great as at

p
present The chemical action of the ocean in rock de
.

struction and rock formation must then have been very

much mo r e important than in late r times Long ages .

must have elapsed before the earth was cool e nough to

permit the existence of the lowest organisms Arch aean .

time must have been immense ly long .

R OCK S : KINDS AN D DIS TRIB UTION .

1 . Distri bu ti o n
Since the Arch aean era commenced
.
—

W ith the origin of the earth s crust A rch aean rocks n ru s t

’
,

extend around the globe underlying all rocks of sub ,

 HIS TO R IC A L G E OLO G Y .

w ithout interruptions ) from near the St Lawrence to .

Georgia appearing in the Green M ountains of Vermont

,

and Massachusetts the H ighlands of N ew York and New ,

J ersey and the “ P iedmont belt of the S o u th Atlantic ”

,

states Anothe r may be traced from N ewfoundland

.

through N o va Scotia ( w ith a submerge d interval ) to

southeastern Massachusetts In the west the m ost e x te n .

“
sive area is that w hich forms the backbone of the ”

R ocky M ountains An isolate d area appears in the .

Adirondacks and another south of Lake Superior

, .

In E u rope A rch aean rocks are in view in the great

,

iron regions of Sweden and Nor w ay in B ohemia and i n , ,

S cotland .

2 Ki nds o f R o ck s — The rocks are m ostly crystalline

. .

rocks s u ch a s granite quartz syenite gabbro gneiss

, , , , ,

syenite gneiss mica schist hornblende schist chlorite

, , ,

schist and granular limes t one B ut besides these there

, . .

are some hard conglomerates quartzites or gritty sand , ,

stones and S lates Th e beautiful iridescent feldspar called

, .

labradorite ( page 20) is a common constituent of some o f

the coarse crystalline rocks
’

An abundance o f i ron is one c h aracteristic of the beds .

The rocks very often contain hornblende an iron bearing ,

-

mineral or black mica also iron bear , ,

-

FIG 21 5
ing
.

There are in some regions i m

.

mense beds o f iron ore ( i i i in Fig , , , .

I n northern N e w York the beds

are 1 0 0 to 20 0 feet thick Similar .

I 0 m "
J ersey
§ j $15;
l d
r° n ° re

ev
iron ore
8
deposits0
occur in
;
New ,

in Michigan so u th of Lake Superior , ,

and in Missouri Graphite is common in some places an d

. ,

constitutes 2 to 3 0 per cent o f some beds especially of th e ,

limestones .

3 Dist urbance and Cry s t alli zat i o n o f t h e Ro ck s

.
—
The .

layers of gneiss and other schistose rocks with the i n ,

cluded limestones are nowhere horizontal but i n s t e ad o f

‘

, ,

this they dip at all angles and are often flexed or folded
, ,
 AR CHE AN TIhLE .

in a m ost c omple x manner Fig 21 6 repres ents the f olde d . .

character o f the Arch aean rocks of Canada The folde d .

rocks in this fi gure are overlain by beds that are nearly hori
z o nt al w hich belong to the Cambrian and Lower Sil u rian
,
.

O wing to the dislocations and u plifts which the rocks

have undergone givi n g the strata often a n early vertical
,

position the iron ore be ds look like v ei n s ( Fig 2 1 5) and

, .

even the strata o f crystalli n e limestone have often a similar

veinlike appearance .

4 Ori gi n o f t h e R o ck s — The i n durated sandstones

. .
,

q uartzites and slates are of c ourse ordinary se d iments which

,

have undergone more or less of me t am o rph i s nr The same

1
.

is doubtless true of some of the gneisses and schists B ut .

a considerable part o f the gneisses are undoubtedly derive d

F IG . 21 6 .

Fro m th e u th id f th S t
so s e o e . d b
Law re nce i n Can a a , e tw e e n C asca e d P
o i nt a nd S t Lo ui s .

R pi d
a 1 A hs : g , rc aean nei ss b d
2, Cam ri an ; 8 , C ana i an 4 a , b, Tr en to n .

from i gneou s rocks ( see pages 30 E ven in the ,

case of those schistose rocks which have been derived fro m

stratified rocks it is often i m possi ble to determine whether
,

the foliation corresponds to the original stratification or ,

is a structure superinduce d by dynamic m etam orphism

( page The m aterials which have crystallized into
the Arch aean rocks must have included not only me c h an i
cal sediments but also chemical deposits ( which as re
, ,

marke d o n page 236 must have been m ore i m portant then,

than in later times ) lava flows and tufa beds S ome at

, , .
,

least of the iron ore beds are doubtless metamorphosed

,

chemical deposits ( page

s lat e s , a nd o t h er wh o s e s e d i me n tary
r o ck s

er wi th t h e a s s o c i ate d i gn e o u s ro c k s , c o n

o f th e Un i te d S t at e s G e o lo gi c al S u r ve y .

ly th e mo re h i ghly
 HIS TO R IC A L G E O LO G Y .

The granites gabbros and other massive rocks are prob

, ,

ably for the m ost part plutonic but such rocks may be in ,

some cases only the extreme term of m etamorphism .

The earlies t rocks formed in Arch aean time m u st have l

resulted from the solidification of the molten material of
the globe B u t it is unlikely that any of those primitive
.

rocks are anywhere accessible to observation M ost of .

the visible Arch aean rocks bear evidence of a derivative

origin .

It is probable that in the course of Arch aean time there

, ,

were a number of epochs of extensive crustal movements

accompanie d by meta m orphism for instances of u n c o n ,

forma bility between one Arch aean rock and another are
frequent .Since a strongly marked unconformability
eve rywhere separates the Arch aean from later formations ,

it is inferred that the age closed with an epoch of very

general disturbance .

Arch aean rocks in general are m ore highly crystalline

than those of later formations ; yet there seems to be no
definite lithological criterio n which will distinguish rocks
of that age from metamorphic and plutonic rocks of later
times.

LIF E .

The graphite abundant i n some beds in Canada is

, ,

probable evidence of the existence of plants since it is ,

known t h at in later times graphite has been formed out

of vegetable remains The limestone beds s u gge st the
.

idea that there was present either vegetable or animal

life for almost all limestones ( see page 9 9 ) are of organic
origin But the inference in both cases is doubtful since
.
,

both graphite and limestone may have been formed by

purely chemical processes .

N o distinct fossil plants have been found though gen ,

eral considerations re n der it probable t hat plants c o m

me n c e d before the c lose of Arch ae an time The earliest
plants were doubtless S eaweeds N o vegetable re mains .
 A R C HE AN T IM E .

but those of Seaweeds are fo u n d i n the overlying C am

brian strata .

Fig 2 1 7 represents what has been regarde d as a fossil

.

a n i m al a n d named E o z o o n Ca n a d en s e It is supposed to
'

.
l, ,
m
a n aterial
of
have been a coral like mass made -

by P rotozoans of the class of FIG 21 7 . .

Rhizopods the simplest of all

,
f di
1 3 ! o a erv
atv
ei kinds of animal life The dark .

layers in the mass are s u pposed

to mark the position of the soft
part of the animals while the ,

white layers are supposed to be

k andmotherare derived from their calcareou s
skeleton The supposed animal
.

nature of E ozoon is however , ,

probably a mistake Structures .

of very similar appearance have

been produced where the sup ,

position o f organic origin is out E z C d o oo n an a en se .

of the question S till it is alto ,

m
.

u. i nnit m W gether probable that Rhizopods existed in t h e waters

’

before the close of the Arch aean era and that they ,

furnished mate rial for beds of limestone In som e of the .

less strongly metamorphic rocks supposed to belong to ,

the later part of Arch aean times obscure and doubtful ,

traces of animal fossils have been reported .

A ATIONS G E NE R L OB S E RV .

The large area of A rch aean rocks shown on the map ,

2 37 represents the main p ortion of the dry land of

,

America at the close of the Arch aean age ; for it

s o f rocks made dur i n g the age and is bordered on ,

the e arliest rocks of the next age .

the outline approximately of North America , ,

ared whe n the C ambrian era opened It was .

us around which in the course of time the

gre w The smaller Arch aean areas appear to
.
 HIS TOR IC AL G E OL O G Y .

have been mountain ridges and isla n ds in the g reat con

t i n e n t al seas There may have been other areas of dry
.

land at the close of Arch aean time which were s u bs e ,

quently submerged and covered by later formations .

S ince the Arch aean rocks are mainly metamorphosed sedi

ments they were presumably derived in large degree from
,

the waste of lands already emerged and subj ect to ocean ,

waves and other denuding agencies ; but of the situation

and boun d aries of those earliest lands we have no definite
knowledge .

E urope had its Arch aean lands at the same time in S can
di n a v i a S cotland Bohemia and some other regions ; and
, , ,

probably each of the other continents was then r e p r e

sented by large r or smalle r areas of dry land .

The facts to be presented in the discussion of P aleozoic

time teach that the great but yet unmade continents ,

although small in the amount of dry land were not c o v ,

ered by the deep ocean but only by comparatively shallow ,

seas They were already outlined though m ostly under

.
,

water P ortions may have been at times a f e w thousands

.

of feet under water but in general the depth was small ,

compared with that of the ocean .

W e thus gather some hints with regard to the geography

of America in the period of its fi rst beginnings .

The outlines of the northern A rch aean area on the map ,

page 28 7 the embryo of the continent

, and the d i re c ,
-

tions of the other Arch aean lands are very nearly parallel ,

to the coast lines of the present continent The Arch aean .

lands both in North Ame rica and E urope are largest in

, ,

the more northern latitudes .

II . P A L E O Z O IC T IM E .

P ale ozoic time is divided as follows

I E O P A LE OZ O IC S E CTIO N
. .

1 . Cambrian E ra .

2 . Lower Silurian E r a .
 P A L E O Z O IC TIM E .

II N E O P A LE O Z O IC S E CTION
. .

1 . Upper Silurian E ra .

2 . D evonian E ra .

3 . Carboniferous E ra .

The prefixes used in forming the names of the two sec

tions are derived r e spectively from flak dawn and veo e
’

, , , , ,

new The boundary of the two sections is defined in

.
-
,

eastern North America and western E urope by an epoch ,

of m ountain making and consequently by extensive u m

-
,

conformability in the strata The E opaleozoic se ction or .

,

Age of Invertebrates was marked by a rich and varied ,

display of marine invertebrate life but only the sca n tiest ,

beginnings of Ve rtebrate s and of terrestrial animals and

plants In the Neopaleozoic the dry lands increased in
.
,

extent and terrestrial plants and animals be came abun

,

dant Vertebrates increased greatly in number an d

.

variety Amphibians making their appearance in the

,

Devonian and R eptiles in the C arboniferous era in

, ,

addition to the e arlier class of Fishes The Upper S ilu .

rian and D evonia n are called the Age of Fishes an d the ,

Carboniferous the Age of Amphibians or the Age of ,

Acrog ens .

As has been already state d and as will appear more ,

clearly in the sequel the American contine nt was e s s e n t i

,

ally a unit i n its evolution through all ge ological time .

The areas of rock making and geog raphical progress in

-

the P aleozoic were accordingly defined by the c onditions

d W
‘“ of Arch aean geography T h e map of N orth America at .

the Arch aean ( Fig 2 1 4 ) shows the shallow .

ea divide d into thre e parts by the two great

ains of islands or island ridges following ,

the general course of the Appalachian and

tain chains Those three regions the — .

the A tla n ti c B o r de r and the ,

 H IS T O R IC A L G E OL O G Y .

der and the P acific B order regions are to some extent

subdivided by the shorter Arch aean ridges indicated on
the map .

I . E O PALEO Z O IC S E C T IO N .

I. CAM BR IAN E R A .

S UB DIVIS IONS .

The name Ca mbri a n is derived from an ancient name

o f Wales — a region in which the rocks of this era were
studie d by Sedg w ick and M urchison .

It includes three periods : 1 L O W E R C AM B R IAN or , ,

G E O R G IA N ; 2 M ID D LE C A M B R IA N or A C A D IA N ; 3 U PP E R
, , ,

C AM B R IA N or P O TS D AM .
he helm:
T
,

ROCK S : KINDS AND DIS TRIB UTION .

The C ambrian rocks usually appear along the borders

of the Arch aean areas I n eastern N orth America they.

border the Arch aean nucleus of the contine nt a n d the ,

adj acent Adirondack island ; they appear at intervals

along b oth sides of the A ppalachian Arch aean area ; and
they occu r i n parts of the troughs between the more
eastern Arch aean ridges In the west they border in .

various places the Rocky M oun tain Arch aean area and
various Arch aea n islands ; they are laid bare in the
C olorado C afi o n by the deep erosion which has removed
the overlying strata .

The rocks include sandstones sh ales co n glomerates , , ,

and limestones and in some localities quartzite s slates

, , , , ,

sc h ists and m arbles re sulting from the metamorphism of

, ,

ordinary stratified rocks Many of the beds bear evidence .

of origin in very shallow water and none of them bear ,

p ositive evidence of deep sea origin -

.

The P otsdam Sandstone — a characteristic rock i n the

vicinity of the Adirondacks — belongs to the Upper
Ca mbrian .
 C AM B R IAN E RA .

The beds contain in many places ripple marks ( Fig 1 8 5

, ,
-
.
,

page mud cracks ( Fig -

lay ers showing the .

wind drift and the ebb and flo w structure ( Figs 1 6 1

-
,
- -
,
.
,

worm burrows ( Fig and occasionally the .

tracks of some of the animals of the period .

In the Taconic M ountains of Vermont and Massa

c h u s e t t s the Cam brian is represented by a great quartzite
,

formation with intercalations o f mica and hydromica

,

schist .

In southeastern P ennsylvania the Lowe r Cambrian i n ,

c lu d e s a great thickness of quartzite with overlying shales

w e; ( threa t en ,

or slates and limestone ; and besides these rocks there

,

are In S outh Mountain large flows of basaltic and rh y o

, ,

litic rocks .

The K eweenaw fo rmation south of Lake Superior , ,

consisting of many thousands of feet of sandstone strata ,

with numerous intercalations of dolerite felsite and other , ,

igneous rocks and bearing the remarkable deposits of

,

native copper for which the region is famous ( page

is ve ry probably Cambrian though it c ontains no fossils , ,

and is c onsidered by some geologists to be olde r .

In Great B ritain the Cambrian rock s are hard sand

stones and slates The Lingula Flags are included in the
.

Upper Cambrian They are most extensively in view in

.

North and S outh Wales and in Shropshire .

In Lapland Norway S weden and B oh e mia C ambrian

, , , ,

strata have been observed I f the strata of l a ter date .

could be removed from the continents we should probably ,

find the Cambrian beds extensively distribute d over all

continents .

LIF E .

m ost ancient of fossiliferous rocks contain no

of terrestrial life Th e plants of the period that
.

the rocks were all Seaweeds Among ani .

Invertebrate subkingdoms except the Tuni

are destitute of skeletons) were represented
 HIS TO R IC AL G E OL OG Y .

by a q uatic species and by these only ; there is no e vi

,

dence that there were a n y Vertebrates .

m
Fg d 1
a ents
r

I t is remarkable that all of these subkingdoms were

represented already in the L ower Cambrian M oreover .
,
h
Te P
otsdami l

among the M ollusks both Lamellibranchs and Gastrop ods

,

had already appeared In the M iddle and Upper Cam . m

od iaflb
ernL

brian the species are mostly different from those of

FIG S . 2 1 8- 221 .

L
ingulaareso chm

S P ON G E : Fig . 21 8 , L ep t o m i tu s Z i tt e llI — A N r IIOZ O A N s : Fig 21 9 , A rc

. . h y hu
aeo c at s
u du
f n s ; 220 , 221 , S p i ro cy ath u s A tlanti cu s .

L ower C ambrian but they belong in general to the same

,

groups The m ost important step of progress during the

.

C ambrian is the introduction of the class of Cephalopods

— the hig h est class of M ollusks — i n the U pper Cambrian .

S p o n ges ; Coe lenter ates ; E chin o der ms — Fi 2 1 8

g . .

sents one of the Sponge s and Figs 2 1 9 22 1 rep , .

-

two of the Corals of the L ower Cambrian The E .

 HIS TO R IC AL G E O LO G Y .

( O r th o c e ra s
) and forms with curved shells
b u t not those with spiral shells , as N a u ti lu s .

W o r ms The existence of mari n e W orms among the

.
—

earliest animals of the globe is proved by the great num

FIG 230
.
bers
.
of worm holes or burrows in the
sandstones now filled with hard sand ,

stone like that o f the rock They are .

very similar to the hole s made b y such

worms in the sa n ds of seashores at the
present time O n e species has been .

called S co li th u s li n ea r i s ( Fi g .

These worm holes are com m on in the

E uropean as well as the American Cam
brian S ELIId FIG 231 . .

stones The .

W R M bu w
O 2 rro f S li
s
minute tooth
o co

t hu l
s i i n e ar s
l i k e b O d IO S
.

called C onodonts found in ,

the C ambrian as well as in ,

later formations are probably ,

j aws of Worms .

Arth ro po ds — O n e of the .

most characteristic groups of

the Cambrian fauna was that
of Trilobites belonging to , ,

the class of Crustaceans O n e .

of the largest of them and a ,

kind characteristic of the Aca

dian or Middle C ambrian is
, ,

represented in Fig 231 one .

,

third of the natural size Its .

total length when living must

have been about ten inches .

The specimen figured was

TR I L B I T P d x id H l i O E ara o es ar a n
found at B raintree south of ,
,

B oston . Fig 23 2 represents ( natural size ) a species

.

characteristic of th e Georgian or Lower Cambrian As ,

.
 C A MB R IAN E RA .

shown in the figures both of these species had large eyes

,

situated on the head shield .

M ost specimens of Trilobites as illustrate d in these ,

figures fail to show antenn ae legs or other appendages

, , ,
.

FIG . 232 . FIG 283

. .

LE P TOS T R A C A N Pro to cari s

Mar sh i .

A re cent discovery of speci

mens of Trilobites in the
L ower S ilurian showing
these parts ( page 25 8 Fi g , .

2 5 3) has added much to our

knowledge of the group .

Fig 2 33 illustrates an .

other group o f Crustaceans

( the L e p t o s t ra c a n s
) which
was ( like the Trilobites)
eminently characteristic of
the P aleozoic
T RI L B I T Ol llu V m t .

O E : e ne s er o n anu s .

Brachiopods and T r ilo

s among animals and Seaweeds among plants make
, ,

the b ulk of the living species thus far discovere d .

idence that the hills bore a M oss or

meanest Insect or that t h e ,
 HIS TO R IC A L G E OLO G Y .

A
GE NE R L OBS E RV TIONS A .

The ripple marks mud cracks and tracks of animals

-
,
-
,

preserved in these m ost ancient of P aleozoic rocks are

records left by the waves the sun and the life of the
‘

, ,

period as to the extent and condition of the continent

,

i n t h at early era These markings teach that when the

'

.
,

beds were in progress a large par t of the continent lay

,

at shallow depths in the sea so shallow that the little ,

currents made by the waves could ripple its sands ; that -

over other portions the surface was a sand fi at expose d

at low tide ; or a sea beach the burrowing place of ,

worms ; or a mud fi at that could be dried and cracked

,

under the heat of the sun or in a drying atmosphere

, .

With such e vidences of shallow water or emerge d flats

in a formation extending widely over the continent it is ,

a safe conclusio n that the N orth American continent was

at the time in a ctual existence and probably not far from ,

its present extent ; and although mostly below the sea

,

level and in some places somewhat deeply so it was

ma.
, ,
m
wnformn
ab
generally covered only by shallo w waters and probably ,

nowhere submerged to truly oceanic de pth The sam e .

was probably true of the other continents There is .

,

in fact evidence of other kinds which taken in con

, ,

n e c t i o n with the above leaves little doubt that the ex

,

i s t i n g places of the deep ocean and of the continents

’
were determine d even in the first formation of the earth s
crust in early Arch aean time and that in all the m ove , ,

ments that have since occurred the oceans and continents ,

have never cha n ged places .

This preservation of markings seemingly so perish able , ,

on t h e early shifting sands is a very instructive fact ,

.

They illustrate part of the means by which the earth h a s

been recording its own history The track of a T rilo bi t e . ,

or the furrow left by the s w eep of the wave over the

sand is a m old in sand or earth into which other
, , ,

sands are cast both to copy and preserve it ; for i f the ,

 C A M B R IAN E RA .

waves or currents that succeed are light th ey simply

m
,
U
spread new sands over the indented surface without ,

m am a obliterating the m old ; and so the addition of successive

layers only buries the m arkings more deeply and thus ,

protects them against destruction When finally con

.
, ,

solidation takes place the track or ripple mark is made

,
-

as enduring as the rock itself .

The appearance in the L ower Cambrian of so many dif

fe r e n t g roups of pretty highly organized animals without ,

any clear evidence of series of lower and more embry onic

forms preceding them is one of the most remarkable facts
,

in geological history It has been regarded by many as

.

a ffording a strong obj ection to the the ory of evolution .

Bu t it must be considered that t h e apparently abrupt

introduction of the Cambrian fauna may be due to the
imperfection of the re cord Both animal and vegetable
.

life was probably in existence during the latter part of the

Arch aean ( page though the general metam orphism
of the rocks has destroye d or rendered u nre cognizable
whateve r fossil s may have been formed The general
.

u n e o n f o rm abi li t between the Arch aean and the Cambrian

y
indicates an interval of time w hose re cord is entirely lost
( page As it was a time of great geographical change ,

i t may be su ppose d that it was a time in which evolution

ary changes in fauna and flora were unusually rapid .

That most of the subkingdoms o f animals should appear

rly and almost simultane ously is j ust what would ,

evolutionary grounds For it is not to be .

tha t the subkingdoms were successively evolve d

ending series but m ost of them must have been
,

e n tly evolved from ancestral forms almost as

P rotozoans . M oreover the fact that alm ost all
,

rt e b r a t e s have larval form s which

destitute of heavy s k e le
hat probably the ancestral forms from
derived were likewise minute free swim ,

ute of skeletons Su c h forms would be

.
 HIS TO RIC A L G E O LO G Y .

altogether unlikely to be prese r ve d as fossils This is .

probably the principal reason fo r the absence of any

record of the ances t ors of the Cambrian fauna .

II . L OWE R S I L UR IAN E R A .

S UB DIVIS IONS

The name S ilu r i an ( fro m S i lu re s the name of an ,

ancient Welsh tri be ) was given by Murchison whose ,

studies in Wales and t h e a dj acent parts o i E ngland fi rs t .

led to the definite recogni t ion of the S ilurian system .

The d ivision of the Siluria n of M urchiso n into two eras

has been required by later researc h e s .

The Lower S ilurian e ra is divided into two periods

1 C A N A D IA N and 2 T R E N TO N
, , , .

“
he Canadian pe riod is so named from Canada where ,

the rocks are well displayed and have been m ost thoroughly
studied ; and the Trenton period from Trenton Falls j ust
, ,

north of U tica the river at the Falls running between

,

high blu ff s of Trenton Limestone .

I n Great Britain the first of these perio d s is represented

by the Arenig group ; and the lat t er by the Llandeilo
Flags and the B ala or C aradoc
, , .

R OCK S : KINDS AND DIS TRIB UTION .

In the Upper C ambrian or P otsdam period the rock

, , ,

deposits formed over the N orth A merican con t i n ent were

m ainly of sand or m u d m aking sands t ones and shales ;
,

and but little limestone was formed The Canadian period .

is one of transitio n to the T renton in which limestones ,

were in progress over nearly the whole bread th of the

continent the Appalachian and Arctic regions as well as
, ,

the Interior C ontinental .

The ro cks of the Ca n a di an period along the borders of

the A rch ae an of northern Ne w York and Canada are
1
( ) A limestone often
, arenace ous and siliceous usually ,
 LO WE R S IL U R I N E R A A .

'
magnesian called the C ife r o u s S a n d R o ck ; ( 2) a purer
,
a lc

li mestone formation mostly magnesian called the Ch azy

, ,

L i me s to ne from a pla ce o f that name in northern N ew

'

York In the Interior basin the rock of the period is

.

mainly limestone — i n Iowa and W isconsi n the L ower

Magnesian Limestone — excepting to the north where
, ,

the upper part is sandstone ( St P eter s Sandstone ) .

’
.

The Tr en to n period O pens with the Tren to n epoch ,

which is remarkable for i t s extensi ve limestone formation .

The limestone occ u rs in Canada ; in Ne w York ( the beds

at Trenton Falls giving it its na m e ) ; along the Appa
la o b ian range ; in O hio an d other states of the O hio and
Mississippi basin ; from Wisconsi n north w estward along ,

the w est side of the A rch aean area ; and in t h e A rctic

’
regio n s I t is in m ost places full of fossils The B ird s
. .

eye and Black Rive r Limestones are part of t h e T ren t on

RSIthorouhl
gy
tr
formation The rocks of the later part of the Trenton
.

period ( called the Uti ca and Hu d s o n epochs ) in New ,

WaningMl
i t8
/11
York and the Appalachians are shale a n d sands t one ; an d ,

even i n the In t erior basi n the limestones are often as ,

about C incinnati quite clayey or impure

, .

The crystalline limestone ( marble ) of Verm ont and

weste rn Massachusetts and C onnecticut with the a ssoci ,

ated mica schist h ydromica schist clay slate and quartz

, , ,

ite is partly Cambrian and partly L ower S ilurian ; it

, ,

contains at se ve ral localities Ca n adian and T renton fos

, ,

S ince the rocks ove r m ost of the region are strongly

b i o and consequently destitute of fossils the
, ,

the differen t formations cannot be precisely

t hickness of the rocks of the Canadian and Tren

r i o d s in P ennsylvania is over 7 5 0 0 feet ; while in

s it is but 7 5 0 feet and in M issouri abo u t 20 0 0 feet

, .

rocks of this era i n Grea t B ritain are chiefly

and flags with but little limestone The A renig
, .

at the base of the formation corresponds a pp ro x i

with the C anadian The rocks o f this group are
.
 HIS TO RIC A L G E O LO G Y .

overlain by the Llandeilo Flags Above th em there are .

the Caradoc S andstone of Shropshire and the B ala for ,

mation the latte r sandy slates a n d sandstone wi t h thin

, ,

beds of limestone in Wales I n S candinavia the rocks

, .

are m ostly shales with some limestone especially in the

, ,

upper part of the formation .

LIFE .

The life of this e ra like that of the Cambrian was

, ,

chiefly m arine ; but the era is remarkable as showing the

first vestiges of terres t rial life both vegetable and animal , .

The plants found

F 28 4 IG .
fossil are mostly Sea
.

weeds ; but the Skid

daw Slates ( included
in the Arenig group )
of Great Britain have
afforde d remains of a
plant ( Fig 234) which .

h a s been referred to the

M arsileace ae a group ,

of the higher C rypto

gam s ( A crogens) al
lied to the Ferns and
Lycopods .

All the subking

doms of animals were
represented ( except
the T u n i c at e s ) the ,

earliest of V e rtebrates
belonging to this era .

A CR G O P t
EN : l i Il k
ro i
a n nu a r aM O
arI BO V OI
ne s s A I t h
.
I Op O d S
‘ ‘

,
‘ ‘

were represent c d not -

only by the aquatic C rustaceans but also by the earliest ,

Insects .

Coele n e te
t ra s — The L ower Silur i an beds especially ,

the finer shales and slates are remarkable for the great
,
 LO WE R S IL U R I AN E RA .

abundance of very delicate plumelike fossils calle d Grap ,

tolites fro m the Greek ypafctw to write

,
f
,
.

A fe w species from the Canadian are represented in

Figs 235 236 2 38 — 24 0 and one specie s from the U tica
w ml
’

n q l i th , , ,
.

a n
y e
epoch of the Trenton period in Fig 237 In the living ,
. .

state there were cells along the notched margin one for ,

eac h notch fro m which little animals protruded them

,

Cam
brian, was
selves They belong to the Hydroids among the Hydro
. ,

zo a n s The Graptolites are e specially characteristic of

.

the Lowe r S iluria n though represented also in the Cam ,

brian and the Upper Silurian .

FIG S 235—240
23 6
W
gs inl ed
ud
Sna ( c 237

G R A P TO LITE s Fig 235 , Lo g a no g rap t u s Lo ga ni , th e c e nt ra p o r ti o n o f a ra iati n g ro p o f

: . l d g u
s t e ms w i t , h
part s o f t h e s te m s ; 23 6 s a m e p o r ti o n o f o ne o f th e s t e m s e n ar e ; 23 6 a ,
, , , l gd
p art o f s te m , m o re e n ar e l gd
28 7 , D i p lo g ra p t u s pri s t i s ; 23 8 , 239 , Ph y llo g ra p t u s t p s ; y u
240 , t h e y u g
o n o f a G pt l i t
ra o e .

Fig 24 1 represents one of the Cyathophylloid C orals

.

of the Trenton Its shape is that of a curved cone a .

,

little like a short horn the small end being the lowe r ,
.

At top whe n perfect the cavity of the coral is divided

, ,

o ff by plates radiating from the center The name Cy a . .

,

tho p hy llo i d from the Greek x é a do q cup and c é Mt o v leaf

, t , , , ,

alludes to the cup full of radiating leaves or plates These .

C yathophylloid C orals which were eminently character ,

i s t i c of P ale ozoic time have the radiating partitions and ,

other structures which are radially repeated i n the body .

,

in multiple s of four while in most m odern C orals they ,

are in multiples of six .

E ch i no derms Fig 24 2 shows the form of one of the

.
-
.
 HIS TO R IC A L G E O L OG Y .

Crinoids though the stem on which it stood is m ostly

,

wanting and the arms are not e ntire There were also
, .

true S t a rfi s h e s in the seas .

n
adCOMM“.

Fs . 241 - 252 .

i
Sl
uri
a
. n T
M

eciM
w
R-
O
nesp

A N T H O Z O AN : . , uu
Fig 24 1 S t re p te las ma c o r ni c l m — C N O ! Fig 24 2 Tax o cri nu s e e an s. RI ID ,
lg .

Bin O AO A Ns : Fig 24 3 S t i c to p o ra ac ta ; 244 P ra s o o ra

.
, p u
c o p e r o n : 24 5 s e c ti o n o f
,
ly d ,

s a me . BRA C IIIO PO Ds : Fig 24 6 O r t i s t e s t

-
h ud
i nar i a ; 2 47 O rt i s o c c i e nta i s : 24 8,
. , ,
h d l
Le ptz-P na s e ri e e a — Mm w s xs : Fig 24 9 A m b o n vc h ia be lli s t r ia t a ; 25 0 , R h ap h i s t o ma
. . .
,

le nt i c ul
a re ; 25 1 , O r t o c e ra s nce m — T h ju u
LO B T E : Fi g 252, A sap . RI I
s p a ty c e p a . hu l h
lu s , x

Mo llu s co i d s Amo n g M olluscoids B ryozoa n s were very

. ,

common . The fossils are small cellular corals : o n e is -

shown i n Fi g . 24 3 .
 LO WE R A
S IL U R I N E R A .

A group of corals m ostly of small size appear i n g In , ,

he m ispherical ( Fi g 24 4 ) or incrusting or branching form s

.
,

a n d consisting of minute colum nar cells closely packed

togethe r ( Fig w e re very abundant in the L ower

.

Silurian They we re probably B ry ozoans though

.
,

garded by some pale ontologis t s as true Anthozoan corals .

O n e s pecies is represented in Figs 2 4 4 245 O ther i m .

, .

portant genera of the group are M o n t ic u lip o ra Chae tetes , ,

etc .

B rachiopods were still m ore characteristic of the era ,

and occur i n vast numbers Three species are r e p r e .

sente d in Figs 24 6 3 2 48 .
-
.

Mo llu s k s — All t h e principal classes of M ollusks were

.

represented A Lamellibranch is shown in Fig 24 9 a n d

. .
,

a Gastrop od in Fig 25 0 Shells of Cephalopods were . .

especially common under the form of a straight or curved

,

hor n with transve rse partitions Fig 25 1 represents a . .

s mall species O n e species had a shell 1 2 or 1 5 feet long

‘

.
,

and near ly a foot in d ia me t er The word Or th o ce r a s is .

f rom t h e Greek é pflde straight and x epa e horn T h ere

’

, , , .

we re s o m e species also of the genus M m ti lu s a genus ,

which has sur vi ve d to the prese nt tim e While Trilo bite s .

appea r to ha ve been the largest and most powe rful animals

of t h e Ca mbrian seas C ephalopods of the Or tlzo c e ra s , ,

family far excee ded Trilobites in bot h respects in the

,

Trenton The large r kinds must have been p owerful

.

animals to have bo rne a n d wielded a shell 1 2 o r 1 5 feet

long Although clumsy compared with the Fishes of a
.

late r age they emulated the largest of Fishes in size and

, ,

no doubt also in their voracious habits .

Arth r o po ds — Fig 25 2 represents o n e of the large

. .

Trilo bites of th e Trenton rocks t h e A sap hu s p la ty c ep h a ,

lu s — a species sometimes found e ight inches or m ore

,

in length Another genus of Trilobites ve ry common in

.
,

the Lower Silurian and represented also in t h e Upper ,

S ilurian is Ca ly me ne a species of w hic h is shown in

, ,

Fig 1 1 6 page 7 7 The r o ck s o f t h e Utica e poch in a

.
.
, .
,
 HIS TO RIC AL G E O L OG Y .

locality near R ome New York have lately y ielded a mu l

, ,

t i t u d e of specimens of the Trilobite Tr i a r t h ru s B ecki i i n ,

which the legs and other appendages are beautifully pre

served The species is shown twice the natural size in
.
, ,

Fig 25 3 ; and a more e nlarged view of two of t h e two

.

branched legs is given in Fi g 2 54 . .

An Insect allied to the Cockroaches ( P a laeo bla tti n a )

has been found in N ormandy in a sandstone probably ,

of the age of the Caradoc or H udson M ore recently .

FIG . 253 .
“
FIG . 25 4 .

S eco n d and h d th
t ir o ra ci c le g o f Tri ar t r shu
B e ck ii , x 12 . In . g
II t h e fri n e o f se taa
h as b
e e n rem o ve d , to s h w m pl i ly
o o re a n

th e jit
o n s en , th e ma i t m f th l g
n s e o e e

m mm 1 t
. (e n o o d p dit ) e c m, th e t t y b
na a o r hra nc

Bech ii .
(e x o o p di t )e .

has been reported the discovery of an Insect in Sweden

in strata of about the same age These are the earliest .

land animals thus far discovered .

Vertebrat es — The earliest traces of Vertebrates thus

.

far discovered are remains of Fishes found abundantly

in a sandstone near C afi o n City C olorado believe d to , ,

belong to the Trenton period The remains are bony .

plates of P lacoderms and scales of Ganoids and s t r u c ,

tures supposed to be the o s s ifi e d sheaths of notochords

( a rudimentary form o f vertebral column ) of S elac hi ans .
 LO WE R S IL U R I AN E RA .

A
GE NE R L OB S E RV TIONS A .

Geo graph y The wide c ontinental region covered by

.
—

the Trenton limestone formation stretching over the ,

Appalachian region on the east and widely through the ,

Interior basin must have been throughout a clear sea

, ,

densely populated ove r its bottom with B rachiopods ,

C orals C rinoids Trilobites and the other life of the

, , ,

era It may however have been a shall ow sea ; for the

.
, ,

corals and beautiful shells o f coral reefs li ve mostly within

1 0 0 feet o f the surface .

D uring the later part o f the period the Utica and ,

Hudson epochs the same seas especially o n the north

, , ,

became more open to sedime nt through some change ,

o f level or of coast barriers and c onsequently much of ,

the former life disappeared and other kinds adapte d to , ,

Silurian .

Among the genera of the L ower Silurian probably only ,

seven have living species These are S a c ca mmi na am ong .

Rhizopods L i ng u la D i s ci n a R hy n ck o n e lla and Or a n i a

, , , ,

among Brachiopods A vi cu la among Lamellibranchs and

, ,

Na u ti lu s among C ephalopods D is ci n a probably goes back .

even to the Cambrian and perhaps L i ng u la also though some

, ,

systematists refer all the supposed Cambrian species to othe r

genera These genera o f long lineage thus reach through
.

all time from the L owe r S ilurian onward All other genera .

disappear — some at the close of an era others at the close ,

of a period epoch or other subdivision of an era

, , .

The extinction of species took place at intervals through

the periods as well as at their close ; though the exter
,

m i n at i o n s at the close of the periods were m ore ge neral .

With the changes from one stratum to another there were ,

disappearance s of some species ; and with the changes ,

from one formation to another still larger numbers o f ,

 HIS TO R IC AL G E O LO G Y .

“
species became extinct S carcely any C ambrian species
.

are kno w n to occur in the Canadian period ; very fe w

of the species of the C anadian period survive into the
Trenton ; and very many of those of the e a rly part of
the Trenton did not exist in the later part Thus l ife and .

death were in progress together species being removed , ,

an d other S pecies appearing as time m oved on

, .

E co no mi c P r o du cts — The Galena Limestone ( Trenton

period ) of Wisconsin and the adj oining states de rives its
name from the deposits of lead ore which it contains .

The ore occurs in cavities in the limestone and its origi n ,

probably much late r than that of the rock .

A large am ount of mineral oil and gas is afforded i n

some regions by th e Trenton formation and chiefly the
limesto n e At Findlay and some other places i n O hio
.
, ,

borings are made t o a depth of se ve ral hundred feet ,

through the overl y ing rocks and then for 1 0 to 5 0 feet

,

into t h e limestone ; the gas c omes u p with a rush and ,

co n ti nues to escape for years Fro m one boring over

.

a million cubic feet of gas have been obtained per day .

The gas is u sed both f o r ill uminatio n and for f u el In .

other cases oil is obtained which when p u rified beco mes

, , ,

kerosene The gas consists chiefly of marsh gas ( C H

.

the principal ingredient of ordinary ill u minating gas ;

and the oil consists of mixture s of other hydrocarbons .

T h ey were produced by the decomposition of the animal

or vegetable substances in the rock afforded by the life ,

of the seas .

DIS TU R BAN CE S A T T HE CL OS E OF THE L OW E R

S IL U R IAN .

Arch aean time closed as has been already remarked

,

(page wi t h an epoch of general upturn i ng and meta

m orp h is m so that t h e Cambrian rocks are everywhere
,

unconformable wit h the Arch aean B u t from that ti me .

,

until the close of the Lower Silurian n o e x t e n s ive dis ,

 T A CO N IC R E V OL U TIO N .

t u rb an ce s occurred either in eastern North America or in

E urope . The alternations of limestones with shales and
sandstones during the E opaleozoic are e vidence indeed , ,

that changes of level by gentle movem ents or oscillations

,

of the earth s crust were going on B ut the close of

’
, .

E opaleozoic time was signalize d by geographical changes

of a much m ore striking character .

1 Th e Taco n i c R ang e — This m ountain range 5 0 0

.
,

miles long e xte nding along the weste rn and northwestern

,

border of N ew E ngland from Canada to northwestern C on

,

n e c t i c u t and P utna m C ounty in eastern New York was ,

made at the close of the Lower S i lurian That the region .

was not dry land before is sho w n by the presence of

,

Chazy and Trent o n L imestones for th ese are of marine

-
,

origin and that the region was above the water from and
after this time is indicate d by the fact that the formations
,

of the Trenton period were t h e latest there formed ; and

by the still more i mp ortant observation that near H udson , ,

in t h e H udson R iver valley and at other localities near

, ,

the border of the Taconic region there are Upper Silurian ,

roc k s overlying unconformably the upturned older rocks ,

t h e uplif t being shown thereby to have precede d the

deposit of the U pper Silurian rocks .

D uring the progress of the Lower Silurian era a great

thickness of rock had been m ade over the region of the
Taconic M ountains — pro bably
, or feet .

These beds were laid do w n not in a sea , or

feet deep until it was full but i n shallow waters over a
,

botto m that was gradually sinking — s o gradually that the

rock mate rial accumulati n g over it kept i t shallow Then .
,

when the slowly forming trough had reache d this depth ,

the epoch of catastrophe that is of mountain m aking

, ,
-
,

began when the beds were d isplaced and folded and

, ,

or crystallized Quartzose sandstones were

.

ard quartzite — the rock of high ridges in

V er m ont ; earthy sandstone s were m ade
t and g neiss an d co mmon limeston es came
 HIS T O R IC A L G E O LO G Y .

out white or clo u ded marbles now extensively quarried

,

for architectural purposes at Canaan C onnecticut in , ,

B erkshire C ounty Massachusetts and at R utlan d and

, ,

elsewhere in Vermont .

The history of the Taconic range thus exemplifies the

same stages already described with reference to the Appa
la o bian range which has been taken as a type of mountain
,

structure : a slowly progressing geosyncline in which a ,

vast thickness of strata is accumulated ; the w eake ning

of th e mass as the botto m of the trough becomes heated
in its descent ; and finally the crushing of the weakened
strata to form the complex folds characteristic of a s y n cli
norium T h e Taconic range differs howe ver from t h e
.
, ,

Appalachian range in that the rocks of the former have

,

s u fi e r e d a much m ore intense degree of metam orphism

2 Th e Ta co ni c S y ste m
. It is probable also that a n
.
, ,

other mo u ntain range was forme d at the same time com ,

m e n c i n g in the eastern part of C anaan C onnecticut and , ,

continuing southward through Westchester C ounty New ,

York to Manhattan Island ; and still another if n ot a

, ,

continuation of the last extending from the vicinity of

,

P hiladelphia to B uckingham C ounty V irginia ( where the,

crystalline rocks have afforded fossils ) and beyond this ,

southwestward These ranges extending southward and

.

southwestward beyond the Taconic range proper have

su ffere d so much denudation as no longer to constitute
strongly m arke d geographical features though the oro ,

geni c move m e nts are indicated by the disturbed and meta

m o rph o s e d rocks . The Taconic revolution in this view , ,

left its marks in m ountains and in crystalline rocks along

the whole Atlantic Border and the two or three mountai n
,

ranges dating from that time constitute together a long

Taconic m ountain system .

3 E me rge nce o f t h e Atlanti c Bo r der R e g i o n

.
— Simul .

t a n e o u s ly with the formation of the Taconic system a ,

large part of the Appalachian B order region was rai sed

above the sea level This is proved by the fact that along
. ,
 U PP E R S IL U R I N A E RA .

this border south of New York no marine deposits are ,

known of the U pper Sil u rian or of any later formation

,

until the Cretaceous It is probable that the geanticlinal

.

movement of the Atlantic Border region continued through

the remainder of the P ale ozoic contemporaneously with ,

the progress of the A ppalachian ge osyncline .

4 Th e Ci ncinn at i Uplift
. Another geanticlinal m ove
.
-

ment west of the Appalachian region caused the emer

gence of t w o l arge islands from the Interior C ontinental
sea one in the region of Cincinnati the o t her farther
g i ns heated
I ‘ fi , ,

south in Tennessee The axis of the geanticline trends

.

in general northeast and southwest parallel with the trend ,

of the Appalachians This line of shallow waters and

w ar fromthe
.

emerged lands made thenceforth a partial division between

the main body of the Interior C ontinental sea ( Central
Interior sea) and a narrow E astern I nterior sea .

5 Dist u r ban ces i n E u ro p e

. In t h e inte rior of E urope
.
,

as in the C ontinental I nte rior region of N orth America ,

the Lower Silurian rocks are generally overlain conforma

bly by the Upper S ilurian B u t in Wales and western .

E ngland W here the Cambrian and L ower Sil u rian rocks

, .

are of great thickness they are disturbed and m e t am o r

,

p h o s e d,and separated from the Upper Silurian by well

marked unconformability

ll . N EO PALEO Z O IC S E C T IO N .

I . U P P E R S I LU R IAN E R A .

The E opaleozoic h ad been characterized by the small

area of dry land in all the continents and the almost ex ,

elusively marine flora and f auna The N e opaleozoic was .

characterized by a gradual increase in the land areas and a ,

progressive development of terrestrial life reaching a climax ,

in the great forests of Acrogens and Gymnosperms which

characterized the C arboniferous e ra and the varied terres ,
’

trial fauna including Snails Insects and Arachnoids A m

, , ,

p h i b i a n s and R eptiles which tenanted the widening lands

, .
 HIS TO R IC A L G E OLO G Y .

GE OGRAPHICAL CONDITIONS AT THE O E NING OF THE ERA P .

The accompanying map shows approximately the areas

where A rch aean and E opaleozo ic rocks are surface rocks , n
A e ihr
i lin .

and which were therefore probably for the most part , ,

dry land at the beginn ing of t h e Upper Silur ian There .

may have been however other areas whic h were dry

, ,

land at that time but which have been subsequently

,

F IG . 255 .

cl
ins were dean .

nak
edchat ll '
. r

N o rt h Am e ri c a a t t h e Op e n i n g o f t h e Up p e r S i lu ri a n .

c o vered by ne wer formations The portion of those areas .

whe re Arch aean rocks are surface rocks is indicated by

a s h ad ing composed of V s except t hat in the Atlan t ic
’
, ,

B o rder region the Arch man rocks have not been fully
,

dis ting u ished from m etamor ph ic rocks of later date and ,

no at t em p t is therefore m ade to indicate their boundaries

on the map .

A co mparison o f this map w ith that on page 237 will

.
 U PP E R A
S IL U R I N E R A .

sho w that t h e area of dry land was not greatly increased

d u ring the E opaleozoic The Atlantic B order region
.
,

sou t h of Ne w York had become d ry land and was n o

, ,

longe r receiving deposits The marine c onnection which

.

had e xisted bet w een the Interio r C ontinen t al sea and the
Atlantic throug h the St L awrence channel was closed
, .
,

by the elevation of la n d in t h e region of La k e Champlai n .

It is howeve r probable that com munication be tween the

, ,

Interio r C ontinental sea and the Gulf of St Lawrence ,

.

was temporarily reopened in the closing period of the

Upper Sil u rian The Gulf of St Lawrence e x ten d e d
. .

sou t hward in long bays in the troughs betwe e n the eastern

ri dges of Arch aean rocks and in these bays Uppe r S ilurian
,

rocks were deposited The separatio n between the Inte

.

rior C ontinen t al sea and the Gulf O f St Lawrence a n d .

,

the free opening of the former into t h e P acific h a d a ,

marke d e ff ect on t h e marine faunas of the di ffe rent regions .

Th e fossils of Canada and N e w E ngland show t h e i n flu

ence of migration from western E urope ; while th e Interior
Continental sea was O pen to immigrati on f rom the old
world chiefly by way of the Pacific A n E aste rn Interior .

s e a or bay was imperfectly sepa rated from the m ai n body

of the Interior C onti n ental sea by t h e line of islands and

sh allo w s for me d by t h e C incinnati uplift ; and i t was in
t h e easte rn part of t his bay that the vast subsidence of
the Appalac h ian ge osyncline was in progress .

S UB DIVIS IONS .

The Upper S ilurian era in N orth America includes three

p e r i o d s z— l N IA,G A R A ; 2 O N O N D A G A ; 3 L O W,E R HE L ,

D E R R E RG .

The name of the first is fro m the N iagara R iver alo n g ,

which the rock s are displaye d that of the second f ro m ,

the name o f a town and county in central N e w York ;

that of the thi rd f ro m the Helde rberg Mountains south
, ,

of Albany where the lower rocks are of this period

, .
 HIS TORIC A L G E O LO G Y .

ROCK S : KINDS AND DIS TRIB UTION .

1 . Ni ag ara P eri o d
The rocks of the Niagar a perio d .
—
,

in the eastern part of the Interior C ontinental region o f

N orth America are 1
( ) A conglomerate
, and grit rock
calle d the O neida C onglomerate which extends from ,

central New York southward along the Appalachian

region having a thickness of 7 0 0 feet in some parts
,

of P ennsylvania ; which together with the Medina ,

Sandstone spreading westward from central New York

,

through Michigan and also southward along the A p

“

p alac h i a n region being 1 5 00 feet thick in P,enns y lvania ,

is included in the M e d i n a epoch ; ( 2) Hard sandstones ,

or flags and shales wit h so m e limestones ( particularly ,

westward ) and some beds of iron ore belonging to ,

the Cli n to n ep och having nearly the same distribution ,

as the Medina formation though a little more widely ,

spread in the west and about 20 0 0 feet thick in P e n n sy l

,

vania ; ( 3) The formations of the N i ag a r a epoch occur ,

ring i n N e w York from the Hudson to the N iagara and ,

extending widely over the Interior C ontinental region ;

they consist at Niagara of shale below and thick lime
, ,

stone above but mainly of limestone in the Interior region

,
.

The Niagara is one of the great limestone formations o f

the continent e x isting also in the Arctic regions
, .

Ripple marks and mud cracks are very common in the

- -

M edina formation The example of rill marks figured on .

-

page 1 5 5 is from its strata in western New York .

The section Fig 25 6 represents the rocks on the N iagara

, .
,

R iver at and below the Falls The Falls are at F ; the .

Whirlpool three mile s below at W ; and the Lewiston

, ,

Heights which fron t Lake O ntario at L Nos 1 2 3 4

, , . .
, , ,

are different sandstone and shale strata of the M edi n a

epoch ; 5 s h ale and 6 limestone of the Clinton epoch ;
, , , ,

7 shale and 8 limestone of the N iagara epoch

, , , , .

2 On o n daga P e r i o d — The rocks of the O nondaga

. .

p erio d include the Salina b eds and the Water lim e

g roup - .
 HIS TO R IC A L G E O LO G Y .

occurs in Tennessee and probably in southern Illinois ;

but the beds are thin or wanting over most of the Central
Interior region The formation is also found in Canada
.

in the line of the C on n ectic u t Valley in northern M aine , ,

and in N e w B runswick and N ova S co tia .

Uppe r S i luri an R o ck s i n E uro p e — In Great B ritain .

the base of the U pper Silurian rocks is formed by con

glomerates sandstones and shales called where occurring
, , , ,

in S outh Wales the Llandovery group and corresponding

, ,

FIG . 256 .

S e ct i o n l g th
a on e N iag ara , fro m th e F ll
a s t o L e wi s t o n He i gh t s .

to the Medina and Clinton groups Above these there is .

the Wenlock group consisting of limestone and some

,

shale ( including in the upper p ortion the D udley Lime

, ,

sto n e ) and corresponding to the N iagara group These

, .

rocks occur as surface rocks near the borders of Wales

and E ngland Next comes the Lu dlow group of the age
.
,

of the O nondaga and Low er Helderberg beds .

LIFE .

The limestone strata and most of the other beds of the

Niagara group are full of fossils ; and so also are the rock s
of the Lower Helderberg period and of the Wenlock and ,

Ludlow formations in Great Britain Fossils are well nigh .

-

wanting in the Salina beds and not abundant in the Water ,

lime.

The life of the era was the same in general feat u res as
that of the latter part of the L ower Silurian though mostly ,

differen t in species .

The most of the vegetable remains are those of Sea

weeds ; but the Lower Helderberg rocks of this country
 U PP E R S IL U R I AN
FIG s 257- 269
. .

. u w
Z ph ti b il t li aCli t re ng u p ; 25 8 F
s a e ra
it Ni g
s,
i n on ro av o s es a are ns s
Ni
gt g u p ; 259 H ly i t
a ara ro t l t
, i bid
a s C Y T ID
es Fig 2 60 C y
ca enu a u s,
i .
—
S O :
,

ar o cr nu s
,

u Ni g g u Fig 26 1 P t m u Cl t
.
,
o r na s, a
p B
ara H ro R AO IO P O D s :
bl g en a
d er s O on us, i n o n an
.
.
,
Ni
g a
gar a
u
d D udl y Li m t
p l
ro Ll d y
s , a so d W l k
an
; 2 62 O t h i
o ve r i an
5 2 N i g g
en o c u p , r s va r ca , > a a ra ro
an e
; 2 63 L p t
e s o net l i i b i d ; 2 64 S t p h m
, e a na
‘

h m
ra n s v e r s a s, ro
,

o e na r o
i bid u i bi d H Fig 2 6 6 A i ul
b i d li
.
,
o a s, 265 R h y .
h t t t nc L o rc a c n ea a , — A M E L L IR R A N O
,
: v c a
m
.

Ni g g up G ll t m C l i t
.
,
e t
ace ra a . a ara Fig 267 C y l —
ro .
m
A S T R( ) P O D S Z .
, c o ne a ca n c e a u n on
g u p ; 2 6 8 P l ty g l t m Ni g g u Fig 269 H m l tu
,
ro a c e ra s a n —T u a u a a ra ro
,
p R ILO B Ir E : o a o no s
g up
, . .

d lph i
e
ph l
n o ce x Ni a us, a g ara ro .
,
 HIS TO R IC A L G E O LO G Y .

have afforded a few remains of Acrogens representing ,

apparently both the E quiseta and the Lc p o ds .

Among animals the C oelenterates were represented ,

chiefly by Anth ozoan corals the E chinoderms by Crinoids , ,

and the M olluscoids by Brachiopo d s The last are espe .

c i all
y abundant their shells outnumbering ,all o t her fossils .

All the principal classes of M ollusks were represented ,

C ephalopods of the Or tho cer a s group being most charac

t e ri s t i c
. Arthropods were represented by Trilobites O s ,

t r a co i d s and Le p t o s t r a c a n s among Crustaceans also by

, , ,

M e r o s t o m e s Arachnoids and Inse cts

,
The only Verte , .

brates were Fishes .

l e nt at s
er e — Fig 25 7 is a coral of the C y ath Oph yl
. .

loid group showing the radiating plates of the interior ;

,

Fig 25 8 a species of Fa vo s i te s a genus in which the cells

.
, ,

have a columnar form ( somewhat honeycomb like whence -

,

the name from Latin f a vu s honeycomb ) and are divided

, , ,

by transverse partitions ; Fi g 25 9 a Chain C oral Ha ly s i te s .

, ,

( Greek fi at/m s chain ) the cells appearing

, in a transverse
, ,

section like links of a chain

, .

E ch in o der ms — Fi g 2 6 0 is a Cystoid with the arms

. .

broken o ff Another Cystoid of the Niagara group is

.

shown in Fi g 8 2 on page 6 7 A Starfish also of the

.
,
.
,

Niagara is shown in Fi g 8 6 on page 6 8

, .
,
.

Mo llu s co i d s Figs 2 6 1 — 2 6 5 are Brachiopods of the

. .

N iagara period ; Figs 2 7 0 — 27 4 B rachiopods of the Lowe r .

,

Helderberg .

Mo llu s k s Fi g 2 6 6 is a Lamellibranch and Figs

. .
,
.

26 7 2 68 Gastropods of the Niagara period

, , ,
.

Fig 2 7 5 represents small slender tubular cones called

.
, , ,

Ten ta cu li te s which almost make up the mass of some layers

,

in the Water lime group the form of one enlarged is shown

-

in Fig 2 7 6 ; they are regarded as shells of P teropods

. .

The same genus is abundant also in the L ower Helderberg .

Arth ro po d s Fi g 2 6 9 is a reduced figure of a commo n

. .

Trilobite of the N iagara group The species is o ften 8 .

'

or 1 0 inches in length .
 U PPE R S IL U R I AN ERA .

Fig 27 7 i s an O stracoid C rustacean L ep erdi ti a a lta

. , ,

of unusually large size for that group modern O s t r a c o i ds ,

seldo m exceeding a twelfth of an inch in length .

Fig 27 8 is a E u ryp te ru s a representative of the class

.
,

of M e r o s t o m e s of which the L i mu lu s or H orseshoe C rab

, , ,

is now the sole surviving genus The E u rg/p te r u s group .

makes its first appearance in the U tica Shale but is more ,

characteristic of Neopaleozoic time attaining its greatest ,

FIGs 270- 27 8 . .

BR A OHIO P O D s : Fg
i s 27 0 27 1 ,
.
, P e nt am e r u g l t u ; 272 273 R hy h ll
s a ea t i s , , nc o ne a ve n r c o sa

274 , S pi r i fe r m ac ro ple u ru s P T R P D F g 275 T t ul i t gy

E O O thu i27 6 .
, e n ac es rac an s ,

s a m e , e n ar e l gd
O S IR A C O ID
.
’ ‘
F g 2 7 7 L p d ti
i . lt M , Fi g 27 8 E y p
e er i a a a . E Ro sr O ME :
'
.
, ur

te rns re i n i p e s , a s ll
m a s p e ci m e n . F g 270 274i p i s f m th L w H ld b g
.
— are s ec es ro e o er e er er

Fig s . 27 5- 27 8 , fro m th e W at er -
l im e .

development in the Upper Silurian The spe cies figured .

is from the Water lime and is sometimes nearly a foot long

—
, .

Species of the same order occur in Great B ritain in the

Wenlock and Ludlow beds and one of them is suppose d ,
~
,

from the fragme nts found to have been 6 o r 8 feet long , ,

far surpassing any A rthropod now living The Upper .

Silurian of Great Britain has also afforded forms still

more closely rel ated to the modern L i mu lu s .
 HIS TO R IC AL G E O L OG Y .

Arachnoids are r e pr e s e n t e d by S corpions which have

‘ '

been found in the Water lime group in N e w York and -

,

also in the Upper S ilurian of Scotland and S w eden .

V ertebrates — Remains of Fishes have been found in

.

the Clinton and the Water lime of this country and in -

,

the Ludlow beds of Great Britain They include plates .

of P lacoderms and probably fin spines of Selachians

, .

A
GE NE R L OB S E RV TIONS A .

On the map page 235 the areas ove r w hich the Cam
, ,

brian and Silurian formations are surface rocks are distin

u i s h e d by being horizontally lined It is observed that
g .

they S pread southward from the northern Arch aean area ,

and indicate an extension of the growing c ontinent in that

direction .

S outh of the Silurian area commences the D evonian ,

which is ve rtically line d ; and the limit between them shows

approximately the course of the seashore at the close of
the Upper Silurian era It is see n that more than half of
.

Ne w York and nearly all of Canada and Wisconsin had

, ,

by that time become part of the dry land ; but a broad

bay covere d the M ichigan region to the northern point of
Lake Michigan for here D evonian rocks and to some htlihlla
'

d
r a
, ,
n,
extent C arboniferous we re afterward formed The Ar
, .

c h ae a n dry land the nucleus of the continent had also

, ,

receive d additions in a similar manner on its eastern and

western sides through B ritish America And there may
, .

have been other areas of dry land which were s u bs e

quently subme rged and covered by more recent strata .

B u t with all the increase the amount of dry land in

, ,

North America was still small E urope i s proved by .

similar evidence to have had much submerged land The .

surface of the earth was a s urface of gre a t waters with ,

the co n tinents only in embryo — one large area and some

islands representing tha t of N orth America and an archi ,

pelago that of E urope The emerged land more o ver .

, ,

was most extensive in the higher latitudes The rivers .

 U PP E R S IL U R I AN E RA .

T“‘hiChhave
l
of a world whose lands were so small must also have been
small The lands too according to present evidence had
.
, , ,

no greensward over the rocks until the latte r part of the ,

Silurian age .

The s u ccession of U pper Silurian format i ons Is as

follows 1
( ) The Medina Sandstone having at its base ,

the coarse grit called O neida C onglome rate occurring in ,

great thickness along the Appalachian region and reach ,

ing north to central N ew York and spreading west ,

ward beyond the limits o f that state ; ( 2) The Cl i nton

group of flags and shales with some limestone ( especially
,

westward ) having the same Appalachian extension and

,

great thickness but spreading on the north m u ch farther

,

westward eve n to the Mississippi ; ( 3) The N iagara group

, ,

represented in N e w York by shales and limestones and ,

S preading as a great limestone formation through the

larger part of the Interior region ; ( 4 ) The Salina salt
bearing shales of Ne w York exte nding west through ,

Canada and ove r part of the Appalachian region south

,

west ; ( 5 ) Anothe r lime stone but mostly impure spread , ,

ing over Ne w York State and the Appalachian region ,

and also some of the states west and occurring in the ,

northward extension of the C onne cticut Valley and over ,

Maine to the G u lf of St Lawrence . .

These facts teach that ge ographical changes took place

from time to time i n the course of the e ra corresponding
, ,

to these several changes i n the formations The clear con .

t i n e n t al seas of the T re nton period were succeeded by

conditions fitted to prod u ce the several arenaceous and
argillaceous formations of varying limits which followed ;
, ,

but clear waters returned again at the epoch of the

Niagara group when corals crinoids and shells c overed
, , ,

the bottom of the continen tal sea and made the N iagara ,

limestone formation B ut these seas in the N iagara

.

epoch were less extended than those of the T renton not ,

covering the A ppalachian region The Niagara epoch .

,

of limestone making was followed by the O nondaga or

-
 HIS TO R IC A L G E O L O G Y .

Saliferous period Since the be d s ( 1 ) are clays and

.

clayey sands ( 2 ) are almost wholly without fossils and

, ,

3
( ) a ff ord sal t it may be inferred
, that central N e w York
was at the time a great salt marsh mostly shut o ff from ,

the sea O ver such an area the waters would at times

.

become too salt to support life owing to partial evapora ,

tion unde r the hot sun and possibly too fresh at other , , ,

times from the rains M ore over muddy deposits would .

,

be forme d ; for such deposits are n o w commonly formed orsad

n-
fl
i t our; I

in salt marshe s The salt water w o u ld d e p o s i t salt by

.

evaporation in dry se a sons and from time to time by an , ,

occasional ingress of the sea salt water would be resup ,

plie d for further evaporation .

There is direct testimony as to the condition of the land

and S hallowness of the waters in the regions where many
of the rocks we re in progress ; for ripple marks and mud - for the m
ountai n

cracks are com m on in some layers and are positive evi ,

dence that the sands and earth that are now the solid
rock were then the loose sands of beaches sand flats or , ,

se a b ottoms or the mud of a salt marsh

, S uch little .

markings therefore remove all doubt as to the condition

, ,

of central N ew York during the deposition of the Salina

beds .

Similar markings indicate also the precise condition of , ,

the region of the Medina S andstone showing that there ,

were sand flats sea beaches and muddy bottoms open

, ,

to the i n flo w i n g sea Where the rill marks were made

.
-

F
( g i . 1 8 6 page ,
the sands we re those of a gently
mping fla t or beach ; the waters swept lightly over the
sands d ropping here and there a stray shell ( as the L i ng u la
,

c u n e a ta shown in the figure or a pebble which became

) ,

partly buried ; and then as they retreated they made a , ,

tiny plunge over the little obstacle and furrowed out the
. ,

loose sand below it The fineness of the sand lightness

.
,

of the shells and smallness of the furrows are proof that

,

the movements were light .

The great thickness of most of the formatio n s o f the

 D E VO N I N A E RA .

Upper Sil u rian along the Appalachian region leads to

many interesting conclusions The Appalachian region .

was in strong contrast with the Central Interior region ,

where the series of contemporaneous beds is hardly one

tenth as thick Taking this into connection with anothe r
.

fact that very many of the strata among the thousa n ds of

,

feet of Upper Silurian formations in the Appalachian r e

gion contain those evidences of shallow water and mud flat - -

or sand flat origin above explained there is full proof that

-
, ,

in the U pper Silurian era the region was for the most part
,

a shallow sea borde r receiving the debris from the Atlantic

B order region which had emerged as a land area at the
,

close of the L ower Silurian The great thickness of the

.

strata was rendered possible by the progressive su h si

dence which was preparing the A ppalachian region
for the mountain making epoch at t h e close of P ale o
-

zoic time .

wt ehs
o l
i d D uring the Cambrian an d L owe r Silurian eras a similar
r t
I ; n
o
gradual subsidence had permitted the accumulation of the
thick series of strata which were upturned and m e t am o r
d
i i p h o s e d in the making of the Taconic M o u ntains The
wi n n ihe
t n
.

con o
s u bsiding area during the U pper Silurian era extended
from P ennsylvania northward into N e w York a n d not ,

along the Taconic region ; the rocks in the state of Ne w

York have great thickness for some distance beyond the
P ennsylvania border .

II . DE V ON IAN E R A .

S UB DIVIS ION S .

The D evonian formation was so named by Sedgwick

and M urchison from D evonshire E ngland where it occurs
, , , .

The era may be divided into four periods 1 O R IS -

,

K A N Y ; 2 C O R N IF E R O U S ; 3 H A M ILT O N ; 4 C HE M UN G
, , , .

The O riskany and C orniferous periods are Often called

Lower D evonian ; the Hamilton Middle D evonian ; and ,

the Chemung U pper D evonian

, .
 H IS T O R IC A L G E OLOG Y .

R OCK S : KINDS AND DIS TRIB UTION .

1 . Oris k any P e ri o d The O riskany beds are m ostly

.
-

rough calcareous sandstones The formation extends from .

O riskany N e w York southward along the Appalachian

, ,

region t hrough P ennsylvania M aryland and V irginia , , ,

where it is se veral hundred feet thick It occurs also in .

northern M aine and at Gasp e on the Gulf of St Lawrence

, .
,

where the rock is partly limestone .

2 Co rnifer o u s P eri o d
. The lowest rocks of th i s period
.

are fragmental beds called t h e Ca u da G a lli G ri t and the

,
-

S c h o h a r i e G r i t having their distribution along the Appa

,

la o bian region commencing in central and eastern N e w

,

York and extending southwestward into Pennsylvania

, .

N ext follows the great Co r n if e ro u s Li me s to n e the lower ,

part of which is sometimes called t h e O nondaga Limestone ,

and the whole of which is often called the Upper Helder

'

berg group It stretches from eastern Ne w York westward

.

to the states beyond the Mississippi .

The name Co r n if e r o u s ( derived from the Latin co rn u ,

horn ) was given it by E aton from its frequently contain ,

ing a variety of quartz called hornstone This hornstone .

di ff ers from true flint in being less t ough or more splin ,

t e ry in fracture though it is like it in hardness and in

,

consisting of silica .

The limestone is in many places literally an ancient

coral reef It contains corals in vast numbers and of
.

great variety ; and in some places as at the Falls of the ,

O hio near L ouisville K entucky the resemblance to a

, , ,

modern reef is perfect S ome of the coral masses at that .

place are 5 or 6 feet in diameter ; and single polyps of

the Cyathophylloid corals had in some specie s a diameter
of 2 or 3 inches and in one species a diameter of 6 or 7
,

inches .

The same reef rock occurs near Lake Memphremagog

on the borders of Vermont and Canada and also at Little ,
 DE V O N IAN E RA .

ton New Hampshire ; but the corals have in these places

,

been partly obliterate d by metam orphism .

The C orniferous Limestone in some places abounds in

mineral oil The oil wells of E nniskillen O ntario are
.
, ,

from this rock .

3 Hami lto n Peri o d — The H amilton formation c onsists

. .

in New York of sandstone s and shales with a few t hin ,

layers of limestone It consists of two parts correspo n d

.

ing to two epochs : the lower part is called the M a r ce llu s

S h a le ; the upper the Ha mi lto n be d s
, It has its greatest .

thickness along the A ppalachia n s From N e w York it .

spreads westward where it is in part calcareous

, The .

formation occurs also in Ne w B runswick and at Gasp e , ,

on the Gulf of St Lawrence

. .

The Hamilton beds a fford an e xcellent flagging stone

in central N e w York and on the H udson R iver near
, ,

K ingston Saugerties C oxsackie and elsewhere which is

, , , ,

extensively quarried and exported to othe r states .

Solork“timid 4 Ch em u n g Peri o d
. The Chemung period includes
.
-

two epochs the P o r tag e and the C h e mu ng proper The

, , .

P or tage beds are mainly shales and shaly sandstones ; the

Chemung beds mainly sandstones or shaly sandstones , ,

with some conglomerate The base of the P ortage is

.

formed by a stratum of black bituminous shale called the

Genesee Shale The beds of the Chemung period spread
.

over a large part of southern and western N e w York ,

attaining a thickness of between 2 0 0 0 and 3 0 0 0 feet .

In the following section taken on a i i o rt h and south - -

l“amk
,
fs
w
line south of Lake O ntario N o 6 represents the beds of the
,
.

O nondaga period ; 7 the L o w e r Helderberg Limestone ;

,

9 the C orniferous or U pper H elderberg Limestone

, , 10 a , ,

b the Hamilton beds

, 1 1 a the G enesee S hale ; and 1 1 b
, ,

the overlying beds of the Chemung group .

I n the C atskill M ountains the P ortage and Chemung ,

epochs are not distinguished from each othe r being j ointly ,

represented by a mass of sands t ones varying into con ,

glomerates and shales predominantly

, red called the C ats ,
 HIS TO R IC A L G E OL O G Y .

kill group The rocks in the Catskills have a thi ckness o f

.

30 0 0 feet The same formation extends southwestward

.

along the Appalachians into P ennsylvania attaining near ,

M auch Chunk a thickness of more than 7 5 0 0 feet .

The Upper D evonian like most of the P aleozoic forma ,

tions is much thinne r in the C entral Interior region than

,

along the Appalachians It is chiefly repre sented in .

the Central Interior by a bituminous shale resembling th e

FIG . 27 9 .

7 9 10 (t

S e cti o n o f Upp er S i lu i
r an an d D e vo ni an fo rm ati o n s so u th o f La k e O n ta r i o .

Genesee Shale of N e w York and commonly called the ,

“ Bla ck Shale In O hio the U pper D evonian is r e p r e

”
.
,

sented by the Huron E rie and Cleveland Shales , , .

The U pper D evonian is the great oil horizon of“

P ennsylvania .

ev
D o ni a n R o ck s i n E u r o p e — In Great Britain the .

D evonian rock s include the O ld R e d Sandstone the ,

prevailing rock of the age in W ales and Scotland ; and

slates and limestones in D evon and C ornwall The thick .

ness of the O ld R e d Sandstone in some places in Scotland

is said to be to feet The D evon beds are .

estimate d to be to feet in thickness The .

distribution in Great B ritain is shown on the map page ,

29 5
. In Germany in the R henish provinces there is a
, ,

coral limestone very similar to that of North America .

LIFE

G E N E R A L C HA R A C TE R IS TIC S .

The D evonian was characterized by forests and an

abundance of Insects over the land and by Fishes of ,
.

many kinds in the waters The earliest Amphibians .

probably appeared in this era .

 D E V O N IA N E RA .

P L A N TS .

t ms — The hornstone of the C orniferous and

Cry p o ga .

other limestones develops under the microscope the fac t , ,

that it was probably made from the siliceous remains of

plants and animals — shells of D iatoms spicules of
Q “
, ,

“ M hlingthe S p o n g e s and other organic relics having been detected

,

i n 1t

Figs . 2 8 0— 28 2 represent p ortions of some of the land

plants . Fig 2 8 2 is a fragment of a Fern and Figs 28 0
.
, .
,

Fre e 6280- 282 .

-l l dlb 0l l h
.

It d u n lyulledthe

u
.
gm fl hnriinn

n Ufl d wmdi

AcROG E N s : Fi g 280 Le p i
. d d d
,
o en ro n lg u p ; 281 Si gill
p ri m aevu m , fr o m th e Ham i t o n ro ,
ari a

H ll ii i b i d 282 A h
a ,
.
,
rc h u g g up
aeo p t e r i s Ha lh an a, fro m th e C e m n ro .

portions of Lycopodiaceous trees The scars or .

W over the surface are the points of attachm ent

h ‘ S‘fl
leaves ; a dried branch of a N orway Spruce ,

ts leaves looks somewhat like Fig 2 8 1

,
By . .

page 8 8 it will there be seen that among

,

“ A m s s P lants or C ryptogams there is one group ,

that of Acrogens in which the plants have ,

ordinary trees and the tissues are ,

the one containi n g the Ferns Ly c o ,

r H orsetails The most of the land .

 HIS TO R IC A L G E O LO G Y .

plants of the D evonian belong to the three orders just

mentioned .

A some w hat fuller description o f these groups is here

appropriate since in the D evonian era for the first time
, , ,

they attained such development as to clothe the land with

forests .

1 Fe r n s — The species have a general resemblance to

. .

the Ferns or Brakes of the present time .

2 L y eo jno d s
. These are plants related to the Ground
.

P ine . T h e existing plants of this tribe ar e s le n de r species ,

seldom m ore than a few inches in height though the creep ,

ing stems of some spe cies may be many fee t in length .

Some of the ancient species were of the size of forest

trees These ancient species belong m ostly to two groups
.

'
,

of w h i c h t h e genera L ep i do d en dr o n and S ig i lla r i a r e s p e c ,

t i ve ly are the types

, I n the forme r the scars are con .
,

t igu o u s and are arranged in quincu n x order that is

, , ,

alternate in adj oining rows as S hown in Fig 2 8 0 The , . .

name L ep i d o d en dr o n is from t h e G reek Aem s scale and ’

, ,

OevSpo v tree and alludes to the scar covered trunk which

’
-
, , ,

looks somewhat like a scale covered reptile The Sigil -

.

larids include tree s of m oderate height with stout spar , ,

i n gly bran ched trunks bearing long linear leaves much , ,

like those of the L epidodendrids ; but the scars on the

exterior are in parallel vertical lines as in Fig 2 8 1 and , .

.
,

Fig 30 8 page 3 0 0 The n ame is from the Latin s ig i llu m

.
, .
,

seal in allusion to the scars

, .

3 E q u i s e ta or Ho r s e ta i ls — The E quiseta of modern

.
, .

wet woods are slender holl ow j ointed rushes called some , , ,

times S couring R ushes They often have a circle of slender .

le a fli k e appendages at each j oint The Calamites or Tree .

R ushes w hich are referred to this group are peculiar to

, ,

the ancient world none having existed since the P aleozoic ,

.

They h ad j ointed stems like the E q u iseta and oth er w ise ,

resemble d them B u t they w ere often a score of feet or .

more in height and over 6 inches in diameter , Fig . .

3 1 1 page 30 0 represents a portion of one o f these plants

, ,
.
 D E V O N IA N ERA .

Ph an ero g ams O thers

of the land plants belong to the
.

lowest class of Flowering P lants or P hanerogams called ,

Gymnosperms ( see page

B oth of the principal orders of Gymnospe rms — the
Conifers and the C yca d s — seem to be represented in the
D evonian S ome of the P ale ozoic genera appear to be in
.

some respects inte rmediate between the two orders and ,

there 1 S some doubt to which they should be refe rred

.
.

i tntheGronnd The fossils are impressions of leaves and portions of the

t u n k or branches
g
.

AN IM AL S .

The early D evonian was the coral period of the ancient

o rld. I n no age before or since have coral reefs of
greater extent been formed .

The M olluscoid B rachiopods still predominated over

the M ollusks though Lamellibranchs and Gastropods were
,

more ab u ndant than in the Silurian A n e w type of Ceph .

alo o d s commenced in the L o w er D evonian H it h erto

p .
,

the partitions o r septa in the shells straight or coile d were , ,

he Slgll
T '
flat or simply concave ; but in the n e w genus G o n i a ti te s
if .

the margin of the septum is crumple d into one or more

'
deep fle x u r e s The name is from the Greek yw ma angle f

m
. .
,

g
Fi g 2 9 3 ( page 28 3) represents one of the species and
.
,

Fig 29 3 a sho w s some of the fle x u r e s along the margin of

.

the shell .

Trilobites continue d to be the dominant group of Crus

t ac e a n s though less abundant than in the Silurian
, The .

t of the order of D ecapo d s ( the order now r e p re

L obsters C rabs etc ) appeare d in the D evonian
, , .

The earliest species were Macrurans the highe r ,

of B rachyurans ( C rabs ) appearing much late r .

Arthropods were represented by I nsects and M y ri o

the wings of some species of Insects having been
e D evonian of New B runswick and two ,

pods having been described from the O ld

f S cotland
 HIS TO R IC A L G E O LO G Y .

The increase of Fishes in number of species and diversity

of types forms the most marked characteristic of the era .

The appearance of Amphibians is an important step of

progress .

l e n t at s
e r e — Figs 2 8 3 2 84 are two species of C y a
. .
, ,

t h o ph y llo i d corals from the C orniferous B oth are found .

at the Falls of the O hio where the latter species Cy a , ,

t h op hy llu m r ug o s u m forms very large masses , Fi g 28 5 . .

is a species of Fa vo s i te s from the same locality occurring

-

also in E urope Figs 2 8 6 2 8 7 are small corals probably

. .
, ,
-

belonging to the group of A lcy o n i ari an s .

Fi G s 288 —28 7
. .

A N THO Z O A N s : Fi g 283 , Z h ap re n ti s R a fi ne s q u ii ; 284 , 284 a , C a t o p h y h

m r os m; yllu ug u
285 , Fa v o s i t e s G o ld fu s s i ; 28 6, S y ri ng o p o ra M ac lu ri i ; 28 7 , R o m i ng e ri a c o rn ta A ll u .

u d
fro m t h e C o rn ife ro s p e ri o .

Mo ll u s co i d s Figs 28 8—2 90 are Brachiopods of the ‘

-
. .

Hamilton period .

Mo llu s k s Figs 29 1 29 2 are Hamilton Lamellibranchs

. .
, , .

Fig 29 3 is a Cephalopod a species of G o n i a ti te s from the

.
, ,

same formation Fig 2 9 3 a is a view of a part of the mar

. .

gin o f the shell showing the crumpled edges of the septa

,
.

Art h r o po d s — Fig 2 9 4 is one of the most common spe

. .

cies of Trilobites of the H amilton R emains of Insects .

have been found in beds supposed to be of the Hamilton

period at St J ohn N e w B runswick A wing
,
.
, .

gigantic species of M ay fly is represented in Fig -

.
 D E V O N IA N E RA .

The earliest Myriopods thus far discovere d are from the

O ld R e d Sandstone of S cotland .

FIG s
‘
. 28 8 —294 .

29 3 a

s : . y g u
Fi g 28 8 , A tr p a asp e r a ; 289 , S p i ri fer p e nna t u s ; 29 0 , Ch o n e te s se t i e r s .

IR R AN C Hs : Fi
g 29 1 G ramm y s i a bi s u lc ata ; 29 2 M i c r o d o n b e lli s tri at u s
. , , .

D : Fg . . RI I
i s 293 , 29 3 a , G o n i ati t e s V a n u x e m i — T L O B T E : Fig 29 4 ,
. Ph ac o p s

1t o n g upro .

of the D e vonian belong to

P la co d e r ms ; 3, C a n
 HIS TO R IC A L G E O LOG Y .

oi ds ; 4 , D ip no a n s . These groups have been defined on

pages 8 1 — 8 4 .

The S e la ch i a n s or Sharks belong for the most part to

, , , ,

the family of C e s t r ac i o n t s in which the mouth has a pave ,

ment of broad flat crowne d teeth for grinding as sho w n

,
-
,

in Figs 1 9 1 31 on pag e 8 2 There were species as

2 — .
, .

large as the largest o f m odern

FIG 295 . .

time Fig 2 9 6 represents a . .

fin spine of a shark two thirds ,

its actual size from the C or .

.

n if e r o u s beds of N e w York .

The P la co d e rms are an ex

t r e m e ly aberrant group known ,

exclusively as Sil u rian and D e

I C T w i g f Pl t p h m
N SE : n o ti q ua e e e ra a n a
v o n i an fossils Some of them .

are represented in Figs 29 7 30 0 Figs 2 9 7 — 2 9 9 are .

— . .

Fishes from the O ld R e d Sandstone of Great B ritain .

Fig 30 0 is a gigantic P lacoderm from O hio named by

.
,

FIG . 29 6 .

S E LA C H I AN : fin s p in e o f M ach aera can th u s s ul t u

ca s, xg .

N ewberry D i n i clztlty s ( Greek Bew o s terrible ixdi is fish ) ’

, , ,

which had a head four feet wide .

A s the P lacoderms are known only in fossil cond

their true nature is somewhat problematical .

them as Cep h a la sp i s and P te ri ch thy s ( Figs

, .

appear to have had no lower j aw ( at least none capable ,

of fossilization ) It is doubtful whether they were truly

.

Fishes O thers as Co c co s teu s and the giga n tic D in i cli

.
,

thy s ( Figs 29 9 . had well developed j aws and are

,
-
,

believe d by many paleontologists to have been an aberrant

group of D ipnoans .

O n e of the G a n o i d s is shown in Fig 30 1 The . .

 D E V O N IA N E RA .

U R hen
Mmon FIG S . 29 7- 3 0 0 .

.edb
Uh) nam l

.
fifl we

CODE R M S : Fig 29 7 , C e p
.
hl
a a s pi s L y e lli , x§; 29 7 a l f m ; 298
b, s c a e s o sa e h hy
P te ri c t s
x 3; 29 9 , C o cc o s te u d
s e cip ie n s , x 5; 300 ,
,

h hy H t i f
D i ni c t s er z er ,
,

r o nt vi ew o f
 HIS TO R IC AL G E OL O G Y .

are now represented by only a fe w species among which ,

is the Gar P ike of North Ame rican lakes and rivers .

The D ip n o a n s are in many respects similar to the

Ganoids but they S how a close relation to the A m
,

h i bi an s in the structure of the heart and of the skull

p .

They are at present even less numerous than the Ganoids .

O n e of the D evonian D ipnoans is represented in Fi g 30 2 . .

The figure shows the vertebrated ( heterocercal ) tail .

A vertebrate d tail ( heterocercal or diphy cercal )

FIG 8 01 8 02 S .
, .

G AN O ID : Fig 801 , Ho
. l p ty h i
o c u s, x 4; 30 1 a s
. ca e olf s am e — D. N O AN IP : Fig 3 0 2, D i p te r
. u s

l
m acr o le p i d o t u s , x i ; 30 2 a , s c a e o f sa m e .

generally characteristic of P ale ozoic Fishes whe ,

S elachia n s Ganoids or D ipnoans

, The ver
,
.

'

character of the tail has been retained by Selach

D ipnoans to the present time ; but most of the
afte r the P aleozoic have the tail hom ocercal .

An impression supposed to be the track of an A mp

was found in 1 8 9 6 in the U pper D evonian rocks of w
,

P ennsylvania This is the most ancient r e p r e s e n t a t i

.
 D E V ON IAN E RA .

A
GE NE R L OB S E RV TIONS A .

Geo graph y . the Silurian there had been a

— D uring ,

gradual gain of dry land extending the Arch aean con ,

t i n e n t southward ( page This gain continued

through the D evonian so that t h e formations of the next
,

era the Carboniferous extend only a short distance north

, ,

FIG 303 .

M a p o f p ar t o f N o r t h Am e ri c a a t th e co m m e nc e m e n t o f th e C ar b f
o ni e ro u s era .

the southern boundary of N e w York The seashore .

thus being set farther and farther southward with the

e ssive periods The Cincinnati Island became con
.

c d with the mainland becoming the extremity of a ,

n s u la ex t ending southeastward from northern Illi

ac quired m ore dis
 HIS TO R IC A L G E O LO G Y .

t i n c tly the character of a bay The Tennessee Island be .

came submerged The map Fig 3 0 3 illustrates the ge o

.
, .
,

graphical progress during the D e vonian .

The formations have their greatest thickness along the

Appalachian region in the D e vonian era as in the Silu
, ,

rian And both this fact and t h e succession of di ff eren t

.

kinds of strata lead to the general conclusions stated on

page 27 5 The D evonian age passed quietly for the
.

larger part of the North American continent without an y ,

tilting of the rocks yet not without wide though small , ,

changes of level varying t h e limits and depth of the

,

Interior sea such changes of level and of limits being

, p
rimitivelea:

indicated by the varying limits of the rocks all of which ,

are of marine origin This quiet was not interrupted .

between the D evonian and C arboniferous eras so far as ,

yet discovered except to the northeast in the region of

,

N ew B runswick Nova S cotia and northeastern Maine

, , .

There an upturning and flexing of the beds occurred and , ,

as a result some mountain making

,
-
.

In E urope also t h e D evonian and Carboniferous strata

, ,

are conformable with only S light local exceptions

, .

Li fe — The great features of the D evonia n age are

the occurrence of forests of A crogens and Gymnosperms ;
the increasing number of Insects and the first appearance
of Myriopods amo n g terrestrial Arthropods ; and the
,

great abundance and variety of Fishes and the first ap ,

r a n c e of Amphibians
p e a .

That A crogens should have appeared in the Silurian

and D evonian while no traces have been found of the
,

more lowly organized te rrestrial plants which according , ,

to the theory of evolution might have been expecte d to ,

precede the Acrogens will not appear strange when ,

remembered that the Acrogens are the lowest p

which contain wood in their tissues A Sea w eed in .
,

of the perishable nature of its tissues may readily be ,

served as a fossil since the station in ,

th e O pportunity for it to be b u ried

 D E V O N IAN E RA .

decompose But a woodless terrestrial plant can be pre

.

serve d as a fossil only by a very e x ceptional combination

of circumstances .

That G ymnosperms should have been the earliest of

"
8 .
3 8 inthe 8iln P hanerogams is of course precisely wha t would be e x
p e c t e
. d The step of progress from Acrogens to G y m n o

1. Ra madan sperms i s a short one .

The fact that Vertebrates should have commenced in

the Silurian and D evonian with some what highly organ
i z e d forms is a case somewhat analogous with that of the
,

Acrogens According to the theory of evolution the

.
,

primitive Vertebrates sho u ld have been creatures al lied to

the Le p t o c a r d i an s B u t Le pt o c ard i an s ( as represented by
.

A mp hi o x u s ) have nei t her bones teeth scales nor fin spines , , ,

nothing in fact capable under any ordinary conditions

, , , ,

of bei n g prese rve d in fossil condition The class of .

Marsipobranchs seems not m u ch better fitted for fossiliza

tion though the living members of the c lass do have little
,

teeth implanted in the mucous membrane of the mouth ,

which might be preserved in scattere d condition W he n .

a Vertebrate has acquired sufficient skeletal development

to have a good chance of preservation it is already a Fish , .

The Selachians though showing so m e noteworthy features

,

of high grade are the Fishes which m ost resemble the M ar

,

s i p o b r a n c h s and which would be expected to be the earliest

,

of true Fishes The T e le o s t s now the most abundant of

.
,

are wanting in P aleozoic and early Mesozoic time .

most spe cialized of Fishes it would n aturally be ,

d that they would be a late development .

i c Pr o du cts ; Mine ral Oi l and G a s The oil .

wells of E nniskillen C anada as already stated are in , , ,

“
the C orniferous ; but the oil horizon of P ennsylvania ”
,

the m ost important in North America belongs to the ,

Upper D evo n ian The oil region forms a belt about 4 0

.

miles wide extending across western P ennsylvania from

, ,

C ounty W est Virginia to Allegany C ounty

, , ,

This belt contains many productive areas and ,

 HIS T O R IC A L G E OL O G Y .

hundreds of oil wells In 1 8 9 1 the wells near Bradford in

.
,

M c Ke an C ounty yielded nearly 5 millions of barrels of

,

oil ; those of Allegheny C ounty in which P ittsburg is ,

situated yielded over 1 0 3} millions ; and all western P enn

,

sylvania n early 3 2 millions All the other oil regions of

.

the U nited States yiel d ed in 1 8 9 1 about 22 millions and ,

or i
Sc p p
o n
s. S i
ritll

of this 1 7 5} millions were from O hio A barrel holds .

4 2 gallons The rock to which the P ennsylvania wells

.

descend is usually a coarse and very porous sandstone ; B hile h e;

ut. w

the oil is in its pores It is supposed by m ost writers on

.

“
the subj e ct that the oil in the oil sands was deri ve d ”

from subjacent black or carbonaceous shales like the ,

Genesee or M arcellus by means of a gentle heating of

,

the rocks during a period of upturning and that it ,

became condensed in the pores or cavities of the rocks

above . Such shales like coal do not contain the oil at
, , ,

least not in large quantity ; but they contain h y dr o c a r

bon compounds which yield oil when heated B ut others .

“
have thought that the oil sands originally contained ”

the vegetable or animal debris from which the c ontained

oil was made by decomposition A third vie w is that t h e
.

oil has ascended into the porous sandstones by hydrostatic

pressure from u nderlying shales in which it was formed .

O n any view the oil is derived directly or indirectly

,

from the decomposition of orga n ic materials The gas .

comes from the same regions as the oil B ut it appears .

to be mostly obtained from anticlinal belts since it rises ,

above the heavier oil and wate r contained in the porous

strata t o the highest parts of those strata .

III . C AR BON I FE R OU S E R A .

GE NE R AL CH RA ACTE RIS TICS : S UBDIVIS ION S .

The Carboniferous era was remarkable in general for , ,

.1 A lo w elevation of large areas of the continents

above the sea level alternating with shallow s u bm e r
,

e n c e s of the same
g .
 C A R B O N IFE R O U S ERA .

2 E xtensive marshy or fresh water areas ove r large

.
,
-

portions of these low continents .

3 Luxuriant vegetation covering the land with f orests

.
.
,

and j ungle s .

4 A great increase in terrestrial animal life — Snails

'

.
,

S corpions Spiders C entipedes Insects over the land and

, , , , ,

Amphibians in the marshes I n the closing period of the .

era true R eptiles appeared

, .

l
Bu t while having these as its main characteristics it
, ,

was not an age of continuous verdure There was first a .

, ,

long period — the S u bca r bo nif e r o u s — i n which the land

was largely beneath the sea ; for limestone full of marine ,

fossils is the prevailing rock and there are but few and
, , ,

mostly thin coal beds intercalated among the sandstones

,

and shales This period was followed by the Ca r bo nif e r

.

o u s or t hat of the true C oal M easures

, Yet e ven in this .
,

middle period of the era there were alternations of s u b ,

merged with emerge d continents long times o f dry and ,

marshy lands luxuriantly overgrown with shrubbe ry and

forest trees intervening between other long times of great
,

continental seas The n there was a closing period — the

.

P er mi a n i n which the ocean prevailed again though

,
-
,

with narrower limits than in the S ubcarboniferous ; for

the rocks are mainly of m arine origin .

The Carboniferous era and pe riod were so named from

the fact that most of the great coal beds of the world
originated during their progress The term P e r mi a n was .

given to the rocks of the third period by M urchison D e ,

V erneuil and K eyserling from a region of P ermian rocks

, ,
fifl
o
n
in Russia the ancient country of P e rm i a a part of which
, ,

now constitutes the government of P erm .

A
DIS TRIBUTION OF C RBONIF E R OUS R OCK S .

The Carboniferous areas on the map of t h e United

( page 23 5 ) are the dark areas ; the he avily cross
the Subcarboniferous ; the pure black ,

and P ermian .
 HIS TO R IC A L G E O LO G Y .

The following are the positions of the several great coal

areas in North A m erica
1 Atlanti c Bo r de r R e g i o n — 1 The N o va S co ti a
. . .

New B ru n s wi ck area.

2 .The R h o de Is la n d area extending from Newport

,

Rhode Island northward into Massachusetts .

2 Appala ch i a n a n d Int eri o r R e g i o n

. 1. The gr e at
.

Ap p a la c h i a n a rea extending from the southern border of

,

Ne w York southwestward to Alabama covering t h e larger

,

part of P ennsylvania half of O hio part of Ke n tucky and

, ,
 C A R B ON IFE R O U S E RA .

Tennessee and a portion of Alabama T o the northeast

,
.

in P ennsylvania this coal field is much broken into

p a t ches as sho w n In the accompanying m ap of a part
,

of the state the black areas being those of the coal

,

district .

2 The M c li ig a n area covering the central part of the

'

.
,

state of Michigan .

3 The I llin o i s In di a n a area covering m uch of Illinois

.
-
, ,

and part of Indiana a n d Kentucky .

4 The Io wa Tex a s area covering part of Iowa Nebraska

.
-
, , ,

Misso u ri Kansas Arkansas and northern Texas

, , ,
.

3 Ar cti c R e g i o n
. O n M elville Island and other .
,

i slands between Grinnell L and and B anks L and m ostly ,

north of latit u de
B esides these there is a small barren C arb oniferous area
,

about W orcester M assachusetts and m uc h more extensive

, ,

barre n regions about the l p e s and summits of the R ocky

Mountains around the G reat S alt Lake in U tah and in
, ,

California — t h e workable coal beds of the R ocky M oun

tain region an d P acific slope bei n g C retaceous or Ter
t i a ry .

The areas of the C oal Measure s in N orth A merica have

been estimated as follows :
1 . N o va S c o t i a an d N e w Br u n s w i c k s q u ar e mi les .

2 . R h o d e Is la n d 500
3 . A p pala c h i a n
4 M i c h i ga n
.

5 Illi n o i s In d i an a
.
-

6 Io w a Te x a s
.
-

But of these the workable p orti o n probably does n ot

exceed square miles .

Carboniferous strata occur also in Great Britain and

’

various parts of E urope The beds in E ngland ( as shown .

i n map Fi g 30 5 ) are distributed over an area between

, .

S outh Wales on the west and the N e w c a s tle b a s i n on the

'

northeast coast The most important for coal are the

.

Sou t h Wales region the Lancashire district bordering on ,

 HIS T O R IC A L G E O LO G Y .

Manchester and L iverpool ; the Yorkshi re about Leed s ,

and S h e fli e ld ; and the N ewc astle In S outh Wales the .

thickness of the C oal Measures is 7 0 0 0 to feet with ,

more than 1 0 0 coal beds 7 0 of which are worked

, .

S cotland has some small areas between the Grampian

range on the north and the Lam m e r m u i r s on the south ;
and Ireland several coal regions of large extent
, .

The coal fields of the continent of E urope that are

most worke d are the B elgian bordering on and passing ,

into France Germany contains small c o al b e a r i n g areas

.
e

in Rhenish P russia Westphalia and Silesia R ussia in

‘

, , .

E urope affords very little coal although rocks of the ,

Carboniferous era cover large p ortions of the surface .

The area of the C oal Measures in Great B ritain and

Ireland is about square miles ; in Spain 4 00 0 ; in ,

France 2 0 0 0 ; Germany 1 8 0 0 Belgium 5 1 8

, , , .

C oal beds of C arbon iferous age occur also in China and

in Spitzbergen Valuable coal beds of P ermian age occur
.

in India ( in the L ower Gondwana series ) and in Australia .

Valuable coal beds are n o t fo u nd in any rocks older

than those of the C arboniferous era although black car ,

b o n a ce o u s shales are not uncommon even in the L ower

Silurian They occur however in various Mesozoic for
.
, ,

mations and also in the C enozoic but not on s o e x tensive

, ,

a scale as in the C arboniferous formations .

KINDS OF R OCK S .

1 . S ubcarbo n ife ro u s Peri o d

The Subcarboniferous .

strata in the Central Interior region are mainly limestone

and as the limestone abounds in many places in Crinoidal
,

remains the rock is often called the C rinoidal L imestone

,
.

In the Appalachian region in southwestern Virginia Ten , ,

n e s s e e and Alabama the rock is also in large part lime

, ,

stone and has great thickness ; but farther north in West

, ,

Virginia and P ennsylvania i t is mostly a san d stone or con

,

glomerate ( P ocono group ) overlain by shaly sandstones and

,

shales of reddish and other colors ( Mauch Chunk group )

 C A R B ON IF E R O U S E RA . 29 5

- whole having a maximum thickness o f 4 0 0 0 to

th e
5 0 00 feet In t h e A t lan ti c B order region in N ova S cotia
.
‘
, ,

t h e rocks ar e mostly reddish sandston e and s hale w ith

l .
m'r m ,

FIG . 30 5 .

ufl lhe son
ih;

“i fl ql thi t are
'

n
a

” a n m
i a tors

l gi l m p f E gl d d u th S tl d Th m l w h t
Geo o ca a o n an an so er n co an . e s a l i e a re a s are t h o se O f

ig u
ne o k Th
s ro c su mb d 1
. C mb i d S lu i
e a r eas n ; 2 D e re are a r a n an i r an ,
e vo ni a n ; 3, S u b
b i f u d M ill t G it ; 4 C l M u ; 5 P mi ; 6 T i
c ar o n e ro s an s o ne r , oa e as re s , er an ,
r a s s i c ; 7 , Li a s ;

8 O o l i t ; 9 W ld
, e ; 10 C t
, u ( x lu i f W ld ) 1 T ti y
ea en ,
r e ace o s e c s ve O ea en 1 , er ar . A i s Lo n o n d
B Li , p l ; 0 M
ve r oo h t D N w tl E G l g w
,
a nc e s er : . e ca s e : ,
as o
 HIS T O R IC A L G E OLO G Y .

so m e limestone — the estimated thickness 6 0 0 0 feet In “

CoalM
.

ean L
!
Michigan and O hio the Subcarboniferous rocks yield brines ,

which ar e used for the man u facture of Salt

'
.

The pre vailing rock in Great Britain and E urope is a

inthe C
onrai l
limestone called t h e M ountain Limestone In N orthum
, .

berland and S cotland the S u bcarbonifero u s consists chiefly

,

of sandstones and contains productive coal beds

, .
ev
p
r ili g
a n It i .

.2 Car bo nife ro u s Peri o d — The base of the series of

.

Carboniferous rocks is gener a lly formed by a hard gritty ,

sandstone or conglomerate called in E ngland the Millstone ,

Grit from its frequent use for millstones A S i milar rock .

in P ennsylvania is called the P ottsville C onglomerate In .

the center of the Anthracite region it attains a thickness

of 8 0 0 to 1 7 0 0 feet but thins out westward In parts of
, .

P ennsylvania the P ottsville C onglomerate contains beds

of coal In N ova Scotia the Millstone G rit is 5 0 0 0 to
.
,

6 0 0 0 feet thick
‘

This conglomerate is o verlain by the Coal Measure s

proper The rocks of the C oal M easures are sandstones
.
,

shales conglomerates and occasionally limesto nes ; and

, ,

they are so similar to the rocks of the D evonian and

Silurian ages that they cannot be distinguished except by
Monoli n
the fossils They occur in various alternations with an
.
,
g

occasional bed of coal between them The co al beds taken .

,

together generally make up not more than one fiftie t h of

,

the whole thickness ; that is there are i n general 5 0 feet ,

or more of barren rock to 1 foot of coal The m aximum .

thickness in P ennsylvania is nearly 3 0 0 0 feet ; in Nova

S cotia about 5 0 0 0 feet
, .

Although coal beds may occur in any part of the C oal

Measures they are often very unequally distributed through
,

the series In P ennsylvania three divisions of the series

.

are recognized : ( 1 ) the L ower P roduc

the Lower Barren M easures ( 3) the ,
'

Measures The second of these d ivis

.

thin and insignificant coal be d s T .

Measures overlying the ,

 C AR BO N IF E R O U S E RA:

m :
lfflt [ll
'
I
long to the P ermian In t h e coal field of S outh Wales .
,

the C oal Measures are similarly divide d into two parts

by a great thickness of barren san d stone .

The limestone strata are m ore numerous an d extensive

i n the Central I n terior region than in the Appalachian ;
W est of the states of M issouri and K ansas limestone is the ,

prevailing rock In K ansas and in We st Virginia the

.

rocks a fford brines .

Beds of argillaceous iron ore or clay ironstone are very

common in coal districts so that the same region a ffords ,

ore and the coal for smelting it S ome of the largest iron .

works in the world on bot h sides of the Atlantic occur , ,

FIG . 30 6 .

S e c ti o n o f a p o rt i o n o f th e C o a lM u eas re s a t th e J gg N
o i ns , o va S c o t i a, h a vi n g e r e c t S i lll l r .
l
an d l a so ro o ts i n th u dely n e rc a s .

in coal di s tricts The ore is usually S iderite or iron car

.
,

bonate ( more rarely limonite ) impure from mi x ture with , ,

some earth or clay .

The coal beds often rest on a bed of grayish or bluish

clay called the u n der c la y which is filled with the roots or
, ,

undergrou n d stems of plants When this underclay is .

absent the rock below is usually a sandstone or a shale

, .

coal bed the rock may be sandstone shale con , ,

or even limestone ; often t h e layer next above ,

if shaly is filled with fossil leaves and stems

, .

ks of old trees rise from the coal and

end up through overlying beds as sho w n in Fig 30 6 , .
,

D awson from the N ova S cotia C oal Measures

, O cca .
 HIS TOR ICAL G E O LO G Y .

s i o n ally , as in O hio and P ennsylvania logs 5 0 to 6 0 feet ,

long lie scattered through the sandstone beds looking as ,

if a forest had been swept o ff from the land into the sea .
v ma
o p
eryc ct in3 W

The coal beds vary in thickness f rom a fraction of an

inch to scores of f eet but seldom exceed 8 feet and are
, ,

generally much thinner E ight to 1 0 feet is the thick

.

ness of the principal bed at P ittsburg P ennsylvania ; 5 0 , di n

en gi
n i
i hi n :

feet or more the thickness ( in some places) of the Mam “

,

moth bed of the Anthracite region of P ennsylvania ; 3 8

feet that of one of the two great beds at P ictou in N ova
,

S cotia In these thick beds and often also in the thin

.
,

ones there are some intervening beds of shale or of very

, ,

impure coal so that only a part is fit for burning

, .

The coal varies In kind as explained on page 25 that ,

yielding only about 5 per cent of volatile hydrocarbons ,

and burning with little flame being called anthracite and ,

that yielding 20 to 5 0 per ce nt of volatile hydrocarbons ,

and burning with a bright yellow flame bituminous coal , .

Varieties intermediate between the typical anthracite and

bituminous coal are often calle d semi bituminous coal The -
.

coal of the P ottsville Lehigh and Wilkesbarre regions in

, ,

P ennsylvania is anthracite ; that of P ittsburg and the West ,

bituminous coal ; and that of part of the intermediate dis

t r i c t semi bituminous as designated on the map page 2 9 2
,
-
, , .

The coal also varies as to the impurities present All of .

it contains m ore or less of earthy material and this ,

s t i t u t e s the as h es and slag of a coal fire O rdinary .

anthracite contains 4 to 8 pounds of impurities

hundred pounds of coal and the best bituminous ,

1 to 6 . In some coal beds there is much

pyrite and the coal is then unfit for use
, .

that the sulphide is altogether absent ; it is the chief

of the sulphur gases that are perceived in the smoke
from a coal fire .

Mineral coal although it seldom breaks into plates

,

quite impure still consists of thin layers E ven the h

,
.

anthracite is delicately banded as seen o n a surface ,

 C A R B ON IF E R O U S E RA .

ture when it is held up to the light This structure is absent .

in the variety calle d cannel coal which is a bituminous c oal , ,

very compact in texture feeble in luster and smooth in , ,

fracture .

3 P m an P r o d
. er i e i — The upper part of the C arb o n i f e r
.

ous formation ( Upper B arren Measures ) of P ennsylva n ia

and Virginia has been shown by its fossil plants and that ,

of Illinois K ansas and Texas by its Reptiles and M ol

, , ,

I fP
czn
sylranii ; 38 l u sks to be P ermian The uppermost strata in the A ca
,
.

dian C oal area also are P ermian P ermian strata occ u r .

also in the R ocky M ountain region The rocks are m ostly .

reddish and gray sandstones and shales with som e impure ,

limestone The P ermian strata of Texas have been i n

.

cluded with the Triassic under t h e name R e d B e ds In

, .

1 mix
“

lrdr
ocr
aboni K ansas the rocks include a large amount of limestone .

Similar red and gray sandstones and shales occur in Great

'

r m:
E him m
d fllb‘h Britain in the vicinity of several of the C oal regions and
, ,

also in Germany and R ussia The P ermian rocks of .

Great B ritain were formerly include d with the Triassic

under the name N e w R e d S a n ds to n e .

In India and i n A ustralia the P ermian f ormation con ,

tains valuable beds of coal .

In E ngland India Australia S outh A frica and south

, , , ,

ern B razil the P ermian includes a conglomerate with

,

bowlders of great size some of w hich S how subangular

,

forms and smoothed and striated surfaces like those of ,

glaciate d bowlders ( page s 1 6 4 While some g e o lo ,

gists have not hesitate d to infer the existence of a glacial

climate in those regions others believe that a conclusion
,

so startling re q uires confirmation .

LIFE .

P L A N TS .

The plants of the forests j ungles an d floating islands , ,

the C arboniferous age th u s far made known number , ,

arly 20 0 0 species Among the fossils there are none

.
 HIS T O R IC AL G E O L OG Y .

that afi o r d satisfactory evidence of the presence of Angio

sperms There were no O aks nor M aples nor P alms in
.
, ,

the forests and the plai n s were without grass At the

, .

FIG 307—312 S . .

A CR OG E N s : dd d g ll ul
3 0 7 , L e p i o e n r o n ac u le at u i n ; 3 0 8 , S i i aria o c ata ; 30 9 , S ti m aria
Fi g . g
h l
fi co i d e s 3 1 0 , S p e n o p t e ri s G r av e n h o r s t i i 3 1 1 , C a ami t e s c a n n aefo rm i s
. G YM N O S P E Ri i :
Fi g 3 12, T ri g o n o carp u s
. .

present day Angiosperms along with C onifers m ake up

, , ,

the great bulk of our shrubs and trees ; P alms abound

in all tropical countries ; and grass covers all exposed
slopes where the climate i s not too arid .

t
 C A R B ON IF E R O U S E RA .

Cry p o g am
t s The C arboniferous speci es like their
"l'fln nor . ,

P predecessors i n the D evonian age belo n ged mostly to ,

t h e following groups :
1 Fer n s
.
— Ferns were very abundant a large part of
. ,

the fossils of a coal region being their delicate fronds or ,

leaves A portion of a fossil Fe rn is repre sented in Fig

.
.

31 0 .
Besides small species like the common kinds of the ,

present day there were ( as is n o w the case in the tropics )

,

Tree Ferns — species that had a trunk perhaps 20 or 30 ,

feet high which bore at top a radiating tuft of very large

,

fronds Tree Ferns however were not very common in

.
, ,

the Carboniferous forests The scars in fossil or rece n t

.

Tree Ferns are many times larger than those of Le p id o de n

d ri d s and the fossils may be thus distinguished
,
.

— The L e i d o d e n d r i d s appear to have been

2 Lc p
. o d s .
p
am ong the most abundant of C arboniferous forest trees ,

especially in the e arlier half of the era or to the middle ,

of the C oal Measures They probably covered both the

.

marshes and the drier plai ns and hills S ome of the old
.

logs now preserved in the strata are 5 0 to 6 0 feet in length ,

strikingly contrasting with the little Ground P ines of m od

e r ntimes ; and the pinelike leaves were occasionally a foot

Fi g : 30 7 S hows the surface markings of

species natural size ,
.

i lla r i te we re a very marke d feature of the great

d deep fore sts of the C oal period They grew .

sometimes of 30 to 6 0 feet ; but the trunks

branched and must have had a sti ff clum sy
, ,

ugh co vered above with long slender rush , ,

Fi g 30 8 represents a common species ex

.
,

n
g the us u al arrangement of the scars in v ertical
and also indicating by t h e di fference between the
,

of the right row and the others their differen ce of ,

on the outer surface o f th e tree and beneath the rind .

e fossil S tig ma ri oe are stout stemlike bodies gene ra lly ,

ick having over the surface distinct

,

r t i o n of
 HIS TO R ICA L G E OL O G Y .

the extremity of a stem showing the round ed depressions , ,

and also the appendages ( rootlets ) whose position w hen ,

they have decaye d or fallen off is marked by the scars , ,

and which are occasionally observe d in place The stems .

are a little irregular i n form and sparingly branched , .

They have been found spreading like roots from the base , ,

of the trunk of a S ig i lla r i a and sometimes also from that ,

of a L ep i do d e n dr o n ; and they are hence regarde d as the

roots or rootstocks of these trees They are an exceed .

i n g ly comm on fossil e specially in the underclays of the

,

C oal M easures ( page

3 E qu i s e ta — Fig 3 1 1 represents a portion of one of
. . .

the Tree R ushes or Ca la mi te s of the E q u i s e tu m or H orse

, , ,

tail group These plants were very abu n dant in the

.

great marshes through the whole of the era S ome of

, .

them were 20 fee t or m ore in height and 1 0 or 1 2 inches ,

in diamete r .

Besides these Acrogens a few remains o f Fungi have ,

been found but as yet no remains of M osses A M oss

, , , .
,

however could only be preserve d as a fossil under very

,

exceptional conditions ; and in such a case the n e g at i y e

evidence is of little value .

P h aner o g a ms A s in the D evonian era both Conifers

.
-
,

and Cycads were probably present S ome of the genera .

seem to S how characters intermediate between these t w o

types .

Trunks of trees C oniferous in character are not u n c o m

, ,

m on .

There are also various nutlike fruits found in the Car

b o n i f e r o u s strata O n e is represented in Fig 3 1 2 ( page
. .

the figure to the left being that of the shell and the ,

other that of the nut which it contained S ome of them .

are two inches in length T h e m o s t of them were probably.

y

the fruit of C onifers but possibly of Cycads ,

.

It is seen from the ab ove that

1
. The vegetation of the C arboniferous era consisted
very largely of Cryptogams or flo w e rle s s plants , .
 C A R B O N IFE R OU S E RA .

2 . The flowering plants or P hanerogams associated , ,

with the flo w e rle s s vegeta t ion were of the class of Gym ,

n o sp e rm s whose flowers are simple and inconspicuous

, .

3 While therefore there was abundant and beautiful

.
, ,

foliage ( for no foliage exceeds in beauty that of Ferns ) ,

the vegetation was nearly flo w e rle s s .

4 The characteristic C ryptogams were not only of the

.

highest group of that division of plants but many of them ,

exceede d in size and in complexity of organization the

: mnimhrs of lhe species o f the present day .

AN IM AL S .

l e nt erat e s Fig 31 3 presents a view of the u pper

.
-
.

surface of a very common C oral of the Subcarboniferous

period : it has a columnar appearance in a side V iew .

E ch in o der ms — Crinoids were especially n u merous in

.

the Subcarboniferous period Figs 31 4— 31 6 represent . .

som e of the species Figs 3 1 4 31 5 are B rachiate

. .
, ,

Crinoids . In the former the arms are perfe ct ; in the ,

latte r they have been broken off Fig 31 6 is a r e p r e

, . .

s e n t a t i v e of the Blas t oids a group which commence d in ,

the Upper Silurian attained its maximum development ,

in the Subcarboniferous and became extinct at the close ,

of the C arboniferous period

W
.

T
R W Mo llu s co i d s — The class of Bryoz oans included the
.

singular screw s h aped ( or auge r shaped ) C oral shown in

- -

Fig 31 7 and named A r c h i me d e s ( referring to Archimedes

.
,
’

screw ) . The upper or inner surface of the spiral lamina

, ,

shows the orifices of t h e cells each of which when alive , , ,

contained a minute individual of the colony ( page

These fossils are common in some of the S ubcarboniferous
limestone Strata .

B rachiopods were very abundant through the C arbon

ife ro u s age and especially species of the gen era S p i r if e r
,

an d P r o d u c t u s Figs 3 1 8— 321 are of species from the

. .

A merican Coal Measures .

 HIS T O R IC A L G EO L O G Y .

Mo llu s k s Fi g 322 represents one of the marine Gas

. .

tr o p o d s of the C oal Measures Fi g 323 is a P up a , the carli . .

FIG S . 8 13-323 .

AN THOZ OA N Fig 3 13 Li th o s t r o ti o n C an a
.
,
d en se .
~
C RIN O i D s z Fi g 3 14 , lg ;
W o o d o cri n u s e e an s

3 15 , A c t i no c ri n u s p ro bo s c rd i ali s ; 3 16 , P e n t rem i t e s p y ri fo rrm s — .

~
BR Y F g 3 17
OZ O AN 2 i .
,

h
A rc i m e d es W o r t h e ni .
— B R A C HIO P O DS Z 3 1 8 , C h o n e t e s m e s o lo b u s ; 3 1 9 P du t u N
,
ro c s e

b ra s c e n s i s ; 320 , A t h vri s ; 32 1 , S p i ri fe r
s u b t i li ta c a rn e ra t u s .
— G AS T R OP D 322 Pl u
O S : ,
e

r o t o m ari a t a bul
a ta ; 3 23 , Pu p a ve t s tau .

est yet found of Land Snails it is from the C oal Measures

of N ova S cotia ; o thers have been found in Illi n ois T h e .

class of Cephalopods was represented by few and small

 C A R B ON IF E R O U S E RA .

sp ecies o f the O ld group of O rth o c e rat a but by m any of ,

the Ammonite like Goniatites

-
_

FIG 324 .

. .

Arth r o po d s
. Trilobites which ,

had bee n in earlie r times the domi

nant group of C rustaceans were ,

rare in the Carboniferous e ra and ,

entirely disappeared at its close .

The M acruran D ecapods which ,

had commenced in the D evonian ,

became more abundant O n e of .

them is represented in Fig 3 24 . .

A rachnoids we re represented
by S corpions ( Fi g 3 25 ) and Spi
.

ders ( Fi g . the latter group

making their first appearance in
this era Insects were represented
.
D A th p l m E OA P O D : n rac o a ae on

g n rac i s.
by Myriopods ( Fi g 3 2 7 ) and
.

H exapods . Among the Hexapods the O rthopters were ,

represented by C oc kroaches ( Fig 32 8) and .

FIG . 325 .

ARAC H N O ID : E o sc o rpi u s c arb o nari u s .

nsts and the P s e u d o n e u r O p t e r s by May fli e s

, Fig -
. .

rep resents an I n sect which i s either a P seudoneuropter

 HIS T O R IC A L G E OL O G Y .

or a Neuropter those two orders being often undistinguish

,

able in fossil condition The earliest remains O f H emipters

.

occur in the P ermian R emains of Beetles ( Coleopters )

.

have been doubtfully reported from the Subcarb oniferous

of Silesia Wit h doubtful exceptions the higher orders
.
,

of Inse cts character iz ed by passing through an inactive

,

pupa stage ( complete metamorphosis ) are wanting in the ,

P aleozoic .

Ve rte br ates — Fishes were numerous including S elach

.
,

ians Ganoids and D ipnoans

, Many of the Selachian s
, .

FIG S . 8 26—3 29 .

AR A C R N O ID :Fig 326 Artli ro ly c o sa

,
an t i q ua .
— M YRI O P O D : FIG 327 , X y lo b i u s s i gi llariaa
. .

g u
.

9 M i a mi a B ro n s o ni
HE X A P O Ds : Fi g 328, w i n . o f E t o blatti na ve n s ta ; 32 ,
.

were of great size as shown by the fin spines Fig 331

,
. .

represents a small portion of one of these S pines natural ,

size from the Subcarboniferous beds of E urope O n e of

,
.

the largest S pecimens of a spine of the same species w hen ,

e ntire must have been 1 8 inches long N early all the

,
.

Ganoids had vertebrated tails as sh own in Fig 3 30 ,

.
,

which represents a common P ermian species .

Amphibians occur throughout the era They all belong .

to an order which became extinct at the close of the

Tr i assic or during the J urassic Unlike the Frogs .
 C A R B ON IFE R O U S E RA .

Salamanders their skulls had a complete bony roof ( Fig

, .

38 4 page
,
which has suggeste d the name S teg o
x ec a k fi head
’
ce h a la
p from o r e yco
,
to cover and fi r
, M any , , .

of the species S how a complicated structure of the teeth ,

the cementum forming a series of folds which penetrate

to a greater or less depth into the dentine These laby .

r i n t h i n e teeth have suggested the name L a by r i n t h o do n ts .

This pe culiarity they share with many Ganoid Fishes It .

FIG S .

Frs n E s : Fig 33 0 , . Pl
a aeo ni s c u s Fr e i e s leb e ni , x 331 , p art o f a s pi n e o f C te n acan t hu s j
ma or .

is shown i n a comparatively S i mple form in the recent

L ep i d o s te u s ( Fig 1 4 0 page I t beco m es much more
.
,

comple x in some of the T riassic Labyrinthodonts The .

earliest trace s of Amphibians known ( until the recent

discovery of D evonian tracks mentioned on page 28 6) ,

are tracks found in the Subcarb oniferou s beds at P otts

ville P ennsylvania ( Fi g 3 32) they are about four inches
, .

broad those of the fore feet as described by Dr L e a

, ,
.
,

5 toed and those of t h e hind feet 4 toed

-
, Fig 33 3 r e p r e -
. .

'

sents a skeleton of another species from the O hio C oal

Measures S ome of the related Amphibians from O hio
.

are long and destitute of limbs like S nakes , .

 HIS T O R IC A L G E OL O G Y .

R eptiles made their first appearance in the P ermian .

Two orders of R eptiles were represented : ( 1 ) the R ay n

ch o ce h a la a group represented by numerous P ermian
p ,

F I 332 833 GS .
, .

AMP E IB IAN 5 : Fig 332, trac

. k s o f S auro pu s p ri meevus , x 3; l
883 , P e i o n Ly elli i .

Mesozo i c S pecies but now nearly extinct a single genus

, ,

surviving in N ew Z eal and ; ( 2) the Th e r o mo rp h s a group ,

confine d to the P ermi an and Triassic remarkable for ,

certain striking resemblances to Mammals particularly in ,

the S kull Fig 3 34 shows the skull of one of the Rhyn

. .

ch o c eph ala from the P ermi an of Sa x on

, y .
 C AR B ON IFE R0 US E RA .

G E NE R AL A
OB S E R V TIONS .

Mo de o f Fo rmat i o n o f t h e Co al Me a s ures f . Orig i n o th e

Co a l . The vegetable origin of coal is prove d by the
-

following facts
1 Trunks
. of
trees still retain
,

ing the original

form and part of
the structure of the
wood have been
,

found changed to
mineral coal both ,

in the C a rb o n i fe r
ous strata and in
more modern for
mations showing ,

that the change

may and does t ake
place .

R PT IL P l h tt i l gi ud tE E : a seo a er a on ca a e .

2 B eds of peat
.
,

a result of vegetable growth a n d accumulation exist in ,

modern marshes ; and in some cases they are altere d be

low to an imperfect coal ( See page 1 0 7 on the
. formation ,

of peat ) .

3 R emains of plants — leave s branches and stem s or

.
, ,

trunks — abound in the C oal M easures trunks sometimes

extend upward from a coal bed into and through some of
the overlying beds of rock ; roots or stems abound in the
mm
- " l ‘ u nderclays .

4 The hardest anthracite contains throughout its mass

.

vegetable tissues P rofessor Bailey examined with a high

.

i fy i n g power several pieces of anthracite burnt at

n d like Fig, 3 35 taki n g fragments from the j unc
.
,

o f the white and the black portion and readily de ,

d the tissues Fig 336 represents the ducts as they

. .
,
 HIS TO R IC A L G E OL O G Y .

appeared in one case under his microscope ; and Fig 337 .

,

part of the same more magnified Fi g ? 338 shows the

, .

appearance of the spores of Lycopods ( Lepidodendrids )

much magnified they are common in coal .

F IG S . 8 35—337 .

V e g e t abl e t i s s u e s i n anth raci te .

D e co mp o s i ti o n
f o Veg e ta ble M a te r i a l
The mineral coal .

of the C oal Measures consists ( impurities excluded ) of

6 5 to 9 3 per cent of carbon along with 2 to 9 of hydro , _

gen and 2 to 1 7 of oxygen ; ,

FIG 338
and woody material whethe r
. .

of C onife rs Ferns Lycopods , , ,

or E quiseta consists of about ,

4 5 per cent of carbon 6 of ,

hydrogen an d 4 9 of oxygen ; ,

To change the vegetable ma

t e ri al to coal it is necessary ,

to get rid of part of the oxy

gen and hydrogen Vegetable .

matter decomposi n g in the

open air — like wood burnt
Sp d p t f
o re s a n
r
a po g i u m f L pi d
a s
i
o ra n
n an open fi r e — is complete
o e o

d d
en b t u m u l f Oh x 70
ro n i n i
'

i no s co a o io , .

ly ox i d i zed and passes o ff as ,

water vapor and carbon dioxide B oth the oxygen of the .

air and that of the wood take part in the combustion or

decomposition B ut if the former is more or less exclu d e d
.
,

by a covering of earth or of water ( as in a swamp ) the ,

 C A R B ON IFE R OU S E RA .

c ombustion is incomplete and c o al may result consisting , ,

of the uncons u me d carbon combined with some hydrogen

and oxygen .

The actual loss by weight in conversion into bitumi

, ,

nous coal is at least three fifths of the wood and in con

, , ,

version into anthracite three fourths Adding to this loss

,
.

that from compression by which the material is brought ,

to the densi t y of mine ral coal the whole reduction in bulk ,

is not less than four fif ths for the forme r and seven eighths ,

for the latter I n other words it would take 5 cubic feet

.
,

of vegetable m atter to make 1 of bituminous coal and 8 ,

feet to m ake 1 of anthracite .

Imp u r i ti e s i n Co a l The coal thus formed derived some

.

S ilica and other earthy ingredients from the wood itself ,

including probably in the case of the Lepidodendrids

, ,

some alumina since this earth exists in the ash of mode rn

,

Lc p o d s . From this source the best coal received some

earthy impurities while the poorer coals contain in addi
, ,

tion clay or earthy material carried over the marshes by

,

the waters or winds S ulphur is a comm on impurity ; it

.

usually occurs combined with iron forming pyrite or sul , ,

Dh id e of iron .

A cu mu la i o n a n d F r ma ti n f C a l
c t o o o o B e d s — The ori
gin o f coal beds was then as follows : The plants of the
, ,

great marshes and shallo w lakes of the Carboniferous

period the latter w ith their floating islands of vegetation
, ,

continued growing for a long period dropping annually ,

their leaves and from time to time decaying stem s or

,

branches until a thick accumulation of vegetable remains

,

was formed — probably 5 feet in thickness for a one foot -

be d of bitumino u s coal The bed of material thus pre.

pared over the vast wet areas of the continent early com
m e n c e d to undergo at bottom that sl ow de composition the
final result of which is mineral c o al B ut the alternation .

of the coal beds with sandstones shales conglomerates , , ,

a n d l i m e s t o n e s shows that the long period of verdure w as

,

followed by a period of overflowing waters which dis ,

 HIS T O R IC A L G E OLO G Y .

tributed sands pebbles earth or the rema i ns of the sk ele

, , ,

tons o f aquatic organisms over the old marsh till scores , ,

or hundreds of feet in depth of such deposits had been

made In the Central Interior region of N orth America
.
,

the overflowing wa t ers were generally marine as is proved ,

by marine fossils in the strata Thus the bed of vegetable .

material was buried ; and under t his condi t ion the process
of decomposition and change to mineral coal went forward
to its completion ; it had the smothering influence of the
burial as well as the presence of water to favor the process
, , .

C li m a te of t h e Ag e — The wide distribution of the

coal regions over the globe from the tropics to remo t e ,

Arctic lands and the general similarity of the vegetable

,

remains in the coal beds of these distant z ones prove that ,

there was a general uniformity of climate over the globe

in the Carboniferous period or at least that the climate ,

was nowhere colder than warm temperate B esides corals -

.
,

and shells exis t ed during the S ubcarboniferous period

in E urope the United States and the Arctic regions
, ,

within 2 0 of the N orth P ole and so profusely as to form

0
,

thick limestones out of their accumulations ; and some

Arctic spec i es are identical with those of E urope and
America The ocean s waters even in the far north
.
’
, ,

were therefore warm compared with those of the modern

, ,
.

temperate z one and probably quite as warm as the coral

,

reef seas of the present age which lie mostly between t h e ,

parallels of 2 8 either side of the equator This u niform

°
.

warm climate appears to have characterized the whole

of the P aleozoic no clearly defined climat i c zones being
,

indicated until a later period Whether the bowlder .

beds of the P ermian ( page 29 9 ) will require modification

of current opinions regarding P aleozoic climate is at ,

present matter of doubt .

A tmo sp h er e — The atmosphere contained a larger amount

than now of carbon dioxide — the gas from which plants
derive their carbon The mineral coal of the world
.

is approximately a measure of the amount of carbon

 C A R B ON IF E R O U S E RA .

dioxide permanently withdrawn from the atmosphere by

the coal plants The growth of the flora of that age
.

was a means of purifying the atmosphere so as to fit ,

it for the higher terrestrial life that was afterward to

possess the w orld The am ount of carbon dioxide lost
.

by the atm osphere in the formation of carbonate of lim e

and other carbonates in the course of geological time
, ,

is even greater than the loss by means of vegetation .

( See page
Again the atmosphere was more moist than now This
, .

follows from the greater warmth of the climate and the ,

greater extent and higher temperature of the oceans .

The land areas altho ugh large during the times of ver
, ,

dure compared with the land areas of the D evonian

,

or Silurian were still small and the land low It must

, , .
,

therefore have been an era of prevailing clouds and mists

,

and abundant rains But then as now there must have

.
, ,

been inequalities in the distribution of rain America .

is now the moist forest continent of the globe ; and the

great extent of the coal fields of its northern half suggests
that it may have borne the same character in the C arbo
n i fe r o u s age .

e
G g p y
o r a h — App a la c h i a n a n d R o cky M o u n ta i n s n o t ge t
.

ma d e — O n page 2 9 0 it is stated that the continents

in this age were low with f e w mountains The non , .

existence o f the Appalachians of P ennsylvania and Vir

ginia is proved by the fact that Carboniferous rocks
make up a part of the mass of the s e mountains — partly
marine rocks indicating that the sea then spread over
,

the region ; partly coal beds each bed evidence that a ,

great fresh wate r marsh flat as all marshes are for a

-
, ,

long while occupied the region of the present m ountains .

There is the same e vidence that the mass of the R ocky

M ountains had not bee n lifted for marine Carboniferous
rocks constitute a large part of these mountains many ,

beds contain i ng remains of the life of the C arboniferous

seas t hat covered that part of N orth America O nly .
 HIS TOR IC AL G E OL O G Y .

islands or archipelagoes made by Arch aea n and perhaps

, , ,

also P aleoz oic ridges e x isted in the m i dst of the wide

, ,

spread western waters .

Co n di ti o n i n t h e S u bc a r bo n i
f er o u s P e r i o d — Through
the first period of this e ra — the Subcarboniferous — the
, ,

continent was almost as extensively beneath the sea as in

the D evonian This is shown by the nature and extent
.

of the Subcarboniferous rocks the great Crinoidal Lime

stones .

Tra n s i ti o n to th e Ca r bo n if e ro u s P e r i o d — Finally the .

,

Subcarboniferous period closed and the C arboniferous ,

O pened . B ut in the tra n sition from the period of sub

,

merge nce to that of emergence required to bring into ,

existence the great marshes a widespread bed of pebbles , ,

gravel and sand was accumulated by the waves dashing

,

rudely over the surface of the rising continent ; and these

pebble beds make the P ottsville C onglomerate or Millstone ,

Grit t hat marks the commencem e nt of the Carboniferous

,

period in a large p art of eastern North America especially ,

alo n g the Appalachian region and also in E urope , .

Co a l p l
-
a n t A r e a s i n t h e C a r bo n i
f er o u s P e r i o d — The
p ositions of the great Coal areas of N orth America ( see
map page 235 ) are the positions beyond question of
, , ,

the great marshes and shallo w fresh water lakes of the -

period . B ut it is probable that the number of these

marshes was less than that of the coal areas The Appa .

la o bian Illinois I ndiana and Iowa Texas fields may have

,
-
,
-

made one vast Interior Continental marsh region and those ,

of Rhode Island N ova Scotia and New B ru n swick an

, ,

Atlantic B order marsh region connected over Mas s ach u ,

setts B ay and the Bay of Fundy It may be however .

, ,

that a low area of dry land extending from the region of

Cincinnati southward across Kentu cky nearly or quite sepa
rated the E astern Interior from the C entral Interior marsh
, ,
.

The Michigan marsh region appears also to have h a d its

dry margins instead of coal escing with the Illinois Indiana
,
-

or th e Appalachian area .
 C A R B O N IF E R O U S E RA .

It is not to be inferred that the marshes alone were co v

ered with verdure The vegetation probably spread over
.

all the dry land though m aking thick deposits of v e g e

,

table remains only where the re were marshes under dense

j ungles and shallow lakes with their floating islands .

A lte r n a t i o n s of Co n di ti o n ; Ch a ng e s of L e ve l It has .
-

been rema rked that the many alternations of th e coal beds

with sandstones shales conglomerates and limestones
, , ,

( page are evidence of as many alte rnatio n s of level ,

or at least alternations of condition during the era A fter , .

the great marshes of t h e C ontinental I nterior had been

long u nder v é rd u re the salt waters began again to e n
,

c r o ac h upon them in consequence of a sinki n g of the land ,

and finally swept over the whole surface destroying the ,

terrestrial and fresh water life of the area but d i s t rib

-
,

u t in
g at the same time the new life of the salt waters .

Then after another long period one perhaps of many

, ,

oscillations in the water level in which sedimentary beds

,

in many alternations were formed the continent again rose ,

to a é ri al life and the marshes and shallow lakes were lu x

,

u r i a n t anew with the Carboniferous vegetation Thus the .

sea prevailed at intervals — inte rvals of long duration

through the era even of the C oal Measures for the asso
c i at e d sedimentary beds as has been stated are in most
, ,

localities at least fifty times as thick as the coal beds In .

the N ova S cotia C oal area the waters which came in over
,

the coal beds were the brackish or fresh waters of a great

estuary — that at the m outh of the St Lawrence R iver of .

the Carboniferous period .

These oscillations continued u n til n early 30 0 0 feet of

strata were formed i n some parts of P ennsylvania and ,

about 5 0 0 0 in Nova S cotia .

The Carboniferous period was therefore ever varying , ,

in its geography A map of its condition when the great

.

coal beds were accumulating would have its eastern coast

line from t h e Carolinas northward even outside of the
‘

, ,

present . The southern coast line would p ass throu gh

 HIS TO R IC A L G E OL O G Y .

S outh Carolina Ge orgia Alabama and northern Missis

, , ,

sippi then turn northward around the b ay which occupied

,

the lower Mississippi Valley then southward around the ,

southern end of the Carboniferous area in Texas ; thence

the coast line would stretch n orthward bounding a sea ,

covering a large part of the R ocky M ountain region for

s
,

the C oal period was in that part of the continent mainly , ,

a time of limestone making O n the contrary in a map -

.
,

representing the continent during the suc ceeding times of

submergence the coast line would be nearly as laid down
,

in the map Fig 30 3 page 2 8 7 Through these condi

, .
, .

tions as the extremes the continent may have passed

, ,

several times in the course of the Carboniferous period .

Many of the oscillations however may have a ff ected only , ,

parts of the con t inent some parts of the Carboniferous ,

area being submerge d W hile other parts were clothed with

vegetation .

Co n d i ti o n i n t h e P e rmi a n P e r i o d — Finally in the .

,

P ermian period the contine n t seems in some degree to

,

have reverte d to a condition of submergence like that

of the S u bcarboniferous the coal beds being insignificant , .

G E N E R AL OB S E R VATI ON S ON THE PALE OZ OI C .

R o ck s . M a x i mu m Th i ckne ss
— 1 . The ma x imum —

thick ness of the rocks of the various P aleozoic e ras in

North America is approximately estimated as follows
C ambrian , feet ; L owe r Silurian Upper ,

Silurian 7 0 0 0 ; D evonian
, Carboniferous , ,

2 D i ve rs i ti e s of t h e D ifi e r e n t Co n ti n e n ta l R egi o n s a s to
.

[fi n d s of R o ck s — The P ale ozoic rocks of the Appalachian

.

region are m ainly sandstones shales and conglom erates ; , ,

only about one four t h of the whole thickness consists of

limestone The rocks of the C entral Interior are mostly
.

limestone f u lly two thi rd s being of this nature

, .

In the Central Interior the Cambrian rocks are largely ,

limestones those of the Lo w er Silurian even those of ,

 P AL E O Z O IC TIME .

the H udson epoch are m ostly li mestone s ; the Upper

,

Silurian and D evonian are rep resented by an almost con

t i n u o u s series of limestones excepting the U pper D evo ,

nian whic h is represente d by the Black Shale

,
the
S u bcarboniferous consists mos tly of limestone ; and the
Coal Measures include a m uch large r proportion of lime
sto ne t han i n the Appalachian region .

3 .D i ve r s i ti e s of t h e Ap p a la ch i a n a n d Ce n t r a l In te ri o r
R eg i o n s a s to t h e T h i ck n e s s of th e R o ck s I n the A pp ala .

chian region the maximum thickness of the P aleozoic rocks

is more than feet B ut this thickness is not observed
.

at any one locality being obtained by adding together the

,

greate st thicknesses of the several formations where ver

observed The greatest actual thickness in P ennsylvania
.

is about feet or nearly six miles , .

I n the central portions of the Interior region the thick

ness varies fro m 30 0 0 to 6 0 0 0 feet ; and it is therefore , ,

fro m one sixth to one tenth that in the Appalachian region .

Ti me R ati o s — J udging from the maximum thick

.

ness of the rocks of the several P aleozoic ages in N orth

America and assu ming that fi ve feet of fragmental rocks
,

may accumulate in the time require d for one foot of lime

stone the relative lengths o f the E opale ozoic Upper
, ,

S ilurian D evonian and Carboniferous ages were not far

, ,

from 6 : 2 .

The meth od of computation is howeve r essentially , ,

uncertain since thickness of sediment must depend on

,

amount of subsidence I n a locality which was not sub .

siding thick sediments could not accumulate even in

, ,

infinite time Bu t the estimates are so far reliable as

.

to show clearly that time moved on slowly in the earth s ’

first beginnings .

G e o gr aph y C lo s e of A r c h ce an Time
. The map on page .
-

2 3 7 shows approximately the outline of the dry land of

N orth America at t h e close of the Arch aean i
The only .

mo u ntains were Arch aean mountains am ong the chief of ,

which were the Laurentian M o u ntains of Canada the Adi ,

 HIS TO R IC A L G E O L OG Y .

ro n dack s of northern N e w York the Highlands of south ,

eastern N e w York and New J ersey t h e long Arch aean ,

ra n ge whose degrade d remnant is seen in the P ied “

”
mont belt of the S outh Atlantic states and the still ,

“
longer range which forms the backbone of the R ocky ”

Mountains We cannot j udge of the height of these moun

.

tains then from what we n o w see after all the ages of ,

Geology have passed over them for the atmosphere and ,

water have never cease d action since the time of their

uplif t and the amount of loss by degradation must have
,

been very great ; while on the other hand the altitude of

, ,

Arch aean ranges in the Appalachian and R ocky M ountain

regions may have bee n increased by orogenic movements
of those regio n s in late r time .

G en e r a l P r o g r e s s th r o ug h P a le o z o i c Ti me — The i n .

crease o i dry land during the P aleozoic has been shown

( pages 2 7 2 2 87, ) to have taken place mainly along the
borders of the Arch aean so that the origi n a l area was thus
,

gradually extending This increase is well marke d from

.

north to south across New York At the close Of the Lower .

Silurian the shore line was not far from the present position
of the Mohawk indicating but a slight e x tension of the dry
,

land i n the course of this very long e ra ; when the Upper

Silurian ended the shore line was probably about a score
,

of miles south of the M ohawk When the D evonian .

ended and the Carboniferous age was about opening ,

the coast line was j ust north of the P ennsy lvania boun
dary The progress southward went on in like manner
.

in Wisconsin where there is an isolated Arch aean region

,

like that of northern New York By the close of the .

Lower S ilurian the great Cincinnati island had emerged ;

,

and by the close of the D evonian that island had become

, ,

a peninsula connecting with the mainland in the region

of northern Illinois ( See m
. ap Fig 3 0
,
3 page .
,

The region of the southern peninsula of Michigan c o n

t i n u e d through the Subcarboniferous and the times of
submergence in the Carboniferous to be the head of the
 P A LE OZ OIC TIM E .

g reat E aster n Interior bay of the C ontinental sea In .

the times of emergence the M ichigan bay became a marsh ,

or fresh water lake filled with C oal measure vegetation

-
,
-

and at the same times as explained on page 31 5 the

, , ,

continent east of the western meridian of M issouri had

nearly its present extent though not its mountains nor i t s ,
\

rivers .

R eg i o n s of R o ck ma ki ng a n d t h e i r D if e r e n ces
-
D uring .

most of P aleozoic time the greater part of the conti ,

nent was submerged beneath marine waters and that part ,

was the scen e of nearly all the rock making Areas of -

.

fresh wate r however existed at times espe cially in the

, , ,

D evonian and Carboniferous as is prove d by the coal ,

beds and by occas i onal fresh water shells in sh ales and

,
-

sandstones .

After the emergence of the Cincinnati and Te nnessee

islands at the close of the L ower Silurian the Interior
, ,

C ontinental sea ( as explained on page 26 3) was divided

into a Central I nterior sea and an E astern Interior sea or
bay The eastern part of the latter occupie d the region
.

of the Appalachian geosyncline .

T he Central Interior region afforded the conditions fitted

for the growth of C orals and C rinoids and other clear
water species and hence for the making of lim estones out
,

of their remains ; for limestones are the principal rocks of

the interior Yet there were oscillations in the level ; for
.

there are abrupt transitions in the limestones and some ,

sandstones and shales alternate with the m B ut these .

oscillations were not great the wh ole thickne ss of the ,

rocks as stated on page 31 7 being small

, , .

The Appalachian region on the contrary presente d the , ,

conditions re quired for fragmental deposits It was a p .

ar e n tl a region of immense sand reefs and mu d flats

p y ,

with bays estuaries and extensive submerged o ff shore

, ,

plateaus Here the change of level was very great ; for

.

within this region occur nearly six miles of P ale ozoic

formations ( page This vast thickness indicates that ,
 HIS TO R IC AL G E O LOG Y .

while there were various upward and d o wnward m ove

ments over this Appalachian region through P aleozoic
time the downward movements exceeded the upward even
,

by the amo u nt j ust stated .

M o un ta in s of P a le o z o i c Or ig i n — The formation of the

Taconic system of mountains ( page a n d the emer

gence of the Atlantic Border regio n from southern N e w

E ngland to Georgia ( page are the most marked
geographical changes which occurred during P aleozoic
time Th e Taconic range itself extends along the north
.

western and western boundary of New E ngland from ,

Canada to northwestern C onnecticut B ut it was ap .

ar e n tly only one of a system of approximately parallel

p
contemporaneous ranges extending southwestward to Vir
ginia and perhaps still farther As in the case of the .

still earlier A rch aean ranges the original altitude of these

,

ranges of the Taconic system is matter for mere conj ee

ture They have su ffered ages of erosion but they may
.
,

have been r e elevated in late r orogenic m ove ments The

-
.

region of western New E ngland and eastern New York

was not so much elevated at the time of t h e Taconic
movements as to pr event the deposit of marine strata in
,

part of the Hudson Valley in the Upper Silurian and in ,

the C onnecticut Valley even in the D evonian .

Near Gasp e in eastern Canada and in M aine New , ,

B runswick and Nova S cotia the u n e o n f o rm a bili ty b e

, ,

tween the D evonian and the Carbonifero u s indicates some

mountain making movements at the close of the D evonian
-
.

R i ve rs ; L a k e s The depression between the New

.
-

York and the Canada Arch aean dating from Arch aean ,

time was the first indication of a future St Lawrence

, .

channel It continued to be an arm of the sea or deep

.
,

bay through the Lower S ilurian and unde rwent a great

.
,

amount of subsidence as it receive d the thick formations

of that era After the Lower Silurian era marine strata
.
,

ceased to form indicating thereby that the sea had reti red
,

and fresh waters derived fr o m the Arch aean heights of

,
 P A LE OZ OIC TIM E .

Canada a n d New York probably began their flow along

,

its u pper portion and emptie d into the St Lawrence Gulf

,
.

of the time not far below M ontreal .

The Hudson Champlain Valley apparently dates from

-

Arch aean time and was a salt water channel in the L ower
,
-

S il u rian At the close of the L owe r S ilurian the channel

.

was closed by the elevation of the region but it w a s ,

p robably temporarily reopened in the L o w er Helderberg

p eriod . The Hudson R iver must have commenced at the
close of the L ower Silurian as an insignificant stream , ,

draining a pa rt of the Adirondacks and emptying into ,

the E astern I nte rior sea near Albany .

A n embry o M ississippi R ive r probably began early in

Pale ozoic time to drain the A rch aean regions of Wisconsin
an d M innesota B ut the m ain part of the Mississippi
.

and its tributaries east and west was not in e xistence in

, ,

t h e P al e ozoic ages In the times of C arbonife rous ve r

.

dure when the continent was in large part above the sea
,

level the O hio and M ississippi basins were regions of

,

great marshes lakes and bayous and not of great rivers ;

, , ,

for great rivers could n ot exist W ithout high land to sup

ply w ater and give it a flow
C l i m at e — N o e vidence has been fo u nd through the
P aleozoic records of any marked difference of temperature
between the z ones I n the Carboniferou s era the Arctic
.

seas had their C orals and B rachiop ods and the A rctic ,

lands their forests and marshes u nder dense foliage no ,

less than those of America and E urope The facts bear .

ing on this subj ect are stated on page 3 1 2 .

Li fe — App e a r a n c e a n d D i s app e a r a n ce of Sp e c i e s
. .

With the beginning of each formation in the series ,

new S pecies appeared and the old ones more or less com
,

p l e t e ly disappeared L ocal changes

. in the life occurred in
connection even with the minor transitions i n the rock
formations as in the transition from a be d of shale to
,

sandstone or to limestone and the reverse Thus throu gh

, .
,

th e a ges , li fe and death we re i n co nc urr ent pro gr ess .

 HIS TO R IC AL G E O L OG Y .

B egi nni ng an d E n d i ng f
o Hi gh e r
G e n er a , Fa mi li e s , a nd

G r o u
p.s — The following table of the range of genera
of Trilobites illustrates the progress which took place i n
this group and e xemplifie s the general fact with regard
,

to other groups

In the above table the vertical columns correspond

,

to the eras and periods The shaded area opposite the

.

name Tr i lo bi te s shows that the group commenced in t h e

beginning of the Cambrian attained its chief development
,

in the Lowe r Silurian then gradually declined but con

, ,

tinned till the P ermian S ome genera are seen to h a ve

.

a very limited range in time as Ole n e llu s and P a r a do x

,

i de s confined respectively to t h e Lower and M iddle

,

Ca mb rian ; w h ile Agno s tu s e x tends through the Cam

 P A LE OZ O IC TIM E .

brian and Lower Silurian and Ho ma lo n o tu s throu gh the

,

Silurian and a large part of the D e vonian .

In a S i milar man n er the genera and families of B ra ch io

pods began at differe n t periods or epochs and continued ,

on for a time to become in general extinct Many

, , , .

genera ended in the course of the P aleozoic or at its

close ; only a few continued into later periods The .

history of other groups illustrate s the same law .

Sp e ci a l P e cu li a r i t ies of P a le o z o i c L if e The f o llo w m g .

facts S how in what respects the life of the P aleozoic

ages was pecul iarly ancient
1 . N o t only are the species all extinct ( with the pos
sible exception of a fe w D iatoms of the Carboniferous said ,

to be identical with living species ) but also the great ,

maj ority of the genera .

2 Among C oelenterates the Anthozoans were largely

.
,

of the tribe of Cyathophylloid corals which is almos t ,

exclusively ancient or P aleozoic .

3 The E chinoderms were m ostly Crinoids and these

.
,

were in great profusion C rinoids were far less abundant

.
,

and of di fferent genera in the Mesozoic ; and n o w very

,

few species exist .

4 A m ong M olluscoids B rachiopods were e x ceedi n gl y

.
,

abundant : their fossil shells far outweigh the fossils o f

any other group But in the Mesozoic they were much
.

less numerous ; and at the present time t h e group is

nearly extinct .

5 Among Mollusks the Cephalopods were represented

.
,

very largely by O r th o ce ra t a bu t few species of which ,

existe d in the ea rly Mesozoic and none afterward , .

6. Among Arthropods Trilobites were the most com

,

mon Crustaceans a group exclusively P aleozoic .

7 Among Vertebrates
. the P aleozoic Fishes were
,

either Selachians P lacoderms Ganoids or D ipnoans O f

, , , .

the Selachians a large proportion were C e s t ra c i o n t s — a

,

tribe common in the Mesozoic but n o w nearly e x tinct , .

Nearly all the Ganoids had vertebrate d tails C ompara .

 HIS TO R IC A L G E OLOG Y .

t i ve ly f e w Ganoids with vertebrated tails lived after the

;
P aleozoic and the whole subclass is n e w nearly extinct
, .

O f the D ipnoans only four species now survive , The .

Amphibians all belonged to the order of S tegocephala

a group which became extinct early in the M esozoic .

8 Among terrestrial P lants there were Le p i d o d e n

.
,

d ri ds Sigillarids Calamites in great profusion maki n g

, , , ,

with C onifers and Ferns the forests and j ungles of the ,

Carboniferous and later D evo n ian : no species of L ep id o

de n d ro n or Ca la mi te s is known afte r the P ale ozoic and ,

only a single Triassic species of S ig i lla r i a .

Thus the P aleozoic or ancient aspect of the animal

,

life was produced through the great predominance of

B rachiopods Crinoids Cyathophylloid C orals O r th o c e ra t a
, , , ,

Trilobites P lacode rms ve rtebrate tailed Ganoids and Ste

, ,
-
,

h la ; and that of the plants through the Le id o d e n

g o ce p a p ,

d ri ds Sigillarids and Calamites

, I n addition to this
, .

should be m entioned the absence of Angiosperms among

P lants ; the absence of D ibranchs among C ephalopods ,

B rachyurans among C rustaceans the higher orders ( those ,

1
with complete metamorphosis) among I nsects Teleost ,

Fishes all modern orders of Amphibia all orders of R e p

, ,

tiles now existing except the nearly extinct Rh y n ch o c e

phala and the entire classes of Birds and Mammals
,
.

M eso z o i c a n d M o d e rn Typ e s beg u n i n P a le o z o i c Time .

The principal Mesozoic type which began in the P aleo

zoic was the R eptilian But beside s these R eptiles there .

were the first of the D ecapod Crustaceans ; the fi rst of

the great group of Amm onites the Goniatites being of ,

this group ; the first of S corpions Spiders C e n t ip e ds , , ,

and Hexapod I nsects The type of I nsects belongs emi .

uently to mode rn time for it probably has now its fullest

display .

Th u s while the P aleozoic ages were progressing and

, ,

the types peculiar to them were passing through their

1 W it h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f s o me Ins e ct s w h i c h w e re
p ro b ab l
y Ne uro ters
p ,

and p o s si b l
y a f ew B e e tles (Co leo pte rs ) ,
 A PP A L AC HIA N R E VO L U TIO N .

time of greatest expansion in numbers and complexity

of structure there were other types introduced which
,

were to have their culmination in a f u ture age .

D I S TU R BAN CE S C L OS I N G P ALE OZ OI C TIME .

G e n er al Qu iet o f h e
t e Pa o o c
l z i A g es — The lo n g ages .

of the P aleozoic passed with f e w considerable disturbance s

of the strata of eastern North America There was .
,

indee d the elevation of t h e Taconic system of mountains

,

at the close o f the L owe r Silurian accompanied by the ,

emergence of much of the Atlantic B orde r region ; and

again at the close of the D evonian there were minor
, ,

dis turbances and u pturnings in eastern N e w Brunswick ,

part of N ova S cotia and eastern Canada Besides these

, .

changes there was through the ages a gradual increase

, , ,

in the amount of dry land ; and through all the pe riods

, ,

over a large part o f the continent slo w oscillations were

,

i n progress varying the wate r le vel and thus occas i on i ng

, ,

alternations in the kinds and extent of the dep osits .

’
B ut these m o vements of the earth s c rust were exceed
i n gly slo w — probably less than a f e e t a century There . .

may have been many occasional quakings of the earth

perhaps even exceeding the heaviest of m odern earth
quakes There may have been at times sudden ri sings or
.

S inkings of portions of the continental crust But the .

condition of the strata of the inte rior of the continent ,

and of the Appalachian region south of the Green M oun

tains indicates that general quiet prevailed through the
,

long P ale ozoic ages In E urope there are more frequent

.

unconformabilities in the series of P aleozoic rocks indi ,

cating that the progressive development of that continent

was less simple and uniform than that of N orth America .

B ut even in E urope the changes in the course of P aleozoic

time were much less considerable than those near its close .

Th e App alach i an t h e R e g i o n o f Gre atest Ch a nge o f Le ve l .

— The region of reatest movement during these age s

g
 HIS TO R IC A L G E O LO G Y .

was the Appalachian Fo r it has bee n S hown that th e

.

oscillations which there took place resulte d in subside n ces

of one or more thousand feet with nearly every period
of the P aleozoic I n P ennsylvania and Virginia the sub
.

s i d e n ce continued through a large part of the C ar b o n i fe r

ous age until it amounted to about

, feet B ut this .

S inking was quie t in its progress as is proved by the regu ,

la ri ty in the series of stra t a .

The thickness of the coal beds indicates th at t h e coal

plant marshes were long undisturbed and therefore that ,

long periods passed without appreciable m ovement .

Th e P o st Pale o z o i c o r App alach i an R ev o lu ti o n — This

-
, , .

long time of comparative quiet was brought to a close by

one of the m ost strongly marked periods of comparatively
rapid change in the course of geological time M ountains .

were made in vario u s parts of the world othe r great geo ,

graphical changes took place and the cha n ges in the life , .

of the globe were as strongly marked as those in g e o g ra

phy It was the close of one of the great mons in the
‘

world s history and the beginning of another S uch an

’
, .

event is properly styled a revolution .

A
Th e pp alac a h i n R n
a g e — The most striking g e o g r aph i
.

cal change i n eastern N orth Ame rica was the elevatio n

of the Appalachian range A s that range has been taken
.

as a type in the exp osition of the theory of m ountain

making ( page it is unnecessary here to give any
detaile d discussion Attention has already bee n calle d to
.

the progressive subsidence of the geosyncline the ac c u m u ,

lation of an enormous thickness of strata the weakening ,

of the deeply buried sediments by the internal heat of the

earth the final yielding to the accumulating strain the
, ,

form ation of a series of approximately parallel more or ,

less unsymmetrical folds varied in parts of the range by

, ,

faults of thousan d s of feet The Appalachian ran ge

.

proper — a single orogenic individual — extends over a

distance of 1 0 0 0 miles from New York to Alabama
,
.

Th e Appala ch ian S y ste m — The Appalachian range .

 A PP A L A C HIA N R E V O L U TIO N .

is only one o i the ranges made at this time in eastern

N orth America . There was anothe r to the east the ,

Acadian range e x tending from N ewfoundland probably

,

to Narragansett Bay in Rhode Island a distance exceed

ing 8 00 miles ( n o w partly submerged ) I n the m e t am o r
.

phi o processes connected with the elevation of this range ,

much of the coal of Rhode Island actually passed beyond

the anthracite stage and was converted into graphite A
,
.

third range belonging to the Appalachian system is the

O uachita range in A rkansas and the Indian Territory .

The re is also evidence of post Carboniferous disturbance

-

in the beds of the P aleozoic troug h e xtending from G as pé ,

Canada to W orcester Massachusetts

, , The upturning .

and metamorphism o f the D e vonian rock s in the C onnec

tient Valley may belong to the same date I n western .

North America som e orogenic movements in the Great

,

Basin are believed t o date from this time .

Di sturbance s i n Fo rei gn Co u ntries — In the north of

.

E ngland and also i n the region of the S outh Wales C oal

,

field extensive distu rbances took place between the Car

,

bo n i f e r o u s and the P ermian period M urchison states

.

tha t the close o f the Carboniferous period was specially

marke d by disturbances and uplifts ; that it was the n
“that the coal strata and their antecedent formations were
very generally broken u p and thrown by grand upheavals
, , ,

into separate basins which were fractured by numberless

,
”
powerful dislocations .

It is n oteworthy that these disturbances in E ngland

were not pre cisely contemporaneous with the Appalachian
revolution in eastern North America the latter occurri n g
,

after the P ermian . D evonian and Carboniferous rocks

were subj e ct to pre P ermian dislocations also over a large
-

region of western E urope from B rittany to B ohemia and ,

from Ardennes to the Vosges and the Black Forest Car .

bo n if e r o u s rocks are folded in the Urals giving evidence ,

of orogenic movements of post Carboniferous date though

-
,

the backbone of the Ural s is Arch aean S ome disturb .

 HIS TO R IC AL G E OLOG Y .

a n ce also took place in the Alps about t h e close of P aleo

zoic time though the elevation of the Alps is chiefly d u e
,

to m oveme n ts of much later dat e .

No rth Ameri can Ge o gr aph y af ter t h e App alach i a n R ev o

lu t i o n
. The accompanying map shows approximately the
condition of N orth America after the Appalachian r e v o lu
tion S ubstantially the whole eastern half of the continent
.

FIG . 339 .

Map o f N o rt h Ame ri ca a fter t h e A pp a l hi

ac an R evo lu ti on .

had become dry land the shore of the Continental sea cor
,

responding roughly with the meridian of 9 7 W Since °

.

no marine strata of early M esozoic age are known any

where along the Atlantic o r the G ulf border it is probable ,

that the shore line was then even outside of its present
position In the map the sh ore line is drawn where the
.
,

1 0 0 fathom curve lies at present

-
It is possible h owever .
, ,

that borings through the Tertiary and C retaceous forma

tions of the Atlan t ic and Gulf bor d er may reveal the
existence of early Mesozoic strata of which no evidence
 A PP A LA C HIA N R E V O L UTIO N .

has yet been discovere d West of the meridian of .

the American continent was represented only by islands

whose S hore line s cannot be as yet exactly located .

Ge o gr aph i cal Ch an ges i n t h e R e g i o n o f t h e In d i an Ocean .

The P erm ian flora of S outh Africa India and Australia , ,

is so nearly identical as to require the assumption of land

connection between those regions The hypothesis has .

been ge nerally adopted that a land area of which M ada

,

gasear the Mascarene Seychelle and other islands in the

, , ,

In d ian O cean are remnants connected S outh Africa with

,

India This hypothetical area Suess has named G o nd

.

wan a la n d fro m the local name of a series of P ermian and

-
,

Triassic strata in I ndia S ome eminent geologis ts suppose

.

this land area to have extended across the Indian O cean

to Australia but that extension is re ndered improbable by
the great depth of the Indian O cean Whatever connec .

tion existed between Africa and Australia is better ex

plained by the hypothesis of a northward extension of the
Antarctic continent Such an extension of Antarctic
.

land may possibly account for the glacial conditions indi

c a t e d by some of the P ermian conglomerate s in those

regions ( page Gondw ana land in the m ore r e -

,

s t r i c t e d sense of a land area bet w een Africa and India is ,

supposed to have persisted until the Tertiary era when it ,

subsided leaving the islands in the w estern part of the

,

Indian O cean as its monuments Recent discoveries indi .

cate the occurrence of substantially the same P ermian

flora in S outh America in southern B razil and i n A rgen
, ,

tina T h is fact also may find explanation in the hyp oth

.

esis of northward e xtensions of the Antarctic C ontinent .

Ch an ge o f F a n a a d Flo r a
u n — With perhaps the e x
c e p t i o n of a few D iatoms no P aleozoic species is kno w n to
,

have survive d into Mesozoic and later times M any species .

doubtless were exterminated O thers underwent variation.

and adaptation so that the remains of their m odified d e s ce n

,

dants when recognized in late r strata are classified as dis

, ,

tinct species It cannot be affi rmed that the e x termin ati on

.
 HIS TO R IC A L G E OL O G Y .

( or e ven the change in species ) was u niversal ; for the

strata accessible to study as t hey are co nfined to portions
,

of the continental seas testify only as to changes and

,

destructions in those seas and not respecting the life exist

,

ing elsewhere The causes of so great a change in fauna

.

and flora are only imperfectly understood The gradual .

cooling of the sun the progressive removal of water and

,

carbon dioxide fro m the atmosphere and the climatic ,

changes resulting directly and indirectly from g e o g ra ph i

cal changes must have profoundly affecte d the conditions
,

of life . Changes of land in to sea or of sea into land mus t

have wrought great changes in the life of extensive
regions E arthquake waves and othe r local catastrophes
.

may have wrought widespread devastation ( See page 4 5 8 .

for fuller discussion of causes of change in fauna and flora ) .

And it must be remembered that unconformability always

means the loss for the particular area of t h e record of an
, ,

interval in which migrations and other biological changes

may have been in progress .

III
. M E S O Z O IC T IM E .

Mesozoic or medi aeval time in Ge ological history is

, , , ,

appropriately called the RE P TIL IA N A G E In the course .

of it the class of R eptiles passed its culmination — t hat is ,

its species increased in n umbers size and dive rsity of , ,

forms until they vastly exceeded in each of these respects

,

the R eptiles of either earlier or later time While t h e .

culmination of R eptiles is the m ost characteristic feature

of the aeon it is also noteworthy as the time of culmina
,

tion and incipient decline of Amphibians Cephalopods , ,

and Cycads ; and of the commencement of Mammals ,

B irds T e le o s t Fishes and Angiosperms

, , .

Are a o f Pr o g ress i n R o ck m ak in g — The area of rock

-
.

making in N or t h America during Mesozoic time was , ,

somewhat di ff erent fro m what it was in P aleozoi c In .

e arl y P aleoz oic time nearly the whole continent o utside

, ,
 M E S O Z O IC TIM E .

of the northern Arch aean area was receiving its successive ,

formations By the close of P aleozoic time substantially

.
,

the whole continent east of the meridian of 9 7 had becom e °

dry land as is shown by the absence of marine strat a of

,

later date ( See map Fig

.
,The are a s of progress
.

in Mesozoic time were ( 1 ) the A tla n ti c B o r d e r ( 2 ) the ,

G u lf B o rd e r ( 3) the Wies te rn In te ri o r ( 4 ) the P a c ifi c

, ,

B o r d e r and ( 5 ) the A r c t i c A r e a
, In the early Mesozoic .
,

only estuarine or fresh water deposits were formed along

-

the Atlantic B order and no deposits now accessible al ong

,

the Gulf B orde r ; but in later Mesozoic time a subsidence

of these border regions made them once more regions of
marine sedimentation .

In E u rope no analogous change can be distinguished ;

for the continent was from the first an archipelago and it
, , ,

continu e d to bear this geographical characte r though with ,

an increasing pre valence of dry land until the middle of ,

C enozoic time At the beginning of Mesozoic time west

.
,

ern E ngland stood as three or four islands above the sea

( occupying approximately the area marked as covered by
P aleoz oic rocks on the map page and the area of
,

future rock making was mainly confine d to the inter vals

-

between these islands and to the submerged area on the

east and southeast It is probable that this area and a
.

portion of northeastern France were geologically part of , ,

a large North Sea basin .

M esozoic time includes three eras .

1 Tri a ssi c : named from the L atin tr i a three in allu

.
, ,

sion to t h e fact that the rocks of the e ra in some parts of

Germany consist of three separate groups of strata This .

is a local subdivision not characte rizing the rock s in

,

Great B ritai n or in most other parts of E urope .

2 Ju r a ssi c : named from the J u r a M ountains where

.
,

rocks of the era occur .

3 Cre t ace o u s : named from the Latin cr e ta chalk the

.
, ,

chalk beds of Great Britain and other regions in E urope

a n d Americ a b eing incl u ded in the Cretaceous formation .
 HIS TO R IC A L G E O L O G Y .

I TR I A SS IC AN D
. J U R AS S I C E RA S .

ROCK S : KINDS AND DIS TRIB UTION .

In American Geology it is convenient to treat these

,

two eras together since in several regions of the country

,

it is impossible with certainty to disting uish the respective

rock formations from each other .

In the Atlantic B order region these rocks occupy n arrow

troughs or basins parallel with the Appalachian chain fol ,

lowing its varying courses The most northerly of these

.

areas e x tends along the western border of N ova S cotia .

A second occupies the valley of the C onnecticut from

northern Massachusetts to Middletown Connectic u t and , ,

extends thence southwest w ard to Ne w Haven on Long

Island S ound having a trend nearly parallel with the
,

Green M ountains ; it has a length of about 1 1 0 m iles .

Another the longest — commences at the n orth extrem

ity of the P alisades on the west bank of the H uds on
,

R iver stretches southwestward thro u gh N ew J ersey and

,

P ennsylvania ( here bending much to the westward like ,

the Appalachians of the state) and reaches far into the

,

State of Virginia Another stretches — almost in the

.

line of the last across the southern boundary of Virginia

into N orth C arolina and another is co mprise d entirely
,

within the limits of the latter state The presence of .

the Triassic beneath the later form ations has been detected
in a boring for a well in one locality in S outh C arolina .

The Triassic areas are indicated on the map on page 235

by an oblique lini n g in which the lines run from the left
above to the right below .

The rocks are mainly sandstones and conglomerates but ,

include some considerable beds of shale and in a few places ,

impure limestone The sandstones are generally red or

.

brownis h red . The frees t one or brownstone of P ortland

, , ,

near M iddletown in C onnecticut and of t h e vicinity of ,

 TRI A S S IC A N D J UR A S S IC ER AS .

Ne w a rk in N ew J ersey is from this formation

, The .

pebbles and sand of the beds were derived mainly f rom

metamorphic rocks alongside of the regions in which they
li e ; and from some of the coarse r layers large bowlders
of granite gneiss and mica schist m ay be taken The
, , .

strata overlie directly but unco n formably these meta

, ,

morphic rocks S ome of the beds of shale are black and

.

bituminous ; and near R ichmond Virginia and in North , ,

Carolina there are valuable beds of bituminous coal

, .

The several ranges of this sandstone formation are re

markable for the great number of di k es and sheets of trap
intersecting them As the trap ( diabas e ) is considerably
.

harder than the stratifie d rocks the dikes and sheets have ,

generally formed more or less prominent ridges ( hills o f

circumdenudation page , M ount H olyoke i n Massa
c h u s e tt s E ast and West R ocks near N e w Haven in C on
,

n e c ti cu t
, and the P alisades on the Hudson are a fe w
e x amples of these trap ridges Trap is an igneous rock .

— one that was ej ected in a melted state from a deep

seated source through fissures made by a fracturing of

,

th e earth s crust
’
The proofs that the trap came up
.

through the fissures in a melte d state are abundant ; for

th e adj acent sandstones are often baked so as to be very
h ard and sometimes filled with crystallizations as of epi
, ,

dote tourm aline garnet hematite etc evidently due to

, , , , .
,

th e heat .

O wing to the absence of marine fossils it has been ,

somewhat u ncertain to what part of the Triassic or J uras

sic era this formation along the Atlantic Borde r belo n gs .

It is s ome t imes calle d the J ura Trias and sometimes the-

,

Newark formation The characte r of the fossil plants and

.

V ertebrates indicates that it is m ost probably Uppe r Tri

a ss i c correspon di ng to the K eupe r and R h aetic of E urope
, .

The J urassic is p erhaps represented on the Atlan

tic B order by the lower part of the P otomac formation
( page
In the Western Interior re g ion there is a sandsto n e
 HIS TO R IC A L G E O L OG Y .

f ormation in northern Texas extending northeast ward to ,

the boundary of K ansas and westward i nto N e w Mexico

, ,

containing mu ch gypsum ( and hence called the Gypsiferous

formation ) but barren of fossils except an occasional frag
, ,

ment or trunk of fossil wood which is regarded a s Triassic

, .

Triassic beds occupy extensive areas along the C olorado

River and its tributaries in Arizona Utah and C olorado
, , , .

Triassi c beds also occur in the Black H ills of D akota the ,

Wasatch M ountains and the Sierra N e vada and in the ,

western range s of the Great B asin I n a large part of .

the beds referred to the Triassic fossils are s canty or ,

wanting .

J urassic rocks occu r ne ar the Black H ills of D akota at ,

many localities along the summit region of the R ocky

Mountains and in the Sierra N e vada
, M uch of the .

J urassic rock is calcare ous and in m any localities f o s s i lif

,

e ro u s . The Upper J urassic of C olorado Wyoming and , ,

M o n tana includes the B ap ta n o do n beds and the overlying

A tla n to sa u ru s beds The former have afforded fossils of
.

m arine I nvertebrates and aquatic R eptiles ; the latter are

f resh wate r deposits and have yielded rich remains of
-
,

R eptiles and Mammals The A tla nto s a u ru s beds may

.

possibly be of Lower C retaceous age representing the ,

Weal d en formation of E ngland The J urassic rocks of .

the Sierra Nevada have been to a large extent m e t am o r

p h o s e d into crystalline schists whose q uartz veins
, are the
reposi tories of the gold .

In E urope the Tri a ssi c rocks of e astern France and

,

Germany east and west of the Rhine consist of ( 1 ) a

, ,

t hick sandstone predominantly reddish but very variable

, ,

in color and often mottled ( B a n ter S a n ds tei n ) ; ( 2) a

,

fossiliferous limestone (M u sch e lka lk) ; ( 3) a formation

consisting chiefly of reddish and mottled shale and sand
stone (Keup e r ) The uppermost beds of the Triassic con
.

s t i t u t e the R h oe ti c formation consisting of limestone and

,

shale and containing in places remai n s of a flora some

,

w hat transitional between the Triassic and the J u rassic .

 TR IA S S IC A ND J U R A S S IC ER AS .

The R h aetic is considered by some ge ologists the lowe st

member of the J urassic In E n glan d the Triassic forma . .
,

tion ( N o 6 on map page 2 9 5 ) consists of red d ish sand

.
,

stone and shale ; it is mostly confined to a region j ust east

of the P aleozoic areas of W ales and northern E ngland and ,

to an exte nsion of this region westward to Liverpool B ay

( or over the interval between those two P aleozoic areas )
and up the west coast .

This formatio n in E urope contains in many places beds

, ,

of salt and is h ence often called the Saliferous group At

, .

N orthwich in C heshire E ngland there are two beds of , ,

rock salt 9 0 to 1 0 0 feet thick ; and there are similar beds

,

at Vic and D ieuze in L orraine and in W ii r t e m be rg , .

In the eastern Alps the Triassic shows a very di fferent

,

lithological character from that which it bears i n other

regions the Upper as well as the M iddle Triassic being
, , ,

represented chiefly by great deposits of li mesto n e .

The J u r a s s i c rocks of Great B ritain are divided into

two principal groups
1 The L i a s ( No 7 on m ap of E ngla n d page
. .
,

consisting of grayish compact limestone strata .

2 The OOZi te ( N o 8 on m ap page cons i sting

'

. .
,

mostly of whitish and grayish limestones part of them ,

o Oli t i c ( page O n e stratum near the middle of the ,

series is a coral reef limestone much like the reef rock

,
-
,

of existing coral seas though different in S pecies of coral

, .

N ear the top of the serie s there are some local beds of
fresh water or terrestrial origin in what is called the P u r
-
,

beck gro u p and one of them on the island of P or tland is

,

named significantly the P o r tla n d D i rt B e d

, , .

O n the continent of E urope the J urassic rock s are ,

generally divide d into three parts commonly called in

German y respectively L i a s D o gg er and M a lm
, , , , .

The S o le n h o fe n lithograp h ic limestone is a very fi n e

grained rock ( t h ereby adapte d for lithography) belong ,

ing near the top of the Upper J urassic ( M a lm) occurring ,

in the vicinity of S o le n h o fe n and E ichst adt in Bavaria .

 HIS T O R IC AL G E OL OG Y .

LIFE .

P L A N TS .

The vegetation o i the Triassic and J urassic periods

included numerous kinds of Ferns both large and small , ,

E q uiseta and C onifers and so far resembled that of the

, ,

Carboniferous age Bu t there were no forests or j ungles of

.

Lepidodendrids and Sigillarids Instead of these Carbo .

FIG S . 340 , 341 .

G ra m s : Fi g 3 4 0 , C
. y c a s c ir c m ah s , x 1 35
1
; 34 1 , l ea f o f Z ami a
, x y‘
a.

n i fe ro u s
types a group of trees and shrubs sparingly
,

represente d in the Carboniferous that of the Cycads was , ,

eminently characteristic of the Mesozoic world This .

group has now but few living species Cy c a s and Z a mi a ,

being the best known genera The plants have the aspect
-
.

of P alms ; and there was therefore in the Mesozoic for , ,

 A
TR I S S IC A N D J U R A S S IC ER AS .

ests a mi n gli n g of palmlike foliage with that of C oni f ers

( Spruce Cypress and,the like ) But the
, Cycads are not
.

P alms They are Gymnosperms

.
,

resembling the C onifers bot h in F I G 34 2 . .

the str u cture of the wood and

in that of the extremely simple
flowers The resemblance t o
.

P alms is mainly in the cluster of

great leaves at the summit and ,

the appearance of the exterior of

the trunk Fig 34 0 represents
. .
,

much reduced a modern Cy ca s , ,

S t u m p f M t lli m g l
and Fig 341 the leaf of a living
.
o an e a e a o

Ph y ll a a. x .

Z a mi a one twentieth t h e a ctual

,

leng t h Th e f ossi l r ema i ns o f Cycads are either thei r

.

F IG 843434 7 S . .

Eli xi rs : Fig .348 , Clath ro p te ri s re ctiu s c ula ; 344 , Olig Ocarp i a ro bu sti o r (i n fru i t) ; 845 ,
A c ro s t i ch i te s 1i nnae:e fo li u s — C YC A D s : Fi g 34 6,
. . Pdz
o o ami te s E mm o n s i ; 84 7 , P te ro ‘

ph y llum R i eg e ri .
 HIS TOR IC AL G E O L O G Y .

trunks or leaves A fossil specie s from the P ortland D irt

.

B e d is represented in Fi g 342 The trunks of some . .

0

Cycads have a height of 1 5 or 2 0 feet In one respect .

some Cycads resemble the Ferns — that is in the u n , ,

foldi n g o f the young leaf — the leaf being at first rolled ,

up into a coil and gradually unrolling as it expands

, .

Fossil plants are common in the coal regions of R ich

m ond V irginia and N orth Carolina and occur also in
, , ,

othe r localities Figs 34 3 to 34 5 represent a few of the

. .

Ferns : Fi g 34 3 a C la th r op te r i s from E asthampton Mas

.
, , ,

s ac h u s e tt s ; Fig 34 4 an Olig o c a rp i a from R ichmond Vir

.
, , ,

ginia and the Trias of E urope Fig 34 5 an A cr o s ti chi te s

, .
, ,

from R ichmond Virgini a Figs 34 6 and 34 7 are parts of

, . .

leaves of two Spe cies of Cycad from N orth C arolina , .

L arge cones of C onifers have also been found Several of .

the American plants are identical in species with those

of the E uropean Triassic and a few are akin to E uropean ,

J urassic forms .

AN IM AL S AM E R ICAN .

The American beds of the Atlantic B order reg i on are

remarkable for the absence of marine life : all the species
appear to be either those of brackish water or of fresh ,

water or of the land

, .

Inve rte br ates — In the beds of the Atlantic B order

.
,

Sponges C oelenterates E chinoderms and M olluscoids are

, , ,

u nknown ; and the remains of M ollusks are of doubtful

character The J u rassic beds of the West contain many
.

species of marine Invertebrates and the Triassic a few , .

The shells of O stracoid Crustaceans are common in Ne w

J ersey P ennsylvania Virginia , and North Carolina but
, , ,

have not yet been found in New E ngland Fig 34 8 . .

represents one of the little shells of these bivalve species ,

calle d E s th e ri a It was lo n g suppose d to be M olluscan

. .

The E stheri as are brackish water species -

.

A few remains of Insects have been found and probably , ,

what is more remarkable the tracks of several species , .

 TR I A S S IC A ND J UR A S S IC ER AS .

The se t racks were made on the soft mud probabl y by the ,

larvae of the Insects for many Insects pass their larval ,

state in the water Fig 349 represents one

FIG 348
. .

of these larv ae found in shale at Turners Falls

. .

M assachusetts ; it resembles accord i ng to D r , .

Le C onte the larva of a modern Ep h e mera Om m i co

E mm
, ,
m s e o v
or May fly Figs 35 0 and 35 1 are the tracks
’

-
. .

of Insects P rofessor Hitchcock named nearly 30 species

.

o f tracks supposed to be those of Insects and C rustaceans .

V e rt ebrat e — There are cm

F 34 9 4 35 1
IG S . .

350 d e n c e s of the e x i ste n ce of

Fishes Amphibians R eptiles , , ,

B irds and Mammals

the appearance of the last two
I
With ,
.

types the subkingdom of Ver ,

l t e b r a t e s was finally represented
\\
k f
\
in all its classes .

A 1 Fi s h e s The F ishes . .

INSE CTS : Fi g 349 M m l

.
,id ti
orfound in the American rocks
o u co e s ar cu

al t u ; 350 35 1 t
s k fI t rac s o nse c s
Include only Gano i ds and a
, , .

f ew D ipnoans although Selachian remains are co mmon

,

in E urope Fig 35 2 represents one of the Ganoids

. .
,

r e d u ce d one half I n this as in m ost Mesozoic an d

.
,

FIG 8 5 2
. .

G AN O ID : C at o pt eru s g
rac ili s , x i ; a , sca e o l f sam e , n at u l ra Size .

modern Ganoids the tail is bu t slightly vertebrated be ing

, ,

nearly homocercal .

2 A mp h i bi a n s of the order of Stegocephala or Laby

.
, ,

ri n t h o d o n t s pa e appear to have reached thei

( g r
 HIS T O R IC A L G E O LO G Y .

greatest size and numbers in the Triassic era A f oreign .

species is mentioned on page 35 1 Fo otprints in the .

C onnecticut Valley beds appear to indicate the existence

of Ame rican species Figs 35 3 35 3 a and 35 4 35 4 a . .
, , , ,

represent tracks of t vi o of these It is not however pos r .

, ,

sible in all cases to d istinguish the tracks of Amphibian s

from those of R eptiles .

3 R ep ti le s — The m ost important R eptilian remains

. .

in the American Triassic and J urassic belong to the

orders of C rocodilians and D inosaurs though most of t h e ,

FIG 8 53—356 S . .

355 a

AMP HIB IAN s : FIG S . 353 , 353 a , trac ks o f Ani si ch n u s D e w e y anu s , x 3; 854 , 8 54 a, A ni si ch
nu s g rac i li s, x g — R E PT ILE s : FIG S . 3 5 5 , 3 55 a O to o
, z um M oo dii , x f g ; 3 5 6, 356 a ,
i

A n o m oep u s sca m bu s . In e ac h case t h e t rac s k o f th e in h df t oo are m ar kd e a .

other orders known from E uropean specimens were also

more or less abundantly represented in the American
rocks The D inosaurs were so named from the Greek
.

'
8ew o s terrible and o a iipo s lizard some species being of
’

, , , ,

gigantic size ( though others were s m all animals even ,

less than two feet in length) In eastern N orth America .

,

they are known by the thousands of footprints left by

the m in the Connecticut Valley and Ne w J ersey and a ,

few portions of skeletons from C onnecticut P ennsylvania , ,

and North Carolina ; and in the West by the hu ge s k e le ,

 TR I A S S IC A ND J U R A S S IC ER AS .

tons f ound in th e R ocky M ounta i n r egion O f the tracks

'

in the American T riassic referred more or less probably ,

to D inosaurs some belonged to animals completely bipedal

,

in locomo tion others to animals more or less quadrupe d al ;

,

in some cases the animals appear to have rested the fore

feet on the ground occas i onally but not at every step , .

Figs 35 5 35 5 a and 35 6 35 6 or represent respectively

.
, , , ,

the fore and hind feet of two of the species I n the .

case of the former species tracks o f the small fore feet ,

F IG S . 35 7 , 8 58 .

Fig 857 , trac k

. of Bro n to z u m gig
o an t e um , x 4; 358 , s a lb o f s an d s to ne wi t ht krac s o f Rep
ti l e s and A mp h bi
i a n s, x 1
35 .

are but rarely found Fig 35 7 represents one of the

‘

. .

completely bipedal species no tracks of the fore feet

‘
'

of that species being ever found The track represented .

in Fi g 35 7 is actually eighteen inches long and that

.
,

of Fig 3 5 5 a nineteen inches ; and probably each of these

.
,

D inosaurs was over twenty feet in height when standing

on his hind legs Alth ough some of the bipedal 3 toe d
.
-

tracks are remarkably like those of bir d s it is probabl e ,

that they were all those of D inosaurs The biped march .

 HIS TO R IC A L G E OLO G Y

o many of the Dinosaurs is a birdlike characteristic

f ,

and it is connected with a m ore or le sS birdlike pelvis ,

and ( in many species) with hollow limb bones .

Fig 3 5 9 represents the skeleton of one o f the D ino

.

saurs of the C onnecticut Valley .

FIG . 359 .

D INOSA U R : h uu
A n c i sa r s c o lu r u s . x 1
13 .

The J urassic b eds o f C olorado and Wyoming h ave

yielded a richer harvest of D inosaurian remains than
any other localities in the world S ome of these J urassic .

D inosaurs are S hown by their teeth to have been h e rbi vo

rous others carnivorous In one group of the herbivorous
, .

S pe cies ( Sauropods ) the j aws were toothed to the extrem

,

ity the anterior limbs were nearly as long as the posterior

, ,

the hind feet were 5 toed and the locomotion was com
-
,
 TR I A S S IC AN D J UR A S S IC ER AS .

ple t quadrupedal
e ly Fig 3 6 0 shows a species of this
. .

group .T o this group belong the most colossal land

animals that have ever existed O n e species ( A tla n to .

FIG . 360 .

D I N OS A UR : Bro n t o sa uu
r s e x ce l s u s x 1 55
, .

s au ru s i mma n i s)
was probably 7 0 or 8 0 feet in length .

The othe r group of herbivoro u s D inosaurs ( t h e Freden

tata) had the a n terior part of the j aws toothless and ,

D IN OS A U R : C amp to sau ru s di p
s ar, x 1
1 5 .

probably covered by a horny bill The pelvis was in .

several respects strikingly birdlike The hind limbs .

were much longer than the fore limbs and in many ,

 HIS T O R IC A L G E O LO G Y .

species the locomotion was completely bipedal The .

inner and the oute r toe of the hind f ee t were apt to

be small or even wanting so that the foot was often func ,

t i o n ally 3 toed These birdlike characters were m ost

-
.

'

perfectly exhibited in the O rnithopods ( from Opvrs bird ’

, ,

and 77 0 159 foot) O n e of this group is represented in

, .

Fig 36 1 Another division of the P redentata the Stego

. .
,

saurs resembled the O rnithopods in many respects but

, ,

FIG . 3 62 .

D I N OS A UR : S te g o sa uu r s u ng u lat u s , x 1
55 .

d i fle re d
from them by the presence of bo n y armor which ,

i n some spe cies was develope d in a m ost extraordinary

’
degree The name from Greek a r e yw to co ver o a iipo s
.
,
r
, , ,

lizar d refers to this character O n e of these armored

, .

spe cies is shown in Fig 36 2 B eside these groups of . .

herbivorous Dinosaurs the carnivorous D inosaurs ( Thero ,

pods ) which had been the only D inosaurs in the Triassic

, ,

were abundant also in the J urassic Their limbs were .

in general similar to those of the O rnithopods ( though

 TRI A S S IC A ND J U R A S S IC ER AS .

with impor tan t d iff erences in the pelvis ) but their j aws ,

were toothed to the extremity Fig 35 9 represents one . .

of the Triassic Theropods .

4 B i r d s — A por tion of a S kull supposed to be that of a

. .

B ird has been found in the Atlantosaurus beds of Wyomi n g .

5 Ma mma ls
. In the N orth Carolina Triassic have been
.

found two j awbones ( one of which is represente d in Fig

representing two small species of Mammals perhaps ,

Marsupials but m ore prob

,
FIG 368 . .

ably M onotremes The for .

me r of these groups is now

represented by the O possums
in America and the K anga
M MM L j w f D m th i m yl t x 2
A A : a O ro a er u s ve s re ,
roos and many other forms in
.

Australia The M onotremes ( n ow represented by only

.

two genera in Australia and the adj acent islands ) are the
lo w est of all Mammals being oviparous and resembling
, ,

R eptiles in many features O f their anatomy S everal other .

Mammals probably all M arsupials and M onotremes have

, ,

been described by Marsh fro m J urassic beds in Wyoming

and C olorado .

The facts prove that the land population of M esozoic

America include d Insects Amphibians R eptiles B irds , , , ,

and Mammals ; and that the forests which covered the

hills were mainly composed of C onifers and Cycads .

AN IM AL S FO R E IG N .

The E uropean rocks of these periods especially of the ,

J urassic abound in marine fossils and a ff ord a good idea

, ,

of the Mesozoic life of the ocean The remains of te rres .

trial life are also of great interest Mammals and an i m ,

mense variety of R eptiles occurring in both the Triassic

and t h e J urassic beds and B irds in the J urassic
, .

l ent erat e s — C orals are

. com m on in some J urassic
strata ; they are related to the modern types of corals ,

and not to the ancient Fig 3 6 4 represents one of the

. .

O Oli t i c spec i es .
 HIS TO R IC A L G E O L O G Y .

E ch i n o derms Crinoids are o f many kinds ; yet their

.
—

number as compared with other fossils is far less than in

, ,

the preceding ages and they are accompanied by various

n e w forms of S t a r fi s h e s and E chinoids ( page Fig .

36 5 represents one of the Triassic C rinoids the Lily ,

E ncrinite or E n c r i n u s li li ifo rmi s ; Fig 36 6 an E chinoid

, .
, ,

from the O Oli t e stripped of its spines ; and Fig 36 7 one

, .
,

of the spines .

E ms . 8 64—8 67 .

A N T H O Z O AN : Fig 8 6 4, Isastrsea o o n a - C
. bl g . RI ID
NO : . u
Fig 3 65 , E ncri n s 1ilii fo rm i s .

. d
E C IIIN O ID : Fig 36 6, C i ari s Blum e nbach ii (wi t h pi s d
n e s re m o ve ) ; 36 7 , S p i ne o f s am e .

Mo llu co ds
s i — Brachiopods are few compared with their
.

n u mber in the P ale ozoic The last species of the P ale .

o z o i c families S i r if e r i doe and S tr o h o me n i dce lived i n the

p p
early part of the J urassic period Fig 36 8 represents . .

one of these last of the Spirifer group .

Mo llu s k s Lamellibranchs and Gastropods abound

.

in species and unde r various new and many of them

, ,

modern genera Species of the genus G rgp hoea were

, .

common i n the Lias and later Mesozoic rocks ; they are

relate d to the O yster but have the beak incurved Fig , . .

3 6 9 represents a L iassic species Tr ig o n i a ( Fi g 3 7 0 ) is . .

a characteristic genus of the Mesozoic ; the name all u des

 TR I A S S IC AND J U R A S S IC ER AS .

to the triangular form of the S hell : the species figur e d is

from the O o lite The genus commence d in the Lias and
.
,

s till survives in the Australian seas .

F I G 8 68 8 70 S .
-
.

BR A C IIIO P O D : Fig 368 , S p iri fe ri na W alco t ti

. .L AM E LL IBR AN OIIS
—
: Fi g 369 , G ry ph wa i n
.

c u r va g
; 3 7 0 , Tri o ni a cla ve llat a .

But the most remarkable and characteristic of all

Mesozoic Mollusks were the Cephalopods This class .

passe d i t s maximum as to number and size in the M eso

z oic and hundre ds of species existed
, The last of the .

E ms 37 1 , 37 2
. .

C EPE A LOP ODs : Fig 3 7 1 , S teph ano ceras

. Humph ri esianu m ; 3 7 2, C o smo ceras J aso n.
 HIS TO R IC A L G E O LO G Y .

P aleozoic type of O r th o c e r at a live d in the Triassic era .

In the same era species of Ammonites -one of the most , ,

characteristic of Mesozoic groups be came comm on ; and ,

the n e w orde r of D ibranchs made its first appearance ,

being represented by genera of the Belemnite family ,

though the genus B e le mni te s did not appear until the

L ias .

The Ammonites belonge d to the order of T e t r abr an ch s ,

and had external chambered shells like the O r t h o c e r a t a ,

Nautili ( Fig 1 1 0 page and Goniatites Two O Oli t i c

.
, .

species are represented i n Figs 3 7 1 3 7 2 O n e of them .

, .

( Fig 3 7 2 ) has
. the side of the aperture very m uch pro
FIG 373 longed
.
; but
.
the outer margin of the shell ,

whether prolonged or not is seldom well ,

preserved The partitions ( or septa ) with .

in the s hells o f Ammonites are bent back in

many folds ( and much plaited within each
fold ) at their j unction with the shell so as ,

to make deep plaited pocke t s A front .

view of the out e r septum with the e ntrances -

,

to its side pockets is shown in Fig 3 7 3 , . .

Fi g 4 1 6 b page 3 7 1 illustrates the complex

.
, ,

C m
np n i Gl d i form of the j unction of the edge of the
o n : a s

m mm mes s
septum with the shell ( suture ) in some
‘

species of Ammonites The suture is also shown in Fi g . .

41 9 The P ale ozoic Goniatite s belonged to the Ammoni t e

group but the pockets were much more si m
.

,
ple than in the
typical Ammonites the fle x u r e s of the margins of the ,

pa rtitions being without plications .

The fossil Belemnite is an internal shell analogous to ,

the pen or bone ( osselet ) of a S ep i a or C uttlefish ( see ,

Fig . The part of the shell most commonly pre

serve d is a conical or club shaped b ody shown in Figs -
, .

3 7 5 3 7 6 solid except at its upper ( anterior ) end which

, , , ,

incloses a conical cavity This cavity is occupied by .

a structure much resembling the chambered shell of

an Or th o ce r a s whose upper ( anterior) extremity is e x
,
 TR I A S S IC AND J U R A S S IC ER AS .

p on
and e d the dorsal side into a thin plate shown in Fig .

37 4 This plate is so fragile that in general it is pre

.

served only i h fragme nts or not at all The ani m al had .

FIG S . 3 74—3 7 8 .

37 6 a

CE P IIA L OP ODS : Fig . 374 , co l

m p e te l
o s se e t o f a Be l e m ni t e , re s to r ed ; 375 B ,
e le mmte s
l
c ava t u s ul
; 37 6 , B e le i n ni te s a Illo s u s ; 37 6 a , o t i ne o f se c ti o n o f m
sa e ne a r e x tre m

i ty l
3 77 , fo ssi i nk bag o f a C e p a o p o hl d
3 7 8 , Be le m no t e u t h i s a n ti q ua,xa

an ink bag like the modern S ep i a In some allied genera .

the ink bag was large r ; and the dried ink of these fossil
C ephalopods has been used in sketching pictures of them .

Fi g 3 7 7 represents the ink bag of a J urassic Cephalopod

. .

Fig 3 7 8 is another related C ephalopod showing some

.
,
35 0 HIS T OR IC A L G E O L O G Y .

thing of the form of the animal and also the ink bag in ,

place .

Arth ro po ds — The Crustaceans were represented by

.

species of rather modern aspect Trilobites were entirely .

extinct T e tr a d e c ap o d s were represented by species like

.

the modern S ow bugs ( Fig D ecapods included

-
.

Macrurans represented by numerous species of Shrimps

,

and C raw fi s h es ( Fi g 38 0 shows a Triassic species ) ; and

.

( in the J urassic ) B rachyurans or Crabs The presence of , .

this highest suborder a noteworthy step of progress .

FI GS . 8 79 - 3 8 2 .

C R U S TA CE AN S : Fi g 379 , Arch ae o ni scu s Bro di e i 880 ,

. h
P emp ix S u e urii — IN SE cTs :
. Fig 381 .
,

Li b llul
e a ; 38 2, wi n g c o ve r u
o f B p re s ti s .

All but one of the important orders of Hexapod Insects

were abundant in the J urassic E ven the h ighest order .
,

the Hy m e n o p t e rs ( Bees Ants was well represented, , .

Of the Le p i d o p t e r s ( Butterflies Moths only scanty , ,

remains have been discovered whose reference to the order ,

in question is more or less doubtful Fig 3 8 1 is a D ragon . .

fly from S o le n h o fe n ; and Fig 3 8 2 the wing cover of a .

,

B eetle from the S t o n e s fi e ld O Oli t e

,
.

Vertebrat e s The Fishes were chiefly Selachians

.
,

Ganoids and D ipnoans ,

Am ong the Selachians the .
,

ancient group of C e s t ra ci o n t s characterized by a pavement ,

 TR I A S S IC AND J U R A S S IC ER AS .

of grinding teeth ( Figs page . 1 2 9 — 1 31 ,

still continued ,

and was represented by numerous species There w ere .

also i n the J urassic Sharks with sharp edged teeth like

, ,
-
,

most of those inhabiting modern seas Most of the .

Ganoids were of m odern type in having the tail nearly

or quite homocercal as shown in Fi g 38 3 O n e genus of
,
. .

D ipnoans Ce ra to d u s occurring in both the Triassic and

, ,

the J urassic is still represented by two living specie s

,

in Australia The discovery and dissection of the

.

living Ce r a to du s in Australia first revealed the D ip

noan nature of t h e remarkable teeth which had long been
known as Triassic fossils It th u s became known that .

D ipnoans were abun

FIG 383 . .

dant in both Meso

zoic and later P ale
o zo i c time B eside
.

the ancient groups

of Selachians G a ,

n o i d s and D ipnoans
, ,

there were probably

in the J urassic a n d ,

even in the Triassic ,

representatives Of G ID Fig 383 D p d u ( t d ) f m th Li

AN O : .
, a e i s re s o re , ro e as ,

th e modern B ony 5 ; 8 83 l f m x a , s ca e s o sa e .

Fishes or Tele osts

, These however did not become
.
, ,

abundant until the C retaceous .

Amphibians were common in the E uropean Trias as in ,

the A merican and some were of gigantic size They all

, .

belonged to the order of Stegocephala or Labyrinthodonts ,

— a n order which passed its culmination in the Triassic

,

and probably became extinct at the close of that e ra ,

though a single species has been doubtfully reported f rom

the J urassic .

O n e of these Triassic Labyrinthodonts had a skull over

two feet long of a form S hown in Fig 3 8 4 ; its mouth was
, .

set round with teeth three inches long ( Fig The .

S pecimen here figured was found in W ii r t e mb e r It is

g .
 HIS T O R IC A L G E O LOG Y .

probable that some of the animals whose tracks are so

common in the C onnecticut V alley w ere of this type .

Fig 3 86
. is a red u ced view of handlike tracks supposed ,

to have been made by a Labyrinthodont The A m .

h i b i a n s of the present day are feeble and diminutive

p
compared with their Triassic predecessors .

The Triassic and in e ven greater degree the J u rassic

, , , ,

were characterize d by the immense development of R e p

tiles To the two orders which had appeared in the P e r
m
.

ian — R hynchocephala and T h e r o m o r

p h s — were added
in the Triassic Ichthyosaurs P lesiosaurs Turtles Croco
, , , ,

A M PH IB I AN S : Fi g 384,
. s kull o f M as to d o n s au r u s g ig t u an e s, x 115 ; 385 , t o o t h o f me ;
sa

38 6, fo o tp ri n t s o f C h i th i u m
ro er ,
x 1 1g .

diles Dinosaurs and P terosaurs ; and before the close of

, ,

the J urassic the earliest L izards ( Lacertilians ) appeared .

The T h e ro m o rph s became extinct at the close of t h e

Triassic but all the other orders survived till the close
,

of the Cretace ous o r later .

The R eptiles include d species for each of the elements

— the water the earth the air , , .

The Swimming Reptiles have been called E n ali o s au r s

from the Greek e vci M o q marine and a a fipo s lizard They
’
‘
.
, , ,

include the two orders of Ichthyosaurs and P lesiosaurs .

The Ichthyosaurs ( Fi g 38 7 ) had a short neck a long .

,
 TR I A S S IC AND J U R A S S IC ER AS .

and large head enormous eyes and thin doubly concave

, , , ,

and the refore fi s h li k e vertebrae Their paddles were

, .

somewhat like the flippers of a Whale ; bu t their great ,

vertically expanded caudal fin and the large dorsal

, ,

fin gave them an aspect more fi sh li k e than that o f

,

Whales or of any other air breathing Vertebrates The -

.

name is from the Greek 5969 159 fish and a a fip o g lizard , , , .

FI GS . 8 8 7- 39 2 .

RE PTILE s : Fig 38 7 , Ic t
. h hy u u o sa r s q u ad ri sci s su s ; 38 8 , ea h d o f Ic t h hy u u
o sa r s c o mm u ni s ,

x h u l z
389 , t o o t o f s am e , n at ra s i e ; 89 0 a , 6 , vi e w a nd sec ti
o n o f t b
ve r e ra o f s am e ;
39 1 , Pl uu
e s i o s a r s d o li c h o d e i r u s , x 5’s ; 39 2 a , I
) , V i e w a nd se c tion o f t b
ve r e ra o f sa me .

Fig 38 8 represents the head of an I chthyosaur one

.
,

thirtieth the natural size showing the large eye and the ,

numerous teeth Fig 39 0 a is one of the vertebr ae

. .
,

reduced and Fi g 39 0 b a transverse se ction of the same

,
.
, ,

exhibiting the fact that both surfaces are deeply concave ,

nearly as in fishe s ; Fig 38 9 is one of the teeth n atural .

,

S ize S ome of the Ichthyosaurs were 30 or 4 0 feet long

. .
 HIS TO R IC A L G E O LO G Y .

T h e P lesiosaurs , one of which is represented very muc h ,

’
reduced , in Fi g 3 9 1 , had generally a long snakelike neck
.
, ,

a comparatively short body and a small head Fig 39 2 a , . .

represents one of the vertebr ae and 3 9 2 b a section of the ,

same ; it is doubly concave but less so and much lo n ger , , ,

than in the Ichthyosaurs Their limbs were paddles but .

,

departed in general mu ch less from the ordinary structure

of a R eptilian foo t than those of the Ichthyosaurs Indeed .
,

in some of the earlier and less specialized members of t h e

order the limbs still retaine d some adaptation for walking
,
.

S ome species of P lesiosaur were 25 to 3 0 feet long The .

P liosaurs which are included in the order of P lesiosaurs

, ,

though di ffering from the typical genus P le si o s a ur us in

having a larger head and a shorter n eck were 30 to 4 0 ,

feet long R emains of more than 7 0 species of E n ali o s au rs

.

have been found in the J urassic rocks .

Besides these s wimming Reptiles there were numerous ,

Crocodiles 1 0 to 5 0 feet long and D inosaurs t h e bulkiest , ,

and high est in rank of all the class 25 to 6 0 feet long , .

The D inosaurs in E urope as in America included the, , ,

herbivorous Sauropods O rnithopods and Stegosaurs and , , ,

the carnivorous Theropods Among the Sauropods a .

,

species of Ce tzo s a u r u s was 4 0 to 5 0 feet long O n e of the

'

best known of the Theropods was the M eg a lo s a u ru s ; it

-

was a terrestrial carnivorous R eptile about 3 0 feet in

length Strongly contrasted i n size with the huge M eg a lo
.

s a u r u s though bel onging likewise to the Theropods was

, ,

the graceful bird like Co mp s o gn a th u s not over two feet

,
-
,

i n length from the lithographic limestone of K elheim

, ,

B avaria .

The Reptiles adapted f or the air — th at is for flying ,

constitute the order P terosaurs so named from the Greek ,

’
wing and a afi os The most common genus is ‘
arr e o v
p , p , .

called P ter o da c ty lu s The general form of a P terodactyl .

is shown in Fig 39 3 The bones of one of the fingers . .

are greatly elongated for the purpose of supporting a fold ,

of skin so as to make it serve ( like an analogous arrange

,
 TR I A S S IC AND J U R A S S IC ER AS .

ment in B ats ) for flying The name P te r o da cty lu s is from

.

the Greek 7 r Tepo v wing and Sci/c rvM s finger The J uras
'
'

, ,
'

, .

sic P terodactyls we re mostly small and probably had the ,

habits of B ats the largest was about the size of anE agle .

FIG 393 . .

P m no s u m: P te ro d tylu
ac s s p e c ta b ili s , n at u l iz
ra s e .

O ther genera of P terosaurs di ffere d from P ter o da c tg/lu s i n

having long t ails A restoration of one of these showing
.
,

the wing membranes and the rudder like expansion of the -

tail is given in Fig 39 4 As Bats are flying M ammals

, . .
,

so the P terosaurs are simply flying R eptiles and have ,

 HIS T O R IC A L G E O L O G Y .

little resemblance to Birds i n structure except that their ,

bones are hollow and adapted in form for the birdlike

,
‘

characteristic of flying .

Besides the kinds of R eptiles already mentioned there ,

were Turtles in both the Triassic and the J urassic and ,

Lizards in the J urassic ; but according to p resent know ,

ledge the world contained no Snakes

, .

C oprolites ( or fossil excrements) of both R eptiles and

Fishes are common in the bone beds When cut and .

polished they have a degree of beauty su ffi cient to give

,

them some value in j e welry .

Fro . 8 94 .

P TE R OS A U R Z R h mp
a h hy hu
or nc s p h y llu r u s ,

R emains of Birds have been found in the quarries of

S o le n h o f e n ( page They have reve aled the fact
that some of t h e Mesozoic B irds were reptilian in certain
characters The skeletons found ( Fig 39 5 ) show that
. .

these Birds had long reptile like tails consisting of many -

vertebr ae a n d claws on the digits of the fore limb or

,

wing like those of the P terodactyl and B at fitting them

, ,

evidently for clinging M oreover the metacarpal bones

.
,

were free as in Reptiles while in m odern Birds they are

, ,

immovably united The mouth was provided with teeth

. .

But while thus reptilian in som e points of structure they

, ,

were actually Birds being feathered animals and having

, ,

the expanse of the wing made not by an expanded mem ,

brane as in the P terodactyl but by long quill feathers , .

 A S S IC
TR I A N D J UR A S S IC ER AS .

The tail quills were arran ge d in a row either side of the

long tail.

R emains of M ammals occur in the R h aetic beds of G e r

many and E ngland in the Lower O o lite at S t o n e s fi e ld
, ,

E ngland and in the Middle P urbeck beds of the Upper

,

FIG . 39 5 .

B IRD : Arc h aeo p te r yx m u ac r ra

 HIS TO R IC A L G E OL O G Y .

O olite ( page About thirty species have been made

out more than twenty of them from reli cs in th e Middle
,

P urbeck The larger part if not all are Marsupials a n d

.
, ,

M onotremes Figs 39 6 39 7 represent the j aws of two

. .
,

S pecies from S t o n e s fi e ld twice the natural size , .

The remarkable transitional forms between R eptiles and

Birds as ill u stra t ed by the O rnithopod D inosaurs on t h e
,

one hand and A r c haeop tery x on the other are of cour se what ,

FIG 39 6 897 S .
, .

M A MM A LS : Fig 8 9 6 , A m p h i le s te s Bro de ri p i
.
,
x 2 ; 39 7 , Ph as co lo th e ri u m Bu cklandi , x 2 .

would be expected in accordance with the theory of e v o lu

tion P robably all the Triassic M ammals are M onotremes
.
,

and all the J urassic Mammals M onotremes and Marsupials .

The theory of evolution would require the class of M am

mals to commence with reptile like forms such as Mono -
,

tremes The remarkable mammal like peculiarities of the

.
-

skulls of the P ermian an d Triassic Theromorph R eptiles

are very suggestive as to the ancestry of the Triassic
Mammals .

G E NE RAL OB S E R VATION S .

Amer i can Ge o graphy — The Triassic sandstones and .

shales of the Atlantic B order region are sedimentary

beds ; consequently the long narrow tracts of country
, ,

in which they were formed were occupied at the time , ,

more or less completely by water .

The absence of marine fossils has been remarked upon

as proving that this water was either brackish or fresh ;
 TR I A S S IC A ND J U R A S S IC ER AS .

and hence the areas were estuaries or deep bays running

far into the land .

There was probably an abundance of marine life in the

ocean if we may j udge from its divers ity on the other
,

side of the Atlantic ; but the seacoast of the era must

have been farther east than at present so that a ny marine ,

deposits that were made are n o w submerged The present .

sea border is shallo w for a distance of 8 0 miles from the

Ne w J ersey coast the depth of water at this distance
,

being but 6 0 0 fee t ( See map page .

,

The deposits contain on many of the layers footprints , , ,

ripple m arks raindrop impressions and other evidences

-
, ,

that they w ere for m ed partly in shallow waters and ,

partly as sand flats or emerging marshes and shores over, ,

which R ep tiles might have walked or waded If then .

, ,

they are several thousands of feet thick there must have ,

been a progressi ve subsidence of the valleys in which the

deposits were formed It is hence apparent that oscilla .

tions of level like those that characterized the Appalachian

,

region before and during the Appalachian revol u tion were ,

in progress Two effects of this subsidence occurred

.

( )
1 The sandstone beds were more or less faul ted and
tilted those of the C onnecticut Valley receiving a dip to
,

the east or southeast those of New J ersey and P enn ,

sylvania to the m o rt h w e s t 2
( ) In the sinking of the .

valley an increasing strain was produced in the earth s

,
’

crystalline crust beneath which finally became so great ,

that the cr u st broke fissures O pened and liquid rock , ,

1
came u p The dikes and sheets of trap are this liquid
.

’
rock solidified by cooling The earth s crust along the .

p i n i o n o f t h e e d i t o r , m o s t o f t h e t r a p s h eets o f th e C o nn ect i
1 In t h e o

cu t V alle y a n d N e w J ers e y w e re p o u r e d o u t a s c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s s h ee t s

(p g
a e 1 8 8 ) o v e r t h e u n d e r ly i n g s tra t a , a n d s u b s e q u e n t y c o ve r e d b y la t e r l
d e p o s it s A cc o rd i n g
. t o t h i s vi e w , th e e ru p t i o n f t h e t ra p t o o k p lace
o

b e f o re t h e t ilt i n g a nd f au lt i ng w h ic h o cc u r r e d a t t h e c lo s e o f th e d e p o

s it io n . T h e t r ap m a s s e s o f E as t an d W est Ro c k , n e ar Ne w Have n , a nd

t h e gr e a t P a l is ad e h e e t o f N e w Je rs e y , a re
s c e rt a i n ly i n tru s i ve , b u t t h e y

p b
roa b ly d a t e f ro m a b o u t t h e s a m e t i m e a s t h e c o n t e m p o ra n e o u s S h e et s .
 HIS T O R IC A L G E OLOG Y .

C onnecticut Valley for more than 1 0 0 miles was thus a

scene of igneous operations All the T riassic areas from
.

N ova S cotia to southern N orth Carolina a distance of ,

1 0 0 0 miles were similarly broken through and invaded

,

by trap ej ections .

The R ocky M ountain region had been m ost ly submerged

during the C arboniferous era as shown by the fact that ,

limestones were forming th e re in the period of the C oal

Measures and fossiliferous sandstones in the P ermian
, .

The Triassic sandstone there proves by its nature its , ,

gypsum in many places and the paucity of its fossils that

, , ,

by some change the region had become m ostly an interior

,

shallo w salt sea shut o ff to a great extent from the ocean

, .

Such a sea would be liable at times to become too salt for

almost any life Hence the scarcity o f absence of fossils
.

in many of the beds The salt waters by evaporation

.

would have furnishe d gypsum and salt to the beds as ,

happens now sometimes from sea water It follows then .

, ,

from the beds of the Atlantic B order as well as those

of the R ocky M ountain region that the continent during ,

the era of these Mesozoic beds was submerged to a less

extent than in the greate r part of the P aleoz oic ages a n d
the following portion of the Mesozoic The fossiliferous .

J urassic be ds overlying the western Triassic S how that ,

before the J urassic period h ad closed the sea had again ,

free access ove r large areas a n d oceanic life was abundant

,
.

Fo r gn G o g aph y
ei e r — The nature of the Triassic beds
.

in Great Britain and the continent of E urope shows that

there were large shallow interior seas also on that side of
the Atlantic The salt deposits the paucity of fossils in
.
,

most of the strata and the ge neral character of t h e rocks

, ,

indicate conditions such as existed in N e w York during

the formation of the O nondaga beds of the U pper Silurian
( see page and in the R ocky Mountain region during
the deposition of the Gypsiferous formation The lime .

stone that intervened along the Rhine between the two

, ,

formations o f sandstone and sh ale shows an inte rv al of ,

 TR I A S S IC AND J U R A S S IC E R AS .

more open sea yet the impurity of the limestone suggests

that the ocean had not full sweep over the region Th e .

great limestone deposits of the eastern Alps bear witness

t o a submergence of that region beneath a clearer sea .

The be ds of the J urassic era mostly a fford evidence both ,

from their constitution and from t heir abundant marine

life that the ocean again had free sway over large portions
,

of the continental area Its limits in Great B ritain how.

,

ever became more contracted as the period passed ; and

,

toward its close fresh water beds were forming in some -

places that h a d e ar li e r in the period been under salt water

_
.

Cli mat e . The J urassic coral reefs of Great Britain indi

cate that E ngland then lay within the subtropical oceanic
zone This zone now has in ge neral as its outer limit the
.
, ,

parallel of 2 7 or 28 °
and consequently its J urassic
°
, ,

limit if including E ngland reache d twice as far toward

, ,

the pole as now It is p ossible however that the line

.
, ,

would have run along the B ritish Channel were it not for ,

the Gulf Strea m of t h e era which carried the subtropical ,

temperature northeastward through the British seas as it ,

now doe s to Bermuda in latitude ,

The following are other facts of similar import In .

Arctic America species of shells allie d to those of E urope

,

and tropical S out h America occur i n latitude s 6 0 to 7 7 ° °

’
16 and one S pecies of Belemnite and one of Ammonite
are said to be ide ntical with species occurring in these two
remote and n ow widely di ff erent regions If not absolutely .

identical the e vidence from them as to oceanic temper

,

ature is nearly the same Moreover on E xmouth Island

.
, ,

in 7 7 1 6 N remains of an Ichthyosaur have been found

° ’
.
, ,

and i n 7 6 22 N on B athurst Island bones of othe r large

’
°
.
, ,

J urassic R eptiles ( Teleosaurs) I t is probable therefore .

, ,

that a w arm temperate oceanic z one covered the Arctic to

-

the parallel of if not beyond N o large living reptiles .

exist outside of the torrid and warm temperate z ones -

.

It was believed however by N e u m ay r that certain dif

, , ,

f e r e n ce s between the Upper J urassic fauna of the Medi

 HIS TO R IC A L G E O L OG Y .

terranean region and that o f northern Russ i a i n di cat e th at

an appreciable difi e r e n ce of climate h ad already becom e
established between northern and southern E urop e The .

evidenc e is not altoget h er conclusiv e .

DI S TURBAN CE S CLOS I N G THE J UR AS SIC E RA .

A fter the J urassic e ra or near its close the lo fty range

, ,

o f the Sierra N evada on the easte rn boundary o f California

was made T o the same syste m belong apparently the
.

Cascade R ange and th e Blue Mountains of O regon S ome .

disturbances took place also in the region o f the Coast

R ange of C alifornia and O regon though that region e x ,

i n ce d a later m ovement of elevation at the close of the

p e r e

Miocene The close of the J urassic is probably also the

.

time of making of the West Humbolt R ange and some

other ranges over the dry plateau between the Sierra
Nevada and the Wasatch R ange Triassi c and J urassic .

fossils have been found in the rocks o f t h e Sierra Nevada ,

while C retaceous fossiliferou s beds lie unco nformably ove r

the upturned strata of the mountains : the former fact
proves that the mountain making occurred after t h e J u
-

r a ss i c e ra ; a n d t h e latter that it t ook plac e be f ore t h e

,

Cretaceous .

II . C RE TA CE OUS E R A .

A
GE NE R L CH R CTE RIS TICS A A .

The C retaceous the closing era o f Mesozoi c t ime was

, ,

also in some respects a transition era between the Meso

, ,

zoic and Cenozoic D uring its progress as is explained

.
,

beyond occurred the de cline and a t its close the e x t i n c

, , , ,

tion o f a large number of the tribes of the medi aeval world ;

,

while at the same time there appeared in its c ourse other

, ,

tribes eminently characteristic of the m odern world .

Among t h e modernizing features the most prominent are ,

the Angiosperms am ong plants and the Teleosts am ong ,

Fishes O f t h e Teleosts indee d some representatives

. , ,
 CR E T A C E O US E RA .

probably appeared in the earlier Mesozoi c ; but it is n ot

certain that the supposed Tri a ssic and J urassic Teleosts
were not Ganoids The Teleosts certainly first attained a
.

considerable development in the Cretaceous .

The Angiosperms include nearly all the fruit trees of

the world and constitute by far the larger part of modern
,

forests . The C onife rs and Cycads w h erever they now ,

occur near groves of Angiosperms exhi bit the contrast be ,

tween the m e di mv al foliage and that of the present age .

The Teleosts ( page 8 3) embrace nearly all modern Fishes

excepting th ose of the subclass of Selachians or Sharks , .

Their prevalence was as great a change for the waters as

the new tribes of plants for the land .

AME RICAN GE OGR APHY : ARE AS OF R OCK-M AKING .

The accompanying map Fig 3 9 8 shows the areas in

, .
,

North America which were submerged beneath s alt water

during the C retaceous The vertical lining indicates the
.

parts that were submerged during the Lowe r Cretaceous

the horizontal lining those that were submerged during
,

the Uppe r Cretace ous ; and the cross lining the areas ,

under water through the whole period The scale of the .

map is too small for the indication o f the fresh water -

C retaceous areas .

As shown by the map rock making was going on along

,
-

the Atlantic B order t h e Gulf B order and the P acific

, ,

B order as well as over the Western Interior ( including

,

the summit region of the R ocky M ountains) The Gulf .

Border may be c onsidere d as constituting two areas of

rock making — an eastern and a western
-
since the ,
-

deposits east of the Mississippi di fle r considerably from

those of Te x as and Mexico .

R OCK S : KIN DS AND DIS TRIB UTION .

B oth in America and in E urope the C re t aceous forma

tion is divide d into t w o periods the LO W E R C R E TA
,
-

C E O U S and th e UPP E R C R E TA C E O U S .
 HIS TO R IC A L G E OLO G Y .

.
A comparison of the map on this page with that on page
3 8 7 will S ho w that the C retaceous de po sits along the
Atlantic and Gulf B orders are to a very large extent con
ce ale d beneath the overlying Tertiary strata In the .

Western Interior and along the P acific B order they c on ,

s t i t u t e the surface rocks over large areas .

FIG . 39 8 .

N o rt h Am e ri ca in t h e C re tace o u s e ra .

The L o wer Cr e ta ce o u s is represented on the Atlantic

B order by the fresh water P otomac formation including
-
,

sandstones and shales and u nconsolidated sands and clays ,

not excee d ing 1 20 0 feet in thickness and exposed in a ,

narrow and interrupted belt from N antucket to S outh

1
Carolina The presence of a few rare marine shells in
.

1
It i s p o s s i b le t h at th e lo w e st p art o f th e P
o t o ma c f o rm at i o n
(J a m es

Ri ve r an d R a pp ah ann o ck s t a ge s ) b e lo n gs t o th e J u ras s i c (s e e p age

an d t h at t h e u pp e rmo s t p art (A lb i rup i an , o r R ar i t an , s t age b
) e lo n gs t o
th e Upp e r C re t ace o u s .
 CR E T A C E OUS E RA .

this fresh water formation shows that the coast line could
-

not have been far o ff In the western Gulf B order the .

Lower Cretace ous formation ( C omanche serie s ) is mainly

marine and consists largely of limestone a part O f which
, ,

is chalk O n the Ri o Grande the formation attains a

.

thickness of 5 0 0 0 feet tho u gh it is much less over m ost ,

‘
of the region Fresh water beds of the L ower Cretaceous
.
-
,

consisting of sandstone s and shales and containing some ,

coal appear in some parts of the R ocky M ountain region

, .

Th e Upp er Cr e ta ce o u s appears on the Atlantic B order ,

betwee n the Tertiary of the coast and the older rocks of

the interior in a continuous area extending from New
,

J ersey into V irginia and in isolated patches farther north

,

and south The rocks are marine deposits ab out 500 feet in
.

thickness consisting of greensand alter n ating with beds of

,

sand and clay The greensand ( locally called marl ) consists

.

of common sand mixed with blackish or O live green grains -

of glauconite ( a hydrous silicate of iron alumina and , ,

potash ) formed by chemical changes at the bottom of

the sea within the shells of Rhizopods Along the Gulf .

B order marine Upper C retaceous deposits were formed ,

consisting largely of limestone e specially in the western ,

area where much of the formation is Ch alk

, .

The Upper C retaceous i s immensely developed in th e

Western Interior region the aggregate maximum thick ,

ness of the beds of the di fferent epochs being over

feet Four divisions are recognized corresponding to
.
,

the D a k o ta Co lo r a d o Mo n ta n a and L a r a mi e epochs O f

, , ,
.

these the first and the last are fre sh water formations
,
-
,

the others m arine The rocks of the C olorado epoch are

.

largely limestones including much C halk The deposits

, .

of the other epochs are mainly fragmental materials ,

including sandstones shales and conglomerates with , , ,

unconsolidated sands and clays The U pper C retaceous .

is th e great coal formation of western N orth America ,

coal beds occurring at various horizons but especially ,

in the Laramie The coal field s in C olorad o alone h ave an

.
 HIS T O R IC A L G E O LO G Y .

area of about square m iles C oal has been worked .

also in U tah Wyoming M ontana and No w Mexico and

, , , ,

at various localities in B ritish America O n e bed at .

E vanston Wyoming is said to be 2 6 feet thick

, , .

The L aramie beds represent the latest epoch of the

Cretaceous and S how in their fossil flora a transition
,

to the Tertiary This epoch is not represented On the

.

P acific and the E astern Gulf B order and probably not ,

on the Atlantic B order the latest Cretaceous beds of ,

those regions apparently belonging t o the M ontana epoch .

In E urope as in N orth America the C retaceous forma

, ,

tion constitutes the surface rocks i n areas which form

more or less interrupted borders of the Tertiary regions ,

or insular areas within those regions indicating th at the ,

C retaceous seas co vere d in general the areas now occupied

by both Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks .

In E ngland the C retaceous formation occupie s m ost

,

of the southeastern part of the country ( 9 and 1 0 on map , ,

page The Lower C retace ou s includes a s its basal ,

member the Wealden formation ( 9 on map ) which is

, , ,

subdivided into the H astings S and and the Weald Clay .

This is a fresh water formation deposited in a great delta

-

square miles in area The remainder of the L ower .

Cretaceous and the whole Uppe r C retaceous consist of

marine deposits mostly greensand and c h alk S ome of
, .

the chalk beds abound in concretions of flint which ,

consist largely of Diatoms S ponge S picules and other , ,

siliceous org anisms The Cretaceous for m ations of north

.

ern France B elgium western Germany and D enmark

, , ,

much resemble those of E ngland Chalk appears also .

farther east in southern R ussia

, In Saxony and B ohe .

mia the C retaceou s rocks are mainly sandstones In .

the Mediterranean region where there is a great de ,

v e lo p m e n t of the C retaceous the rocks are mostly ,

limestones but do not include the chalk and green

,

sand which are so characteristic of the northern C re

t ac e o u s region .
 CRE T A CE O U S E RA .

LIFE .

P L AN TS .

The first of Angiosperms both M onocotyled ons and ,

D icotyledons as already stated date fro m the Cretaceous

, ,

period L eaves of a few American species of D i c o t y

.

le d o n s are represente d in Figs 3 9 9 4 0 2 ; Fi g 4 0 1 a .

—
.
,

species of S a s s af ra s ; Figs 3 9 9 4 0 0 species of I/irzo d en

'

.
, ,

FIG 399 402 S .

— .

A N G IO S P E R MS t Fi g 39 9 , Liri o
. d d
en ro n p ri maevu m ; 400 Li ri o . d d en ro n M e e k ii ; 40 1 , S as safra s
c r e tace u m ; 4 0 2 , S ah x M e e k ii .

dr o n ; Fig 4 0 2,
a Willow ; and with these occur leaves
.

of O ak D ogwood Beech P oplar etc Among the M ono

, , , , .

cotyledons are the earliest of the great family of the

P alms .

B eside these h ighest of plants there were also C on ,

i f e r s Ferns and Seaweeds as in former time with so me

, , , ,
 HIS TOR IC A L G E OL O G Y .

Cycads The microscopic Alg ae called D iatoms ( pag e

.

which make siliceous shells and oth ers called D e s ,

mids w hich consist of simple green cells without any

,

skeleton were very abundant B oth occur foss i l in flint ;

,
.

and the D iatoms are believed to have contributed part of

the silica of which the flint is formed .

AN IM AL S .

t z
Pro o o a n s — The simplest of animals Foraminifers
.
, ,

were of great geological importance in the Cretace ous

period ; for the C halk is supposed to be made mostly of
their m inute calcare ous shells The powdered chalk is .

often found to contain large numbers of these shells the ,

great maj ority of which do not exceed a pin s head in ’

size A few O f the forms are represented in Figs 4 0 3

. .

4 0 7 all very much enlarged except Fi g 4 0 7 which is

, , .
,

natural size A very common kind resembles Fi g 5 0

. .

FIG S . 4 03—4 0 7 .

FOR AM IN IFEB S : Fi g 403 Li t

.
, ul
o a na u ti l i d
o ; 4 04 ,
ea a e i na r Fl b ll ug
o sa ; 4 0 5 , C h ry s alidin a
g d ra at a ; 40 6 , C u ne o li n a p a vo n i a ; 4 0 7 , Pat e lli na Te x ana .

( page and i s named R o ta li a Fig 4 0 7 represents a . .

large disk shaped species from Texas

-
.

S po n ges — Sponges were also very abunda n t and

.
,

their siliceous spicules ( page 6 3) were another important

source of the S ilica of the fli n t s The skeletons of some .

of the Sp onges both of the C retaceous era and of modern

,

time in the deeper seas consist wholly of silica Fi g 4 0 8

, , . .

represents a spe cies whose skeleton was probably siliceous .

l e nt erat e s C orals of modern type are not u n c o m

.
-

mon fossils .
 CRET AC E O US E RA .

E ch in o derms .
— E chinoids
are abundant ; and many of
the E chinoids are of the highest d ivision of the class ,

in wh ich the radial arrange ment of parts becomes largely

subordinated to a bilateral sym
F 4 08 IG .
metry . This group commenced .

in the previous era but became ,

more abundant in the Cretaceous .

Mo llu k s s — F igs
. 4 0 9 — 4 1 2 rep .

resent some of the most charac

t e r i s t i c species of Lamellibranchs
from the American C retaceous .

A ll these are of genera now ex

tinct ; but many genera both of SP G Siph i l b t ON E on a o a a.

Lamellibranchs and Gastropods

that still survive were already in existence .

Fig 4 1 3 represents one of the R udista a remarkable

.
,

group of Lamellibran chs peculiar to the Cretaceous in , ,

FIG S . 4 09 —412 .

LA ME LL I B R AN C H S : Fig . 4 09 . E xo gy ra c o s tata; 4 1 0 , G r p aea yh ve si c u lari s y h

; 411 , G r p aea

Pt h i c u
e ri ; 4 1 2, In o c e ram s labi at u s .

which the two valves of the shell are extremely unequal ,

the small left valve appearing as a sort of cover to t h e

dee p conical right valve .
 HIS TO R IC A L G E O LOG Y .

Figs . 4 1 4, 41 5, r epresent two American species of Gas

tr o p o ds .

Bu t the C ephalopods in this era as in the pre ceding, ,

were the most characteristic class of M ollusks The .

T e t r ab r a n c h s were represente d by numerous species of

the Ammonite group and the D ibranchs by B elemnites
, .

Figs 4 1 6 — 4 20 are Cephalopods all American species ex

.
,

cept Fig 41 8 Fig 4 1 6 is a front view

. . .

F 418 IG . .

of a species of the Ammonite group ,

showing th e p ockets formed by the

crumpling of the edge of the outer sep
tum Fi g 4 1 6 b shows the extremely
. .

complicated form of the suture in this

S pecies S ome of the J urassic and Cre
.

t a c e o u s Ammonites are 3 or 4 feet in

diameter E sp ecially ch aracteristic of
.

the C retaceous though not unknown in ,

previous eras were genera of the Ammo ,

nite group in which the sh e ll departed

from the form of a closely coiled discoidal
S piral ( Fi g 3 7 1 page 3 4 7 ) which was .
,

typical in the group Thr ee of these .

aberr a nt forms are shown in Figs 4 1 7 .

41 9 Fig 4 1 7 is the loosely coiled

. .

S cap hi te s ; Fig 4 1 8 coiled in a turreted .

,
'

S piral is a Ta rr i lzte s ( Latin ta r ri s

, ,

H Hi p tower Fig 4 1 9 is the straight B

L M
A

p
st T
un e S
LLrB R A N O
;
mo u c as
)
us '
; a ca .

li te s ( Latin ba c u lu m staff ) , .

Fig 4 20 represents a S pecies of B elemnite comm on in

.

the C retaceous beds of New J ersey .

Vertebr ate s — There were great numbers of Teleosts or

.
,

O sseous Fishe s allied to the Herring S almon M ackerel

, , , ,

etc . They occur along with numerous Sharks of both

ancient and m odern types and also many Ganoids Thus ,
.

the ancient and modern forms of Fishes were associated

in the population of the Cretaceous seas the latter how , ,

e ver greatl y p re d ominatin g es pe cially in the latter part

, ,
 CR E T AC E OU S ERA .

G AS T R O PO D s : Fig 4 1 4 ,
. F l
a sc i o ari a b u cc i n o id e s b y i C PH L P D
4 1 5 , P y ri f u s u s N e w err E A O O S
l fil du d 4 16 b d i g m h w
.

Fig 4 1 6 , Pla c e nt ic e ra s p ace n ta ; 4 16 a ,

.
s ame , i n p r o e , re ce a ra s o
uu h
i ng fo r m o f s t r e i n s ame ; 4 1 7 , S ca p i te s la rvee fo r mi ; 4 1 8 T u i l i t
s rr t t
,

; 4 19
e s c a e na u s
l u
Bac u i te s o vat s ; 420 , B e le m ni t e lla A meri c ana .
,
,
 HIS TO R IC A L G E OLO G Y .

o the era Fi g 4 21 represents one of these Teleost Fishes

f . .
,

related to the Salmon and Smelt .

R eptiles included species of all the orders occurring in

the J urassic The P lesiosaurs were represented by the
.

FIG 421
. .

TE LE OS T : O s me ro i d e s L e w e si e n s i s , x

genera Czmo lzo s a a r a s E la s mo s a u ru s etc some species of

' ’

.
, , ,

which we re 5 0 feet in length The D inosaurs incl u ded .

species of all the groups represented in the J urassic though ,

the Sauropods appear to have be come extinct before the

close of the C retaceous L ee lap s is a well known example
.
-

FIG . 422 .

D IN OS A U R : Tri c e rato p s p ro rsu s , x ‘

7s

o the Theropods and Ig u a n o olo n and Ha d r o s a u r u s of the

f ,

O rnithopods Besides O rni t hopods and Stegosaurs the

.
,

P redentata were represented by the remarkable H orne d

D inosaurs or Ce ra top s zd az ( Greek icepa s horn fix/
' ’

, u s aspect ) , , , ,

peculi ar to the Lara mie beds ( Fi g Th e s e res em .

 C RE T A C E O US E RA .

ble d in many respects the Stegosaurs , but we re strongly

characterized by the great horn cores shown in the figure ,

which doubtless supported epidermic horns like those of

cattle Among the P terosaurs P te r a n o d o n d i fi e re d from
.
,

the J urassic genera ( and from other Cretaceous genera )

in being destitute of teeth T w o species from K ansas had .

a S pread of wings of 20 to 25 feet .

There was also an order of R eptiles peculiar to the Cre

t ace o u s that of the M osasaurs or P ythonomorphs
,
great ,

E ms . 423 , 424 .

M OS A S A UR S : Fig 4 23
.
,
M o sa sa u r u s C am p e ri , x 1
15 ; 4 24 , l o w er j aw o fE d e s to s a uu
r s

di s p ar , x

snakelike Reptiles 1 5 to 7 5 feet long swimming by

, ,

means of four paddles — literally t h e Sea Serpents of the

e ra The remains of the head of one from the banks of
.
,

t h e river Meuse in H olland ( whence the name ) are r e p r e ,

sented in Fig 4 23 The American rocks have aff orded

. .

nearly fifty species of these M osasaurs The head of the .

largest was four feet long and the mouth was O f enorm ous ,

size M oreover these R eptiles had a movable j oint in the

.
,

lowe r j aw on either side in place of the usual suture ( at a

, , ,
 HIS TOR IC A L G E OLOG Y .

in Fig . which enabled the two rami of a j aw ( since

t h e rami were not united at their extre mities) to act like
a pair of arms in working do w n the immense throat any
,

large animal they might undertake to swallow whole A .

tooth of one of the Mosasaurs half the natural size is , ,

S hown in Fi g 4 25 . .

Am ong the orders of R eptiles now living th ere were ,

numerous species of Crocodiles and Turtles ; one of the

latter from K ansas measuring 1 5 feet according to C ope
, , , ,

between the tips of the extended flippers There were .

also a few L izards and the earliest of S nakes,

.

The Birds of the Cretaceous were all apparently free

from the reptilian characters of long tail and free meta
carpals possessed by the J urassic A rchae
FIG 425 .

“
,

f
.

o te r x
p y but some O them as first
, ,

made known by Marsh still retained ,

teeth .

Fig 4 26 from Marsh represents the .

, ,

skeleton of He sp er o r n i s r eg a li s one eighth ,

the natural size — a large Bird with rudi

mentary wings flat sternum ( as in the ,

O striches ) and teeth inserted in a groove ,

.

It resembled the Loons or D ivers in , ,

several features of the skeleton and w a s ,

probably aquatic in habit Fig 4 3 2 . .

represents a very different Bird Ic hthy ,

o rn i s vi c to r — a B ird of m oderate size ,

with well develope d wings keeled ster -

,

num teeth inserte d in sockets but w ith

, ,
'

the very remarkable character o f bi

concave v e rt e br ee B oth these Birds are .

T th f M
oo o uu from K ansas but a B ird apparently allie d
o s as a r s
,
,

pri ncep l s’ x
to Ich thy o rn i s has been found in the
Greensand of E ngland Apparently there were other C re .

t a c e o u s Birds which were toothless and related to the ,

modern Cormorants and Waders .

Mammals are represented by numero us teeth and frag

 CR E T AC E O US E RA .

4 2 64 3 1 .

To o m m) B
'

IRD Fi g 426 .
, He s p ero rni s regal i s s k e l e t o n x 427 l o w e r j aw x g 4 28 t o o t h
t b
, ,

p e l vi s , s i d e vi e w x 115 ; i t, i li u m ; i s i s chi um ; p , p ub i s
, , ,
x 4 ; 429 43 0
, , ve r e rae x 5 48 1
,

t bulu m
, , ,
a , ac e a .
 HIS TO R IC A L G E OLO G Y .

ments of j aws and a few fragme nts of other bones from

, ,
'
the Laramie beds of N orth America and by a single tooth ,

from the Wealden in E ngland They are probably all .

M onotreme s and Marsupials .

G E NE R AL OB S E R V ATIONS .

h
Geo grap y — The C retaceous ,
. both in N orth America
and in E urope , as compared with the earlier periods of the
Mesozoic was eminently a period of submergence This
, .

is indicate d by t h e large areas occupied by marine forma

tions and especially by the large areas O f chalk and other
limestones The deposits of chalk must have been formed
.
,

not in shallow waters adj acent to the shores but in open ,

seas It is not probable however that the seas in which

.
, ,

the chalk was deposited were of oceanic depth Forami .

n i f e r s are animals not of the abyssal depths but of the

, ,

surface the shells sinking to the bottom only after the

,

death of the animals ; and a foraminiferal deposit is there

fore evidence of an O pen sea comparatively free from
detritus but not necessarily of great depth The other
, .

fossils of the chalk belong apparently not to the abyssal .

fauna but to that of comparatively shallow water

, .

As shown for N orth America by the map on page 3 6 4 ,

the submergence did not attain its maximum unt il the

earlier part of the U pper Cretaceous The deposits of the .

L ower C retaceous were largely of fresh wate r origin on -

,

both sides of the Atlantic .

O n the Atlantic B order of N orth America the strata of ,

the Upper C retaceous are the first marine deposits known

since the L ower Silurian The geanticli n al elevation
.

formed at the time of the Taconic R evolution seems at

last to h ave subsided At the time of the greatest sub
.

mergence Chesapeake and D elaware bays were in the

,

oce a n ; Florida was under water ; the region of the M is

souri R iver was a salt water region the R ocky M ountain
-

region was largely submerged This m ountain region was .

 CRE T A C E OU S ERA .

in some parts at leas t feet lower than now the Cre ,

t a c e o u s beds having this elevation upon it The M exican .

FIG 4 32 . .

T O O T IIE D B IRD : Ic t h hy o r n i s Vi c t o r , x 5 .

Gulf spread over the Gulf States from Florida to Texas ,

and e x tended northward to the mouth of the O hio whil e

a vast mediterranean sea stretched fro m t h e western part
 HIS TO R IC A L G E OL O G Y .

of the Gulf of Mexico n orthward ove r the great plains

,

and the summit region of t h e R ocky M cib n t a i n s probably

'

even to the Arctic O cean — a distance of 3 0 0 0 miles .

About the middle of the Upper Cre t ace ous there was a ,

shallo w ing of the sea and an emergence of the land far

north in B ritish Am erica so that the great western m edi
,

terranean was cut off from the Arctic O cean and became ,

a part of the Gulf of Mexico though still having a length ,

of 20 0 0 miles or more Gradually the area of this great

.

western gulf contrac t ed along its eastern border and the ,

depth diminishe d ; until at last in the Laramie epoch , ,

brackish and fresh waters took the place of the seas in

which chalk and o ther limestone s had been deposited .

The U pper C retace ous ( and especially the L aramie

epoch ) was the gre at coal period of western N orth Amer
ica as the Carboniferous period was the coal period of
,

eastern N orth America and western E urope In each

~

case a large area which had bee n submerged beneath the

,

sea was passing through an epoch of transition to terres

trial conditions For a long time the area was balancing
.

near the sea level now emerging and clothing itself with
,

luxuriant vegetation n o w submerged and receiving sedi

,

mentary deposits The kinds of plants which made t h e

.

C retaceous forests were ho w ever widely di fl e re n t from

, ,

those of the Carboniferous .

Cli mate .
— Although there is clearer indication of dif
f e r e n t i at i o n of zones of climate in the Cretace ous than i n
any earlier period a warm climate still prevailed even
,

i n high nor thern latitudes The Cycads of the L ower

.

Cretace ous in Greenland indicate according to Heer a , ,

mean temperature not below 7 0 F T h ere appear to have °

.

been n o true coral reefs in the B ritish seas though su ch ,

reefs were certainly present in the M editerranean basin .

The isotherm O f 6 8 for the coldest winter m onth appar

°

ently passed south but not far south of Great B ritain

, ,
.

The plants of the upper M issouri region indicate a warm

temperate c limate over that territory .
 M E S O Z O IC TIM E .

G E N E R AL OBS E R VA TI ON S ON T HE M E S OZ OIC .

T i m e ti
Ra o s — The rati os between the E opaleozoic
.
,

U pper Silurian D evonian and C arboniferous ages as to

, , ,

the length of time that elapsed during their progress or ,

their time ratio s are stated on page 3 1 7 as probably not far

,

from 6 1 2 2 By the same m ethod it follows that

.
,

the ratio for the t i m e o f the P ale ozoic and Mesozoic was
.

nearly 4 1 That is M esozoic time was about one fourth

.
,

as long as the P aleozoic ; and the three eras of the M esozoic

were not far from equal the Cretaceous being probably ,

somewhat the longest .

Ameri can Ge o gr aph y — O n page 3 31 it is remarked

.

that the M esozoic formations were confined t O t h e Atlantic ,

P acific and Gulf B order regions the Arctic region and

, , ,

an Interior region west of the M ississippi co v ering much

of the R ocky Mountain area ; and that the portion of the
continent betwee n that Interior region and the Atlantic
B order had probably become part of the dry land The .

f acts which have been presente d in the preceding pages

have sustained this statement The Triassic beds as has .
,

been shown lie in long narrow strips between the A pp ala

, ,

chians and the coast and S pread widely over the R ocky
,

M ountain region an d west nearly to t h e P acific The .

J urassic beds have a similar wide distributio n in the West ,

though probably wanting in the E ast The C retace ous .

beds cover the Atlantic and Gulf B orders and a very large ,

area over the slopes of the R ocky M ountains and the adj a
cent plains and the P acific B order w est of the Sierra
,

Nevada The eastern half of the continent during the

.

Mesozoic was therefore receiving rock form ations only

, ,

along i ts borders while the western half had marine de

,

posits in progress over its great interior and on the

’
ocean s border .

The American Mesozoic deposits do not bear evidence

that they were formed in a deep ocean The Triassic an d .
 HIS TO R IC A L G E O L O G Y .

J urassic strata appear to have accumulated mainly along

coasts o r in shallo w waters o ff c oasts or i n s h allo w estuaries
, ,
‘

or inland seas ; some of the Cretaceous deposits indicate a

clear and open sea bu t not necessarily one of great depth
, .

The Appalachians — the eastern mountains of the conti

nent — had been elevate d before the early M esozoic beds
commenced to form ( page B ut the region of the
R ocky M ountains the western chain was to a great
e x tent still a shallow sea even during the Cretaceous
era or when M esozoic time was drawing to its close
,

( page
O n e strongly marke d ep och of mountain making in -
,

w estern N orth America occurre d at the close of the

,

J urassic the Sierra Nevada and other high ranges dating

,

from that time .

E uro pe an G e o g aph y
r — E urope has i ts Mesozoic rocks
.

distri bute d in patches or in several independent or nearly

,

independent areas which show that it retained its con

,

dition of an archipelago throughout Mesozoi c time The .

oscillations of level as indicate d by the variations in the

,

rocks — variations both as to the nature of the beds and

,

their distribution — we re more numerous and irregular

,

than in North America The mountain elevations formed

.
,

howe ver were few and small compared with those that
,

followed either the P aleozoic or the Mesozoic O n e series .

of disturbances i s referred to the close of the Triassic and ,

another to that of the J urassic .

Amo n g the M esozoic formations of the E uropean conti

nent there are deposits of all kinds — those of seashores ;
of o ff shore Shallow waters O f m oderately deep clear and , ,

open seas ; of inland seas ; and of marshy or dry and ,

forest covered land

-
, .

B oth in America and E urope there were some coal beds

made though all of them were comparatively insignificant
, ,

except those of western N orth America in the Upper

C retaceous ; even the se are inferior in extent to those of
the Carboniferous .
 ME S O Z OIC T IM E .

Lif e . The Mesozoic age witnessed

— the dec line
of some ancient or P aleoz oic types Of both plants and ani
mals ( 2) the increase and culmination of me d i ae val or
,

Mesozoic types and ( 3 ) the beginning of some O f the

,

most important of m odern or Cenozoic types .

1 D i s app ea ra n c e of A n c i e n t o r P a le o z o i c Fe a tu r e s
. .

Am ong the ancient tribes of plants several genera of ,

Ferns disappear in the J urassic Among the old B rachio .

pod tribes the Sp i rif e r and S tr op h o men a families end in

,

the Lias ; among M ollusks the Silurian type of Or th o cera s

,

has its last species in the Triassi c; in the same era the ,

Ganoid Fishes m ostly lose the vertebrated feature of their

tails characterizing them in the P ale ozoic and thus bear
, ,

evidence of progress .

2 P r o g re ss i n M e s o zo i c Fe a tu r e s
. The Cycads am ong .
,

plants were those m ost characteristic of the M esozoic

,

they afterward yielded to other kinds and now are a ,

nearly extinct group The Cephalopods among M ollusks

.
, ,

existed in vast numbers both those with external shells

,

( T e t r ab r a n c h s
) as the Ammonites
, and those without (,D i
branchs ) as the B elemnites The whole numbe r of species
, .

of the Ammonite group thus far described is almost 5 0 0 0

and the vast maj ority of these belong to the Mesozoic the ,

P aleozoic genera of the group including comparatively few

species N o Ammonite now exists and the only Tetra
.
,

branch Cephalopods now living are six species of the

genus N a u tilu s The whole number of species of C e p h a
.

lo p o d s living in the course of M esozoic time must have

been many thousand since only a part would have been pre
,

served as fossils The subkingdom of M ollusks there f ore

.
, ,

culminated in Mesozoic time for its highest class that of ,

the Cephalopods was then at its maximum , .

The Stegocephala or Labyrinthodonts culminated in

, ,

the Triassic and be came extinct at the close of that era

,

( or possibly during the J urassic ) .

The type of R eptiles was another that e x pande d and

reached its culmination — that is its maximum in number , ,
 HIS TOR IC A L G E O L OG Y .

variety size and rank of species — and commenced its

, , ,

decline In Mesozoic time .

There were huge s w imming R eptiles fi sh lik e Ich th y o ,

saurs and snakelike M osasau rs some of the latter 7 5 or

, ,

8 0 feet long in the place of Whales in the sea ; batlike

,

R eptiles or P terodactyls flying through the air ; four

, ,

footed R eptiles both grazing and carnivorous many of

, ,

them 25 to 5 0 feet long occupying the marshes and ,

estuaries ; and great biped R eptiles or D inosaurs over , ,

the land .

The W ealden formation of E ngland has afforded remains

of 30 or more species of D inosaurs Crocodiles and E n ali o , ,

saurs m ost of which were 1 0 to 5 0 feet long besides P tero

, ,

dactyl s and Turtles and many m ore than this must have
lived since not all that live d would have left their remains
,

in the deposits It is however not certa i n that all the

.
, ,

S pecies of the Wealden were contemporaneous T o a pp r e .

ciate this peculiarity of Mesozoic time it should be con ,

s id e r e d that in the -
present age Great B ritain has no large -

R eptiles In the whole torrid zone ( to which large Re p

.

tiles are now m ostly restricted ) there are not much m ore
than a dozen species over 1 5 feet in length ( Crocodiles ,

and Snakes of the P ython and B oa families ) and probably ,

no species reachi n g a length of 3 0 feet North America .

,

during the J urassic and C retaceous appears to have ex ,

c e e d e d all the world besides in the number and size of its ,

R eptiles Mesozoic time is well named the Ag e of R ep ti le s

. .

The Birds of the age or at least some Of them partook

, ,

of the reptilian features of the time ; so m e of them having

lo n g tails like the associated R eptile s ( though feathered
tails ) and free metacarpals ; and several different gro u ps
,

of B irds having reptile like teeth Th e R eptilian Birds

-
.

and P terodactyls were the flying creatures of the age ;

the Ichthyosaurs and P lesiosaurs and the like the great “
,

whales ”
the Crocodiles and D inosaurs the dominant life ,

Of the estuaries and of the land E ven the Mammals bore .

a reptilian character being mostly and probably exclu

, ,
 L A R AM ID E R E V O L U TIO N .

s i v e ly , M onotremes and Marsupials The M onotremes .

resemble R eptiles in being oviparous and in numerous ,

anatomical characters And the M arsupials though v i v i p a

.
,

rous have not attained to the typical mam malian character

,

of placental nutrition of the embryo ( page

3 In tr o d u c ti o n of Ce n z i c
. o o F e a tu r e s — Am ong plants
the first of Angiosperm s are fou nd in the C retaceous .

These become the characteristic plants of Cenozoic time .

A m ong Vertebrates there was a great expansion of the

group of T eleosts or O sseous Fishes the species charac
, ,

t e r i s t i c of earlier time having been either Selachians P laco ,

derms Ganoids or D ipnoans ( page

, ,
The earliest
species of the modern genus Cr o co di lu s occur in the C reta
ce o u s the first of Birds in the J urassic R eptilian B irds ;
the first O f Mammals in the Triassic probably M ono —

tremes .

O f the classes of Vertebrates Fishes commenced in the ,

e a rly P ale ozoic Amphibia and R eptiles in the later P aleo

,

z oic Mammals in the early M esozoic and Birds in the

, ,

middle Mesozoic .

D I S TU R BAN CE S CL OS I N G M E SOZ OI C TI ME .

Th e P o st - Mes o zo i c, or Larami d e , R e v o lu ti o n
The close .
—

of Mesozoic time was m arked by the making of the

greatest of American m ountain systems T h e L aramide .

mountain system extends alo n g the whole li n e of the sum

mit reg i on of the R ocky M ountains from near the A rctic
O cean to central M exico — a distance exceeding 4 0 0 0
miles In the m iddle latitudes of the U nited States it
.
,

incl u des the Wasatch R a n ge of U tah and other ranges to

the e ast as far as the Front R ange of C olorado .

In the Laramide system as in the earlier Taconic an d

,

Appalachian systems there had been an accumulation of

,

many thousan d s of feet of strata in a ge osyncline which ,

was in progress through P aleozoic and Mesozoic ti me ; and

the final orogenic catas t rophe was of the same general nature .
 HIS TO R IC A L G E O LO G Y .

It is also pro bable that in S outh America at t hi s sam e ,

time another system of ranges o f as gre at a leng t h was

,

made along the Andes and that consequently the m oun ,

tain maki n g movements of America at the close of the

-

Cretace ous extende d through nearly one third of the

’
earth s circumference .

The m ountain making of this time w as accompanied

-

by extensive igneous outflows T rachyte eruptions took .

place in the Wasatch M ountains .

The eruption of the trap of the D eccan in I ndia ( page

the most colossal outflow of igneous rock of which
we have evidence took place at or near the Close of the
,

C retaceous .

Ch ange o f Fau na a nd Flo ra — The disappearance of .

life at this crisis was so extensive that no species of the

Cretaceou s era except some Foraminifers and land plants
, ,

have yet been iden t ified with certainty in any rock of the
following era This is another great feature in which
.

the P ost Mesozoic revolution was like the P ost P aleozoic

- -
.

N ot only spe cies but also many of the families and orders
,

characteristic of the M esozoic disappeared Here ended .

the reign of R eptiles all the characteristic Mesozoic kinds

,

-
the D inosaurs E n ali o s au rs P terosaurs and others
, , ,

becoming e x tinct The Ammonite s also and the Belem

. , .

nites with m any of the genera of other Classes of M ollusks

, ,

disappeared Among plants the Cycads which were a

.
, ,

prominent feature of the early C retaceous forests even ,

in Arctic lands later retreated southward and became

, ,

confined to the warm temperate and tropical zones where -

,

the few species now existing are to be found .

A S in other such exterminations the extinction of life ,

was not u niversal The survival of the genera and fami

.

lies proves that there was n o cataclysmic break i n the

succession of life ; and some regions may have su ffered
little exterminati on All that can be a ffi rmed is that the
.
,

fossils of the Tertiary era t h e next after the Cretaceous , ,

in clude so far as yet discovered no marine Cretace o us

, ,
 Z
C EN O OIC T IM E .

species except a few species of Foraminifers and no Cre

, ,

t ac e o u s species of terrestrial Vertebrates .

A s to the cause s of so remarkable a change in the life

of the globe the remarks made on page 33 0 in reference
,

to the Appalachian revolution are applicable here P rob .

ably the extinction of species at the close of the Mesozoic

was in great degree due to Climatic changes The emer .

gence from the ocean of one third of N orth America and ,

probably of as large a part of S outh America and of large ,

p ortions of other continents with the resultant change s

,

in t h e p at h s of ocean currents and the formation of lofty

°

mountain ranges must have produced very appreciable

,

changes of climate This may account for much e x t i n c

.

tion of S pecies even in regions where the Cretaceous strata

and the overlying Tertiary are perfe ctly conformable .

IV . C E N O Z O IC T IM E .

C E N O Z O IC T IM E i ncludes two eras — 1 T HE T E R TIA R Y ,

E R A or A G E O F M A M M A L S ; and 2 T HE Q U A TE R N A R Y
, , ,

or A G E O F MA N .

Gene ral Ch aracte ri st i cs — In the transition to this aeon

.

the life of the world takes on a new aspect Trees of .

m odern types — O aks Maples Beeches etc and P alms

, , , .
,

- unite with Conifers to make the forests ; M ammals of

great variety and size — Ungulates Carni v ores and others , , ,

successors to the small oviparous and semi oviparous Mam -

mals of the Mesozoic — tenant the land in place of R e p ,

tiles ; typical Birds and B ats possess the air in place of ,

R eptilian B irds and P terodactyls ; Whales and Teleosts , ,

with Sharks mainly of modern type occupy the waters in , ,

place of E n ali o s au rs and almost to the exclusion of t h e

,

anci ent tribes O f Cestraciont S harks and Ga n oids Finally .

Man appears when Mammals are passing their m aximum

,

in grade and magnitude and be come s the dominant S pecies

,

of the finishe d world .

 HIS TO R IC AL G E O LO G Y .

I. TE RTIAR Y E R A . 0

A
G E NE R L CH R A ACTE RIS TICS .

The Mammals of this age are all extinct species and ,

the animals of other classes largely so the num ber of li v

ing species of Invertebrates varies from perhaps one per
cent in the early part of the age to 9 0 at its close .

S UB DIVIS IONS .

The Tertiary strata have been divided by Lyell into

.

three groups base d upon the ratios between the extinct

,

species and those still living a m ong the Invertebrate fos ,

sils of the respective beds

'
1 E o ce ne ( from the Greek fiai s dawn and x a w o s recent)
’
.
, , ,

specie s nearly all extinct .

2 Mi o cene ( fr o m ue i wv less and zca w o s )

’ '
. less than half
, ,

the species living .

3 Pli o ce ne ( from n k e awv more and m ore than

’
.
, ,

half the species living .

S ome geologists re cognize a period called Olig o ce n e b e

tween E ocene and M iocene b u t the O ligocene strata are
here included in the E ocene .

The name Ne o cen e is sometimes applied to the Miocene

and P liocene taken together .

AME RICAN GE OGR APHY : AREAS OF ROCK-M AKING .

The changes of level during the Laramie epoch and at

its close involved the emergence of the great I nterior
region of the continent O f the great mediterranean sea
.

which had characterized the C retaceous pe riod the only ,

remnants were a large bay on the Arctic shores an exte n ,

sion of the Gulf of M exico at the south and some large ,

fresh water lakes distributed ove r the interior M arine

-
.

Tertiary deposits ( exclusive O f those in the Arctic regions )

were accordin gly confined to the Atlantic and Gulf B order
 TE R TI AR Y E RA .

( whic h f ormed a single continuous area ) and the P acific ,

B orde r . Fresh water deposits of great extent and i m

-

portance were made in the lakes of the Interior The .

map ( Fig 4 33) s hows the are as of submerge nce and of

.

rock making in the early and later Tertiary respe ctively

-
.

The areas vertically lined were under water ( salt or fresh )

in the E ocene those h o r i zontally lined we re under water
in one or both of the later periods of the Tertiary ; those
FIG . 433 .

N o rt h Am e ri ca i n t h e Te r ti ar y e ra .

cross line d were submerged in both early and later Ter

-

t i a ry time. As shown in the m ap the nor thward exten ,

sion of the Gulf of Mexico in the region of the M ississippi

was about the same in the E ocene as in the C retace ous ,

but the shore line moved far southward in the later Ter
t i ary
. The great lakes of the E ocene were in what is
now the summit region of the R ocky Mountains O n e .

of them ( U on the map ) lies sou th of the U inta M oun

,
 HIS T O R IC A L G E OL O G Y .

tains bet ween the Wasatch and the Front R anges of C olo
,

rado ; another still larger ( W on the ma p ) lies north of

, , ,

the Uinta M ountains In the later Tertiary the lakes of

.
,

the summit region were drained and great lakes were ,

forme d west and espe cially east of that region The

, , .

situation of these lakes indicates that the R ocky M ountain

region in general was much less elevated at the beginning
of the T ertiary than at present .

R OCK S : K INDS AND DIS TRIB UTION .

The m arine and lacustrine formations are i ndependent

in their fossils and are nowhere i n t e rs t rati fi e d
, M ore .

over as geographical diversity O f faunas has increased

,

through all geol ogical time the fossils of the Atlantic and
,

P acific B orders are almost wholly of di ff erent species It .

is therefore impossible to m ake any exact correlation of

the formations of the di fferent regions .

The most northerly outcrop of the E ocene on the Atlantic

B order is in N e w J ersey The formation appears in that
.

state as a narrow and interrupted belt It is wider in .

Maryland and V irginia and still wider in S outh Carolina

, .

B ut i t is best displayed on the Gulf B order .

The M ioce n e appears on M arthas Vineyard and d re d g ,

ings on Georges Bank and the Grand Bank of New

f o u n dla n d indicate tha t the deposit continues under the
shallow sea east of N e w E ngland It extends continu .

o u s ly from N e w J ersey to N orth Carolina is represented ,

by isolated patches in S outh Carolina is well developed ,

in Florida and extends along the Gulf B order to Texas

,

and beyond though partly covered by later deposits

, .

P atches of m arine P liocene appear at various points

along the Atlantic B order but the formation attains its
,

most extensive development in Florida ( Flori d ian forma

tion ) . A long the Gulf B order lacustrine dep osits of late
Tertiary age occur in variou s places .

The Tertiary rocks are generally but little consolidate d ;

the y consist mostly of compacted s and pebbles clay earth , , , ,
 TE R TI ARY E RA .

that was once the mud of the sea bottom or of e stuaries

or lakes mixed often with shells They are indeed
, .
, ,

such deposits as are now forming along seashores and ,

i n shallow bays estuaries and lakes or in shallo w waters

, , ,

O R a coast There are also limestones made of shells and

.
,

others of corals resembling the reef rock of coral seas

, .

The latte r are found mainly in the state s bordering on

the Mexican Gulf Another variety of rock is buhrstone
.
,

a silice ous rock cellular by reason of the removal of fossil

,

shells by solution used on acco u nt of its being so hard

, ,

and at the same time full of irregular cavities for making

.
,

millstones It occurs in the E ocene of S outh Carolina

.
,

Georgia and Alabama Beds of greensand and of lignite

, .

or coal occur in some of the deposi t s B eds of D iatoms .

and Radiolarians are sometimes of considerable thickness .

In general the Tertiary rocks differ from those of earlie r

,

periods in that the character of the beds of the same hori

zon is apt to vary from mile to mile instead of persisting ,

over large areas There are however some exceptional

.
, ,

cases of Tertiary beds whose cha racter is nearly uniform

over considerable areas The lacustrine beds of the Inte
.

rior are remarkable for the treasures of fossil Mammals

which they have yielded Local lignitic beds of lac u s .

trine origin are scattered over various parts of the coun

try O n e a t Brandon Vermont supposed to be of E ocene
.
, ,

age is famous for the fossils it has yielded

, .

The Tertiary of Great B ritain ( 1 1 on m ap page 29 5) , ,

occurs mostly in the southeastern part of E ngland in the ,

Lo n don basin and on the souther n and eastern borders of

,

the island adj oining the Cretaceous The large areas are
, .

mostly E ocene ( including O ligocene ) ; a narrow s t rip along

the coast of N orfolk and S uff olk is P liocene .

O n the continent of E urope the P aris basin is note d ,

for its E ocene strata and their fossil M ammals O ther .

Tertiary areas are those of the Pyrenean and M e di t e rr a

nean regions those of Switzerland of A u stria etc S ome
, , , .

of the marine E ocene beds contain Rhizopods ( p 6 2) .

 HIS TOR IC A L G E O LO G Y .

having the shape o f a coin called N ummu li tes ( from the ,

Latin n u rmn u s a coin ) O n e is here figured natural

, .
,

size ; the exterior of one half has been removed to show

the cells wi t hin O ccasionally the beds are so far made
.

up of these Nummulites that the rock is called N u m mu li t i c

L imestone .

These marine E ocene strata spread very widely ove r

E urope northern Africa and Asia — occurring in the
, ,

P yrenees forming some of their summits ,

F 434’G '
in the Alps to a height of more than
'

feet ; in the Carpat h ians ; in Algeria ; in

E gypt where the mos t noted pyramids
,

were made of N ummulitic Limestone ; in

P ersia ; in the Himalayas to a height of ,
“
fi gggg flgfig m ore than feet in J apan and the
’ ‘

fl l
;
E ast Indies The later T ertiary formations .

are much m ore limited in distribution and many are of ,

terrestrial or fresh water origin -

.

The roc k s are similar to those of N orth A m erica but ,

include more of hard sandstone and limestone The sand .

stone is a ve ry common building stone in di fferent parts

of E urope being soft enough to be worked with facility
, ,

yet generally hardening o n exposure owing to the fact ,

that it contains calcareous particles (triturated shells ) ,

which render the pe rcolating waters or rain calcareous so ,

that on evaporating they produce a calcare ous deposit as ,

a cement among the grains of sand

,
.

LIFE .

P L AN TS .

The great feature Of the Tertiary vegetation is the

prevalence of Angiosperms a class of plants which thus , ,

far is unknown before the Cretace ous Leaves of O ak

, .
,

P oplar Maple H ickory D ogwood Mulberry Magnolia

, , , , , ,

C innamon Fi g Sycam ore Willow and many others rep

, , , , ,

resent the D icotyledons while the M onocotyledons are rep,

 TE R TI AR Y E RA . 39 1

resented by numerous P alms There are also remains of .

Conife rs N uts are common in some beds

.
— as at B ran
don Ve rmont Fig 4 35 is the leaf o f an O ak Fig 4 36
,
. . .
,

of a S pecies of Cinnamon Fig 439 of a P alm ; Fig 4 37 .

,
.

the nut of a B eech much like that of the common B eech ;

,

Fig 4 38 another nut from B randon of unknown rel a

.
, , ,

tions .

D IC O TYLE DO N s : Fig . Qu u erc s m y ti f li

r o ; 43 6, C in n am o m m
a u Mi s si s si ppi en se ;
437 , F gu
a s fe rrugi ne a ; 438 , C arp o li th e s irreg ulari s — M O N O C O T YL E
. D ON : Fig 439 , Os
.

lam o p s i s D ame .

The E ocene Plants of Great B ritain included P alms ,

a nd among those of central and southern E urope there

were many species related to the trees of Australia w hile

the Miocene and P liocene flo ra s of E urope ( especially the
former ) had much similarity to the flora of America .

The microscopic plants which form silice ous shells ,

called D iatoms ( Figs 1 4 3— 1 4 8 page make e xtensive

.
,

deposits in some places O n e stratum near R ichmond Vir .

,
 HIS TO R IC A L G E O LO G Y .

ginia is 30 feet thick and is many miles in extent ; another

, ,
,

near M onterey California is 5 0 feet thick and the mate

, , ,

rial is as white and fine as chalk which it resembles in ap ,

e ar an ce ; another near Bilin in B ohemia is 1 4 feet thick

p , , .

D I T
A OM S (and o th er g
o r an i s m s ) fro m R i c mo nh d di
m ace o s b e d
at o u Pi ul
p e re ri na ;
a , nn a ri a g
b, c , Od o n tid i u m nnu la t u m ; d ,
pi G ramm at o ph o ra m ari na ; e
, S po ng i o h t h i s a pp e n i c d
l
u at a ; f , M e lo s i ra s ul
c a ta ; g , s a m e , t ra n s v e rs e s e c ti o n ; 12, A c ti no c y c lu s E h re nb e rg ii

buu
i , C o s cm o d i s c n s ap i c u la t u s ; j , Tri c e ra ti u m o t s m ; 1c , A c t i n o p ty c h u s n at s ; u dul u
u g
l, D i c ty o c h a c r x ; m Di c ty o c h a ; n , fra m e n t o f A c ti no p ty ch u s se n ari s ; 0 , N avi c a ;
, u ul
p , frag me n t o f Co s c i no d i u gi g
sc s as .

The material from the latter place was u se d as a p olish

ing powder ( and called T ripoli or p olishing slate ) long ,

before it was known that its fine grit was owing to the
remains of microscopic life E hrenberg has calculated .

t h at a cubic inch of the fine earthy rock c ontains about

 TE R TI AR Y E RA .

forty one thousand millions of organisms Su ch ac cu mu

- .

lat i o n s of D iatoms are m ade bo t h in fresh waters and

salt and in th ose of the ocean at all d epths A group of
,
.

D iatoms from the R ichmond bed is shown in Fig 4 4 0 . .

AN IM A L S .

The m ost prominent fact with regard to the Tertiary

Invertebrates is their general resemblance to modern spe
cies Although a number of the gene ra are extinct and
.
,

nearly every E ocene species there is still a m odern look,

in the remains and the specimens have often the fresh

,
-

ness of shells from a modern beach O nly a special stu .

dent Of the M ollusca can distinguish the Tertiary species

from those now living After the E ocene species of the
.
,

present time begin to be abundant The common O yster .

and Clam have been found fossil in deposits believed to

be of Miocene age .

R emains of Insects are more abundant and varied than

in any previous era All the imp ortant orders are r e p re
.

sented including the Le p i d o p t e rs ( Moth s and B utterflies)

, ,

which probably do n o t occur in any earlier formation .

M ore than 20 00 species of Insects in wonderfully perfect ,

state of preservation have bee n obtained from the Ambe r

,

of the Baltic S hores The Amber is a fossil resin derived

.
,

from C oniferous trees of the Upper E ocene ( O ligocene )

period ; and the Insects were caught in t h e resin while
it was still liquid and thus e ffectually embalmed Flo
, .

r i s s an t C olorado is a famous locality for E ocene Insects

, ,

and O eningen in Switzerland and Radoboj in Croatia are , ,

among the richest M iocene localities .

With regard to Vertebrates the points of special inter ,

est are the follo w ing

.1 In the class of Fishes ( 1 ) Teleosts or Fishe s allied ,

to the P erch and Salmon are as already stated the p r e va

, , ,

lent group ; ( 2) sharp toothed Sharks are abundant some

-
,

of the m having teeth 6 inches long and nearly 5 inches

bro ad . Th e teeth of Sharks are the m ost durable part Of
 HIS TO R IC A L G E O L O G Y .

the skeleton ; they are very abundant in both E ocene and

M iocene beds Fig 4 4 1 represents a too th of Ca r ch a r o d o n
. .

a ng u s t i ole n s The larger teeth above alluded to belong t o

.

Ca r c lza r o d o n meg a lo d o n and are found at di ff erent places ,

on t h e Atlantic B orde r from Marthas Vineyard southward .

Fi g 4 4 2 represents the tooth of another common kind of

.

Shark a species of L a mn a from the E ocene

, ,
.

2 In the class of Amphi bians : O nly the modern groups

.

of Salamanders and T oads and

FIG 44 1 442S
Frogs are represented
, .
.

3 I n the class of R eptiles .

C rocodiles and Turtles are nu

me r o u s The shell of one of the .

P liocene turtles found fossil in ,

I ndia h a d a length of 1 2 feet , ,

and the animal is supposed to

have been 20 feet long .

4 In the class of Birds : The .

S pecies found are not long tailed -

,

or in any respe ct reptilian but ,

resemble modern Birds they are

related to the Geese P elicans , ,

P etrels Herons Rails P heasants , , , ,

E agles O wls D oves P arrots , , , ,

W oodpeckers Sparrows and , ,

other kinds .

S FIG 44 1 t th f C
E L A C R IA N s : . 5 In the class O f Mammals
, oo o ar .

m iM L m
i
figgfi fi i
a g n us e ns a
The typical ( P lacental ) Mam
‘
'

mals attain a remarkable develop

ment In the Mesoz oic probably all t h e Mammalian r e
.
,

mains are those of Marsupials and M onotremes B ut the .

very earliest E ocene deposits contain remains of a numbe r

O f orders of P lacental Mammals Before the close of the .

E ocene most of the p rincipal orders now in existence had

,

already appeared in addition to some orders now extinct , .

There were already i n the E ocene Insectivores B ats Car , , , ,

n i vo r e s Lemurs R odents Un ulates and Whales Befor e

, g , , ,
.
 TE R TI A RY E RA .

the close of the Miocene E dentates and Monkeys were ,

added to the list

Many of the E ocene Mammals exhibit remarkably gen
e r a li z e d or primitive characters
, They have the typical
, .

number of teeth and have the molars of simple form

with cro w ns showing three tubercles Their feet are .

fi ve toed and plantigrade

-
, the entire foot even to ,

the wrist or heel rests up on the ground ) and the bones

,

FIG . 443

UN GU LA TE : P h e na c o du s pri m aavu s , x i ls ; a, fo re fo o t ; b, hi d f
n oo t .

of the wrist and ankle are in parallel se ries The two .

bones of the forearm ( radius and ulna ) and the corre ,

s po n din
g bones of the leg are distinct from each other , .

In later times some of the Ungulates have departed most

,

widely from these primitive characters as may be seen in ,

the H orse with its smaller number of teeth complicated

, ,

enamel folds i n its m olars fingers and toes reduced to ,

one only the finger nails and toe nails ( hoofs ) reaching
,

the ground bones of wrist and ankle interlocking bones

, ,

Of the forearm united ( the ulna becomin g little m ore than

39 6 HIS TO R IC A L G E OLO G Y .

a rudiment ) and the leg showing a like modification The

, .

number of teeth has suffered red u ction 1 n almost all the

later Mammals but o t h e IS of the primitive C haracteristics
which have been mentioned are retained in many groups
of modern Mammals ( some O f them in Man himself) .

In the earliest E ocene some of the representative s of the

,

Ungulate series exhibited all the primitive characters

j ust enumerated . S uch a primitive Ung u late as is S hown
in Fig 4 4 3 di ffers bu t little from the types of Carnivores
.

( Creodonts ) that e xisted in the same early E ocene strata .

The various orders had not then become as strongly d i fle r

e n t i a t e d as they were destine d to b e c o m e i n later times .

B efore the close of the E ocene Ungulates and Carnivores

,

had diverged much further from each other and presented ,

themselves in much m ore characte ristic forms There .

is perhaps n o finer illustration of the theory of evolution

than that wh ich is presented in the progress of the Ungu
lates from the extremely generalized forms of the earlies t
E ocene to such specialized forms as the H orses and
Rumin ants of to day -
.

Anoth er note w orthy general fact in regard to the M am

mals of the e arly Te rtiary is the small S ize of their brains ,

as compare d with later species as illustrated in Figs

,
.

4 4 44 4 6 .

Cuvier first made kno w n to science the existence of

Tertiary Mammals of extinct spe cies The remains from .

the earthy beds about P aris had been long known and were ,

thought to be those of modern beasts B ut by careful study .

,

and comparison with living animals C uvier was enabled ,

to bring the scattered bones together into skeletons as ,

certain the orders to which they belonged and determine ,

the food and m ode of life of the extinct species Cuvier .

acquired his skill in the interpretation of fossils by

observing the m u tual dependence which subsists between
all parts of a skeleton and in fact all parts of an animal
, , ,
.

A sharp Claw is evidence that the animal has trenchant

or cutting molar teeth and is a fle s h eater ; a hoof that
,
-
,
 TE R TI AR Y E RA .

he has broad molars and is a grazing species ; and fur , ,

ther almost every bone has some m odification showing

,

the group of species to which it belongs and may thus be ,

an indication in t h e hands of one well versed in the sub

,
,

e c t of the special type of the animal and of its structure

j , , ,

even to its stomach within and its hide without In thus .

applying comparative anatomy to the interpretation of

fossils Cuvie r laid the foundation of a n e w departme n t
,

of science paleontology
FIG 444 44 6 S .
— .

llu
I s t r a ti o n s o f l
r e a ti ve z
si e s o f b Fig 444 D i no ce ras (E o c e n e ) ; 44 5 , Ti t an o t
r ai n s : .
,
h ium
er

uu ( M i o c e n e ) ; 44 6 , E q s ( R ec e n t ) .

O n e genus of t hese P aris beasts fro m the m iddle E ocene

'
beds is named P a loe o tk e r iu m from the Greek 7 ra 7t a i o s , ,

ancient and flnp lo v wild beast It is related to the m odern

, , .

Tapirs though it had a longer neck and a more slender

,

and gracef u l form It was in so m e respects intermediate

.

between the Tapir and the H orse The largest species .

of the genus was of the size of a Horse P a loco tker i u m .

was a representative of the P erissodactyls — U ngulates

having an odd number of toes ( at least in the hind feet) ,
 HIS TO R IC A L G E O LO G Y .

and the middle toe the largest A n Op lo tlgcr i u m X ip h o olo n

.
, ,

and others of the P aris fossils we re representatives of ,

the Artiodactyls having the number of toes even and the

, ,

third and fourth toes about equally developed as in the ,

Hog D ee r O x etc It is noteworthy that these two

, , , .

principal Suborders of modern Un gulates had become dif

f e re n t i a t e d before the close of the E ocene The fauna O f .

'

the P aris E ocene included also some Car n ivores a Bat , ,

and an O possum .

FIG . 44 7 .

UN G UL T
A E : D i no ce ras mi ra i bl e,

The marine E ocene deposits of the Gulf States ha v e

a fforded remains of a species O f Whale of great le n gth ,

called Z eug lo clo n from ée ziy xn yoke and 680 199 tooth in
,
’

, , , ,

allusion to the fact that some of the teeth have two long
fangs which give them a y o k e lik e shape The bones occur .

in many places in the Gulf States and in Alabama the ver ,

"
tebr as were formerly so abundant as to have been built
up into stone walls or burned to rid the fields of them
,
.

The living animal was probably 7 0 feet in length One .

 TE R TI R A Y E RA .

of the larger vertebr ae measures a foot and a hal f i n length

and a foot in diameter .

The lacustrine deposits of the R ocky Mountain region

have yielded a wonde rfully rich harvest of Mammalian
remains The remarkably primitive U ngulate P ken a co
. ,

d u s shown in Fi g 4 4 3 is from the lowe r E ocene ( W asatch )

, .
,

beds of Wyoming From the M iddle E ocene ( Bridger

.

group ) of the G reen R iver basin north of the Uinta ,

Mountains a large number of species have been obtained

,
.

The skull of one kind of elephantine size having six , ,

horn cores and called by Marsh D i n o ce r a s in allusion to

,
-
,

FIG S . 448 —4 51 .

E QU ID E : Fig 448 , fo re
. fo o t o h u
f Oro i pp s (E o c e n e) ; 449 , A nch i th e ri um (Mio ce n e ) ;
Pl
Hi ppari o n ( i o ce n e ) ; 45 1 , E s (R e c e n t ) q uu .

its horns is represented in Fig 4 4 7 There was also one

,
. .

of the earliest genera of the Horse tribe called Or o hipp u s ,

and it is remarkable that these E ocene H orses had four

usable toes in the fore feet ( Fig and three in the .

hind feet instead of the single toe of the modern H orse

, .

The relation of the foot of the latter to d i fi e re n t kinds

of Tertiary H orses is illustrated in Figs 4 4 8 4 51 .
-
.

In Fig 4 5 1 it is shown that the modern H orse has one

.

usable toe the third and rudiments O f two others the

, , ,

second and fourth in what are called the splint bones , .

I n Hipp a r io n of the P liocene ( Fig

, the second and .

fourth have hoofs b u t they are so shor t as not ordinarily

,
 HIS TO R IC AL G EO LO G Y .

to reach the ground In A n ch i th e r iu m of the Miocen e

m
.
,

( gF i . the second and fourth toes co e to the ground ,

and are therefore usable In Or o h ipp u s ( Fi g which . .

was not large r than a Fo x there are four toes and all are , ,

usable .

O ther Wyomi n g species are relate d to the Tapir and

Hog some approaching in characters the P aris P a laeo
,

t h er i u m There were also Lemurs C reodonts ( animals r e

.
,

lated to Carnivores in form and habit but retaining some ,

of the primitive characteristics of Insectivores ) Bats , ,

Moles and other Insec t ivores R odents and Marsupi als

, , , .

“
The Lower Miocene beds of the Ba d Lands on the ”
,

White R iver ( regarded by W B S cott as O ligocene ) . .

,

FIG 45 2
. .

UN GUL T
A E : to o t h o f Ti ta n o t h i um P
er ro nti , x 5 .

have afi o rd e d remains of othe r Mammals Among them .

are several Carnivores relate d somewhat to the Hyena ,

D o g and P anther ; many U ngulates including several

, ,

species of Rhinoceros and forms approaching the Tapir , ,

P eccary D eer Camel Horse ; also several genera of

, , ,

R odent s Fig 4 5 2 represents a tooth of Ti ta n o tlze r i u m

. .
,

an animal related to the Tapir and P a loeo tber i u m but of ,

elephantine size standing probably 7 or 8 feet high The

, .

skull in this genus shows a pair of large horn cores 0 11

the boundary between the frontal and the nasal bones
a structure not found in any P erissodactyl now living .

Horns in pairs are at present confined to the Artiodactyls .

Fi g 4 5 3 represents the skull of another Miocene Mam ;

.

mal c alled Or e o olo n which i s i n t e r m e di at e between t h e

, .
 TE R T I AR Y E RA .

D eer , C amel and Hog R emains of a C am e l a n d R h i

, .
‘

n o ce ro s and of some tapir like beasts have bee n found

,
-
,

the Miocene of the Atlantic B order .

FIG 453 . .

UN GUL A TE : O re o d g on rac i li s .

I n t h e Upper M iocene beds ( L oup Fork group ) of

N ebraska and other localities ( considered P liocene by
some ge ologists ) still other ,

species occur including Camels FIG 4 54 . .

, ,

a R hinoce ros a Mastodon , ,

Horses D eer a W olf a Tiger

, , , ,

Weasels — a range of species

quite O riental in charac t e r .

A mong M ammal s of the E u

ro
p e a n Miocene there we re
H orses R hinoceroses D eer and
, , ,

othe r Ungulates including two ,

gene ra ( D i n o tlze r i u rn and Ma s to I

d o n ) of the remarkable sub order

of P rob oscideans In the ge nu s PR B C ID D m th i m g ig O OS E AN o er u an

t um x
.
1
e , 30 .

D in o t h e r i u m the tusks we re in
,

the lowe r j aw as shown in Fig 4 5 4 The E lephant now

, . .
,

t h e only surviving genus o f P ro boscideans did not ap ear

p ,
 HIS T O R IC A L G E O L O G Y .

until the P liocene The earliest O x en occur in the P li o

.

cene of E urope and India .

There were also in the E uropean Miocene and P liocene

many Carnivores beside s M onkeys Aard vark s etc
, ,
-
, .

G E NE R AL OBS E RVATIONS .

Ge o gr aph y : Mo u nt a in mak in g
The Tertiary era was
-
.
—

characterized both in the O ld World and the New ( 1 )

, ,

by the approximate completion of the work of rock mak -

ing on the borders of the conti n ents so that the land ,

areas gained nearly the outlines which they have at pres

ent ; ( 2) by great orogenic m ovements in which most of ,

the loftiest mountain ranges of the globe acquired at least

a conside rable part of their present elevation .

In N orth America by the close of the Tertiary the con

, ,

t i n e n t had reached substantially its present extent along ,

the Atlantic G ulf and P acific B orders and the great lakes
, , ,

of the R ocky M ountain region had been drained .

At the close of the Miocene the C oast R ange of O regon

,

and C alifornia experienced a second uplift ( see page

Cretaceous E ocene and Miocene strata being tilted and
, ,

more or less folde d .

But the most remarkable geographical change in North

Am erica was a great geanticlinal m ovement a ffecting the
whole R ocky Mountain region The long persistence of .

lakes in the R ocky M ountain region indicates that the

elevation was not great in the E ocene and Miocene and ,

that a large part of the movement took place in P liocene

time The C retace ous beds ( which must have been origi
.

nally at or near sea level ) have an altitude ( in spite of

great denudation ) of feet in parts of the United
S tates , feet in central Mexico and 4 0 0 0 feet in ,

British America near the Arctic O cean This elevation is .

partly due to the post Mesozoic orogenic movement ( Lara

-

mide revolution ) d escribed on page 3 83 and partly to the ,

Tertiary geanticlinal m ovement But nearly horizontal .

Tertiary strat a ar e f ou nd in W y oming n orth of the Uint a ,

 T E R TI AR Y ERA .

Mountains at an elevation of more than 9 0 0 0 feet and in

, ,

the High P lateaus of Utah at an elevation o f more than

feet .

, The Sierra Ne vada ( as explaine d on page 36 2 ) was

formed by the crushing of a ge osyncline at the close of
the J urassic Bu t much of the height then gained was
.

doubtless lost by erosion Le C onte has shown by a study

.

of the river valleys that a large part of the present altitude

of that range is due to its participation in the great R ocky
Mountain geanticlinal movement The old river valleys .

of the region ha ve been filled up and o bliterated by basaltic

eruptions whose date was not far from the close of the
Tertiary The fact that the new valleys have been carved
.

to a far greater depth than the old ones indicates that the
region has been greatly elevated .

The formation of the great geanticline was accompanied

by t h e development of numerous faults some of them hav ,

ing a throw of thousands of feet having in general a trend ,

approximately parallel with the axis of the mountain chain ,

and distributed over the whole breadth of the Great Basin ,

from the Sierra N e vada to the Wasatch and southward ,

ove r the High P lateaus of Utah The steep eastern front .

of the Sierra is determined by one of these great faults .

In the O rient the E ocene era was one of very extensive

,

su bmergence of the land as shown by the distribution of ,

the N u mm u li t i c beds over E urope Asia and northern , ,

Africa as stated on page 39 0 Before the close of the

, .

E ocene the greater part of these continental seas became

,

dry land and in general continued so afterwards ; for the

,

marine Miocene and P liocene are comparatively of limited , ,

extent Many of the principal mountain ranges of E urope

.

and A sia as the Pyrenees Alps C arpathians H imalayas

, , , , ,

etc received in Tertiary time a large part of their eleva

.
,
~

tion The P yrenees were elevated at the close of the

.

E ocene The region of the Alps had experienced a num

.

ber of orogenic disturbances in for m er times one of these ,

epochs of dis t urba nce being at the close of the P aleozoic ;

 HIS TO R IC A L G E O L O G Y .

but the great m ovement which formed the Alps of to day -

dates from the close of the Miocene Th e J ura and the .

Carpathians belong to the same period of disturbance which

produced the Alps The Apennines give evidence of one
.

orogenic m ovement at the close of the E ocene and another

at the close of the Miocene The H imalayas have N u m
.

m u li t i c ( E ocene ) beds at a height of more than

,

feet ; so that this great chain although it shows in the,

region of the Indus evidence of some disturbance before

the E ocene was not completed till after the deposition of
,

the Nummulitic Limestones Whether the principal m ove

.

ment of elevation was at the close of the E ocene or at the ,

close of the M iocene has not been certainly shown S ome

, .

elevation occurred even after the deposit of the P liocene

beds of the Siwalik H ills .

Thus when the Tertiary era closed the globe had a o

, ,

quired substantially its present features .

The great geanticlinal moveme nts a ffecting large areas

of the continents probably had their counterpart in a sub
s i d e n c e of great parts of the ocean bottom — the C oral
Island subsidence ( see page
Gondwana land connecting India with southern Africa
-
,

in late P aleozoic time and throughout Mesozoic time a c ,

cording to O ldham sank below the sea in the Tertiary

, .

I gn e o u s E r upt i o ns — A great period of igne ous e ru p

tions i n western N orth America commenced at the close of
the Cretaceous ( Laramide revolution ) culminated in the ,

Miocene and may be said to have continued with diminish

,

ing intensity to the present time some of the volcanic ,

cones being not yet extinct The Tertiary eruptio n s were

.

in large part fissure eruptions ( page though great

volcanic cones we re also form e d The area in the north .

western Unite d States covere d by sheets of eruptive rock

is only surpasse d by that of the somewhat earlier ( Cre
t ac e o u s ) outflows in the D eccan .

Cli mate . D uring the E ocene P alms abounded in Great

,

Britain evidence of a s u btropical or wa rm temperate -

 QUAT E R N A R Y ER A .

clima te in that latitude ; and t h e Arctic regions had forests

consisting of Beech P lantain Willow O a k P oplar Wal
, , , , ,

nut Magnolia R edwood showing a mean temperature of

, , ,

at least 4 8 F ( Heer)
°
. In the Miocene southern E urope .
,

had a subtropical climate but E ngland had lost its P alms ,

and was cooler .

In N orth America in the early Tertiary a warm tem , ,

-

perate climate must have e x tended to the northern boundary

of the Un ited States as shown by the fossil plants at ,

Brandon Vermont and in other localities

, , .

The Camels R hinoce r oses and other animals of the

, ,

upper Miocene of N ebraska seem to prove that a warm ,

temperate climate prevaile d there in that period .

It is therefore plain that the earth had not as great a

diversity of zones of climate in the early Tertiary as now ;
and that E urope was not very much colder in the E ocene
period than in the J urassic era .

II QU A T E R N AR Y E R A
. .

Gene ral Ch ar act e ri st i cs The Quaternary age was r e .

-

markable ( 1 ) for oscillations of level and climatic changes

in high latitudes both north and south of the equator ;
2
( ) for the culmination of the type of brute M ammals ;
and ( 3 ) for the appearance of Man on the globe .

P eri o ds . The periods are three

1 The G L A C IA L or the period when over the higher
.
, ,

latitudes large areas of the continents stood at an alti

,

tude considerably greater than at present and experienced ,

a colder climate with immense development of glaciers

, .

2 The C HA M P L A IN when the ice disappeared and the

.
, ,

same high latitude portions of the continent and to a less

-
,

extent other regions we re below their present level and

, ,

became covered by extensive fluvial and lacustrine forma

tions and along seacoasts by marine formations
, .

3 The R E C E N T period begun by a rising of the land

.
,

nearly or qui t e to i t s present level .

 HIS TO R IC AL G E OL O G Y .

The Glacial and the Champlain periods taken together

°
are often called the P lei s to cen e They are in general not .

clearly di fferentiated from each other except in the high

latitude regions which experienced the remarkable changes
of level and climate above mentioned .

Ph ys i c a l His t o ry o f t h e Q u a t e rna ry .

1 . G L CI LA A PE RIOD .

Th e Drif t The most characteristic phenomenon con

.

n e c t e d with the Glacial pe riod is a peculiar and wide

S pread deposit over the continents which gives evidence in ,

general of transportation from the higher latitudes to the

lower .

The transported material c onsists of earth gravel stones , , ,

and bowlders ; and includes in America nearly all the , ,

earth as well as stones of the surface in the latitude of

, ,

New E ngland and farther north I t extends ove r h ills and

,
.

valleys and varies in depth from a few feet to hundreds

, .

A large part of the material is in an u n s t ra t i fi e d condition ,

large stone s and small pebbles and sand being mingled

, ,

pellmell P art especially that in the valleys or d e p r e s

.
,

sions of the surface is stratified and thus bears evidence

, ,

of deposition by flowing waters like fluvial and lacustrine ,

formations B ut the greater part of the stratified drift

.

belongs to the Champlain period .

The transported material is called D r if t and the u n s t ra t i ,

fi e d part of it ti ll ( a word of unce rtain origin first applied

to this deposit in S cotland) The till e specially its lower
.
,

part is often a clayey earth or a clayey mix ture of earth

, ,

and stones with frequent bowlders called the bo wld e r c la g ; ,

it is in general firmly c ompacted .

The traveled stones are of all dimensions from that of ,

a small pebble to masses as large as a moderate sized -

house O n e in N ottingham New Hampshi re is 6 2 4 0

.
, , , ,

and 40 feet in its diameters and is e s t imated to weigh ,

about 6 0 0 0 tons A still larger one in Madison N ew

.
,
 QU ATE R N A R Y E RA .

Hampshire is estimated to weigh 7 6 5 0 tons O ne lying

,
.

on a naked ledge in Whitingham V ermont measures 4 3 , ,

feet in leng t h and 30 in height and width or cubic ,

feet in bulk and was probably transporte d across Deer

,

field valley the bo t tom of which is 5 0 0 feet below t h e spo t

,

w here it l i es Many on Cape C od are 20 feet in diameter

. .

There are many great bowl d e rs of trap f rom 5 0 to 1 25 0

tons in weight along the wes t ern border o f the Triassic are a
in C onnec t icut th e line reaching to L ong I sland S ound
, ,

j ust west of N e w H aven and others o f great magnitud e

occur farther south on Long I sland A bowlder in O hio .
,

FIG 455 . .

D ri ft gr o o vi ng s and s c ratc h es .

16 feet in thickness is said to cove r three fourth s of an

,

acre .

The directions of travel as learned by tracing the ,

s t one s i n numerous cases to the ledges wh ence they were

d erived a re in general between southwes tward and so uth
, , ,

eastward The distance to which the stones were trans

.

ported in N orth America is mostly from 1 0 miles or less

to 4 0 miles though in some case s as much as 5 0 0 miles
, .

The mate rial was carried southward across t h e d e pre s

sions n o w occu p ied by the Great Lakes and Long I sland
S ound — the land to the south in each case being covered , ,

wi th stones from the land to the north .

 HIS TO RIC A L G E O LO G Y .

S cratch e s The rocky ledges over which the drift w as

.

borne are ofte n scratched i n closely crowded parallel ,

lines as in the pre ceding figure ( Fig

, and planed o ff .

besides Besides fine scratches there are sometimes deep

.
,

and broad grooves — a t times a yard or more deep and

several feet wide as if made by a tool of great size as well
,

as g f e at power T he scratches occur wherever the drift

.

occurs provided the unde rlying rocks are su ffi ciently

,

durable to have preserved them and they are usually ,

approximately uniform in dire ction in any given region .

In some places two or more directions may be observed on

the same surface They are found in the valleys and on
.
,

the slopes of mountains to a height on the Green Moun , ,

tains of 4 4 0 0 feet and on the White M o u n t a m s of 5 5 0 0

, , , ,

feet They have nearly a comm on course ove r the higher

.

lands of a region and cross l p e s and sometimes even the

,

smaller valleys without following the direction of the

,

slope or valley ; but in the great valleys of the land and

, ,

sometimes even in the smaller ones their direc t ion con ,

forms to the trend of the valley In the H udson R iver .

valley betwee n the Catskills and the Green M ountains

, ,

the scratches have m ostly the course of the valley ; and

also in the valleys of the C onnecticut the Merrimac and , ,

other large rivers .

The stones or bowlders of the till are often scratched

, , ,

as well as the underlying rocks and in this respect they ,

di ffer from those of stratified drift ; the latter have gen

e rall
y lost all scratches by river abrasion .

O g
r i i n Of t h e D r i ft — The earliest theory of the D rift
.

attribute d its transportation to the tumultuous waves of

a deluge sweepi n g over the land and the formation was
formerly called D i lu vi u m in allusion to this theory L ater , .

it came to be gene rally admitted that nothing but moving

ice could have transported the D rift with its immense
bowlders .

When the inade quacy of water alone for the work was
recognized the agency first though t of was that of flo at
,
 Q U A TE R N A R Y E RA .

ing ice in the f orm of icebergs I cebergs transport earth .

and stones as in the Arctic seas ; and great numbers are

,

annually floated south to the Newfoundland Banks through ,

the action of the Arctic or Labrador curre nt where they

, , ,

melt and drop their great bowlders and burden of gravel

and earth to make deposits over the sea bottom B ut ice .

bergs could not have covered great surfaces so regularly

with scratches Again there are no marine relics in the
.
,

u n s t r a t i fi e d D rift to prove that the continent was under

,

the sea in the Glacial period .

These di fficulties ultimately led to the well nigh uni -

versal abandonment of the theory of icebe rgs and the ,

adoption of the glacie r theory first proposed by Louis

Agassiz Glaciers in the Alps and else where are now
.
, ,

doing precisely such work of transportation as is shown

by the D rift ; and stones of as great size as are contained
in the D rift have in forme r times been borne by a slowly
moving glacier from the vicinity of M ont Blanc across the ,

lowlands of S witzerland to the slopes of the J ura M oun ,

tains and left there at a height of over 20 0 0 feet above the

,

level of the Lake of Geneva Moreover the re are in many .

,

places deposits of bowlder clay made of the earth formed ,

by trituration of stones against stones during the m oving

of the glacier Further the re are scratches and grooves
.
, ,

of precisely the same character as those observed in D rift

regions on the granitic and limestone rocks of the ridges
,

and besides the transported ma t e rial is left u n s tr a t i fi e d

,

over the land wherever it is not acted upon and dis

,

tributed by Alpine torrents .

There is a seeming di fficulty in the glacie r theory from ,

the supposed want of a su fficient slope in the surface to

produce movement B ut a slope in the under surface is
.

not needed any more than for the flowing of pitch

, .

P itch deposited in continuous supply on any p art of a

,

horizontal pla n e would spread in all directions around ;

,

and this it would do even if instead of being horizontal , ,

t h e surface beneath had an ascending slope The slope .

 HIS TO R IC A L G E O LOG Y .

of the upper surface of a plastic or fluid substance deter

'
mines the direction and rate of flow n o t t h at of the under ,

surface Hence if ice were accumulated over a region so

.
,

t hat the upper surface had the requisite m pe there would ,

be motion in the mass in the direction of this mp e what ,

ever the bottom slope might be At the same time the .

,

slope of the land at bottom or the courses of the valleys

.
, ,

would de t ermine to some extent the m ovement at bottom

j ust as oblique grooves in a sloping board down which ,

pitch was moving would determine more or less completely

,

the direction of the movement in the grooves .

The condition of the D rif t regions in the Glacial period

finds its best illus t ration not in the narrow and compara
,

t i ve ly S hallo w glacie rs of the Alpine valleys but in the ,

great ice sheets of Greenland and the Antarctic Green .

land is at the p resent time a glaciated continent as the ,

region of Canada and the northeastern part of the United

States was in the Glacial period The ice in Greenland .

moves where the slope of the surface is less than half a

degree
The phenomena connected with the northern D rift are
in general fully explained by refere nce to a great northern
semi continental glacier as the cause ; and t hose relating
-

to local D rift about high mountains south of D rift lati ,

tudes by referring them to local glaciers B ut floating ice

,
.

doubtless had some share in the work I cebergs drifted .

down the coast and smalle r ones descended rive rs drop

, ,

ping t heir stones by the way O n the Mississippi the

.
,

floating ice may have reached the Gulf of M exico and the ,

chille d waters may have destroye d much tropical life .

The occurrence of bowlde rs near the summit of Mount

Washington in the White Mountains proves that the alti
tude of the upper surface of t h e i c e in that r e g IO n was
,

6 0 0 0 or 6 5 0 0 feet ; and he nce that the ice was not less

than 5 0 00 feet thick over that part of northern New
E ngland .Facts also show that the surface height in
south w estern Massachusetts was at least 28 0 0 feet ; i n
 QUATE R N A R Y E RA .

south ern C onnecticut 1 0 00 f eet or more ; in the C atskills

, ,

3 00 0 feet ( Smock ) .

S ince the slopes of the uppe r surface O f a glacier deter

mine the general direction of m ovement and therefore of ,

transportation and abrasion the lines of scratches or of

,

drift are an indication as to the position of the ice summit .

The prevailing dire ction ove r the hig h er lands of New

E ngland N e w York and easte rn C anada is southeastward
, , ,

and that over wes t ern O hio and northwestward t o the

Saskatchewan is southwestward
, ( See map on pages .

41 2, The lines co n se quently converge northward , ,

toward the part of the Canada watershed northwest from

M ontreal and a region extending thence northeastward
,

and northwestward encompassing the southern part of

,
'

H udson B ay ; and hence a lo n g th i s course there must

have been the summit of a great ice range .

The stones and earth transporte d by the continental

glacier were gathered u p m ostly by its lower part from ,
‘

the surface of hills or ridges that proj ected in t o it and ,

e ven f rom the plains beneath it In N e w E nglan d where .

,

there were no peaks rising above the upper surface to be a

source of avalanches as in the Alps man y of the masses
, ,

thus taken aboard excee d 1 0 0 0 tons in weight The mass .

of decomp osed and disintegrate d rock which had been

accumulating for ages was extensively scrape d up and
,

shove d along E ven the underlying unaltere d rock was

.

more or less attacked .

With a thickness of even 20 0 0 feet t h e glacier would ,

have had great excavating p owe r S oft rocks would have .

been deeply plowe d up by it and all j ointed and fissile,

rocks soft or hard would have been torn to fragments

, , ,

and the l oosened masses borne O ff By this means and .

, ,

perhaps m ost of all by the erosive action of subglacial

streams valleys were deepened and widened
, .

Are a Of th e Drift i n No rth Ameri ca — As already stated .

,

the ice sheet which formed the D rift of Canada and

t h e northeastern United States had its center over the ,
 HIS T O R IC AL G E O LO G Y .

highlands which form the watershed between the St .

Lawrence basin and H u dson B ay The extent of the .

D rift area ( and consequently the maximum e x tension of

the ice sheet ) is indicated by the heavy line on the map ,

Fig 4 5 6 S outh and southeast o f N e w E ngland the line

. .

lies outside of the present coast line It may be traced by .

the accumulations forming the te rminal moraine through ,

the islands of Nantucket and Marthas Vineyard and near ,

the south shore of L ong Island It extends we stward .

and northwestward across N e w J ersey and P ennsylvania

’

crosses the boundary of N ew York i n a grea t northern

bend follows a ge neral southwesterly course through
,

western P e nnsylvania O hio ( crossing once into K en

,

tucky ) I ndiana and reaches in southern Illinois the

, ,

lowest latitude which it anywhere attains ( belo w

Thence it extends nearly westward through Missouri into
eastern K ansas where it bends sharply northward Near
, .

the western boundary of North D akota it passes above the

parallel of Thence the line continues nearly west ‘

ward across M ontana till it reaches the independent area

of D rift formed by the ice sheet of the northern R ocky
Mountains The contraste d meteorological conditions of
.

eastern and western North America explain in the m ain

the form of the southern boundary of the D rift In the .

east where the precipitation is great the boundary lies

, ,

near the parallel of In the arid west the boundary ,

recedes far to the north Various local conditions chiefly.

,

topographical serve to explain the minor curves of the

,

boundary as also the occurrence of two isolated driftless

,

areas within the drift region one of which ( much the ,

larger of the two ) lying mostly within the state of Wis

,

consin is represente d on the map

, .

B esides the great area of the northeastern ( Laurentide )

ice sheet glacial areas were developed in various parts of
,

the R ocky Mountain region In the extreme n orthwest.

of the United States and in B ritish C olumbia a large ,

area of t h e north e r n Rockies was covered with a great ice

 Q U A TE R N AR Y E R A .

sheet whose eastern edge met the western ed g e of the

,

Laurentide ice sheet .Th e boundary between the two is

represented by a dotted line on the map The ice sheet .

of the R ocky M ountains in B ritish C olumbia had a

northern as well as a southern limit since although the
, , , ,

cold increased northward precipitatio n decreased The

, .

extreme northwest of B ritish America and Alaska ( with ,

the e xception of its high m ountain areas) were lef t u n ,

covered by ice .

Farther south local areas o f glaciation were develope d

,

in some of the hi gher parts of the R ocky M ountain region ,

as in the Yellowstone P ark and the mountain ranges sur

rounding it in the Front R ange of C olorado and in the
, ,

high Sierra of California .

It thus appears that the glaciation of N orth America

was not due as has been sometimes imagined to a great
, ,

polar ice cap investi n g all the region of high la t itude .

The ce n ters of glaciation were in the Laurentide high

lands ( whose altitu de was probably considerably greater
than now ) and in the R ocky M ountains The general .

laws of the relation of accumulation of perpetual snow to

climate and topography were the same as n o w A study .

of glaciation in the O ld World sustains the same general

conclusions .

S u b d i vi si o n s o f t h e Gl a ci al P e r i o d — The study of.

every glacier region reveals the fact of oscillation i n the

extent of the glaciers dependent upon meteorological flu c
,

t u at i o n s fro m year to year There were on a larger scale

.

oscillations i n the exte nt of the great ice sheets of the

Glacial period though the causes of these oscillations are
,

by no means fully unde rstood .

The Glacial period in N orth America may be conve m

i e n tly divided into three epochs the E a r ly G la ci a l
,

e o c h or that of the advance and maximum extension of

p ,

the ice ; ( 2) the M i dd le G la c i a l ep o c h or that of the first ,

retreat of the ice ; ( 3) the L a ter G la ci a l ep o ch or that Of ,

the final retreat .

 HIS TO R IC A L G E OL O G Y .

The map ( Fig . 4 5 6)

hows a well d efi n e d line o f ter
S -

m inal moraine ( BB B ) which can be traced in s u bs t a n

, .

tial continuity from Cape C od to the Saskatchewan R iver .

In the east from C ape Cod to central O hio that m oraine

, ,

lies only a few miles north of the extreme boundary of the

D rift . Farthe r west the line of the m oraine diverges
,

f ro m the southern boundary of the D rif t and in VVi s c o n ,

S i n and M innesota it sweeps around the d rif t less area so ,

as to be more than 5 0 0 miles n orth of the D rift boundary .

In B ritish America i n the valley of the Saskatchewan

, ,

the line of the moraine lies 30 0 miles east of the boundary

between the Laure ntide D rift and the R ocky M ountain
D rift .

The line of moraine ( B BB ) m arks the limit of the

ice sheet i n Middle G lacial time and the distance between ,

the moraine and the southern boundary o f the D rift meas

ures the extent of the first retreat of the ice It is .
,

i n deed possible that the ice m ay have receded beyo n d the

,

line of the m oraine for a greater or less distance and then ,

readvance d to the line of the m oraine It is held by .

Chamberlin and others that the ice had receded so far to

the north as to lay bare the greater part of the territory
it had previously c ove red thus characterizing an Inter ,

l c i a l e o ch between an earlier and a later Glacial epoch

g a
p .

But i t is m ore probable that the various terminal moraines

mark halts in the retreat or oscillations more or less ex
, ,

tensive in the position of the ice front than that the

, ,

glacial conditions were completely interrupted by one or

m ore than one Interglacial epoch .

During the rapid melting of the ice which characterized

the first retreat of the glacier the Mississippi must have ,

been greatly swollen and m u st have carried some floating

,

ice T o this epoch m ay perhaps be referred the coarse

.
,

gravelly deposits of the lower M ississippi v alley wi t h ,

flo w an d plunge structure and othe r indications of torren

- -

tial conditions and occasionally containing stones weigh

,

ing 1 0 0 pounds or more described by Hilgard unde r the

,
 Q U A TE R N A R Y E RA .

name of Ora ng e S a n d and now include d in t h e L af ay e tte

‘
,

formation of M c G e e and others By some ge ologists .

,

howe ver the Lafayette formation is believe d to be of

,

P liocene ag e .

A fte r a long halt at the line B BB the glacie r con ,

tinne d its retreat Numerous terminal moraines mark

.

halts in the retreat or temporary readvances S ome of .

these moraines are indicated o n t h e map .

By the retreat of the glacier the surface of the country ,

was left covered wi th D rift and diversified by kettle holes

, ,

drumlins e s k e rS and kames

, , .

Ke ttle h o les are bowl shaped depressions often 30 to 5 0

-
,

feet in depth and 1 0 0 to 5 0 0 feet in diameter sometimes

, ,

even considerably e xceeding these dimensions E ach .

kettle hole was the resting place and often the burial
place of a block of ice that became detached fro m the
glacier during the melting and the final melting of the ,

ice block left a hole in the mass of the D rift deposits .

K ettle ho le s are often o ccupied by ponds .

D r u mli n s are elliptical domes consisting wholly or in ,

part of till .

E s h e rs and k a me s are ridges and hummocks of coarsely

stratified D rift and are attributed to the action of waters
,

flo w ing in or under the wasting ice .

By the deposit o f D rift ove r the region forsaken by the

ice rive r valleys were often obstructed and the streams
, ,

compelled to see k n e w channels Many lakes we r e for med .

in valleys obstructed by dams of D rift or in depressions ,

lef t in the irregular distribution of Drift over the country .

S ome small lakes m ore ove r were formed in rock basins

, ,

excavated by the glacier The glaciated regions in general

.

are regions a bounding in lakes .

Th e Glaci al P eri o d i n Oth e r Co u ntri e s — The m ain .

facts in regard to the Glacial period are the same in

no thern E urope as in North America The till p resents
r
.

the same characteristics and the bed rocks sho w t h e s am e

,

p olishe d a nd s t riate d su rfaces .

 HIS TO R IC A L G E O L OG Y .

The ce n ter o f glaciation for norther n E urope w as in .

the S candinavian M ountains At its period of greatest

.

extension the ice sheet cove red Ireland Great B ritain

, ,

( with the exception of a little strip in the extreme south

of E ngland ) H olland D enmark northern Germa n y and
, , , ,

western Russia ( extending southward almost to the Car

p a t h i an s )
. In the extreme northeast the S can d inavian
,

ice sheet becam e confluent with the ice of the Timan

M ountains and o f the northern part of the Urals as in ,

B ritish C olumbia the Laurentide ice sheet blended with

that of the R ocky M ountains The fact that the southern
.

limit of the D rift in E urope is abou t 1 0 north of that in °

‘

N orth America suggests that there was p robably i n the

Glacial period abo u t the same northward bending of the
isotherms in crossing the Atlantic eastward as at present .

In the retreat of the S candinavian ice sheet as in that ,

of the Laure ntide halts o r temporary readvances were

,

marke d by successive terminal m oraines I n the O pinion .

of many geologists some of the oscillations we re so e xten

,

sive as to characterize Interglacia l epochs .

Glaciers were developed on a large scal e in m ountain

regions beyond the limits of the Scandinavian ice sheet .

After that had retire d from G reat Britain local glaciers ,

were extensively developed in the Highlands of S cotland .

The Alps formed the cente r O f an ice shee t which extended ,

westward to Lyons and northward to the vicinity of

M unich B owlders from the Alps are found in abundance
.

on the J ura The glacie rs o f the P y renees the Caucasus

.
, ,

and the Himalayas also extended far beyond their present

limits .

I n S outh America a great ice mass exte nded in the region

,

of the Andes northward from Tierra del Fuego to the par

allel of and glacie rs we re formed about some of the
higher summits even near the eq u ator The re is e vidence
,
.

also of a Glacial pe riod in Australia and New Z ealand .

Cau s e o f t h e Glaci al Cli mat e — No perfectly satisfactory

explan ation o f the Glacial climate has been give n The .
 Q U A TE R N A R Y E RA .

u pward movements of the c ontinents which characterized

the latter part of the Tertiary continued in some regions ,

into the Q u a t ernary ; and in early Quaternary time larg e

areas in high latitudes stood at a much highe r level than
now This elevation of high latitude regions would tend
.
-

to bring 0 11 a cold climate partly by the direct e ff e ct of

,

elevation of land and partly by the e xclusion of warm

,

oceanic current s from the northern seas ( see page

This is an obvious a n d perhaps a su fficient explanation of
the Glacial climate The fact that the oscillations of level
.

and those of cli mate see m not to have been strictly simul
t a n e o u s is perhaps sufficie ntly explained by the suggestion
,

of Le C onte that the accumulation and the removal of the

ice sheet were gradual processes and tha t the maximum ,

e fi e c t might well be considerably later than the maximum

intensity of the cause .

The former ele vation o f the glaciate d regions i s shown

by the fact that their coasts are e verywhere indented by
fi o r ds deep narrow bays penetrating far into the inte rior
, .

These fi o rd s are unquestionably drowned valleys and they ,

could have been excavated only when the land stood at a

higher level than at p resent They are shown by any .

map on a tolerably large scale along the coasts of Maine ,

L abrador Newfoundland Greenland B ritish C olumbia

, , ,

and Alaska S cotland and S candinavia P atagonia and

, , ,

South Australia S ome of the fi o rd s of the Atlantic coast

.

of N orth Ame rica have been shown by soundings to have

depths of 20 0 0 to 3 6 7 0 feet and the S ogne F i o rd in ,

N orway is 4 0 20 feet deep The se fi o r d s are accordingly

.

proof that some parts of the land were once thousands of

feet ab ove their present level .

Valleys filled with drift deeper than the present river

,

valleys in the sa me regions and often extending far below

,

the le vel of the sea a fford othe r evidence of the former

,

high level o f the land .

The Glacial climate has been attributed by C roll and

many other geolo gists to the e x treme cold of aphelion
 HIS TO R IC AL G E OLO G Y .

winters in an epoch of m aximum ec centricity o f the

earth s orbit The theory has been briefly explained on
’
.

page 1 6 9 It is very doubtful whether the astronomical

.

c onditions assumed by C roll would tend to produce a '

Glacial period The great heat of perihelion sum mers

.

would certainly tend to melt the sno w M oreo ver the last .
,

period of great eccentricity ended about years ago ,

whereas ge ological evidence indicates that the close of the

Glacial period was much more recent A corollary of C roll s .
’

th eory would be the occurrence of glacial and interglacial

epochs in the northern hem isphe re alternately wi t h corre ,

s p o n di n g epochs in the southern hemisphere d uring a period ,

of great e ccentricity There is no proof of such altern ate

.

glaciation of t h e two hemispheres though it is not i m ,

possi ble .

2 CHAMPLAIN PE RIOD . .

This period is so named from the marine deposits arou n d

the S hores of Lake Champlain .

The Champlain period is characterize d by ( 1 ) the con

t i n u an c e of the subsidence w hich had probably begun in
the latte r part of the Glacial period the land in n orthern ,

latitudes becoming depressed considerably belo w the pres

ent level ; ( 2) a diminution in the slope of southward flo w -

ing rivers so that they ceased for the most part from the
,

work of erosion and formed extensive stratified deposits ;

,

3
( ) a climate probably warmer than at present — d oubtless
,

at least in part the result of the subsidence (4 ) the com

,

p l e t e disappearan ce of the great ice sheets .

The deposits of the Champlain period are ( 1 ) marine ,

2
( ) flu v i a t i le 3
( ) lacustrine
, I n general it is
. only the ,

marine deposits which a ff ord positive evidence and definite

measures of the subsidence since flu vi at ile and lacustrine
deposi t s may be formed at various altitudes above the sea
level the height of the water being m odified by dams of
,

d rift or of ice and by variations in the ratio of precipita

,

tion and evaporation , as well as by changes in th e l ev el of

th e land .
 Q U A TE R N A R Y E R A .

1 . M i D po s s ; S a Beac s
ar ne
e it e h e — M arine deposits o c .

cu r as sea beaches now forming terraces above the prese n t

,

S hore lines or as o ff shore deposits —

, t h e L e d a Cla y s .

Along the coast of southern N e w E ngland there are ,

apparen tly no marine Champlain deposits m ore than 1 5 or

20 feet above the sea le vel The fossilife rous deposits of .

S a n k a ty Head Nantucket reachi n g an altitude of about

, ,

5 0 feet and those at a still higher ele vation at G ay Head

, ,

Mar thas Vineyard are apparently earlie r than the true

,

Champlain deposits They probably belong to some time .

of oscillation when the ice front had receded to a greater

or less distance from the limit to which it subsequ ently
readvanced ( page Marine deposits of Champlain
a e along the coas t of Maine occu r at altitudes of 1 5 0 to
g
3 0 0 feet I n the basin of the Bay of Chaleurs the alti
.
,

tude is 20 0 feet A long the St La w rence valley the

. .
,

height is 37 5 feet near the m outh of the S ag u enay 5 20 ,

feet at Montreal and 6 0 0 feet not far fro m Lake O ntario

, ,

so t h at the S t Lawrence R iver was then a vast St

. .

Lawrence Gulf 50 0 to 6 0 0 feet deep

, E ve n Lake Cham .

plain was a n arm of this St Lawrence Gulf ; for beaches .

containing sea shells occur on its borders to a height of

3 7 0 feet a t its southern and about 5 0 0 feet at its n or t hern
, ,

end ; and in one locality remains of a Whale have been

found The C hamplain bay had then the great depth of
.

from 7 00 to 8 0 0 feet At N ach vak in Labrador a beach .

, ,

sup posed to be O f Ch amplain age is reported at an altitude

of 1 50 0 feet In the region south and west of J ames Bay
.
,

beds with marine shells occur at altitudes of 3 0 0 to 5 00 feet .

The maximum subsidence in easte rn N orth America

seems to have bee n in the region between the S t La w .

rence and H udson Bay the region probably of maximum

elevation in the Glacial period .

O n the P aci fi c coast marine beaches are reported a t ,

a ltitudes exceeding 1 0 0 0 feet but it is not known whethe r ,

they belong to the same date as the C hamplain beds of

easte rn N orth America or not .
 HIS TO R IC AL G E OL OG Y .

While there is much uncertainty in r eg ard to the num

ber and extent of climatic and geographical oscillations in
E urope it appears certain that extensive subsidence took
,

place subse quently to the period of maximum glaciation .

The subsidence carried parts of Great B ritain 5 0 0 feet

belo w the present l evel In Sweden the depression varied
.

fro m 20 0 feet in the southern part to more than 6 00 in

the nor t hern part At the time of deepest submergence
.
,

the B altic is believed to have bee n connected with the

N orth Sea by the region of lakes extending westward
from S tockholm to the S k a g e r R ack and with the Arctic ,

O cea n by a channel extending over Finland to the W hi te

Sea .

2 Flu v i al De p o s i t s
. The subsidence of the land north
.

ward diminished the S lope of all southward flo w i ng rivers -

,

and consequently diminishe d their powers of erosion .

M oreover the e normous mass of debris which had been

,

transported by the glaciers and was set free by their

,

melting overloade d the rive rs The e fi e ct of these causes

,
.

combined was the deposit of enormous masses of sediment

, ,

filling u p the river valleys of the glaciated region to a

height now indicated by the highest terraces The rive rs .

meandered ove r these great all u vial plains ( sometimes

many miles in width ) and in time O f floods spread widely
,

over their surface These alluvial plain s were in fact t h e

.

flood plains of the Champlain rivers .

The structure of the deposits pre sents great variations .

S ome parts consist of fine clays with regular lamination , ,

indicating deposit in quiet waters as of lakes O thers , .

consist of coarse sands gravels or c obble stones and show

, , ,

the flo w and plu n ge structure and other forms of irreg

- -

ular lamination indicative of strong c u rrents In places

, .

the northward subsidence must have reduce d the S lope of

streams to zero so that they would spread out in broad
,

lakes In other places lacustrine conditions must hav e

.

been produced by dams of drift or ice C oarse materials .

would often be brought into the larger streams by tribu

 QU ATE R N A R Y E R A.

t aries whose slope and velocity were greater than those

of the larger streams and would be piled up as deltas near
,

the mouths of those tributaries R apid melting of the

.

ice during part of the time may have increase d the vol
ume of water and s o increased the velocity of the streams
, .

.3 Lak es o f t h e Plei sto cene — Lake basins in various

.

parts of the country are plainly marked by shore lines

formed in P leistocene time In some cases the basins are
.

still occupied by smaller lakes and the old beaches appear

,

as terraces far above the present shore lines In other .

cases the lakes have been drained so that no considerable

, ,

rem nants now exist Climatic changes and dam s of drift

.
,

or of ice as well as movements of subsidence and ele vation

, ,

may have bee n concerned in determining the existence

and the boundaries of these lakes The correlation of .

the history of the lakes with the history of general con

t i n e n tal move m ents indicate d by fi o rd s and by sea beaches ,

is m atter of much q uestion .

Ancient beaches have been O bserved in many places

around the Great Lakes of the C a n adian frontier S ome .

of those which ha ve been most thoroughly studied are

shown by dotte d lines on the map Fig 4 5 6 The highest
, . .

shore line around Lake Superior has an altitude of 5 0 0

to 6 00 feet above the present level of the lake or of ,

1 1 0 0 to 1 20 0 feet above the level of the sea At the .

south end of Lake Michigan the highest shore line is

,

only 4 5 feet above the present level of the lake This .

beach is supposed to be contemporaneous with one around

parts of Lake Superior about 40 0 feet above the lake .

A very strongly marked shore line has been traced around

the greater part of Lake O ntario and has bee n named,

the Iro q uois beach . It has a heigh t above the present

water level varying from 1 1 6 feet near the western end
of the lake to 4 8 3 feet at Watertown New York The , .

great di ff erence between the altitudes of beaches around

the various lakes which have been supposed to be con
temporaneous and especially the great di fference between
,
 HIS TO R IC A L G E OL O G Y .

the altitudes of d i fle r e n t parts of th e S ame continuou s .

beach ( as in the case of the I roquois beach ) is evidence ,

of great changes of relati ve le vel in di fferent parts of

t h e lake region .

There seems good reason to believe that at one time

the four upper lakes were confluent into one lake more ,

than square miles in area which has been named ,

L a k e Wa rr e n ( in honor of General Warren the d i sc o v ,

erer of Lake Agassiz ) .

The high level of the water i n th ese P leistocene lakes

,

has been attribute d by m any geologists to the presence

of the remnant of the continental ice sheet in the S t Law .

rence valley damming up the outlet in that d irection

, ,

and compelling the waters to seek outl ets south w ard at

higher levels O thers hold that at the time of the exist
.
,

ence of these lakes the ice had al ready

,

St Lawrence valley and that t h e great

.
,

lakes was d ue to t h e Champlain subsidence At the .

of m ax n n u m Champlain depression the Iq u o i s b each ,

must have been very nearly at the sea level ; but the
absence of m arine fossils shows that L ake O ntario did
not ( like L ake Champlain ) h ave so free communication
'
with the sea as to become salt It is supposed by mari y.

geologists th at at the time of the Iroquois beach L ake

, ,

O ntario communicated with the sea by a channel leading

fro m R ome Ne w York to the Mohawk valley and thence
, , ,

by way of the H udson ; but this is not certain .

The region of L ake Winnipeg was occ u pie d at some

time in th e P leistocene by a lake even large r th an Lake
Warren wh i ch has been named L a k e Ag a ss iz ( see map
, ,

Fig . General G K Warren who first m ade known

. .
,

the fact of the for m er drainage of the W innipeg region

into the M ississippi by way of the M innesota attributed ,

the southward drainage to that high ele vation of the

n o rthern part of the co n tinent which existed at the ,

beginning Of the Quaternary According to this view .

,

the beginnin g o f the Champlain subsidence depressed

 Q U ATE R N A R Y E RA .

the Winnipeg regio n so greatly as to form Lake Agas "

siz The further progress of subsidence depressed the

.

region to the north so far that Lake Agassiz found an

outlet through Nelson R iver into Hudson B ay and the ,

R e d R iver of the N orth began to flo w northward instead

of southward A ccording to Upham and others the
.
,

sou t h w ard drainage of the Winnipeg region was due

to the p resence of the ice sheet damming up the Nelson ,

R iver outlet I n the case of Lake Agassiz as in that

.
,

of Lake W arren a n d the othe r lakes of the Canadian

frontier there is evidence o f considerable oscillat ions of
,

level in the ve ry di ffe rent altitudes of di fferent parts of

the same beach .

L a k e B o nn e vi lle is the name of a P leistocen e lake

occupying a large part of U tah and L a ke L a h o n tan the ,

na m e of one occupyi ng a large part of western N evada

( see map ,Fig . The Great Salt L ake is the di m in
i s h e d representative of the forme r while the latter is ,

“ now represente d by still smalle r remnants At one time .

L ake B onneville rose so high as to find an outlet through

the Snake R iver and the Columbia and thus became fresh ; ,

b u t Lake Lahontan neve r had an outle t The high le vel .

of the water in these lakes is attributed to the cold

cli mate of the Glacial period which must have diminishe d
,

evaporation According to Gilbe rt K ing and R ussell

.
, , ,

there is evidence of two high water stages in each of -

these lakes with an intervening epoch in which the lakes

,

were nearly or quite desiccated I t is still uncer t ain

.

what phases in the P leistocene history of eastern N orth

America are to be correlated with the alternations of
high and low water in these lakes of the Great Basin .

3 . R E CE NT PE RIOD .

The Champlain period was brought to a close by a

m ode rate elevation of the land over the hig h e r lati t udes ,

bringing the continent up t o its present level This ele .

va t ion placed the old sea beaches of the Champlain period

 HIS TO R IC AL G E O LO G Y .

at their present level high ab ove the sea ; that is ove r

, ,

5 0 0 feet near M ontreal 1 5 0 to 30 0 feet on the coast ,

of Maine and so on the height of the beaches be ing

, ,

a measure of t h e amount of elevation R ive r valleys .

,

after the rise had a steeper S lope than in the Champlain

,

period and hence their flow was increased in velocity

,
.

They consequently went on cutting down their beds

through the Champlain deposits of the valley to a lower
level ; and at the time of their annual floods they wore
FIG . 45 7 .

Te rrac e s o n the u
C o n ne c t i c t R i ve r, so u th o f Ha no ve r , Ne w Ham p s hi re .

away the deposits on eithe r side o f the Channel making ,

thereby an alluvial flat or flood groun d for a rive r has ,

in general a flood ground which it cove rs in its times of

,

flood as well as a channel for dry times

, .

This sinking of the rive r beds left remnants o f the

old flood grounds as t errace s far above the level of the
stream In the course O f the elevation a se ries of ter
.
,

races was often made along the valleys as illustrated in ,

Fig 4 5 7 A section of a valley thus te rraced is re p re

. .

sente d in Fig 4 5 8 Th e f ormation terraced is as is

. .
,
 QU A TE R N A R Y E RA .

shown the Champlain ( sometimes in part Gl acial D rift )

,

in the Champlain period it filled in general the valley , ,

across ( from f to excepting a narrow channe l for the

stream the whole breadth having bee n the flood ground
,

O f the Champlain rive r Bu t after the elevation began

.
,

which closed the C h amplain period the river commenced ,

to cut down throug h the formation making one or more ,

terraces 1 n 1 t on eithe r side of the stream I n general

, .
,

each terrace belo w the uppermost one 1 n d i c at e s a pause

in the movement Of elevation being really a remnant of ,

a flood plain fo rmed while the rive r was nearly at base

level ( pages 1 3 1 I n Fig 4 5 8 R is the position O f
, .
,

the river channe l after the terracing ; and on e ither side

'
O f it there are terraces at the levels ff
’
d r bb and also , , ,

FIG 458 . .

l y w i th t
S e c ti o n o f a val e e rrac e s .

’
another on the r ight side at r d These terrace plains, .

are usually the sites of villages They add greatly to the .

beauty of the scenery along water courses The terraces .

usually fai l where the va lley is narro w and rocky .

In E urope the close O f the period O f subside nce ( Cham

,

plain ) seems to have bee n marked by a re c u rr e n c e Of

'

Glacial conditions the northern portions of that continent

,

being again covered with ice and glaciers extending once ,

more from the Alps o ver part O f lowe r S w itzerland .

P roofs of the occurrence of such a n e p och are found i n

the remains of the Reindeer and other sub arctic animals -
,

in southern France ( page in deposits that are sub

se q uent in date to true Champlain deposits .

M O D E R N C HA N G E S OF LE VE L .

The sea the rivers the winds and all mechanical and
, , ,

c h e rmc al forces are still working as they have alway s

"
 HIS TO R IC A L G E O LO G Y .

work e d ; an d the eart h is undergoi ng change s Of le vel ,

also ove r wide areas al though it has beyond question

, ,

reached an e ra of comparative repose .

These changes O f level are either paroxysmal — that is ,

they take place through a sudden m o vement of the earth s ’

crust as sometimes happens in connection with an earth

,

quake ; or they are secular — that is they are the e ff ect ,

O f a grad u al movement prolonged through many years or

centuries The following are some examples :

.

1. Paro x y s mal Mo ve ments — In 1 8 22 the coast of Chile.

,

for 1 2 0 0 miles was shaken by an earthquake and it has ,

been est imated that the coast near Valparaiso was raise d
at the time 3 or 4 feet I n 1 8 35 d u ring another earth ?
.
,

quake in the same region there was an elevation it is , ,

stated of 4 or 5 feet at Talcahuan o which was reduced

, ,

afte r a few months to 2 or 3 feet I n 1 8 1 9 there was an .

,

earthquake about the D elta of the I ndus and simul ,

t an e o u s ly an area of 2 0 0 0 square miles in which the fort

‘

and village of S i n dre e were situated sunk so as to become ,

an inland sea wit h the t O ps of the houses j ust out of

,

wat er and anothe r region parallel with the sunken area ,

5 0 miles long and in some parts 1 0 miles b re a d was raised ,

1 0 feet above the delta These few examples all happened

.

within an interval of si x teen years They S how that the .

earth is still far f rom absol u te q uiet even in this its ,

finished state .

2 S e cu lar Mo ve ment s — Along the coasts of Sweden

. .

and Finland on the Baltic there is evidence that a gradual

, ,

rising of the land is i n slow progress Marks placed .

along the rocks many years S ince show that the change
is slight at Stockholm but increases northward E vi , .

dence O f ele vation has been obtained from the west coast
as well as f rom the e ast coast showing that the apparent ,

elevation is not d u e to oscillations in the water level of

the Baltic At Uddevalla the rate of elevation is e q u i va
.

lent to 3 or 4 feet in a century .

: In Gre enland for 6 0 0 miles from D isco Bay n ear

, , ,
 Q U A TE R N A R Y E RA .

N to the frith O f I galik o 6 0 43 N ,aslow s m k i ng

69
°
,
° ’
.

has been going on for at leas t four centuries Islands .

along the coast and old buildings have been submerged

, , .

The M oravian settle rs have had to put down n e w poles

“
for their boats and the O ld ones stand as silent witnesses
,
”
of the change .

It is believe d also that a sinking is in progress along

the coast of New J e rsey Long Island and M arthas Vine , ,

yard and a rising in di fferent parts O f the coast region

,

between Labrador and the Bay of F u ndy There are .

deeply buried Stumps O f forest trees along t h e seashore

plai n s O f Ne w J ersey and other e vidences O f a change O f ,

level ( G H Cook ) . . .

T h is fact is to be noted that these secular movements ,

of modern time over the continents a re for the most part , ,

so far as O bserved high latitude oscillations j ust as they

,
-
,

were in the earlier par t of the Quaternary .

Lif e o f t h e Q u a t e rna ry .

The history of Quaternary life is remarkable for the

extensive migrations occasioned by the grea t geographical
‘

and climatic changes of the era With the increasing cold .

of the Glacial period the range of various species of plants ,

and animals was contracted on the north and ext en d ed t o

the south With the coming on of the mild climate of the
.

Champlain there was a corresponding northward shifting

,

O f t h e range of various species In the northward migra .

tion colon ies of northern plants and animals we re lef t in

,

regions of high mountains far sout h of their normal range , ,

finding on those summits a congenial climate and freedom ,

from competition with the southern flora and fauna of the

low grounds P lants a n d Insects O f Labrador and the far
.

north occur on the summits O f the White M ountains the ,

Green M ountains an d the Adirondacks Analogous facts, .

are reported from the Alps and other mountain regions

Of E u rope The distrib u tion of the flora and fauna was
.
 HIS TOR IC A L G E OL O G Y .

affected by all the minor oscillations Of c li mate t h e more

‘

,
-

hardy plants and animals crowding upon the edge O f the

i c e s h eet and moving northward with every recession Of
,

the front of the ice While many species only mig rated
.

southward and northward with the advance and re cession

of the ice other species were e x terminated by the climatic
,
-

changes .

The elevation Of land in part O f Quaternary ti me estab

li s h e d land connection between the eastern and th e western
con t inent by way O f the region of B ering Strait perhaps ,

also by way O f the Faroe Islands Iceland and Greenland , , .

The B ritish Islands were connecte d with the continent O f

E urope and E urope was connected with Africa across the
,

Mediterranean M ore or less of migration took place in

.

all these cases between the areas thus connected .

The Invertebrate animals of the Quaternary and proba ,

bly also the plants were ve ry nearly if not quite all i de n t i

,

cal with existing species The shells and other I nvertebrate

.

remains found in the beds on the St Lawrenc e,Lake Cham .

plain and the coast of Maine are S imilar to those n e w

, ,

found on the coast O f M aine or Labrador or farther north , .

The life of the Quaternary of greatest interest is the M am

malian which type as regards brutes culminated in the
, , ,

Champlain period This culmination was manifested in

.

— l f
( ) the number O f species 2
( ) the magnitude O the,

animals the Mammalian life Of the period exceeding in

each of these particulars that O f the present t i me .

Along with the brute Mammals O f the Quatern ary ap

p e a r e d also Man .

BR U TE MAM M AL S .

E uro p e Asi a — The bones Of Mammals are f ound

and .

in caves that were their Old haunts ; in stratified dep osits

alo ng rivers and lakes ; in sea border deposits ; in marshes -
,

where the animals were m ired ; in ice where they have ,

been preserved fro m decay by the intense cold .

The caves 0 11 the continent O f E urope were the resort

 Q U ATE R N A R Y E RA .

especially of the Cave Bear ( Ur s u s sp e lcc u s ) and those of ,

Grea t Britain of the Cave Hyena ( Hy aena sp e loe a ) I nto .

their dens they dragged the carcasses or bones of other

animals for food so that relics of a large n u mber of species
,

are n o w mingled together in the earth or stalagmite which

forms the floor of the cavern In a cave at K i rkdale .
,

E ngland por t ions of a very large number of H y enas have

,

been made out besides re m ains O f an E lephant Lion Bear

, , , ,

Wolf Fox Hare Weasel Rhinoceros Horse Hi pp o po ta

, , , , , ,

mus O x D e e r a n d other species all then inhabitants of

, , r .

t h a t c o u n t ry A cave at G ay le n re u th is said to have

'

afforded fragments O f at least 8 0 0 individuals of the Cave

Bear The Cave Hyena is regarded as a large variety O f
.

the Hy oe n a c ro c u ta of S outh A frica and the Cave Lion a , ,

variety of Fe li s le o the Lion O f A frica Bu t many O f the

, .

Q uaternary species are now extinct .

The fact that the number of species in the Quaternary

was greater than now may be infe rred from a comparison
,

of the fauna of Quaternary Great B ritain with that of

any region of e q ual area in the present age The species .

incl u ded gigantic E lephants two species O f Rhinoceros a , ,

H ippopotamus three species of O xen two of them of

, ,

colossal size several specie s of D eer including the colossal

, ,

Irish D ee r ( Ce r vu s c ury cero s ) whose height to the sum ,

mit of its antle rs was 1 0 to 1 1 feet and the span O f whose ,

antlers was in some cases 1 2 feet the H orse Ass Wild , , ,

Boar Wildcat Lynx Leopard Lion the huge Saber

, , , , ,

toothed Tiger ( Ma c hoer o du s ) with canines sometimes ,

eight inches long the C ave Hye na and C ave Bear

, , ,

besides various smaller species .

The M ammoth (E lep ha s p r i mig e n i a s ) was nearly a

third taller than the largest modern spe cies of E lephant .

It roamed over Great B ritain middle and northern E urope , ,

northern Asia even to its Arctic shores and N orth

, ,

America Great quantities of tusks have bee n exported

.

from the borders O f the Arctic Sea for ivory These tusks .

sometime s have a length of 1 24 feet Near the begi nning .

 HIS TO R IC A L G E O LO G Y .

of the century one of these E lep h ants w as fou nd fro ze n in '

ice at the m outh O f the Lena ; and it was so well pre

served that wolves and bears ate O f the ancient flesh It s .

leng th to the extremity O f the tail was 1 64 feet an d its ,

heig h t 9 5 feet It had a coat of long hair But no

. .

amount O f hair w ould enable an E lephant n o w to live in

those barre n icy regions where t h e mean temperature
, ,

FIG . 45 9 .

R
P O B OS C ID E AN : M as to d o n gig an t e u s .

in winter is 4 0 F below zero

°
. Siberia had also a hairy .

Rhinoce ros .

Although ther e were m any Ungulates am ong the Qua

ternary species Of the O rie n t the most characteristic ,

animals were the g reat Carnivores .

No rth Ameri ca In the Champlain pe riod there were

. ,

great E lephants and Mastod ons O xen H orses Stags , , , ,

Beave rs and some E dentates in North America u n s u r

, , ,

passed in magnitude by any i n other parts o f the world .

 Q U A TE R N A R Y E RA .

r
Un gu lat e s were the cha racteristic type Carnivores . Of
there were comparatively few species ; no true cavern
species have been discovered Fig 4 5 9 ( from O wen) . .

rep resents the speci men O f the Ame rican Mastodon n ew

in th e B ritish Museum Th e skeleton set up by D r
. .

Warren in B oston has a height of 1 1 feet and a length , ,

t o the base O f the tail of 1 7 feet , I t was fo u nd in a

.

marsh n ear N e w b u rg h Ne w York The Mammoth ( E le

, .

h r i mig en i u s ) was the m ost common a n d wide ranging

p as
p
-

S pecies of E le p hant in N orth America as in E urope and ,

Asia .

E D T T
EN A E : M e gath eri u m C u vi e ri ( x

Sou th Ameri ca .S outh Ame rica had at the same

-
,

time its C arni vores and Ungulates ; but it was most

,

remarkable for its E dentates or animals related to the

,

Sloths and Arma d illos .

Fig 4 6 0 sho w s the form and skeleton O f one of these

.

animals the Meg a th eri u rn It exceede d in size the largest

.

R h inoceros : a skeleton in the B ritish Museum is 1 8 feet

long It was a clumsy s lo th li k e beast but exceeded
.
, ,

immensely the modern Sloths in size Another group of .

E dentates related to the mode rn Armadillos h a d an

, ,

armor of bony plates developed in the skin giving them ,

a superficial resemblance to Turtles O n e genus named .

 HIS TOR IC A L G E O L OG Y .

G lyp to d o n is represented in Fig 4 6 1 th o ugh it h as been .

,

recently discovered that the tail shown in the figure

belongs to another genus M any of the animals O f this .

group also were gigan t ic the G lyp to do n here fig u red ,

having had a shel l or carapace five or six feet in length .

South America was eminently the continent of E den

t ates .

Au s tr ali a — The Mammals O f A u stralia in the Cham

. ,

plain period were almost exclusively M arsupials as is

, ,

the case in m odern Australia ; but these partook of t h e

gigan t ic size so characteris t ic of the Mammalian life O f
t h e period . The genus D ip ro to do n was as large as a
Hippopotamus and N o to the r i um was as large as an O x
,
.

E D T TE :
EN A G lyp t d o o n clavi p e s (x

Co nclu s i o ns .
— The facts sustain the following con
elusions
l The Champlain period of the Quaternary was t h e
.

time of culmination O f Mammals both as to numbers and ,

as to magnitude .

2 The Mammalian faunas of the various continents

.

showed the same ordinal types by which they are now

characterized but many of the species were much larger
,

t han n o w exist Thus the O rient had its gigantic

.
,

C arnivores South America its gigantic E de ntates ; Aus

t rali a i t s gigantic M arsupials .

3 The cli mate O f Great B ritain and the continent

.
 Q U A TE R N AR Y E RA .

Of E urope , where were the haunts of Lions Ti gers , ,

Hippopotamuses etc m ust have been warme r than now

,
.
, ,

and probably not colder than warm temperate The -

.

climate O f A rctic Siberia was such that shrubs could

have grown there to feed the herds of E lephants and ,

hence could not have been bel ow sub frigid f o r which -

,

degree of cold it is possible the animals might have

been adapted by their hairy covering .

4 The Champlain period the meridian time O f the

.
,

Quaternary Mammals was accordingly as before stated

, , , ,

one O f warmer climate over the northern continents than

the present and much warme r than that of the Glacial
,

period The species may have begun to exist before the

.

Glacial period ended ; but they belonged pre eminently

to the Champlain period .

5 The larger part of the great Mammal s of the

.

Quaterna ry disappeared with t h e close of the Champlain

period or in the early part of the Recent period while ,

others found refuge in the tropics They were a n imals .

of a warme r climate than now belongs to the regions

which they then inhabited ; and the change to a some
what colde r climate at the close O f the Champlain period
probably brought about the extermination and forced
migration .

Although the re is n o evidence in North America O f a

recurrence O f Glacial conditions after the Champlain
period it is probable that the re m ay have been oscilla
,

tions O f climate analogous to those of E urope the climate ,

j ust at the close of the Champlain pe riod being somewhat

colder than at present Such an oscillation o f climate.

is perhaps indicated by remains O f R eindeer which h ave

been found in southern N e w York and near Ne w Haven ,

in C onnecticut .

Among the Mammals of E urope which existed be fore

the close o f the Champlain period some a re now living ,

as the Reindee r M armot Ibex Chamois E lk Wild Boar

, , , , , ,

G oat Stag Aurochs Wolf B rown Bear and othe rs

, , , , , .
 HIS TOR IC A L G E OLO G Y .

Pre h i sto ri c R eli cs Of Man i n E u ro pe

The earli est .

relics of Man in E urope the region whose prehistoric

—

arch aeology has been most thoroughly explored — are rude

flint implements as arrowheads C hisels etc ; flint chip
, , , .

pings or the chips thro w n O ff in making the implements

,

rude carvings ; human bones and S keletons ; the bones

of the animals used for food S plit lengthwise this being , ,

done to get at the marrow ; charcoal and o t her remains ,

O f fires They occur associated with the remains of the

.

Ca ve Bear Cave Hyena C ave Lion Mamm oth and other

, , , ,

species which have either become e xtinct or migrated to

othe r regions They date from the Champlain period
.
,

and perh aps in part from the Glacial period

, , .

1 Th e P a le o li t hi c E p o ch — As t h e only implemen t s
.

O f early Man in E urope were of stone or bone the e ra in ,

human history h as been called the S to ne Ag e in distinction ,

from the B r o nz e Ag e and the Ir o n Ag e in which Man had ,

acquired the use of metals These three stages of ci vili .

~

z ati o n
( and for E urope
, chronological pe riods,) had been
long recognized by students O f E uropean a rch aeology .

But late r studies made it manifest that the Stone Age i n

E u rope not o n ly included a vastly greater lapse of time
than the two late r ages together but incl u ded wi d ely ,

di ffe rent types O f culture It became ne cessary there .

,
-

fore to su bdivide the Stone Age The earliest part O f

, .

that age has bee n designated the P a le o li th i c ep o c h from ,

the Greek n a h a t o s a ncient and M9 0 9 stone Geologi

'
‘

, , ,
.

cally it may be correlated with the Champlain epoch and

, ,

perhaps with the latter part o f the Glacial epoch The .

P aleoli t hic implements are never polished and are O f ,

ruder mak e than those of the later part of the Stone A g e .

P ortions of skeletons re fe rred to this e ra have been found

in various countries O f E u rope I n many cases h o w .
,

e ver the evidence of a e is more or less dubious S om e

,
g .
 Q U A TE R N A RY E RA .

o f the skulls and other bones present feature s which are

so mewhat S imian but this is not true of all the supposed
P aleolithic remains The S kull found at E ngis in Belgium
.

”
is pronounced by Huxley a fair ave rage human skull
and the same authority de clares that the most pithecoid
O f human crania yet discovere d the skull found at ”

(
Neanderthal i n the R hine valley ) can in no sense “ be
regarded as the remains of a being intermediate bet w een
”
Men and Apes . The antiquity of neither of these
.

famous relics is free from doubt. .

2
. Th e R e i n d e e r E p o ch — The second section of the .

E uropea n Age O f Stone has been called the R e i n d e e r ,

or M e s o li th i c ep o c h By many arch aeologists it is con

, .

s id e re d only a subdivision O f the P aleolithic epoch It .

was probably the time O f transition from the Cham

plain to the Recent epoch which in E urope was marked ,

by a recurrence of Glacial conditions ( page and

the deposits which are found in the caves of southern
,

France and elsewhere are distinguished by the occur ,

rence of large numbers of the bones of the Reindeer ,

along with the human relics The flint implements of .

this epoch are well made but are still exclusively made ,

by chipping the men of the Reindee r epoc h n o t hav

,

ing de veloped the art of g rinding and polishing stone ;

and among the relics there are i mplements of bone ivory , ,

and horn and drawings O f animals upon these materials

, .

O n e O f these drawings from southern France made 0 11 ,

ivory is copied in Fig 4 6 2 It represe nts the hairy

, . .

E lephant or M ammoth ; and sho w s that the men of that

,

epoch we re familiar wit h the Mamm oth as a living animal .

R e mains of the E lephant C ave Bear Cave Hyena C ave , , ,

Lion occur in the same deposits and also others O f exist

, ,

ing species as the E lk Ibex Aurochs etc

, , Perfect skel , , .

etons O f Man have been fou nd in some of the caverns .

Those O f southern France are in part of tall stature ,

5 feet 9 inches to 6 feet having well shaped hea d s and

,
-
,

a larg e facial angle O n e supposed to belon g to

 HIS T O R IC A L G E O LO G Y .

this epoch from a cave at Mentone ( on t h e Mediterranean

,
‘

near the borders of France and Italy ) was of a man fu lly ,

'

6 feet in heigh t ; and i t lay buried in the stalagmite of the

cave with flint implemen t s and shell ornaments around
,
,

and a chaplet of s t ag s teeth across its head ’

3 . Th e Ne o li th i c E p o c h A t hird epoch is named the .

N e o li th i c ( f rom ve o s n e w and M9 0 9 )
’

The relics include

, , .

stone implements which are g round and polished as well ,

as those which are chipped ; also broke n pottery a n d ,

bones of the D o g an d ( except in the earlies t part of the

epoch ) other d omestic animals The Neoli t hic men were .

therefore in a much more advanced stage O f cul t ure

,

FIG . 46 2

P u i ct re o f E l ph
e as p rim ig e mu s , g
e n ra ve d on i vo r y ,
x 3

than those of the preceding epochs Remains of ext i nct .

Champlain Mammals ( except th e Irish Dee r and of ani

)
mals which have ceased to e xist in central a n d southe rn
E uro pe though
,
survivin g in some other region ( as the
Reindeer ) are absent
, Neolithic man belongs u n u e s
q
.

t i o n abl to the Recent period

y O f geological time The .

earth and its fauna and flora had ac q uired substantially

their present condition .

The Neolithic race of men in D enmark resembled the

Laplanders
Their remains are found in S hell heaps ( the
.

S O called k o k k e n m
j
-
o d i n r or kitchen mi d dens along the
g ) ,

shores of the Bal t ic These shell heaps are relics O f feasts

.

,
 Q UA TE R N A R Y E RA . :

in which O ysters Mussels and other Mollusks appare ntly

, ,

formed a considerable part of the food .

T O a late r time in this epoch belong the earlier lake

f
dwellings O S witzerland — structure s built on piles in the
lakes — i n which the only implements are of stone and
,

othe r non metallic materials But in the later lake dwell

-
.

ings about the western Swiss lakes there are bronze i mple
, ,

ments a n d these are of the Bronze Age A fe w of the lake

, .

dwellings belong even to the I ron Age The Neolithic men .

of the lake dwellings we re no longe r merely hunters and

fishers but ag ri Ou lt u ri s t s raising wheat a n d barley
, , .

P re h ist o r i c R e li c s o f M a n i n O t h er Co u n t r i e s — In .

America the I ndians at the time of the discovery of the

, ,

continent by E uropeans were mainly in a N eolithic stage

,

O f culture Rude stone implements have been found in

.

various localities which have been conside re d to belong

,

to an earlie r Paleolithic race ; but the e vidence of such

an early race is less satisfactory than i n E urope since In ,

some cases the age O f the deposit is in dispute and the ,

localities have not in general been ve rifie d by a succession

O f discove ries The human skull reported from an ancient
.

gravel i n Calaveras C ounty California is probably an , ,

authentic relic and is associate d with extinct species O f

,

Mammals It is howeve r similar to that O f a modern

.
, ,

Indian and the implements in the gravels are o f Neolithic

,

type I n that locality some of the Pliocene and P le i s t o

.
,

cene Mammalia may have survived to a later date than

in most other regions .

In 1 89 4 Dr Dubois announced the discovery in J ava

, .
, ,

O f a portion of a skull two teeth and a femur which he

:

, , ,

considere d to belong to a manlike Ape and which he ,

named P i th eca n thr op u s e rectu s The remains appear to .

be human but the skull shows simian characters even

,

more strongly marked than those of the Neanderthal

skull and others which have been found in E urope It .

is unce rtain whether the formatio n in which t h e relics

were found is P leistocen e or P liocene .
 HIS TO R IC A L G E O LO G Y .

The evidence seems to render it probable that th e ear;

li e st of p 1 e h is t o ri c races ranging from the E ast Indies to
,

wester n E urope possessed features more simian than are

,

c h a 1 a c t e ri s t i c of any 1 ace of men now in existence .

Mo dern Human R eli cs In modern deposits buried

. ,
’
coins statues temples cities are found among the earth s
, , , ,

fossils contrasting strangely with the remains of the species

,

FIG S . 4 68 , 464 .

Hu man s kl
e e to n fro m G u d l up
a e o e . Co n gl o me rate c o ntai ni n g co i n s .

with which the h istory of the world s life began Fig ’

. .

4 6 4 represents a coin conglo m e rate containing coins O f ,

silver O f the reign O f E dward I found at a depth of ten

, .
,

feet belo w the bed O f the river D ove in E ngland ; and

Fi g 4 6 3 a portion of a h uman skeleton firmly imb edd ed
.
,

in a modern shell limestone of Gua deloupe the forme r ,

owner O f which was less than three centuries ago a

, ,

fighting Carib .

Man at t h e He ad o f t h e S y ste m o f Lita — With the

creation of Man a new era O pens in geological history In .

earliest time only matter e xisted — d ead matte r T h en .

appeared life — u nconscious life in the pla nt conscious ,

 Q U ATE R N A R Y
’

E R A.

and i ntelligent life in the animal Ages rolled by,with .

varied e xhi bi t ions of animal and vege t a ble life Finally .

M a n appeared a being made O f m atter and endowed with

,

life bu t mo re than this partaking o f a spiri t ual na t ure

, , , .

Th e sys t ems Of life belong essentially to time ; but M an ,

through his S pirit belongs to t h e infini t e fu t ure Thus

,
.

gif t ed man is t h e only being capa ble of reaching toward

,

a knowle dge of himself of n a t ure or of God He is , , .

,

therefore the only bei n g capable of conscious obedience

,

or diso bedience to moral law the only being su bject to ,

d egrada t ion thro ugh e xcesses of appeti t e and violation O f

'

mo ral law the only being with the will and powe r to
,

m ake na t ure s forces his m eans of progress

’
.

M a n shows his exal t ed nature in his mate rial structure .

His fore limbs a re not made for locomotion as in a ll quad ,

r u e d s ; they are remove d from the locom o tive t o the

p
cephalic series being fitted to se rve the h ead and espe
, ,

c i a lly the intellect and soul Man s t ands e rec t his body .
,

placed wholly under the brain to which it is su bservient , .

H is whole outer being in these and other ways shows , ,

fort h the divine nature of the Inne r being .

E x TIN c TIO N OF S P E C IE S IN M O D E R N TIM E S .

Species are becoming extinct i n the present epoch ,

as in the past Man is now a prominent means of this

.

destructio n The D odo a large bird looking like an

.
,

overgrown chicken in its plumage and wings was a bun ,

dant in the island of Mauritius un t il late in t h e seventeenth

century In N ew Z ealand have bee n found remains of
.

almos t twenty species of O strich like Birds known collee -

,

t i ve ly under the native name M o a and referred to the ,

genera Di n o rn i s Mei o n o rni s P a lap te ryx etc The largest

.
, , , .

specie s was 1 0 o r 1 2 feet in height and the tibia drum ,

stic k 30 to 32 inches long Some species at least O f the .

M oas may have su rvived until within a century or two .

I n Madagascar remains o f a still large r bird bu t O f similar ,

charac te r occur called E p y o rni s ; its egg is over a foot

, ,
 HIS TOR IC AL G E OL OG Y .

( 5
1 3 inches ) long The Great Auk a bird of northern
.
,

seas has become extinct within the pre sent century ; the
,

last was seen in 1 8 44 These are a fe w example s of the

.

modern extinction of S pecies .

The progress of civilization tends to restrict forests and

forest life to narrowe r and narrower limits The B u ffalo .

once roamed ove r N orth America to the Atlantic but is ,

now practically extinct except where it is under human

,

protection The B eaver Wolf Bear and Wild B oar

.
, , ,

were formerly common in Great B ritain but are now

.

wholly exterminate d .

G E N E R AL OB S E R VATI ON S ON CE N O Z OIC TIME .

Co ntr a st betwee n t h e Te rti ar y a nd Q tern ary

ua E r as i n
‘

Ge o graph i cal Pro gress he study of Ce nozoic time has

.

brough t out the contrast in the ge ological work of the

Tertiary and Quaternary ages .

The Tertiary in N or t h America carried forward the work

of rock making and of extending the limits of the d ry land
-
,

southward southeastward and southwestward which had

, , ,

been in progress ever since Arch aean time .

The Quaternary transferred the scene of operations to

the broad surface of the continent and especially to its ,

middle and higher latitudes .

Through the Tertiary the higher mountains of the

,

globe had been rising and the continents extending and

,

hence the great rive rs with their numerous tributaries

which are the offspring of great mountains on great con
t i n e n t s — channeled out the m ountains and made valleys
and crested heights I n the Glacial epoch this work went
.

forward with special energy The exposed rocks yielded .

before the moving glacier and the fragments torn from

,

the ledges with the disintegrated material which had

,

accumula t ed in pre Glacial time were carried along to be

-
,

distributed ove r the continental surface Torrents fe d .

,

by the melting ice were also at work with perhaps even

, ,
 C E N O Z O IC TIM E .

greater abrading powe r t h an the ice Thus the e x cava .

tion of valleys and the shaping of hills and mountains

were everywhere in progress In the Champlain period .
,

the low level at which the land lay and the melting of the ,

ice with the dropping of its earth and stones enabled the
, ,

flooded stream s to fill the great valleys deep with allu

vium In the R ecent period , which followed the upward
.
,

movements of the land led to a terra cing of the Ch amplain

deposits along the seashores and about the lakes and rivers .

Thus under the rending eroding and transporting

, , ,

power of fresh water frozen and unfrozen — eminently

‘

, ,

the great Quaternary agent — i n connection probably , , ,

’
with high latitude oscillations of the ear th s crust the
-
,

making of the earth was finally completed .

Life . In C enozoic time as in the preceding aeons S pecies

-
, ,

were disappearing and others took their places The M am .

mals of the early E ocene are di fferent in species from those

of the later ; and these from the M iocene the M iocene from ,

the P liocene and the P liocene from the Quaternary

, .

A ccording to the present state of discovery M ammals ,

commenced in M esozoic time late in the Triass i c era , ,

and the Mesozoic specie s were probably all M onotremes

and M arsupials They were the precursor spe cies pro
.
,

p h e t i c of that expansion of the n e w type which was to

take place after the Age of Reptiles had closed In the .

e arly E ocene at the opening of the Age of Mammals

, ,

appeare d U ng u late s and Creodonts of large size The .

earliest Ungulates ( such as P h en a co d u s Fig 4 4 3 page , .

,

3 9 5 ) were scarcely distinguishable from the earliest r e p r e

s e n t a t i ve s of the Carnivores C reodonts but more typical
( ) ;
representatives of both groups appeare d before the close
of the E ocene I n the early Ter tiary there were P e ri s s o
.

dactyls allied to the Tapir and R hinoceros and A rt i o dac ,

t y ls allied t o the Hog P roboscideans commenced in the

.

Miocene though the E lephant proper appeared first in the

,

P liocene .D eer and Antelopes commenced in the Miocene ,

O x e n i n the P liocen e .
 HIS TO R IC AL G E OLO G Y .

G E N E RA L O B S E R V A T IO N S O N G E OLOG L
C A L H IS T O R Y .

LE NG TH OF G E OLOG IC L TIME A .

By employing as data the relative thickness of t h e forma

tions of the geological ages estimates have been m ade of ,

the time ratios of those ages or their relative le n gths ,

( pages T hese estimated time ratios for the

P aleozoic Mesozoic and Cenozoic are 1 2 3 : 1
, , B ut the , .

numbe rs may be much altered when the facts on w hich

they are based are m ore corre ctly ascer t ained I t is quite .

certain that the E opale ozoic ( Cam brian and Lo w er

Silurian ) was at the least t hree times as l ong as eithe r
, ,

the D e vonian or Car bonife rous and longer than the ,

entire Neopaleozoic ; and probable that M esozoic time

was not less than three times as long as Cenozoic .

Hence comes the striking conclusion that the longest age

of the world since life began was the earliest when the
’
earth s population ( wi t h the e x ception of a few I nsects
and Fishes in the latter part of the time ) i n cluded only
,
’
marine Invertebrates And the time of the earth s begin
.

n i n g s before the introduction of life must have exceeded

in leng t h all subsequent time .

The actual lengths of these ages it is n ot possible to de

-

termine even app roximately All that Ge ology can claim .

to do is to pro ve the general proposition that T ime is

lo ng If time from the commencement of the Ca mbrian
.

included 4 8 millions of years which m ost geologists would ,

pro nounce too low an estimate the P aleozoic part a o , ,

cording to the above ratio would c omprise 3 6 millions , ,

the Mesozoic 9 millions and t h e C enozoic 3 millions

,
.

O n e o f the m eans of estimating the length of past tim e '

iS that a ff o rded by the rate of recession of the Falls o f

Nia gar a The rive r below the Falls flows n orthward in
.

de e p g o rge wi t h high r o cky walls for seven miles

. , ,

toward Lake O ntario It is reasonably assum e d th at th e

.
 G E OG R AP HIC A L P R O G R E S S .

gorge has been cut out by the r i ver f or the river is ,

now accomplishing work of this very kind By certain .

fossilife rous Quate rnary beds ove r the country bordering

th e present walls and by othe r evidence it is proved that
, ,

at least about six miles of the present gorge and probably ,

the whole seven miles was made after the ret reat of the
,

ice sheet of the Glacial period from that part of the coun
try A comparison o f surveys made respe ctively in 1 8 4 2
.

and 1 8 8 6 S ho w s that the recession of the apex of the Horse

shoe Fall duri n g that time has been at the rate of about
four feet per year O n the basis of that determination
.
,

the time occupied in the e rosion of the entire gorge has

been estimated at from 6 0 00 to years It is how .
,

ever believed by many geologists that d uring a part of

, ,

the time the water of the U pper Lakes ( Superior Michi

, ,

gan H uron ) was diverted into anothe r channel O n that

, .

supposition the estimate of the time required for the cut

,

ting must be conside ra bly increased — perhaps to about

years I n any case whe n it is conside red that the
.
,

work has been d one in a smal l fraction of the latest and

shortest of the ge ological eras the calculation m ay be ,

regarded as establishing at least the proposition that

, ,

Ti m e is long although it a ffords no satisfactory numbers

, .

Besides the estimates of geological time base d on proc

esses of erosion and sedimentation other estimate s have ,

been made by physicists based on the conditions of cooling

of the earth and the sun .

\V h ile neithe r the geological n or the physical m odes of

calculatio n c a n yield any certain re sul t s in the present
state of our knowledge it m ay be co n side re d pro bable
,

that geological time from the beginning of the Cambrian

is measured by tens of millions rather than by m illions , ,

or by hundreds of millions of years , .

G E OG R APHICAL PROGRE S S IN N ORTH AME RICA .

The principal steps of progress in the contine n t o f North

America are here recapitulated :
 HIS TO R IC AL G E O LO G Y .

1 The continent at the cl ose of the Ar ch aean lay spread

.

out mostly beneath the ocean ( map page Although ,

thus submerged its outline was n early the same as now

, ,

The dry land lay mostly to the north as shown on the ,

map The form of the m a in i n as s approximated to that

.

of the letter V and the arms of the V were nearly parallel

,

to the present coast lines .

2 Through the P aleozoic ages as the successive periods

. ,

passed the dry land gradually extended itself southward

, ,

owing to a gradual emergence ; that is the se a border at ,

the close of the L ower Siluria n was probably as far south

as the Mohaw k valley in N ew York ; at the close of the
Upper Silurian it extended along not far from the north
end of Cayuga Lake and Lake E rie ; and by the close of
the Devonian era the state was a portion of the dry land
nearly to its southern boundary This southward prog .

ress of the sea border in New York may be taken as an

example of wh at occurred along the bor ders of the
Arch aean farther west In other words there was
.
,

through the Cambrian Silurian and D e vonian ages a

, ,

gradual extension of the dry part of the continent south

eastward and southwestward .

By the close of the Carboniferous era or before the Open ,

ing of Mesozoic time the dry portion appears to have so

,

far extende d southwardly as t o include nearly all the area

east of the M ississippi at least north of the G u lf States
, ,

along with a part of that west of the Mississippi as far as ,

the middle of Kan sas .

3 D uring the P aleozoic ages rock f ormations were in

.
,

progress over large parts of the submerged p ortions of the

continent and some vast accumulations of sand were
made as drifts or dunes over the flat shores and reefs .

These rock formations had in general ten times the thick

ness along the Appalachian region which they had over the
interior of the continent ; and they were mostly fragmental
deposits in the former region while mostly limestones in
,

the latter Hence two important conclusions follow

.
 G E OG R A P HIC A L P R O G R E S S .

Firs t . The Appalachian region was through much of

th e time a sea border region receiving the debris from
-
,

the land There was a strip of emerged land along the

.

Appalachian region at the close of A rch aean ti me and ,

C ambrian and Lower Silurian deposits were formed on

both sides of the emerged land At the close of the Lowe r .

Silurian a considerable region emerged adj oining the

, ,

Arch aean area on the east Along the western S hore of

.

this broad area of dry land the debris accumulated to ,

form the later P aleozoic deposits At the same time the .

Interior region was a mediterranean sea whose pure waters ,

over large areas m ostly free from m echanical sediments

, ,

a fforded the conditions for a luxuriant growth of the

marine life whose S keletons are the mate rial for t h e mak
ing of limestone .

S e c o n dly The Appalachian region was unde rgoing

.

great changes of level the deposits having been made in

,

shallow waters the region was slowly sinking not faster ,

than the rate of deposition and the amount of subsid e nce

,

exceeded by ten times that in the Interior C ontinental

region .

.4 I n this Appalachian region the Taconic range ( and ,

probably a system of contemporaneous ranges farthe r

south ) was upturned rendered metamorphic and elevated
, ,
’
ab ove the ocean s level at the close of the L owe r Silurian
,

and at the same time the valley of Lake Champlain and

Hudson R ive r was formed if n ot earlie r begun At the
, .

same time also the Atlantic B order region sout h of New

, ,

York eme rge d by an extensive geanticlinal movement ,

form ing a la n d mass of unknown breadth whose denuda ,

tion in late r P aleozoic time furnished material for the

thick sediments of the Appalachian range proper .

.5 A S P aleozoic ti m e closed an epoch of re volution ,

occurred i n whic h the rocks of the Appalachian region

,

south of N e w York and west of the P ie dmont region of

ancien t crystalline rocks under w ent ( 1 ) e xtensive fle x
ures or foldings ; ( 2) immense f a u lti n g s in some parts ;
 HIS TO R IC A L G E O LO G Y .

3 consolidation an d in some e ast e rn p o rti o n s some

'

( ) , , ,

degree of metamorphism with the conversion of bitumi ,

nous coal into anthracite These changes affected the .

region fro m Ne w York to Alabama The eff ects of heat .

and uplift were m ore decided to w ard the Atlantic than

towa rd the Inte rior showing that the force p roducing the
,

great results was exerted in a direc t ion from the Atlantic ,

or f ro m the southeast toward the n orthwest The Appa .

la c h i an M ountains proper were then m ade ; and t hey

were consequently in existence when the Mesoz oic era
, ,

Opened .

These mountains are parallel to the eastern outline of

the original Arch aean continent .

S ome distu rbances probably took place at the same time

in the Great B asin ; but no gene ral revolution on the
"

P acific S ide comparable to that on the Atlantic .

In E urope also t h is epoch of revolution was a time of

, ,

mountain making -
.

6 In early Me soz oic time ( the continent being largely

.

dry land as stated in the latte r part of

, long d ep re s
sions in the surface of the con t ine nt m ade in t h e course ,

of the Appalachian revolution and S ituated between the ,

Appalachians and the sea border were brackish water ,

-

es t uaries or we re occupied by fresh w ater m arshes and

,
-

streams ; and Mesozoic san d s t ones shales and coal bed s , ,

were formed in them The C onnecticut Valley region of

.

Mesozoic rocks ( page 332) is one e x ample At the same .

time there we re formations i n progre ss over the R ocky

Mountain region a vas t area from which the sea was n o t
,

excl uded or only in part At the close of the J urassic

, .

period the S ierra Ne vada and som e other great ranges

,

on the western side of the continent were made .

7 I n the late r Mesozoic or the C retaceous era the

.
, ,

Atlantic and Gulf Borders of the c ontinent were unde r .

wate r ( t h e Atlantic gean t icline formed at the close of the

Lowe r S ilurian having become subme rged ) and received ,

a deposi t of C re t ace o u s rocks The Wes tern I nterior .

 G E OG R A P HIC A L P R O G RE S S .

.sea o pe ning south into the Gulf of M e x ico still e x isted

, , ,

and was probably for the mos t part a dee per and clearer
sea tha n in the earlie r Mesozoic D eposits were made in .

it over a v e ry la rg e par t of the great region reaching

f ro m Io w a on the eas t to the Colorado on the west and ,

north w ard probably to the Arctic O cean The P acific .

B orde r was also receiving an e xte nsion like the Atlantic .

8 Mesozoic like P aleozoic ti me closed wit h a re vo lu

.
, ,

t i o n a ry epoch of mou n tain maki n g ; but the theate r of

-

this Laramide or post M esozoic re volution was on the

,
-
,

w estern side of t h e continent The ele vation extende d .

al o n g the whole line o f the summit region of the R ocky

M ountains f rom n ear t h e Arctic O cean to central M exico
and in all p ro bability t h e long line of the A n des shared
in the m ovement The Ro cky Mountain and Sie rra
.

ranges are pa rallel to the wes t e rn a r m of the Arch aea n V ,

as the Taconic and Appalachia n ranges are pa rallel to its

e astern a rm .

. 9 In t h e 'e a rly Cenozoic or the Tertiary e ra the e x

, ,

te n sio n o f the Atlantic and P acific Bo rd ers was still c o n

t inu e d W ith its close the progress of the continen t i n
.

ro ck making sou t heas tward and south w est ward was ve ry

-

nearly com ple t ed .

The Inte rior sea a fter the Laramide revolution became

, ,

d ry land e xcept remnants left as g rea t fresh wate r lake s

,
-
,

a trans ition from ma rine to te rrestrial con d i t ions being

shown by the coal bearing strata of t h e Laramie epoch
-
.

D u ring the E oce ne Tertiary, the O hio and Mississippi

emptied into a bay of the G ulf o f M exico j ust where they ,

n o w j oin their waters ; a t t h e close o f the E ocene the O hi o

had taken a secondary place as a t ri butary of the M issis

s ippi .The great Missouri R iver n ow the mai n trunk of ,

the Interior rive r system began its existence afte r the

,
“

C retaceous period and reache d its full size only to w ard

,

the close o f the Te rtiary whe n the R ocky M ountains

,

finally attained t hei r f u ll height .

1 0 The continent being thus far completed as the Q ua

.
,
 HIS TO R IC A L G E OLO G Y .

’
ternary Age was drawing on operation s changed from
,

those causing southern extension to those producing ,

movements of ice and fresh waters ove r the land especially ,

in the highe r latitudes ; and thereby the surface of the

continen t acquired its present characte r .

PROGRE S S OF LIFE .

In the summary of the characteristics of the successive

aeons and eras of geological time given on page 233 the ,

student s attention was called to two generalizations first

’
,

that in the progress of time there has been an increasing

approximation to the flora and fauna of the present age ;
second that there has been a rise i n the grade of plants
,

and animals represented It was then remarked that these

.

generalizations were strikingly in accord with the theory

of evolution now almost u n iversally adopted The student
,
.

is now prepared to take a fulle r survey of the general laws

of progress in the history of life and to rec ognize the
,

significance of those laws in relation to ev o lution .

It would be inappropriate in this place to d iscuss the

evidences of evolution outside of the S phe re of geology and
paleontology — those for instance which are a fforded by
, ,

the homologies of structure maintained in spite of wide

diversity of function by rudimentary organs by the laws
, ,

of embryology by the facts of ge og raphical distribution

, ,

and by the di fficulties and uncertainties of zo o logical and

botanical classification O nly the bearings of the geologi
.

cal history o f plants and animals can be here presented .

The concurrence o f e vidence from many di fferent sources

has brought about a substantially unanimous opinion
among naturalists that the existing species of plants and
,

animals have originated by descent with modification, from

species that preceded them in geol ogical time and these , ,

in turn from still earlier species and so on to the S implest

, ,

living forms with which life is supposed to have com

men ce d .There is however much uncertainty and much
, ,

di fference of o pinion in regard to the method of evoluti on

 P ROG RE S S O F LIF E .

and the f orces which have ope rated in the production of

the result It is generally believed tha t the changes from
.

generation to generation which have resulted in the evo

,

l a tion of new species are mainly due directly or indirectly

, , ,

to the influence of environment Some naturalists attrib .

ute very much to the direct influence of e nvironment ,

assuming that the e ffe cts of use o r disuse of organs and ,

other e ff ects produced in the lifetime of individuals by the

environment will be inherited in greater or less degree
,

by their o ffspring and may the refore be accumulated

, , ,

from ge neration to generation O thers believe th at com .

p a r a t i ve l
y little is d u e to the direct influence of environ

ment All agree that a most potent influence in evolution

.

is the indire ct influence of environment as formulated ,

in D arwin s principle of n a tu r a l s ele cti o n A ccording to

’
.

this pr i nciple those individuals in each generation w hose

,

peculiarities of organization are most thoroughly adapted

to the environment will have the greatest chance of sur
v i v i n g to maturity and leaving o ffspring I n this manner .
,

whatever may be the causes of variation all variations ,

which place the individual more in harmony with its e n

v i r o n me n t will te nd to be preserved and accumulated from

generation to gene ration Some naturalists have im a gined

.

innate tendencies to progress in the organization of S pecies ,

and other occult or transcendental forces tending to e vo

lu t i o n
. The re may be causes of evolutionary change
as yet entirely unknown In s o far as evolution d epends
.
,

eithe r directly or indirectly upon the influe nce of e nviron

,

ment it is obvious that evolutionary changes in flora and

,

fauna must have gone on rapidly only when rapid changes

have take n place in the environment The geological .

record seem s to indicate that i n every region of the globe

, ,

there have been long periods of comparative stability in

ge ographical con ditions alternating with epochs of com
,

p a r a t i v e ly rapid change E volution

. cannot therefore , ,

have progressed at uniform rate through geological time ,

bu t periods of comparativel y rapid evolution must have

 HIS T OR IC A L G E OL OG Y .

alternate d with long ages of approxim ately stat i onary co n

d it io n s
. It is u nce rtain to what extent the evolution of
new species has taken place by the accumulation of minute
variations from generation to generation and to what ,

exten t occasional abrupt variations have contributed to

that result O n the latt er supposition it is obvious t hat
. ,

the series of intermediate forms which mus t have e xisted ,

between an ancestral species and a species derived from it ,

would have shown much less fine gradations than on the

”

forme r .

Th e G ene ral Fact o f Pro gres s i n Life In the survey .

-

of geological history which the student has n ow completed ,

he will have been impresse d continually with the gene ral

fact of progre ss I n t h e Cam brian the onl y plants were
.
,

Seaweeds Acrogens made their first appearance in the

.

Lowe r Silurian and became abun d a n t in the D evonian

,

and Carboniferous Gymnosperms first appeared in the

.

D evonian a n d culminated in t h e Mesozoic

,
A n gio spe rm s .
-

began in the C re t aceous and att a in their greatest develop ,

ment at the present time The E chinode rms of t h e Cam .

brian were Crinoids t h e lowest class of the su bking d om

, .

The E chinoids the hig h es t of the classes possessed of

,

well developed S keletons in that subking d om appeared

-
, ,

as early as the Lowe r Silurian but the highest group of

this class the I rregular E chinoi d s d id not appear till t h e
, ,

J urassic . The class of Gastropods commenced indeed in , ,

the Cambrian but the higher families of t hat class char

, ,

ac t e r i z e d by the most spe cialize d types of d entition did ,

not appear until the Mesozoic O f the Cephalopods the .

,

lower order t h e T e t ra bran c h s appeared in the Cambrian

, , ,

but the highe r orde r the Di branchs not till the Triassic , , .

The most of the C rustace ans of early ti me belonged to

the lower subclass the E ntomostracans The higher sub
, .

class o f M alacostracans was indeed repre s ented in the , ,

Cambrian but only by its l owest or d er the Le pt o s t ra c an s

, , ,

an order somewhat i nter mediate in c haracte r between

the two subclasses The hi ghe r orders of Crustacean s
.
 PR O G RE S S O F LIFE .

a pp e a re d mu ch
later The Macrurans m ade their first
'

appearance in the D evonian and Brachyurans not till t he ,

J u rassic . Wit h the exception of some Ne u ro pt e rs an d

possi bly a fe w Bee t les the H exapod Insects in the P ale
,

o z o i c all belonged to the orders with incomplete meta

morphosis The higher orders of Insects exhi biting dis
.
,

t i n c t ly in their development the three stages of larva pupa , ,

and i mag e ( complete metamorphosis ) belong to M esozoic ,

and Cenozoic time The highes t of the subkingdoms

.
,

the V e rt e bra t e s d i d not appea r at all in the Cam brian

,
‘

Fishes first appeare d in the Lo w er Silurian Amphibians ,

in the D evonian R eptiles in the P ermian B irds and

, ,

M ammals n o t till the M esozoic The Reptiles of the .

P e rmian belonge d m ostly to the comparatively lo w o rde r

of Rh y nchocephala The more highly organized D ino
.

saurs and P te rosaurs did not c o m e in till M esozoic time .

The Birds of the J urassic and some of those of the C re ,

t ac e o u s
, still retained characteristics allying them to
R ep t iles . The M ammals of the Triassic were probably
all M onotremes and those of the J urassic and the C re ta
,

c e o u s pro bably all M onotremes and M arsupials The .

highe r subclass of Place ntals probably m ade its first

appearance i n the E ocene and Man himself marks the ,

culmination of living nature in the Q uaternary .

Cep h aliz ati o n The prog res s of anim al life in gen

.
-

e ral and the progress within each group of the animal

,

kingdom i nvolves a manifestation In i n c re a s m g Intensity

,

of the fore and aft structure which has been stated ( page ,

5 8 ) to be characteristic of animal life Bilate ral s y m m e .

try takes t h e place of radial symmetry as sho w n by the ,

contrast between the Regular E chinoids which appeare d ,

eve n in the Paleozoic and the I rregular E ch inoids which

, ,

we re unknown till the J u ras s i c The poste rior portion _

.
_

o f the body tends to become abbreviated and powe r and ,

function to be c o n c e n t ra t e d i n t h e o rga n s and appendages

v

of the ante rior portion o f the body as is seen in compar ,

.

i n g the M acrurans which appeared in the D evonian

, ( ,
 HIS TO RIC A L G E O LO G Y .

with the Br a chyu rans which first appe ared in the J uras
,

sic The cephalic ne rve mass or brain acquires i n c re as

. , ,

ing size with the i ncreasing activity and intelligence of

the animal See for illustration the figures of casts of
.
, ,

M ammals brains on page 3 97

’
.

P aral le lis m o f P aleo nt o lo g y and E mbry o lo gy Ag .

assiz long ago called attention to the fact that in their ,

development many animals pass through embryonic or

,

larval forms m ore or less closely resembling animals of

lower grade which appeared in earlier geological periods
, .

The C rabs through all of their earlier stages of develop

,

ment have a long tail like abdomen such as is permanent

,
-
,

in t h e Shrimps and othe r Macrurans The embryo Sp ider .

has the abdomen segmented as in the adult of the more ,

ancient group of Scorpions Indeed some of the earliest .

,

Spiders in the C arbonife rous period show traces of this

, ,

segmentation in the adult The m odern Ganoids and

.

Teleosts pass through an embryonic stage i n w h i ch they ,

‘
"

have heterocercal tails like the Ganoids of the P aleozoic .

The embryos of Reptiles Birds and Mammals have on each , ,

side of the neck a row of gill slits like those of Sharks .

Pro gres s f ro m Gen erali ze d t o S p eci ali ze d Fo rms It .

was remarked on page 3 9 6 that the representatives r e s p e c

t i ve ly of the Ungulates and the C arnivores in the e a rli
est E ocene are scarc e ly distinguishable from each other ;
whereas in the progress of time t h e divergent evolution
, ,

has led to a stronger accentuation of the characters of t h e

respective groups as is seen when we contrast the limbs
,

or t h e dentition of the H orse and the Cat This case of .

the Tertiary Mammals well illustrates a general law As .

we go back in geological time the lines of descent appear ,

to converge indicating that forms now widely separated

,

may have been derived by diverge nt modification from

a common ancestry The Ganoids whose scales are pre
.
,

served in L owe r Silurian rocks appear thus to have formed ,

the starting point of two dive rgent lines of e volution In .

one direction the accentuation of piscine characters re sulted

 P R OG R E S S OF LIF E .
‘

in the Homocercal Ganoids and Teleosts while the othe r ,

line ascended through the D ipnoans to the Amphi bians

and thence to the higher classes of Vertebrates It was .

long ago pointe d out by Agassiz that the earliest r e p re

s e n t a t i ve s of a group of animals often possessed character

i s t i c s which appeared to connect the m with some ot h er

group S uch forms were called by him synthetic types
. .

By others they have been named comprehensive types .

N umerous examples of such co m prehensive type s occur

in geological hi s tory an d it is noteworthy that they have
, ,

in general become extinct or nearly so The D ipnoans

,
.
,

blending with the characters o f the Fishes the pulmonary

respiration and mode of articulation of the lower j aw
characteristic of the highe r Ve rtebrates ; the Labyrinth
o d o n t s retaining fi s h lik e structure s i n their skeletons ; the
,

Dinosaurs with their bir dlike limbs and pelvic girdles ;

,

the R eptilian Birds with their teeth and long tails and
, , ,

free metacarpals ; the M onotremes with their reptilian ,

characters in skeleton and reproductive organs ; are —

striking e x amples of such comprehensive types .

Pro g es s
r i n Di ve s i cat i o n o f
r fi Ty pe — It is a note.

worthy fact that no classes ( in the classification of a n imals

adopte d in this work ) and ve ry few orders have e ver
, ,

become extinct while in the progres s o f geological time

,

several classes and a much large r number of orders u n

known i n the C a mbrian have been introduced The .

result has been an increasing diversification The intro .

duc tion of h igher classes and orders has not involve d the
extinction of lower types In some cases evolution has
.

involved a degradation so that relatively low forms have

,

appeare d later than allied forms of highe r grade The .

Ichthyosaurs Reptile s degraded to fi sh lik e form and habit

, .

did not appear till the Triassic although R eptiles of m ore

,

normal structure we re already in existence in the P ermian .

And while the true Lizards appeared in the J urassic the

, ,

; Snakes , which are essentially Lizards that have su ffered

degradation in the loss of limbs did n ot appear until
,
 HIS TO R IC A L G E OLO G Y .

l a te i hthe Cretace ous S o amo n g Mam mals alth o u gh a

'
‘ ‘

.
, ,

numbe r of the comparatively normal orders of P lacentals

“

were represente d in the earlies t E ocene the Whales did ,

not appear till later in the E ocene ; and the E dentates ,

whose degraded character is shown i n the imperfection of

their teeth did not appear till the Mioce ne
,
.

Pro gres s f ro m Mar i ne t o Te rrestr i al Life S o far .

a s our p resent knowledge goes th e life of the Cambrian , ,

both vegetable and animal was e x clusively marine The

‘

, .

earliest forms of life were probably crea tures floating on the

surface of the sea ; and ani mals developed heavy S keletons ,

and took to crawling upon the bottom or attaching them

selves thereto only i n a late r stage of evolu t ion ( see page
,

In the L ower S ilurian we get the earlies t traces

of t e rrestrial life in Acrogens and Insects ; but it is not
,

until t h e Carb o niferous that terrestrial life attains a ve ry

great development ; and P hane rogams among plants and ,

Insects B irds and Mammals a mong animals the forms

, , ,

of terrestrial life now d ominant belong chie fly or exclu ,

s i ve ly to M esozoic and C e n o z mc time .

Incre a sin g Appro x i mat i o n t o t h e Pre s ent Flo ra and

Fau na The dominant groups of P ale ozoic life are with
.
,

out exceptio n groups which are now comparatively ra re

,

or entirely e xtinct The gigantic Sigillarids Le pi d o de n

.
,

d ri ds and Calamites that characterized t h e C arboniferous

,

forests are now represente d by insignificant forms which

,

make n o conspic u ous feature in the vegetation Cy a .

t h O ph y llo i d C orals have only doubtf u l represent a tives

a fte r the P aleozoic Crinoids decrease in abun dance
.

after the P aleozoic and the class is now but very scan ,

t i ly represented The groups of Cystoids and Blastoids

.

are exclusively P aleozoic T h e class of B rachiopods .

,

whose remains in the early Paleozoic outweigh all other

,

f o s s i ls p u t toge t her is n o w re d uced to an insignificant

. f

remnant O f Tetrab ranch Cephalopods the genus N a u

.
,

ti lu s is n ow the sole survivo r The Trilobites a n d t h e .

P lacoder ms are unknown since the P aleozoic .

 P R OGR E S S O E LIFE . 45 ?

The life of the M esozoic shows a greate r resemblance to

th e life of modern times The fores t s of A crogens are suc
.

c e e d e d in the early Mesozoic by forests of G ymnosperms ,

and in the Cretaceous Angiosperm s appear B rachio .

pods gradually decline and Lamellibranchs g radually ,

increase The order of Te tr abra n c h s is represented by a

.

vast multitude of Ammonites bu t associated w i th them ,

are Belemnites and other representatives of the D i branchs .

Insec t s appear in increasing numbers and m ost of t h e ,

higher orders are represented R eptiles attain their cul

.
.

mination ; and before the close of the Mesozoic the

, ,

m odern groups of Teleost Fishes B irds and Mammals , ,

appear .

The Cambrian fauna in cludes n ot a S ingle sp ec i es now

su rvivi n g and only two g en e ra represente d by living S p e
,

cies Li ng u la and D i s c in a It is doubtful e ve n whether

, .

t h e C am brian B rachiop ods re ferred to those two genera

really belong to them B efore the close Of t h e P aleozoic
.
,

a consi d era ble number of genera appear which are s t ill

represente d by living species ; but no P al e oz o ic spec i es ,

e ither of plant or animal has survi ve d to the p resent ,

time with the d oubtf u l exception of a few species of

,

Carbonife rous Diatoms It is doubtful whethe r any M eso

.

zoic spe cie s of animal e x cept a fe w species of Foraminifers

, ,

has survived to the present d ay although the num ber of ,

genera represented by living S pecies become s conside rable .

W ith the beginning of the Tertiary existing species of ,

Invertebrates make t heir appearance ; and by the close of ,

the Te rtiary the P lants and Inverte brates are mainly

,

of species which still su rvive D uring the Quaternary .

,

existing species of Ve rtebrates are gradually introduced .

Gra du al Ch an ge i n G e ne ra an d S p e cie s — A s we pass

f rom one stratum to another within the limits of a forma
tion it may generally be observed that some spec i es d i s
,

appear and others t ake thei r place A t the clos e of an

, .

e poch or a period a greater proportion of the l ife is

‘

cha ng ed The diagram on page 3 2 2 sho w ing t h e ra nge ?

.
,
 HI S TO R IC A L G E O L OG Y .

of some o f the principal genera of Trilo bites illustrates ,

well the history of most groups of organisms E ach class .

or orde r ge n erally appears first in comparatively small num

bers of species and increases to a culmination after which
, ,

it may gradually decline ; and during the lifetime of a

class or order there i s a constant appearance and d i s ap
ea ra n ce of genera and species It is not certain that any
p .

species represented in the P aleozoic appears in the Meso

z oic and scarcely any Mesozoic specie s appear in the C en
,

o z o ic but at the present day all geologists would explain

, ,

this condition not by the supposition of universal exter

,

m i n a t i o n s but by reference to the imperfection o f the

,

geological record ( page

The cause of the extinction of spe cies must be supposed
to be in general an unfavorable env ironment When
, , .

the environment changes so that a sp ecies is n o longer in

harmony with it the S pecies may undergo modification
, ,

if the change o f environment is not too rapid or may ,

migrate if areas are open to it n which the enviro n ment

, I

is more favorable O therwise it must become extinct

. .

Chan ges of climate have probably been on a large scale , ,

the m ost important influence in determining such evol a

t i o n ar y changes The amount of heat receive d from the
.

sun has appreciably declined through geological t ime .

The water vapor with which the atmosphere of earlier

,

ages was loaded has been gradually condensed ; and the

,

carbon dioxide h a s b een gradually removed f rom the

atmosphere and its carbon stored in various forms in
,

the crust of the globe The earth s a tmosphere has

.
’

thereby become less absorptive of heat and O pposes less ,

resistance to the radiation of heat from the earth O s c i l .

lat i o n s of level of the earth s cr u st have directly affected

’

the temperature of the areas of elevation or subsidence ,

and have indirectly afl e c t e d the temperature of other

regions by changing the course s of ocean currents While .

changes of climate have often operated simultaneously

o ver a large part or the whol e o f t h e sur f a c e o f th e globe ,
 PR OG R E S S O F L IF E .

e very movement of elevation or subsidence however S light , ,

has ma de local changes in the conditions of life Land .

has been converted into sea and sea into land ; salt water
,

has given place to fresh and vi ce ver s a ; muddy shoals

, ,

receiving detritus from the shore have given place to ,

clear seas in whose pure waters corals could grow luxu

riantly ; and again the debris of the c oral gardens has
, ,

been cove red with mud or gravel E xterminations of

.

more local character have been produced by var i ous catas

t rO p h e s a s earthquake waves deluging the areas of land
, ,

volcanic eruptions heating the waters or emanations of ,

gas rendering t h e waters p oisonous And the conditions

.

of life of every species have been affected not only by the

direct influence of geographical or climatic cha n ges but ,

indirectly by the changes in the forms of life with which

it has been associated Migration brings a species into
.

relation with a di ff erent set of other spe cies which may ,

furnish it with food or become its rivals or e n emies

, .

Lo st Gro up s do no t re appe ar A S a general rule a

.
-
,

species or a more comprehensive group which has once

, ,

become extinct does not reappear T 0 this pr e p o s i t i o n

, .

there are some curiou s apparent exceptions A f e w land .

S nails are found in the Carboniferous but n o land Snails ,

have been recognized from the P ermian Triassic or J u , ,

r as s i c formations In the C retaceous they reappear and

.
,

f rom that time the series is substantially continuous A .

few S corpions are found in the Upper S ilurian ; none

have been re cognized from the D evonian ; but in the
C arbonifero u s both S corpions and Spiders occur B oth .

t h ese groups appear to be missing fro m the P ermian and

from the whole series of M esozoic strata They reappear .

in the Tertiary Amphibians O f the order Labyrintho

.

donts appear in the Subcarbonife rous ( or probably i n , ,

the D e vonian ) and continue through th e Triassic possi

, ,

bly into the beginning of the J urassic The class o f .

Amphibians then remains unreprese n ted u ntil a S alaman

der appears in t h e L ower Cretaceous S u ch e x ceptions .
,
 HIS TO R IC A L G E OL O G Y .

'
howeve r are readily explained as due to the i m p e rf e c
,

tion of the record They are not su fficient to throw any

.

doubt upon the general principle .

Persisten ce o f Ch ar acter o f Fau n a s In the early periods .

of the earth s history there appears to have been little

’

di fferentiation between the faunas and floras of various

continents After the development of such di fferentia
.

tion and the acquisition of distinct faunal characteristics

,

by the various continents there is a noteworthy tendency ,

for these characteristics to persist from one geological

period to another That principle is strikingly illustrated
.

in t h e comparison of the M ammalian faunas of the Quater

nary with the existing faunas In the early Quaternary .
,

Australia was distinctively the land O f M arsupials and , ,

in somewhat less S triking degree S outh America was the ,

land of E dentates The present M ammalian faunas of .

those regions are characterized by the predominance of

the same types .

Missin g Link s — T he general laws of succession of

.

organic life as above formulated are all obviously in

, ,

accord with the theory of evolution Yet there are pale .

ontological facts whose beari n g appears p r i ma f a ci e , ,

adverse to that doctrine A ccording to the theory of .

evolution existing species ought in m ost cases to be well

, , ,

defined since in general a S pecies now existing must be

, , ,

supposed to have been derived not from some other exist ,

ing species but from a species now extinct B etween the

,
.

ancestral and the derived species there m ust have been

sometime a serie s of more or less fi n ely grada t ional forms .

How fine those gradations must have been depends some ,

what upon the method o f evolution If evolution was by .

the accumulation of minute and imperceptible variations ,

the series must have presented very fine gradations If .

,

as is probable occasional abrupt variations have played

,

a considerable r6 1e the gradatio n s would have been less ,

fine O n that supposition the missing links m ay be miss

.
,

ing because they never existed Certain it is that in most .

 PR OG R E S S O F L IFE .

cases fine gradations between fossil species are no m ore to

be found than between living species In the grea t m aj ority .

of cases fossil species are well defined M oreover more

,
.
,

comprehensive groups often appear in ge ological history

where no pre existent forms are known as probable anecs
tors for them ; and the order of introduction of related
groups is often di fferent fro m that which would be pre
dicte d a p r i o ri on the basis O f the the ory of e volution
, , .

The highly diversified fauna of the Cambrian includes

many groups of by no means very low grade which appear ,

witho u t any apparen t ancestry H exapod Insects appear .

in the L ower Silurian while the Myriopods which are

, ,

m ore generalized and would seem to be a m ore primitive

,

group are unknown until the D evonian N O fossil forms

,
.

have bee n discovered which can be imagined to b e the

immediate ancestors of the P lacoderms Selachians and , ,

Ganoids of the Lower Silurian N o intermediate forms .

have been discovered bridging the gap between Sea w eeds

and Acrogens . The sudden appearance of numerous
orders of P lacental Mammals in the very earliest E ocene
is at least startling The interrupted chronological range
.

of several groups as in the cases of S nails Arachnoids

, , ,

and Amphibians above mentioned would be a fatal o bje c

, ,

tion to the theory of e volution if the interruptions wer e ,

believed to be othe r than merely apparent S o long as .

the complete change in the life of the globe at the close

of the P aleozoic and again at the close of the Mesozoic
, ,

was believed to be due to universal extermination the ,

theory of evolution could h ave no standing ground .

Th e I mp e rfe cti o n o f t h e Ge o lo g i cal R e co rd — This .

phrase now become classical expresses the substance of

, ,

the answer given by D arwin and by all evolutionists to , ,

such di fficulties as have j ust been cited The bearing of .

the principle on some special cases has already bee n dis

cusse d ( pages 25 1 28 8 , But the subj ect of the
,

i mperfection of the geological re cord may well receiv e

some further co mm e nt .
 HIS TO R IC AL G E OLO G Y .

1 . G e o lo gi ca l Co n d i t i o n s of Imp erf e cti on

f R eco r d o th e .

Fossilifero u s strata of considerable thickness can be formed

only during a progressive subsidence ; but in general , ,

relative e levation must have predominated over subsidence

in the history of the continents and more over D arwin is , ,

probably correct in maintaining that periods of ele vation

have been more fruitful in e volutionary changes than
A fter fossilife rous strata have
'

periods of subside nce .

bee n formed their record has O ften been obliterated by

,

metamorphism Fossil iferous strata not of great thick

.

ness may often be entirely remove d by erosion The vast .

areas o c Ou p i e d by plutonic and metamorphic rocks afl o rd

striking proof of the enormous denudation which has taken
place S ince these rocks must have assumed their present
,

crystalline characte r under the pressure of hundreds or

thousands of feet of superincumbent rock I n no region .

of the globe have we any continuous series of fossiliferous

strata and in many d istricts only mere fragments of the
,

series are present The m ost abrupt changes in the fossil

.

contents of strata usually occur where the strata are u n

conformable ; and u n e o n fo rm abi li t y as explained on page ,

5 7 is always t h e S ign of a lost interval in the record

, It .

must moreover be considere d that the period whose record

, ,

is lost by u n e o n fo rm ab ili t y is necessarily a period of geo

graphical change for the region in question The are a .

which had been receiving sediment has been elevated so

as to become dry land and after a longer or shorter , ,

period of erosion has been again depressed below the

,

water level These times of geographical and c ouse

.
,

quently of climatic change are the times in which e vo lu

, ,

t i o n ary changes in the fauna and flora are necessarily most

rapid The geological record is therefore defective by
.

the loss of those chapters which if present woul d aff ord , ,

the history of the m ost critical periods The great changes .

in fauna and flora at the close of the P aleozoic and the

Mesozoic are thus naturally correlated with the great
ge ographical re volutions which occurred at those times .
 PR O G R E S S O F L IF E . 46

B i o lo gi ca l Co n d i ti o n s f h R co r d
Imp e rf e cti o n
2 .
f o t e e o .

The vast maj ority of living beings die under such circum
stances that there is no chance o f their fossilization In .

order tha t we may have a fossil for study it is necessary ,

that the entire organism or some recognizable part of it

, ,

should be buried before it can be decomposed or dissolved

,

( or at least an impression of the organism made ) in some ,

deposit which is subse quently prese rve d without too much

alteration and brought into an accessible position O nly
,
.

un d er an e xcep tional combination of circumstances can

this be the fate of an individual plan t or animal The .

chance o f such preservation is greate r in the case of

aquatic than in that of terres t rial animals and plants
, , .

It would naturally be expected therefore that the re cord of

, ,

te rrestrial life woul d be extremely ragged M ore over in .

,

general only somewhat indurated structures or skeletons

, , ,

can be expected to be preserved Terrestrial plants whose .

tissues contain n o woody fiber and animals that are ,

destitute of skeleton have but an infinitesimal chance of

,

leaving any record This latter principle probably a fi o r ds

.

the chief explanation O f the mystery O f the C ambrian

f auna ( page al t ho u gh it must also be remembered
that the Arch aean rocks have suffered so extensive m eta
morphism that whatever fossils they m ay have containe d
are likely to have been obliterated and that the universal ,

u n e o n f o r m ab ili t y between the Arch man and the Cambrian

shows a lost interval in the re cord during wh ich e v o lu

t i o n a ry changes may have been i n progress .

That the ge ological record is extremely imperfect is ,

illustrate d by the well known fact that multitudes of

-

fossil S pe cies are known as yet only by a single specimen .

In many cases a family an order or a class in some, , ,

particula r formation may be represented by only one or

,

two specim ens In the J urassic formation of E urope

.
,

the class of B irds is represented by two somewhat i m

perfect S keletons and a S ingle O dd feather I n the .

J ur assic of North America the same class is represented

,
 HIS T O R IC A L G E O LO G Y .

by a S i n gle doubtful fragment of a skull ( pa ge I n the

Triassic of North America the class of Mammals i s re p re
,

sented by two lower j aws There can be no reasonable doubt

.

that the imperfection o f the geological record a ffords a

sufficient answer to all arguments against evolution based
upon the gaps that exist i n the series of fossils Negative .

evidence in paleontology must be considered o f very little

valu e.

CONCLUS ION .

In spite o f all di fficulties and u n certainties geol ogy is ,

able thus to give in outline the history of the evolution

of Man himself and o f his dwelling place It S hows .

h o w the featureless S implicity o f the molten globe has

given place to co ntinent and ocean mountain and valley , ,

plain and plateau river and lake cataract and glacier ;

, ,

how ores have been stored in veins and coal ac cu m u ,

lated in strata and rock material crystallized into granite

,

strength and gemlike beauty It S hows h o w the earth

.

has come to be a fit dwelling place for a creature of

such physical and S piritual needs and capacities as those
of Man ; and how in the progress of life thos e plants
, ,

and animals have been evolved w hich could minister

to Man s physical o r mental life
’
I t shows h o w the
.

upward progress from P rotozoan simplicity through Fish

, ,

and Amphibian and Reptile and Mammal has culminated ,

at last i n M an himself the crown O f creation sharing

, ,

with the animal kingdo m a place in nature but asserting ,

by his intellectual and S piritual endowments a p lace above

nature While it is the work o f science to trace the
.

method o f this twofold evolution science as such knows

, , ,

nothing o f effi cient cause or of purpose ; but it leaves

full scope for fait h that the P owe r whose modes of work
,

ing science may in part reveal is intelligent and personal

, ,

and that the whole process of the evolution of Man an d

his dwelling place has been guided by infinite Wisdom to
the f ulfillment of a pur pose of i nfi n ite Love .
 INDEX .

N OTE — Th e . a s te ri s k aft e r th e n u mb er o f a pa g e d
i n i cate s t h at th e s ubj f
e ct re e rre d to
llu t t d by figu
is i s ra e a re .

A by l d p it 92
ss a e os s, . l l ti f; 4 03
A ps , e e va on o .

A di
ca p i d 244an er o , . gl i i 1 59
ac e r s 1 64 n, , .

A di
ca g 327
an ran e, . A l t t ud
i ff t f e, et mp tu ec o , o n e e ra re , 1 68 .

A id
c g i g l gi l ff t
s , o r an c, eo o ca e ec o f, 1 13 . A lu m l y 1 12c a s, .

A gu 1 7 7
co nc a a, . A lu m h l 35 s a e, .

A du
c ro s, Am z R
a on 1 25 1 50 i ve r , , .

A g 88
cro ens, . A mb 99 e r, .

Ag f 229 29 0
e o , , . In s e ct s i n , 393 .

C b ifar u o n 8 01 e ro s, . A m b o ny c h i a ,
C t u 367
r e a c eo s, . A me ri ca S ee . N o rt h A m e ric a , So u th
D i e vo n a n , A me ri c a .

J u i 336 ra ss c , . Amm o n i t e s , 370 ,

L w S i lu i
o er r a n, hb
A m p i ia n s , 84 .

l ti f t
re a lu ti 288
o n o , o e vo o n, . Ag f 229 29 0
e o , , .

T i i 8 36
r as s c . 88 8 , . C b ar if u 80 6
o n e ro s, ,

Up p S lu i 27 0
er i r a n, . D i 28 6
e vo n an , .

A c ro s t i c h i te s , 88 8 . i t u pt d g f
n e rr e ra n e o ,
i n t i me , 45 9 .

A c ro tr e ta , 24 7 * J 351
u ra S S i c , .

A c ti nia, T ti y 8 94
er ar , .

A c t i no c ri n s , u Tria s si c 33 9 , , 35 1 , 85 2*
A c t i n o cy c lu s , A m p h i le s te s ,
A c ti n o pty c h u s , h u 81
Am p i o x s, .

l d ud
E o i a n e n a ti o n, 1 18 , A m gd l i d 188
y a o , .

l d
E o ia n e po s i t s , 1 20 , 1 2l * . A t f
n a i a,
g lg l
E o n s , e o o ic a , 227 . A hi u u
nc sa r s,
zE py o rn i s e x t i nc ti o n o f, 441
, . A h th i m
nc i 40 0
er u , .

g z k
A a s s i , L a e , 4 24 . A hu
nc ra ,

d
A g e o f s t ra ta , h o w e te rmi ne d , 228 . A d lu i t
n a s e,

g g lg l
A e s , e o o ic a , 227 . A d i
n 20
e s ne , .

g
A no s t s , 322 u . A d i t 38 1 7 5
n es e, , .

g
A lbi r u pi a n s ta e , 8 64 . A gi p m
n o s er s,
lb
A i t e , 20 . C t u
r e ace o s,

A lcy o ni ari ans , T ti y 39 0

er ar , ,

l
A g a , 87, e
A im l
n d pl t d i ti
a an an , s n ct i o n s b e tw een , 58 .

C am ri a n , 245b . A i m l k i gd m 59
n a n o , .

u
C re tace o s , 8 67 . A ni s i c h n u s ,
D e vo ni an , 279 . A n o m oe p u s ,
lu
L o w e r S i ria n , 254 . l h u
A n o p o t e ri m , 39 8 .

sil i u d p it m d by
ce o s e os s a e , 106 . d d g
A nte c e e nt rai na e , 142 .

U pp S i lu i 268
er r a n, . hz
A n t o o a n s , 65 ,
A lk l i
a l k 1 17
ne a e s, . b
C am ri a n ,
Allu i l d p i t 1 8 8
va e os s, . b u
C ar o ni fero s , 303,
 IN DE X .

Cre tace o u s, 3 68 . L o w er S i ri an , 256 lu .

D e vo nian , Tri as s i c 846 . .

Ju ra s s i c , 345 , U pp e r S i ri a n, 27 0 lu
hy
.

L o w e r S i ri a n, 255 , lu At ri s ,

U p pe r S i ri an, lu
27 0 A tl t B ti l i 2 62 3 7 6 . an i c o r d g er e an c ne , , .

h
An t rac i te , 25 2 14 , 298 ,
A tl t t f N th A m i
. h g f an i c c o a s o or e r ca, c an es o
g
o ri i n o f, 19 2, 2 14 l l i 429 .
e ve n, .

g bl u
ve e ta e ti ss e s i n, 30 9 , A tl t 343 an o sa u ru s . .

h g
A n t raci te re i o n o f e n n s P yl i 214 292 A tl t u u b d 334 van a , ,
* an o sa r s e s, .

A th
n rac op l m a ie A
o n.t m ph h m i l ti f 11 1 o s e re , c e ca ac on o , .

A ti l i l x i
n c na a 54 s, m h l t f 118 . ec a ni ca ac i o n o , .

A ti l i
n c ne , 54 A tm ph . b pt ff t f t m o s e ri c a so r i o n, e ec o , o n e

A ti l i
n c i
ne s , e ro s o n of 21 3 p t 1 68, . e ra u re , .

A i l
n t c i no r i u m 220 ,
A t ll . o s,

Ap t ta i e, 10 5 . At y p 7l r a, *
,

A pp l h i
a ac g 21 1 326
a n ra n A k g e, t x t i ti f 442
, . u ,
re a , e nc o n o , ,

A p p l hi
a ac g f ld i 211
a n re A u t li
i o n, M u pi l o f s i Qu t y
n, ,
s ra a, ars a s o , n a ern ar ,

th i k c f t t i
n e ss o 2 1 1 3 1 7 8 25 s ra a 4 34 n, , , . .

App l hi
a ac lu t 325
a n re vo A i ul i o n, . v c a,

Ap p l h
a ac y t m 326
i an s s e g f i t i m 25 9
, . ra n e o , n e, .

Aq u ati c g i m t h p i ip l
o r an s k Ax l p l f f ld
s, e r nc a ro c 1a a ne o o ,

m k a 98 e rs , Ax i . ti l l 54 s , an c i na , .

A rac h id 7 9
no s, . y l l 55 s n c i na , .

C b ar f u
o ni e ro A s, S A h Z Olc . ee rc ai s n .

i t n e rr u p t d g f i tim 459e ra n e o , n e, .

U pp S i lu ier 27 2 r an , B ill i . ac ar a ,

A u
ra c ari a , B ul t 37 0 ac i es, ,

A h
rc aea n ro c k igi f 289 s, o r B l f m t 25 2 254
n o , . a a ei a i o n, , .

A h
rc aea n t im 227 23 6 e, B pt d b d 334
, . a an o o n e s, .

A h
rc aean V 237 44 6 , , B t 198 . ai i e ,

A h
rc aeo cy thu a s, B l 78 arna c e s , .

A h
rc i
eo n s cu s ,
a B f arri e r re e s ,
A h
rc aeo pt i er s, th f 1 08 e o ry o , ,

A h
rc aeo p t y x 356 er , B l t 39 1 75
. as a , , .

A him d
rc e 30 8
es, B , l l 1 40 as e e ve , .

A ti
rc c co al 29 3
a reas , B th y t 92 . a ac i s , .

A i l
re n c o a . S L bw m ee B t hy m t o m p f or . a e ri c a o o ce an s ,
A re n ig g u p 252 253 ro , B th v , 322 . a u ru s ,
A g ill i t Sl t
.

r e S
. ee B t T a e .y 3 9 4 3 9 8 4 00 a s, e rt i ar
w ll
, , , .

A t i
r e s an e s, B hf mt 152 1 54 e ac o r a i o ns, , .

A th ly
r ro co s a , B 43 1 ea r , c a v e ,
A th p d 7 6 7
.

r ro o s, , B h G y 1 85 ee i ve e se r,
C mb i
,

a r an , B tl C b f u 30 6 ee e s, ar o n i e ro s,
C b u
.

ar if
o n e ro B l m t ll
s, e e ni e a,
D i
e vo n a n, 28 1 282 283 B l m it , 34 8 , 8 70 *
e e n e s,
J i
u ras s c . B l t th i e e ni n o eu s,
, ,

L w o erS lu i i 25 7 r a n, Bl d t m u d p i t f 39 2 i i n, ia o ac e o s e os o
T t y 393
, , .

e r i ar , B .
t 20 io ti e , .

T i i
r a ss c , 338 , B d t k ll d f C ti u t V ll y ir ra c s , so -ca e o o n ne c c a e
U p p S lu i
, ,
er i 27 0 r a n,
,
A th
r t
ro s raca n s , 78 Bi d 8 5 .
r s,
A t i ul t
.

A phu
c a es ,60 .
C t u 3 74 re ace o s, ,
sa

A b t u 21
s, 257 8 22 J w 845 35 6
, .
u ra s s , , ,
s es s, .
T t i y 39 4 er ar
A id i Tu i t
, .

sc a ns S . ee Bi d y Li m t
n ca e s 258 . r
’
s-e e e s o ne ,
A h l i 1 75 .

s e s , vo can c ,
Bi t u mi u .
l 25 29 8 no s co a , , .

A pi d h y h
s or nc u s, Bl k Hi ll fD k t 1 8 4 334 ac s o a o a, , .

A t i id
s er o s, 69 Bl k R i .
Li m t 253 ac ve r e s o ne ,
J uras s c,i 84 6 .
Bl k S h l D i 27 8 ac a e, e vo n a n , .
.
 IN DE X .

B l a s to id s, 68 . b
Car o n i fe ro u s era, 229 , 29 0 .

b
C ar o n i fe ro s , 308 , u b u
Car o n i fe ro s pe ri o , 29 1 , 296, 314 d .

Bo g i ro n o re , 1 1 6 . h d
Carc aro o n ,
Bo n n e vi e , La e , 4 25 ll k . C ar n i vo re s , Te rtiar , 394 , 89 6 , 8 9 8 , 4 00 , 40 2 y ,

Bo re , 1 5 0 . h l
Car pa t ia n s , e e vati o n o f, 408 , 404 .

Bo w ld er c a ly ,
406 . Carp o li t h e s ,

Bo w ld e rs , g lac ml, ar l g iz e s e o f, 1 6 2, 40 6 . Car te re lla,

Brac h i a te C ri no i s , d C ary o c ri n u s ,
Bra c h io po d s, 70, d
Cas c a e Ra n g e, 362 .

b
Ca m ri a n , C as ca d e s, 1 32 .

b
C ar o n i fe ro s , 303, u Ca t o p t e r u s ,
D e vo nia n, 28 1 , 282, la t s k i ll fo rmat io n 277 , .

Ju ra s s i c , 8 4 6, k ll
Ca t s i M o u ntai n s 21 8
, .

L o w e r S i ri an , lu 25 7 . ud g ll
Ca a a i G ri t , 276
-
.

Tri a s si c , 34 6 . C a ve a n i m a s o f l
at e rnar , 48 0 Qu y .

U p p e r S i r i a n, lu 27 0 , C a ve r n s ,
B rac hyu 79 ra n s , . z
C e n o o i c ti m e , 228 , 3 8 5 .

B i f T t
r a ns o y M mm l 89 6 397 e r i ar a a s, ,
* hl
C e p a a s pi s , 284 ,
B d f l f ui t f 389 89 1
ra n o n, o ssi r s o , ,
* hlz
Ce p a i ati o n, p r o re s s i n, 458 g .

B i 34
r e cc a , . hl d
Ce p a o po s , 7 4 ,
B t uu
ro n o sa r s, b
C a m ri a n , 24 7 .

B t z um
ro n o o ,
b
C ar o n i fe ro u s , 8 04 .

B z A g 4 36
ro n e e, . C re tace o s , 37 0 , u
B w ro l 25 n co a , . D e vo nia n , 28 1 , 28 2, -

B y p hy t
r o 88 es, . Ju ras s i c ,

B y z r o o a ns , Lo w e r S i ri an , lu 25 7 .

C b if ar u 808 o n e ro s, , Tr i ass ic , 34 7 ,
L w S lu i
o er i r a n, C e ra to du
s , 35 1 .

Bu ff l x t i ti
a o f 442
,
e nc ono , . C e ra to p s i d ae ,

B uh t 389
r s o ne , . u
C e rv s e u ry ce ro s , 43 1 .

B ull a, C e s t rac i o n,
Bu t S n er d t i 384 an s e n, . C e s t rac i o nt s , 284 , 8 28 , 850 .

Bup ti re s s, uu
C e t i o sa r s , 854 .

h
C ae te te s , 25 7 .

C f i g u p 28 0
ae r a ro ,
. h
C ai n c o ra l ly
S ee Ha si te s
. .

C l m t a a 28 0 i es8 02 , . hl d y
C a ce o n , 1 9 .

C l m p a a o Si s , h lk
C a , 3 2, 4 0 , 3 65 , 8 66 .

C l a av e ras skull 439 , . l k d Qu t

C ha m p ai n , La e , c o n i ti o n o f, i n y a e rnar ,

C l u k 32 40 99
a c a re o s ro c s. , , . 4 2 1 4 24 , .

C l if a c u S d k 253
e ro s an ro c , . C h m p l i p i d 40 5 420
a a n er o , , .

C l it a c 198
e, . m i d p i t f 4 21
a r ne e o s s o , .

C l iu m b i
a c b t 115 ca r o na e , . ir ve rd p t f 4 22 e o si s o , .

C l iu ma c b t S C l it c ar o na e . ee a c e . Ch ang f l l m d 427
es o e ve ,
o e rn , .

C l f i l h t f 189
a i o rn a, a va s ee s o , . C h zy Li m t
a 253 e s o ne , .

C ll y ti t
a oc s e s, C h i l pi
e ro e s,

C mb i a 228 24 4
r a n e ra , , . C h mi l
e tica u f h t 171
ac o n, a s a s o rc e o ea .

C mb i a f u r an l ti f t lu ti a n a, re a on o , o evo o n, Ch mi l
e t ca f tm p h 1 11
ac i o n o a os e re , .

4 63 . C h mi l
e ti
ca f w t 1 1 1 1 8 7 1 93 1 9 8
ac on o a e r, , , , ,

C am p to s a u ru s , 236 .

C a na a d g lg l
e o o i c a map o f,
. C h m u g p h 27 7
e n e oc , .

d d
C a na i a n pe ri o , 252 . C h m u g p i d 27 7
e n er o , .

C a n c e r, C h t 3 6 10 7
er , , .

l l
C a n ne c o a , 25 . C h i t l t 22
as o i e , .

C a no n s , 1 33 . Ch l t h
i e , re c e n g f l l in 428 c an es o eve , .

g u
C a rad o c ro p , 252, 254 . C hi th i u m
ro er ,

b u d
C a r o n a nd i t s co m p o n s , 1 8 , 24 . C hl i d or 26 e s, .

b d d g lg l
C a r o n io x i e e o o i ca a c t i o n o f, 1 1 8 , . C hl i t 2 1
or e, .

b u
C ar o nac e o s fo rm a tio n s , 1 0 7 . C hl i t or hi t 89
e sc s , .

b
Car o ni c ac i d b d
S ee Car o n io xi e . d . Ch o nete s ,
 46 8 IN D E X .

C h ry salidi na, Ju ras s i c , 345 ,

hy l
C r s o i te , 2 1 .
Lo w er S i lu i 254 r an, ,

d
Ci ari s , U pp e r S i lu i 27 0 r an , .

C im o li o sau ru s , 37 2 . C i o n co n gl m t o e ra e ,

l d
C i nci n nati Is an , 268 , 28 7 . C l o o rad p h 365 o e oc , .

u l
C i nci n na ti p i ft , 220 , 268 . C l o o rad Ri o n f 42ve r, ca 183 on o , , ,

d l
C i n e rs , vo can i c, 1 7 5 .

C i nnamo m m , u C lu m b i Ri
o a l h t f 1 89 ve r, a va s ee o , .

u d ud
C i rc m e n a ti o n , m oun tai n s o f, 188 . C lu m
o t u tu
n ar s r c re ,

u
C ir q e s , 1 3 1 . C m o h i 3 65
a nc e se r e s , .

d
C ir ri p e s , 78 . C mp h
o re i ty p e 455
e n s ve s, .

Clad i s ci te s , C m p g t hu 3 54
o so na s, .

l l
C am, fo s s i , i n M i o ce ne , 8 9 8 . C o nc re ti o n s,

Clat h ro p teri s , 888 . C f m bl t t 5 6

o n or a e s ra a , .

ly
C a , 34 . C gl m
on o t 34
e ra e , .

a lu
m , 1 12 . O i d 26 6 273
ne a, , .

ld
B o w e r, 40 6 . P tt i ll 29 6
o sv e, .

o f o ce a n b
o tto m , 9 2 . C ifon ers ,

W ea , 866ld . C b ar if on u 802 e ro s, .

ly
C a ir o n s t o ne , 28 , 29 7 . C t u 3 67
re a c e o s, .

ly l
C a s ate S e e S ate
. l . D i
e vo n an ,28 1 .

l g y l
C eava e , c r s tal i ne , 1 9 . J u i 336 ra s s c , .

l y
s at , 3 1 . 21 9 . T i i 336 338
r a ss c , , .

Cle o d o ra , C o nne c ti u t Ri c d p it t m u th f 1 50 ve r, e os s a o o .

l l d hl
C e ve a n S a e , 27 8 . t e rra ce s o f ,
,

l u h g
C i mate , c a ses o f c an e s in , 167 . C o nne c ti u t V ll y c dt f 88 2 85 9
a e , san s o ne s o
b u
, , .

C ar o ni fe ro s , 3 1 2 . t p ra k f 1 8 9 35 9
ro c s o , ,

h l
.

C amp ai n , 4 34 .
C d t 24 8
o no o n s, .

u
C re ta ce o s, 8 7 8 .
C q u t d i g 1 42
o n se en ra n a e,
l l u
.

G acia , c a se o f, 4 1 8 . C t mp
on e u h t f ig u
o ran e o k s s ee s o ne o s ro c
Ju rass i c , 8 6 1 . 1 88
,

Pl z
.

a e o o i c , 8 21 . C onti tne n d an b u d y f 12 o c e a n, o n ar o
y
.
,
Te rtiar , 40 4 . C on ti t l pl t u
ne n a 7 a ea s, .

l
C i no me t e r, C on ti t g
ne n s , l li f f 14 e ne ra re e o .

l h
C i nt o n e p o c , 2 66 , 278 .
h igh t f 8
e o
,

lub y d
.
,

C mo s s e s S ee L co po s
. . g f 20 6
o ri in o
l
.
,

C o a , 24 .
C t
o n rac ti d
o n xp i f
an k by e an s o n o ro c s,
b u u
i t mi no s , 25 .
h g f t mp t u 1 7 2
c an es o e e ra re ,
b
.

ro w n , 25 .
C t
o n rac ti th o n y f m u t i m ki g eo r o o n a n- a n
ca n ne , 25 l .
207 .
,

b u
C ar o n i fe ro s , 292, 29 6, 298 . C p li t
o ro 1 06 856
es,
u
.
,

C re taceo s , 8 65 .
C o ral i m l S A th z
an a s B y z ee n o o an s , r o o an s,
u
.

im p rit ie s i n , 81 1 .
Hyd z ro o an s .
l
a m i na t i o n o f 29 8
, .
C o rali l d s an s, 1 04 ”

g
o ri i n o f, 8 09 .
C o ral f 1 00 re e s ,
y
Te r t i a r , 38 9 .
C o ralli 8 8 ne s , .
,

Trias s i c , 8 33 .
C l
o ra s , r e e f f mi g -
g f 95
or n ran e o
g t bl ti u i 809 , , .

ve e a e ss es n, , C d ll
or i 2 10
e ras ,
C l f E u p 293
.

oa ar e a s o ro e, , C o rn if u p i d 275 27 6
e ro s er o
C l f N th A m i
.
, ,
oa area s o or e r c a, C i
o s c no di u sc s,
C l
oa are as o f P yl i m p e nns va n a, a o f, C m
o s o c e ra s ,
C l M
oa ea s u 29 6re s ,
C b
.
ra s, 78
t u
.

C o cc o s e

C k
s, 284 , C i
ra n a, r a n g f i tim 259 e o n e,
oc ro a c h L w S i lu i 258
es, o er r an, C t
ra e rs , 1 74
, .

C l t
.
.

oe e n e ra e s ,

C mb i
t 64 , C re od t 896 40 0
o n s, , .

C b if
r a n,

u 308
C t
r e ac e o u 23 1 33 1 8 62
s e ra , , , .

ar on e ro s, , m p f N th Am i i
a o o r e r ca n,
C t
re a c e o u 3 68 s, .
C re v a s s e s , 15 9 l 60 ,
*.
D e vo n ian, C i i d l Li m t
r no a 29 4 e s o ne , .
 IN DE X;
C ri no i d s, l
D e cca n , ava s e e t o f, 189 h .

C mb i
a 24 6
r an , .
-
l
De e p s ea i fe , c aracte ri s tic t pe s h y o f, 94 .

C b ar f u 30 3
o ni e ro s, ,
De e r , lri s h , 43 1 .

Ju 34 6
ra s s i c , . g d
De ra at i o n , m ean s o f, 1 65 .

L w o S lu i
er i r a n, l
D e ta s ,
T w
ri a s s ,
De nd r o ph y llia ,
U pp S l ier i u r an , 27 0 . De n t d e M o rc e s , l
C ro c o d l 85 i es , . De n ud
ati o n S ee E ro si o n . .

C re ta c e ou 8 74 8 88 s, , . D e po s i t s , aeo i a n , 1 20 , l
J 840 354
u ra s S i c , , . es tu a ri n e , 139 .

T i w 340 854
r as s , , . flu Vi al, 18 8 , 1 66 .

C ro c o d lu 8 83
i s, . fl u vi o m ari ne , 1 53
-
.

C ro s s -b dd d t u t u
e e s r c re gl aci a l , 1 63 , 1 67 , 40 6 .

C u
r s ta ce a ns , m ari ne , 1 5 2 , 1 66 .

C mb i
a r a n, D e p t h , rang e o f i fe i n , 9 1
'

l .

C b ar f u o n i e ro s, d
D e s m i s , 88 , 8 68 .

D i
e vo n an , 28 1 282 , , De vo n ian e ra, 229 , 27 5 .

Ju i ras s c , b
D ia a se S ee D o e ri te
. l .

L w o S i lu i
er 257 r an, ,
D ia m o n , 24 d .

T i i
r as s c , 88 8 , u d
D i a t o m ace o s e p o s i ts , 1 06 , 1 09 , 8 9 1 ,
U pp S i lu
er ri a n , 270 , u z
D i a to mace o s o o e , 9 2 .

C y pt g m 86
r o a s, ,
Dia t o m s ,
C y t ll i
r s a k 28 29
ne ro c s, , ,
35 , 4 1 , 1 75 , b u u
C a r o ni fe ro s , s p po s e t o be i d d e nti ca l
Ct e na c a nt hu s, hl g
w it i vi n s pe cie s , 328 .

Ct e no id l s ca e s , u
C re t a c e o s , 8 6 8 .

C u mb l d M u t i
er an o n a ns , 218 . D e vo ni a n, 279 .

C l
u n e o i n a, T t i y 39 1
er ar , ,

Cu t i
rr e n s , o c e a n c ,1 50 . Di b h
ran c s,

ti d l 1 4 9
a , . C t u 3 70
re a c e o s, ,

wi d m d n 1 50
— a e, . J u i 34 8r as s c , ,

C u ttl fi h 7 6
e s , . T i 84 8
r as s i c , .

Cy i t 22
an e, . Di tyl d
co e 91 o ns , .

Cy ath o p h y llo i d s , 66 . D tv h
ic oc a,

D e vo ni a n, D ki 1 88 1 9 6
es, ,
.

lu
L o w e r S i ri an , 255 , Di h thy 284
ni c s, ,

lu
U pp e r S i ri an, 27 0 . Di n o ce ras , 399 .

y h hyllu
C at o p m, D i n o r ni s , e x t i n c t i o n o f, 44 1 .

y d
C ca s , 9 0 , u
Di n o sa r s , C re tac e o u s,

b u
C ar o ni fe ro s , 802 . J u r a s si c , 84 0 , 8 4 2, 854 .

u
C re tac e o s , 3 68 . T ri as s i c , 8 54 .

D e vo n ia n , 28 1 . h u
Di no t e ri m ,
Ju ra s s ic , 88 6, D i o ri t e , 3 8 , 18 8 .

Tri a s s i c , 83 6 , D i p,
Cy c as , Di p hy c e rc a tai l l s, 81 .

Cy l id
c o l sca e s , D i plo g r a p t u s ,
Cy l m
c o ne a, Dip no an s , 84 .

Cy p i r n a, C ar b o n i e ro f u s, 806 .

Cy t 24 8
r o c e ras , . D e vo ni a n 284 , ,

C y t id
s o s, 27 0 . Ju ra s s i c , 8 39 , 8 50 , 8 51 .

Cy th e re , T ri as s i c , 8 8 9 , 350 , 8 5 1 .

Di p r o t o o n , 484d .

D i pt e r s , 7 9 .

D i p te r s , u
D i s c i n a, ra n e o f, i n ti m e , 259 g .

l
Di s o c a t i o n s o f s t rat a, 50 .

Di s t ri bu
t i o n o f m a ri ne i fe , ca l u se s li mi ti n g ,

93 .

ifi
Di v e r s c ati o n o f t p e , p ro y g re s s i n, 455 .

d
D o o , e x ti n cti o n o f, 44 1 .
 IN DE X .

l
D o e ri te , 89 , 1 88 . g kull 48 7
En is s , .

l
D o o m i te , 28 . gl d g l gi l m p f
E n an , eo o ca a o ,

D o me s , t rac ti c , 1 84 hy . E t m t
n o 78
o s ra c a n s , .

g
D rai na e , a n te ce e n t , c o n se d q u en t , and s up er E o ce n ep d 38 6 e ri o , .

i m po se , 1 4 2 d . E p l z i
o a eo ti 229 248 244
o c se c o n, , , .

D ri ft , 4 0 6 . E o sco rpi us ,

a rea o f, 4 1 1 . E z o o o n,

d i re c t i o n o f mo ve me nt o f, 41 1 . Ep h oc g l gi l 282
s, eo o ca , .

o ri gi f, 4 0 8
n o . E q u i t 89 se a , .

D ri p s t o ne , 4 0 . C b ar f u o ni e r o 8 02 s, .

h u
D ro mat e ri m, D i 280
e vo n a n , .

D um l
r 417
i ns, . J u i 336 ra s s c , .

D u kb i ll 86
c ,
. T i i 38 6
r as s c , .

D udl y Li m t
e 268 e s o ne , . E q uu s,

Du ne s , E ras , g l gi l 228eo o ca , .

Du t ts , p t ti
ran s f by wi d 1 22
or a on o ,
n , . E i Sh l
r e 27 8a e, .

Dyk es S . Di k ee es . E i
ro s o n ,by gl i 1 68 ac e rs , .

Dy m i m t m p h i m 1 9 5
na c e a or s ,
. by w
o ce an 147 a ve s , ,

Dy mi l g l gy 6 9 7
na ca eo o , , . by i 1 28 ra n , .

by i 1 26
r ve rs , .

E g
a er, 1 50 . by w i d 1 1 8 n , ,

E th i t i
ar , f
n er o r o l i d li q u id 204 , so or , . ff t f
e ec f ld d
o ,
k 55on o e ro c s, ,

i t n e rn al h t f 1 70 ea o , . t p g ph i l f m
o o ra l ti g f m
ca or s re s u n ro ,

iz
s d f m f 7
e an or o ,
.

y t m i f t u f 14
s s e n ea re s o , . E u pt i
r C mb i
o ns , 245 a r an, .

E th q u k
ar a20 4 es, . C t u 1 89 884
re a c e o s, , .

i n co nn e c ti w i th l 1 8 1 1 82 184
on vo c an o e s , , . f mfi u ro 1 87 ss re s , .

E th w m g l gi l
ar or s, ti f 1 10
eo o ca ac on o ,
. i C n ti u t V ll y 338 8 5 9
o nne c c a e , , .

E t R k 883
as oc , . i ti
n c o n ne c w i t h m u t i m ki g 221
o n o n a n- a n , .

E t T
as ll y f 218
e n n e s s e e , va e o , . i D n 1 89 8 84
e c c a n, , .

E t i ity f th b it 1 69 i L k Sup i gi 245

’
c ce n r c o e ar s or , . n a e e r o r re o n, .

E hid
c 86
na, . i th w t
n no r U it d St t 1 89 4 04
e s e rn n e a es , , .

E h i d m 66
c no er s, ,
ub m i 1 84
s a r ne , .

C mb ia 24 6
r an . . T ti y 1 8 9 4 0 4
er ar , , .

C b ifar o nu 8 08 e ro s, , T i i 333 859

r as s c , , .

C t u 8 69
re a c e o s, . l i 1 74
v o c an c , .

Ju i ra s s c , E h sc ara ,

L w o S lu i
er 255 i r an , , E k s 417
e rs , .

T i i
r as s c , E t h i 8 38
s e r a, ,

U p p S i lu i er 270 r a n, . E t u y f m ti
s ar o r 189 a o ns , .

E hi
c id
no 69
s, . E t na, 1 77 , 1 84 .

C t re ac e ou 369 s, . E to blat t i na,

Ju i ras s c , E u cy rt i d i u m ,
T i i
r as s c ,34 6 . E u y pt id 7 9
r er s, ,

E hi u
c n s, E u y pt u
r er s,
Ed t t
e n a e s. Qu t y 48 2 a e r nar , , E lu t i 28 2 25 1 288
vo o n, , , , 8 5 8, 4 50
T t i y 39 5 4 02
.

er ar , , . Ex g o u t m 89
e no s s e s,
Ed t uu
,

e s o sa r s, E xp i d
ans o n t an c o n rac ti o n o f ro c k s by
El m b h S S l hi ,
as o ra nc s . ee e ac an s . h g f t mp
c an es o e e ra t u re , 1 72
El m u u 872
.

as o sa r s, . E x ti t g up d
nc t ro s o no re a pp e ar, 45 9
E l ph Qu t y 431
.

e tan s, a e rnar , . E x ti n c ti o n o f s p e ci e s , ca u ses o f, 88 0 , 8 85 ,

T t i y 40 1
er ar , . 4 58 .

E l ph
e p i m ig
as i r S M mm th e n us . ee a o . d
i n m o e rn ti m e s 4 41
El u 1 68
.
,

i
e va t o n , e ff f t mp ect o , on e e ra t re , . u h
E x t r s i ve s e e t s o f i ne o g u s ro c k , 1 88
E mb y l g y d p l t l gy p ll l i m
.

r o o an a eo n o o , ara e s Ey f d p
es o ee -
s ea a ni ma s , l 94 .

o f, 454 .

E nali o s a u rs 8 52, ,

E n c ri n s , u
dg
E n o e n o s ste ms , 89 , u
 IND E X .

F a ul t 211 s, ,
Fro n di cu lari a,
F a vo s it e s, 27 0 , F u t C b if u
r i s, ar o n e ro s, 30 2 .

F e ld p 20
s a r, . T t y e r i ar ,

d m p i ti
e co o s on o f, 1 18 . Fu id 88
co s, .

F e s l i t 38 1 8 8e, , . Fu m l 185 a ro e s , .

F e rn s , 88 . Fu gi 5 9 87
n , , .

C a i b o ni fe ro u s , 8 01 . C b if
aru 8 02 on e ro s, .

C r e tac e o s , 36 7 u . Fu s u lma,
D e vo ni a n , 280 .

J 38 6
u ra S S i c , . bb
G a ro , 3 8 .

T i i 8 36
r as s c , 338 , . l
G a e na Li m e s to n e , 2 60 .

Fi g l C 1 73 190
n a
’
s a ve , , . l
G a e n i t e , 20 2 .

F i d 4 19
o r s, . g d
G an e s , e t ri t s carri e u d by , 18 7 .

F i 159
r n, . G an gue , 19 8 ,

F h 81
is e s, , d
G an o i s ,
Ag f 229 2 68
e o , , . b
C ar o ni fe ro s , 8 0 6, u
C b if ar u 30 6
o n e ro s, , C re ta c e o s , 3 7 0 u .

C t u 8 70
re ac e o s, ,
D e vo ni an , 284 ,
D i 283
e vo n a n, 28 6 ,
* Ju ras s i c , 339 , 850 ,
J w 339 3 50 85 1
u ra ss , , ,
* Lo w e r S i lu i r an , 25 8 .

L w oS lu i er 258 i r an, . Tri ass i c, 350 , 3 5 1 .

l ti f t
re a lu ti 289
o n o , o e vo o n, . G arn e t ,
T t i y 398er ar , , u l
G a s , n a t ra , 25 , 260 , 289 .

T i ir as s c , 8 50 . d
G as tro p o s , 7 8 ,
U pp S i lu i er 27 2 r a n, . b
C am ri a n ,
F i u u pt
ss re e r 1 87 i o ns , . b u
Car o ni fe ro s ,
Fl b ll
a e i na , u
C re tac e o s , 8 69 , 3 70 ,
Fl g 8 1
a s, . D e vo ni a n, 28 1 .

Fl t 8 1
ag s o n e , . Ju ras s i c , 34 6 .

Fl i 7 9e s, . L o w e r S i ri an , lu
257 .

Fl t 19 10 7 366
in , , , . T ria ss i c , 34 6 .

i mp l m t f 436
e en s o , . U ppe r S i ri an , lu
27 0 .

Fl d p l i 18 1
oo a ns , . G ay le nre u th C ave , 43 1 .

Fl d f m ti 388
o ri i an or a o n, . l
G e an ti c i ne , 5 5 .

Fl w d plu g t u tu 1 55
o -
an -
n e s r c re , , l
G e an tic i n e s i n c o nn e cti o n wi t mo ntai n h u
Fl w i g pl t S Ph
o er n gm an s . ee an e r o a s . k g
ma i n , 2 19 .

Fl w lo pl
ei t ess S C ypt g m an s ee r o a s G e n e ra , o n l gl d
i ve , 259 -
. . .

Flu 1 98
o ri te , . lz d
G e ne ra i e fo rm s p re ce e s pe cia i e , 454 d lz d .

Flu i m i f m ti 1 53
v o -
ar ne or a o ns, . hl
G e n e s e e S a e , 27 7 .

F ld x l pl
o ,
a f ia an e o , d
G eo e ,
xi fa s o , G e o d i a,
F ld d k
o e ro c 21 1 s, , 21 5* g h l g
G e o rap i ca p ro r e s s in N o rt hA meri ca ,
ff t f d ud ti u p
e ec o 55 56 en a o n o n, ,
* 44 5
F ld d pit t d
o s, e ca a e , g hy
G e o rap N o rt h h
Ame ri can, i n A rc aean ,
F li t d k 8 1
,

o a e ro c s, . 24 1 .

F mi i f
o ra n e rs , i C b
n ar if u 313
on ero s, .

F d ll
or i a, i C
n z i 442
e no o c,
F t g l g i l ff t f 1 09
.

o re s s , eo o ca e ec o , . i C h mp l i p i d 4 20
n a a n er o
F m ti d fi ti f 44
.
,

or a o n, e ni on o , . i C t
n u 3 63
re a ce o 376 s,
F i li z t 99
.
,

o ss a i o n, . i D
n 28 7
e v o n i an ,
F il 4 98
.

o ss s, , . i G l i l p i d 41 9
n ac a er o , .

f i d t mi i g g
u se o , f t t
n e er n n a e o s ra a, 225 . i Ju
n i 8 60
rass c ,
F g m t l k 28 29 8 3
.

ra en a ro c s, , , . i L w
n o S i lu i
er 259 r an,
F t 85
.

r e e s o ne , . i M
n z i 879
e so o c, .

F re e z mg w t ti f 1 57 a e r , ac on o , . i P l z i 317
n a eo o c,
F hw t
.

re s ti f 1 24
a e r, ac o n o , . i T t i y 38 6
n er ar 4 02
F h w t l m t 1 05 , .
,

re s -
a er i e s o ne , . i T i
n i 8 58
r ass c,

F i gi g f
.

r n n re e s , i Up p
n S lu i er 27 2 i r an ,

F g 85
,

ro s, .
G eo l g i l m p f E gl d
o ca a o n an ,
 IN DE X .

Geo l gi l m p f U i t d S t t
o ca a o n e a e s, G ro u d m i 1 68
n o ra n e , .

G eo l gi l
o d imp f ti f 4 61
ca rec o r er e c on o ,
. G ro u d pi n S Ly p d ne s . ee co o s .

u p d fi iti f 48
,

G eo l gi l tim l gt h f 444
o ca e, en o ,
. G ro ,
e n o n o ,
.

G eo l gy i m d ubj f 1
o a an s e ct o , . G yph
r 846 aea , ,

G u d l up hu m k l t
,

di i i v f 6
s o ns o a e o e, an s e e on o f, 44 0 ”
Gu
.
,

dy mi l 6 9 7
na ca ano 10 5 , .

G ul f S t
, ,

h i t i l 6 228
s o r ca .
m 93 1 51 1 6 8
r ea , , , .

G ym
, ,

p hy i g p h i 6 7 p m
s o ra c, . no s er s,
,

t tig p h i l 228
s ra ra ca , . C b ar if u o n802 e ro s, .

t u tu l 6 17
s r c ra , , . C t u 3 67
re a c e o s, .

G eo r gi p i d 244
an er o ,
. D i 28 1
e vo n a n, .

G eo s y l i 55 nc ne , . J u i 38 6 r as s c , ,

G eo s y li i nc ne sti wi th m u n c o n n ec on o ntai n T i i 836 38 7

r a ss c , ,

m k i g 2 16 a n , . G y p if s u f m ti 884
e ro s or a o n, .

G y
e C n
s er 18 7 a o n, . G y p u m 1 1 7 2 67
s , , .

G y
e it 8 6
se r e, . G y ro d u s ,
G y
e 1 85
se rs , ,

G i t C u w y 1 78 1 9 0
an
’
s a se a , ,
. d
Ha ro sa r s 8 7 2 uu , .

G l i l l im t
ac a c u f 1 69 4 1 8
a e , ca se o , ,
. Hali c alyp tra ,

G l i l p i d 4 05 4 0 6
ac a er o , , . ly
Ha s i te s 27 0 , .

i E u p 4 17
n ro e, . l
Ham i t o n e p o c 27 7 h , .

ubdi i i
s f 4 15
v s o ns o , . l
Ham i t o n p e ri o , 27 7 d .

Gl i l
ac a t h 1 63 4 0 7
sc ra c 408 e s, ,
. Has ti n s S an 36 6g d , .

G l i t d b w ld
ac a e P mi 299
o e rs , er an, . Haw ai i map o f , ,

Gl i
ac e r th y f th D i ft 40 9
eo r o e r , . l
v o ca no e s o f, 1 7 1 78 ,
Gl i
ac e r t t 1 60o rre n , . He at ,
1 67 .

Gl i
ac e rs , 1 58 . d e ri ve d fro m c h e mi ca l an d me c h ani cal

d t f b l w th
e s ce n o w li
,
1 59 e o e s no ne , . 171
ac ti o n, .

i
e ro s o n by 1 63 , . e ff e c t s o f, 1 7 2 .

m th d f m
e o m t f 1 60
o o ve en o ,
. l d f 170
i n t e rn a , e vi e nce s o ,
.

t ra nsp t ti by 1 62
or a on , . u
so f 1 67
rce s o , .

Gl u
a i t 40 865
co n e, , . H ld b g S L w H ld b g Upp
e er er . ee o er e er er , er

G l b ig i
o e r na, H ld b g e er er .

G l b ig i
o z 9 2 104
e r na o o e, , . H l ix
e ,

G ly p t d o o n, H m ti t 26 1 1 1 202
e a e, , , .

G i
ne s s , 8 6 1 92 1 95 , , . H y M u t i
e nr 190 o n a ns, .

G ld b
o -
i g ear ni 1 99 ve ns , . H ul
e rc u m 1 84 a ne , .

G on d w l d 329 404 ana- an , , . H p

es i 8 74
e ro rn s , ,

G on ai ti t 281 28 2 es, 80 5 , , . Hte e ro c ercal t il 81 a s, ,

G g i
o r o n an s , H x p d 79
e a o s, .

G e rn er G laci e r, Highl d f N w Y k
an s d N w J
o y e or an e erse ,

G ramm at o ph o ra, 238 .

G ramm o s t o m u m , Him l y a a l ti f 408 404

as , e e v a on o , , .

G rammy s ia, Hi p p i a r o n,
G rani te , 20 , 8 6 , 1 9 5, 1 98, 1 9 9 . Hi pp u i t 37 0 5 r e s, 1 .

h
G rap i te , 24 , 1 0 7 240 . Hi t i l g l gy 6 228
s o r ca eo o , , .

l
G rap to ite s , H l pty h i u
o o c s,
G rave , 83 l .
H ly k M u t 888
o o e, o n , .

k Qu
G rea t La e s , y h y f 428
ate rnar i s to r o , . Hm l
o tu
a o no 8 22 8 28 s, ,
.

u h k i 238
G re e n M o ntai n s , A rc aean ro c s n, . H m
o l t i l 83
o c e rc a a s, ,

gl i l t h
ac a 4 08 s cra c e s o n, . H d M u t 177
oo , o n , .

l d i llu ti g G l i l p i d 4 1 0
G re e n an , as s t ra n ac a er o , H bl d 21
o rn en e, .

t h
re ce n g f l l i 428 c an e s o e ve n, . H bl d g i
o rn en 87 e ne s s , .

d 40 365 8 66 88 9
G re e n sa n , , , , . H bl d g
o rn it
en 87 e ran e,
G ri fii th i de s , 822 . H bl d
o rn h i t 38
en e sc s ,
.

G ri t , 84 . H t
o rn s o ne ,107
ud g ll
Ca a- a i , 27 6 . H o rse ,g l gy f e ne a o o
ll
M i s t o ne , 29 6 . H t p i g 1 85
o s r n s,
,

hh
.

Sc o ari e , 27 6 . H lli M u
ua a a 178 ,
a na , .
 IN D E X .

ud h
H so n e po c 258 , . J m Ri
a t g 864
es ve r s a e , .

ud h l
H so n C amp ai n V a
-
ll y e , 821 . J p 19
as e r, .

u h
H ro n S ale 27 8 , . J f i l m i 48 9
ava , o ss an n, .

Hy ze na s pe laea 48 1 , . l f 1 88
v o c an o e s o , .

yb du
H o s ,
J lly fi h
e s es,

yd
H ra 64 , ,
J mto 21 9 s, .

yd ul l
H ra ic ime s to ne 40 , . J A lp i b w ld
u ra , ne o ers o n , 409 .

yd
H ro m i ca 20 , . l t i f 404
e e va on o , .

yd h
H ro m i c a s c i s t 37 , . Ju i 229 831 88 2
ras s c e ra ,
, , .

yd z
H ro o an s 64 , ,

L w o S i lu i
er r an , 255 * K m a es, 417
Hy
.

48 1
e na, ca ve , .
K nga ar o o 86
Hy l ith
, .

o e s,
K l 34 , 1 14 , 1 1 6
ao i n , .

u
Ke a, M a na , 1 7 7 1 78 .

K l h l
ett e o e s , 4 17 .

Ic e , a cti o n o f, 1 58 .
K u
e p e r, 8 8 4
b g
Ice e r s , 1 5 1 , 1 65 .
Ke w e e n a w fo rm at i o n 245
.

l d gy
Ice an , e s e r s o f, 1 8 5 .
K w n w P in t c pp
e ee a
,

o o
.

e r vein s o f, 20 1 .
h hy
Ic t o rn i s , 3 7 4 ,
Ki l u 1 78
a ea,
,

h hy u
Ic t o sa r s , 8 5 2 ,
K i kd l e C v n 431
r a a
.

er
dh l h
I a o a va s ee t , 18 9 .
K i t h n mi dd n 48 8
c e e
,

s,
.

g u u
I n e o s e r p ti o n s S e e E r pti o n s . u .
Kj o k k e n m o di ng r, 43 8
.

g u k
I ne o s ro c s , 29 , 8 6 , 37 , 8 8 , 89 , 1 75 , 1 8 8 .
K k ra at o a, 1 88
.

gu d
I an o o n , 8 7 2 .
.

ll u
I ae n s , 3 22 .

Illi i n a ni , 1 7 7 . Lab d C u t 98
ra or rre n , .

Im p e rfe c ti o n o f e o o i ca re co r , 4 61 g lg l d .
Lab d i t 20ra or e, .

u ld
In f s o ri a e po si t s S ee D i at o mac e o s . u Laby i th d t S S t g
r n o on s . ee e o c eph ala.

p it os s .
L lith 19 0
ac c o s, .

I k b g
n f fa s o o s si l C ph l p d 8 49
e a o o s, * L l p 37 2
ae a s, .

I mu
n o c e ra s, L f y t t f m ti
a a e 41 7
e or a o n, .

In se c ti vo re s , Te r ar , ti y 894 400 , .
L h a t L k
o n an , 4 25 a e, .

In s e c t s , 7 9 . L k C h mp l i
a e ta S Ch a n, e c. ee amplain, e tc .
b
C ar o ni fe ro s , 30 5 , u L k d w ll g 4 39
a e e in s, .

D e vo ni an , 281 , 282, L k a l 1 17
e s , sa i ne , .

Ju ra ss i c , L m ll i b
a e h 7 ran c s,

L o w e r S i ri an , 25 8 lu . C mb a ri an ,

y
Te rti ar , 398 . C t u
r e ac e o s,

Trias s i c , 388 , D i 28 1 282

e vo n a n , , ,

gl l h
In te r ac i a e po c s , 4 1 6 . J u i 34 6 847 ra s s c , ,

h h
In te ri o r o f e art , eat o f, 1 70 . L w r S lu i o e 257 i r an , .

ld l ud
so i o r i q i , 204 . T t y 8 93
e r i ar , .

u h g u
Intr s i ve s e e t s o f i ne o s r o c k , 1 88 . T i i 34 6
r as s c , .

b
In ve r t e rat e s , A g e o f, 229 , 244 . U pp S i lu i er 270 r an, .

Iri shd e e r, 48 1 . L ami n ati o n , 8 1 .

d d
Iro n , e o x i ati o n o f, 1 1 5 . L a m n a,
d
o x i ati o n o f, 1 1 1 . Lam p re s , 8 1 y .

Iro n Ag e , 43 6 . l
Lan ce e t , 8 1 .

b
Iro n c ar o nate d S e e Si e ri te . . d ld
La n s i e s , 1 4 6 .

Iro n o re s , 2 6, 20 2 d
L ara mi e r e vo ti o n , 383 lu .

h
A rc aea n , Laram i e e p o c , 36 5 , 366 h .

b u
Car o ni fe r o s , 29 7 . Lava , 30 , 88 , 8 9 , 1 7 5 .

d
Ir o n o x i e s , 26 . y
La e r, 42 ,

ul h d
Iro n s p i e s , 27 . d
Le a o re s , 202 .

Iro n s t o ne , 28 . u
L e m r s , Te rtiar , 394 , 400 y .

u b h
Iro q o i s e ac , 423, 4 24 . L e p e rd i t ia,
Isas traea , d d d
L e pi o e n r o n , 280 , 80 1 ,
y
Is o s ta s , 20 6 . d u
L e p i o s te s ,
lu
Itac o mi te , 8 5 . Le p tae n a ,
 IN DE X .

Le pt o cardian s , 80 .
Li n gul 1 0 6 a, 24 7 , .

Le pt o mi tu s g f i ti m 2 59
ra n e o , n e, .

L i gu l Fl g 245 24 7
,

Le p to s t raca ns , 7 8 n a a s, , .

Li gul ll
.

b
C am ri a n , n 24 7
e a,

l h g
Le ve , c a n e s o f, in Qu t y 41 9 420 a e rnar , ,
Li k m
n s, i g 4 60 iss n , .

424 4 25 Lio n, c a v e , 48 1 .

Li i d d
.
,

ca u f h g f 208
se s o c an e o , .
r o en ro n ,

Li as ,335 .
Li t h g p h i l i m t
o ra 8 85 c e s o ne, .

L b llul
i e a, Li t h l g o o h t ic c it i f g arac e r s , a s c r er o n o a e of

Li h c 8 22
as, .
k 225ro c s, .

Li h c 87
e ns , .
Li t h t tio s ro o n,

Li f e, a g y f i k m ki g 9 8
e nc o , n ro c - a n , . Li t u l o a,

A h rc 24 0 aea n, .
Li w t 88
ve r o r s, .

C mb i a 245 r a n, .
Li z d 8 5
ar s, .

C b if ar u 299
on e ro s, . C t u 8 74
r e ace o s, .

ch g f t l f M z i 8 84
an e o , a c o se o e so o c, . J u i 356 ras s c , .

ch g f t l f P l z i 329
an e o ,
a c o se o a eo o c, . Ll d i l Fl g 252 254
an e o a s, , .

C t u 8 67
re ac e o s, . Ll d
an y b d 268
o ve r e s, .

D i
e vo n a n, 27 8 . L es , M u a 1 7 8 1 8 0 1 88 1 84
n a, , , , .

g e ne ra ll w fp g f 232 4 50
a s o ro r e ss o , , . L b t
o 76 7 8
s e r, , .

J u i 38 6 ra s s c , . L bw m g l g
o or l ti f 1 10
,
eo o i ca ac on o , .

L w o S i lu i
er 254 259 r an , , . L g
o g pt
an o ra us,

m i ar ne , d i t bu ti f 9 1 s ri on o , . L l g
o i o ,

m i li th t t i l 45 6
ar n e , e a r er an e rre s r a ,
. L ph p h
o o o re ,

M z i 38 1 e so o c, . L w
o H ld b g p i d 265 267 278
er e er er er o , , , .

P l z i a eo 8 21 o c, . L w
o S i lu i
er 228 25 2 r a n e ra , , .

p t t ro d d t u ti
e c i ve a n ff t f 109 es r c ve e ec s o ,
. L wl
o d S Pl i
an s . ee a ns .

Qu t y 429
a e r n ar , . L udl w g u p 2 68
o ro , .

T ti y 39 0
er ar , . Ly h c i m
n o ca n u ,

T i i
r a ss c ,836 . Ly p d 89
co o s, .

U pp S i lu i
er 268 r a n, . C b ar if u on 30 1 e ro s, .

Ligh t , l imi ti g di t i bu ti n f li f in
as n s r o o e D e vo ni an , 280 .

d p t h 94 e , .

Li g i t 2 5
n e, . Mach ze racanth u s ,

Li ly i it
e nc r n e, Mach aero d u s 48 1 , .

Li m t e s o ne , 82 40 9 9 , , . M acl e 22 , .

Bi d M acr u ra n s 7 8
’
r
y 253s -e e, .
, .

Bl k R i ac 253 ve r, . M ag ne si an l i m e sto ne 28 , , 253 .

C h zy 253 a , . M ag ne ti t e 27 20 2 , , .

C if
o rn u 27 6 e ro s, . M al aco s t racan s 78 , .

C i i d l 294
r no a . . M al m 335 , .

D udl y 2 68 e , . M am m al s 85 , .

f h w t 1 05
re s -
a e r, . A g e o f, 28 1 , 8 86 .

G l a e na ,260 . C r e ta ce o s , 37 4 u .

hyd uli 4 0 ra c, . E o ce ne , p ri m i ti ve c h arac ter o f , 895 .

l it h g ph 385 o ra i c, . Ju ra s s i c , 345 , 8 5 7 ,

L w o H ld b g 267
er e er er , . Qu a te rn ar , 4 30 y
m g
.

a i 28 258
ne s a n .
, . Te rti ar , 8 9 4 , y
m t m ph i 4 1
e a or c, .

M u t i 29 6
o n a n, .
Tri a s s i c 35 7
Ni g
, .

a 266 273
ara , , . M am m o th , 43 1 , 483 .

N u mm ul i ti 3 9 0 c, .
p ic t u re o f, by men o f R ei n d e er epo c h ,
O d g 276
no n a a , .
43 7 ,
li ti 4 0 4 6 1 02 88 5
o o c, , , , . M ammo t h Ca v e , 144 .

T t
re n o n , 253 .
M amm o th c o a be d , 298 l
H ld b g 27 6
.

U pp er e er er , . M an, Ag e o f 232 4 05 .

W l k 26 8
, .

en o c , .
l
fo s si re mai ns o f, 43 6 .

Li m i t 27 1 1 1 1 13
on e, 29 7 , , , . d
mo e r n r e i cs o f, l
Li m lu 7 9u s, .
Mante llia,
 IN DE X .

Ma p gl d d u th S tl d
o f En an an so e rn co an ,
M e s o z o i c ti m e
228 , 229 , 88 0 , .

g lg l eo o i ca ,
h g l l
c an e o f i fe at c o se o f, 884 .

M p f H w ii
a o a a ,
d ub l
i s t r ance s at c o s e o f, 8 83 .

M p f l d h m i ph
a o an d w t h mi e s e re an a er e Me t m phi
a or k 30 8 5 86 c ro c s, , , , 37 , 88 , 8 9 , 41 ,
ph s e re , 1 9 1 23 8 , .

M p f M mm t h C
a o a o a ve , Me t m phi m 1 90
a or s , .

M p f M ui
a o a ,
g i
a e nc e s c o nce rne d i 1 93 n, .

M p f N th Am i
a o ft Ap p l h i
ox e r ca , a er a ac an dy mi 19 5
na c, .

lu r e vo ti o n , e ff t f 1 92
ec s o , .

t la f A h
c o se o rc ie a n, in c o n ne cti w i th m u t i o n o n a n -ma king , 21 8
.

C b ar f u o n i e ro s, l l 190
o ca , .

C t u
re ac e o s, re gi l 191 o na , .

T ti y er ar , M iam ia ,

U pp S i lu i er r a n, M ica 20 ,
.

M p f
a o b hy m t i
o c e a n, at e r c, M ica s c h i s t 36 , .

M p fP
a o yl i l e nn s va n a c o a a re as , M i c h igan c o al area o f , ,
298 .

M p f g
a o u t h f L g I l d b th y
re i o n so o on s an ,
a M i c ro d o n ,
m eti i c, M i g rati o n s i n th e Qu ate rnary , 429 .

M p fT h i
a o a it , M i ll e po re 6 5 , .

M p f U it d S t t
a o d C
n d g l gi l
e a e s an ana a, eo o ca , M i ne ral co al S ee C o al . .

M i ne ral o i l S ee O il . .

Qu t y
a e r nar ,
M i n e ral w at e rs 1 45 , .

M bl 4 1
ar e, . M i ne ral s 1 8 , .

M it
a rca s 27 1 12 e, , . M io ce ne pe ri o d 886 , .

M llu S h l 277
a rc e s a e, . M i s s i ng l i n k s 4 6 0 , .

M g
ar ari t a, M i s s i s s i ppi Ri ve r 1 24 187 , , .

M i f m i
a r ne 1 52
o r a t o ns , . d lt f
e a o 1 40 , .

M i l f d t bu i
a r ne i e, f 91 i s ri t on o , . M o as e x t ti
,
f 44 1 i nc o n o , .

l t h t t i l 45 6
e ar i e r an e rre s r a , . llu id 69
M o sco s, ,

M l 40
ar , . C mb i
a r an ,

M ip b
a rs h 81
o ra nc s, . C b ar if u 8 08
on e ro s, ,

M u pi l 86
ars a s, . D 28 1 282
e vo n i a n, , ,

C t u 37 6
re ac e o s, .
J u i 34 6 34 7
ra s s c , ,

J u i 345 857 ra s s c , , ,
L w o S lu ier i r a n,

Qu y 434
at e r nar , . T i 34 6
ri as s c , .

T ti y 898 400
er ar , , . U pp S i lu i er r an , 27 0 ,
T i 8 45 8 5 7
ri a s s c , , . Mo llu k s s,

M i
as s ve ro c k 31 s, . C mb i
a r a n,

M t d
as o Qu t o n, y a e r nar ,
C b if
ar u o n e ro s,

T i y 40 1
e rt ar , . C t u
re ac e o s,

M t d
as o uu o n sa r s, D i 28 1 282
e vo n a n , , ,

M u h C hu k S h l 294
a c n a e, . J u i 846 ras s c , ,

M u i m p f l29
a , a o ,
* . L w o S lu i er i r an, 25 7 .

ll y
va e 1 81
s i n, . Te rti ary 39 8 , .

M u H lli t
a na S H lli t
ua a a , e c. ee ua a a , e c . T ria s s ic 34 6 , ,

M h i l ti
ec an ca u f h t 1 71ac o n, a s s o rce o ea , . U pp e r S i ria n, 27 0 , 27 1 * lu
M di
e p h 26 6 27 8
na e oc , , . ky
M o n e s Te rtiar , 89 5, 402
,
y .

M du
e s ae , l
M o no c i ne , 55 .

M ge Hi b
ac e ro s i u S C u y e rn c s . ee e rv s eu r ce ro s M o no c o t e o ns , 91 yl d .

M g l
e 354
a o s a i i ru s , . M o n o t re m e s , 85 .

M g th i u m
e a er , C re tac e o u s , 37 6 .

M e i o no r ni s , 44 1 . Ju ra s s ic , 8 4 5 , 8 5 7 .

Me lo s i ra , T ria s s ic , 8 57
M e ne vi an g ro u p 28 0 , . M o nta na e p o c , 365 h .

M e n to ne s k e l e to n 43 8 , . M o nte S o m ma, 1 88 .

M e r d e G ac e 1 5 9 l , . M o n tic i po ra 257ul , .

M e ro s to m e s , 7 9 . M o rai ne p ro fo n e , 1 68 d .

M e s o l i th i c e po c h 48 7 , . M o rai ne s 1 62 . .

M e s o z o ic life c h arac teris tic s , o f, 881 . o f G lac ia pe ri o , 4 16 l d .

 IN D E X .

M o rcl es , De nt d e , b
C ar o ni fe ro s , u
Mo rmo lu co i d e s ,
C re tac e o s , u
M o sa sa u rs , 37 Te rt i ar , y
M o ss e s 88 ,
. U ppe r S i ri an , lu
M o u n t E t n a e tc ,
. S e e E t na , e tc . P l l thi M
a eo i c an i n , 48 9 .

M o u nta i n c h ai n s ,
2 10 .
p fil ro f e o ,

h igh t f i l ti t iz f
e o ,
n re a on o s e o o c ean s , 16 N tid u
o an s,

M u t i Lm t
o n a n 29 6 i e s o ne , . N t h d 80
o oc or , .

M u i
o g l i f 207
n ta n ra n e s , o c at o n o ,
. N t h i u m 434
o to er , .

ig i
or f 20 7 n o ,
. N o va S i l
c o t a, c o a ar ea o f, 29 2 .

p f f m ti
ro ce ss o f 21 6 o r a on o , . N lli p
u 88
o re s , .

t u tu
s r c f 210 re o , .
N u mm ul i t es ,

u y mm t i l 214 216
ns e r ca , , .
N u mm u li ti c L im e s to ne , 8 9 0 .

M u t i y t m 2 10
o n a n s s e s, .

M u t i m ki g t l
o n a n- fA h a n ,
a c o se o rc aean, 240 . b d
O s i ian , 3 8 , 1 75 .

t la f Ju
c o se o i 362 ras s c , . b hy
O c e a n, a t me tri c ma p o f,
t la f L w
c o se o S i lu i 2 61 820 o er r an , , . h l
c e mi ca a c t i o n o f, 23 6 .

t l
a f M
c o se o z i 8 88 e so o c, . d he pt o f, 8 , 20 4 .

t la f P l z i 21 1
c o se o a eo o c, , 8 26 . h l
m e c a ni ca ac t i o n o f, 1 4 6 .

i T ti y 402
n er ar , . bu d
O ce an and c o nt i ne n t , o n ary 0 5 1 2 .

lw s o f 221
ne ss o , . b
O c e a n as i n , o rig i n o f, 206 .

M u t i
o h ight f 8 204
n a ns , e o , , . u
O ce an c rre nts , 1 50 .

M u t i
o f i u m d ud ti
n a ns o 188 c rc en a o n, . O c ea n s , 7 .

M u k 10 9
c , . d h
e pt o f, 8 .

M ud 84 , . h
Oc e r , 1 1 1 .

M ud 1 87
c o ne s , . O d o nt i d i u m ,
M ud -
kc rac 1 74 s, . l
O i l, m i n e ra , 25 , 260 , 27 7 , 27 8, 289 .

M u h lk lk 884
sc e a , . d
O ld R e d S a n s to ne , 278 .

Mu it
sco v 20 e, . l llu
O e ne s, 3 22 .

M y i p d 79
r o o s, . O lig o c ar pi a, 338 .

C b if ar o n u 8 05 8 0 6 e ro s, ,
* lg
O i o c e ne , 386 .

D e vo nian, 28 1, 283 . lg l
O i o c a se , 20 .

l
O ivi ne . hy l
S e e C r s o i te .

N at ra u l l ti 451 se e c o n, . d gl
O n e i a C o n o me rate , 26 6, 278 .

N a ti u lu 25 7 s, . dg
O no n a a Li m e s t o ne , 27 6 .

g f i tim 259
ra n e o , n e, . dg
O no n a a pe ri o d 2 65 , 2 6 6 , .

i ul
N av c a, l
O o i te , 4 0 , 4 6, 1 0 2 , 88 5 .

d th l kull 48 7
N ean e r a s , . l d
O o i ti c pe ri o , 835 .

N eo ce ne , 8 8 6 . z b
O o e o f o cea n o tto m, 9 2 .

N eo co mia n, 231 . l
Opa , 1 9 .

l h h
N e o i t ic e po c , 48 8 . hu d
O p i ro i s , 68 .

l z
N e o pa e o o i c s e c ti o n , 229 , 243, 268 . u
Opo s s m, 86 .

N evé , 159 . g d
O ra n e S an , 4 1 7 .

u k
N e w Br ns wi c , c o al are a o f, 29 2 . b h y
O r i t o f e a rt , ecce ntri ci t o f, 1 69 .

ld l
N e w Ca e o ni a, co ra re e fs o f, 1 03 . Or bul i na ,
J y bu d
N e w e rs e , ri e fo re s t i n, 4 29 . h
O rc e s t ia,
d
N e w R e d S a n s to ne , 299 , 88 5 . d
O r o vi cian e ra, 228 , 252 .

g h
N ia ara e p o c , 26 6, 27 3 . g l h
O re o n , ava s e e t o f, 189 .

g g
N ia ara G o r e , 4 1 , O re o d 400 o n, ,

g l gi l tim m u d by
eo o ca e e as re exca vati o n O g i
r id
a n c ac g l gi l ff t f 118
s, eo o ca e ec o , .

O g i m tt
r an c du i g ti f 1 15
a e r, re c n ac o n o
Ni g p i d 265 26 6
.
,
a a ra er o , , . O ig i
r f p i
n o s S E lu ti
ec es . ee vo on
id g l g i l
.

N it i r c ac ti f 1 45, eo o ca ac on o O i k y p i d 27 6
r s an er o
N d
.
, , .

o i
o sar a, O i th p d
rn o C t
o u 872
s, re ac e o s,
t i ul t
.

N o n-ar 60 c a e s, . Ju i rass c , 344 354 .

N t h Am i g g ph i l lu ti
,

or e r ca, eo ra ca e vo on in O i th hy
rn or hu 8 6 nc s, .

20 8 445 , .
O g i m
ro en c m t S M u t i
o ve g en s ee o n a n-ran e s ,
m p f ft App l h i l ti
.

a o ,
a er a ac a n re vo u o n, 828* M u t i m ki go n a n- a n
t l fA h
.

a c o se o rc aea n, O h i pp u
ro 4 00
s, .
 IN DE X .

h
Ort i s , 24 7 Cre taceo u s, 8 67
O rt h i si na, D e vo ni an, 281 .

h
O rt o c e ra s , 24 8 , 257 , 8 0 5 .
J uras s i c , 88 6 ,
h l
O r t o c as e , 20 .
Te r tiar y ,
8 9 0 , 39 1 *
h l
O rt o c a se ro c s , 8 6 k .
Tri a s s i c, 33 6 ,
O s me r o i d e s , Ph as c o lo t h e ri u m ,
O s t rac o i d s , 7 78 . Ph e naco du 899 s, .

Tri a ss i c , 38 8 , Ph y t 32
e no c r s , .

U p p e r S i ri an, lu P h illi p i 322 s a, .

O st re a , 7 39 8 Ph ph ti f m ti 10 5
os a c or a o ns, .

Phyll i t S S l t
.

zu
O t o o m, e . ee a e.

u h g
O ac i ta ran e , 8 27 P h y ll g p t o ra u s,

P hy i g ph i g l g y 6 7
.

u
O t c ro p , s o ra c eo o , , .

l
Ov er a p , 5 7 Pi d m t b l t 238
e on e , .

P i ul i
.

O xe n , Tertiary , 402 .
nn ar a ,

yg g l g l m
O x e n, e o o i ca a o f, Pi u n s,

y y
O s t er s , T e rtiar , 898 Pi th t h p u e ca n tu 4 39 ro s e re c s, .

Pl t l M mm l 86
.

ace n a a a s, .

P alse a ste r, Pl ti
ace n ce ra s ,

Palaao blat ti na, 25 8 . Pl d m 82

ac o er s, .

Palzs o h at te ria, D i 283 284

e vo n an , , ,

P l u
a ae o ni s c s , L w o S i lu i 25 8
er r an , .

P l h u
a aeo t e ri m , 8 9 7 U pp S lu i 2 72
er i r an, .

Pl g i l k 38
.

P l y
a apt e r x , 44 1 . a o c as e r o c s, .

P l l h h
a e o i t i c e p o c , 43 6 Pl i 1 3
a ns , .

Pl t d im l di ti ti b
.

P l t l gy d m b y l gy p ll li
a eo n o o an e r o o ,
ara e s m an an an a ,
s nc o ns e tw e e n ,

58 .

P l z i li f h t i ti f 328
a eo o c e, c ara c e r s cs o ,
. Pl t u 1 8
a ea s, .

P l z i ti m 227 228 24 2
a eo o c e, , , . Plate p h e me ra ,
h g f li f t l f 8 29
c an e o e a c o se o , . Platy ce ra s , 24 7
di tu b s t l
r f 8 25
a n ce s a c o se o , . Ple i sto ce n e, 4 0 6 .

P li d
a 1 89 8 32 8 88
sa es, , , . l u
P e s i o sa r s , Cre t ace o u s, 372 .

P l m C t u 367
a s, r e ac e o s, . J u i 852 ras s c ,8 54 ,
.

T ti y er ar ,
T i i 352 8 54
r a ss c , , .

P d xi d
ara o 322 es , . Pl u i gm
e ro s a,

P i b i
ar s T i y
as n , im l f 896 e rt ar an a s o , . Pl u t m i
e ro o ar a,

P t lli
a e na , Pli thn ll o se a,

P u m t u A h i p l g 1 08
a o rc e a o , . Pli p i d 8 86
o c e ne er o , .

P t 107
ea ,
Pli u u 354
o sa r s, .

P g m ti t 1 98 1 99
e a e, ,
. Plu m b g S G p hi ta o . ee ra e .

P lie o n, Plu t i k 29 36 8 7 8 8
o n c ro c s, , , .

P m ph i x
e , P o co n og u p 294 ro ,
.

P pl i 141
e ne a ns, . P d z mi t 837
o o a e s,

P yl i m p f l
en n s van a, f 29 2 a o co a area s o ,
* P ly y ti
o c S R di l i
s ne s . ee a o ar an s.

il g i
o f 289
re o n o , . P ly p S A th z
o s . ee n o o an s .

P t i u
e n ac r n s, P ly t h l mi S F mi if
o a a a. ee o ra n e rs .

P tm u
en a er s, P m p ii 1 8 4
o e , .

P t mi t
e n re es, P lli
o rc e o ,

P i d g l gi l 28 2
er o s, eo o ca , . P phy iti k 8 1
or r c ro c s, .

P mi gl i t d b w ld 299
er an ac a e o ers , . P phy y 8 2 8 8
or r , , .

P mi p i d 29 1 299
er an er o , , . P t g p h 27 7
or a e e oc , .

P ti t A
e l t d p i t f 26
ri s e , s a e o s o , . P tl d ( C
or an ti u t ) dt o nn e c c s an s o ne , 88 2 .

P t if ti 99
e r ac o n, . P t l d (E gl d) D i t B d 88 5
or an n an r e , .

P t l u m S Oil
e ro e . ee . P t m f m ti 388 364
o o ac or a o n, , .

Ph p ac o s, P t d m p i d 244
o s a er o ,
.

Ph g m S Ph
ae no a gms . ee anero a s. P tt i ll C
o svgl m t 29 6 e o n o e ra e , .

Ph l g 8 6
a an e r, . P ras op o ra ,

Ph g m 89
a ne ro a s, , P d
re t t C t
en a a, u re ace o s,

C b if ar u 8 02
on e ro s, . Ju i ras s c , 354 .
 IN DE X .

P t fl
res e n d f u p g o ra a n a na, ro re s si ve appr o xi l
Re p ti e s , 85 .

m ti t 456a on o , . A g e o f, 228 , 38 0 .

P b id
ro o sc Qu t y 48 1ea n s , a e rnar , ,
C r e tace o s , u
T ti yer ar ,
Ju ra s s i c , 34 0 , 852, 8 5 5*
P du t u 308
ro c s, ,

P t l i
r o ann u ar a , Pe rmi an , 808 , 809 *
P t i
ro o car s , Te rti ar , 39 4 y .

P tz
ro o 60 o an s, ,
Tria s si c , 852 .

C t u
re a ce o s, R e si n s , fo s si l s p re se rve i n, 99 d .

T ti y 8 89
er ar , ,
R e vo lu ti o n, A p pa ac ia n, 8 25 l h .

P ud p d
se o o s, L aram i d 8 88 e, .

Pt d 373
e ran o o n, .
po s t M
-
zi e so o c, 8 83 .

P t i h thy 284
er c s, , po s t P l
-
zi a eo o c, 325 .

P t id phy t S A g
er o es . ee c ro e ns . Taco ni c , 26 0 .

P t d tylu 854
e ro ac s, ,
h
R aet i c fo r mati o n, 884 .

Pt e ro ph y llu m , h h hy hu
R am p o r nc s,

P te m p o d s , Rh p h i t m
a s o a,

C am b i 247 r an , Rh i n o c e ro s ,Qu t y 48 1 48 2 a e rnar , , .

U pp S i lu i
er 2 70 r an , ,
T i y 4 00 401
e r t ar , , .

Pt ero sa u C t u 8 78 rs, re ace o s, . Rh iz p d o o s,

J u i 8 52 354
ra s s c , 356 , ,
* C t u
r e a ce o s,

T i i 85 2 8 54
r as s c, , . T t i y 8 89
er ar , ,

Pudd g t 84 in -
s o ne , . Rh d I l
o e d l s an f 29 2 , co a ar e a o , .

Pu mi 1 75 ce , . R hy h nc ph l o ce 85 a a, .

Pu p t u t
a ve s a, P mi 8 0 8
er an, ,

Pu b k g u p 83 5
r ec ro , . R hy h ll
nc o ne a,

Py l ti f 408
re ne e s , e e va o n o , . ra n g f i ti m 25 9
e o ,
n e, .

Py i f
r u su s, Rh y h t t
nc o r e a,

Py i t 27
r e, . R hy l i t 3 8
o e, .

ox i d ti f 1 1 2 1 45
a on o , , . Ri h m
c d d i t m u d p i t f 891
on , a o ace o s e os o , ,

Py x
ro 21
e ne , . B i ll m k
-
ar s,
Py h ti t 27 1 1 2
rr o e, . Ri ppl m k e- ar 1 55 s, .

Py th m p h
o no or s, Ri ve r t 1 88 4 22
e rra ce s , 427 , ,

Ri ve r va e ll y f m f 131 s, or o , .

m k i g f 129
a n o , .

Ri ve r s , e ne r gy f 1 25 o , .

g l gi l ti f 1 24
eo o ca ac on o , .

P l z i 320
a eo o c, .

y u th d g f 140
o an a e o , .

R h
oc m ut
es é o 1 64 o nn e s, .

R k d fi i ti
oc , e f 17n on o , .

R aco di s c ula , R k
oc lt S S lt
sa . ee a .

Rad i at es , 60 . R k
oc A hs, 28 6
rc aea n , .

l
R ad i o ari an o o e , 9 2 z . l
c a ca re o u 32 4 0 99 s, , , .

l
R ad i o aria n s , C mb ia 244 r an, .

d e p o s i t s o f, 1 0 6 . ca r b u 1 07
o nac e o s, .

Rag ad i ni a, C b if ar u 29 1
on e ro s, .

d
Rai n, i s t ri bu
ti o n o f, 1 28 . l ti 28 29
c as c, , .

e ro s i o n , 1
28 by . c o n so l i d ti f 1 1 7 a o n o
d
.
,

Rai n ro p i m p re s si o n s , c o ns ti t u t f 18 en s o .

g
,

R a pp ah a nn o ck s ta e , 8 64 . C t u 863
r e ace o s,
g
.

Rari ta n s ta e , 3 64 . cr y t ll i 28 29 85 4 1 1 75 1 88 1 9 1
s a ne .
y
.
, , , , , ,

R a s , 82 .
D i 27 6
e vo n an ,
d
.

R e ce nt p e ri o , 4 0 5 , 4 25 . f l i t d 3 1 1 9 1 1 95
o a e
d
.
, , ,

R ed B e s , 29 9 . f gm t l 28 29 88
ra en a
ly b
, , , .

Re d c a o f o cean o tt o m, 9 2 hyd u m g i 89 ro s a n e s an ,
l
. .

Ree fs , co ra , 1 00 , ig u 29 36 8 7 8 8 89 1 75 1 88
ne o s,
gl , .
, , , , ,
R e e ati o n , 1 6 1 .
J i 8 33 834 88 5
u ra s s c ,
d h
.
, ,
Re i n eer e p o c , 48 7 .
ki d f 28 n s o ,
.
 IN DE X .

l mi nate
a d 31 , . S apph iri na,
L w o S ilu i
er 25 2 r an , . S as safras , Cre tace o s , u
m i 81
a s s ve , . u d u
S a ro p o s , Cre tac e o s , 8 7 2 .

m t m p h i 30 35 8 6 8 7 38 39 4 1
e a or c, , , , , , ,
19 1 J u i 342ra s s c , 85 4 , .

or th l 36 o c a se , . S au r o p us,

P l a e o zow thi k f i N th A m
, c ne s s o ,
n or e ri c a S ca ph t 8 70 i es, ,

21 1 8 1 6 ,
. Sc hi t 8 1 1 9 2 1 95
s , , , .

p h ph t o s 1 05 a i c, . Sc h i t t u tu 8 1 1 92
s o se s r c re , , , 19 5 .

p l gi la 88
o c as e , . Sc h h G i t 27 6
o ari e r , .

p lu t i 29 8 6 3 7 8 8
o n c, , , , . S co h t h u s ,
p phy t
or 31 ri i c , . S co ri a , 1 7 5 .

sc hi t 3 1 1 9 1 195
s o se , , , . S co r p i o n s , 7 9
se d m t y 29
i e n ar ,
. Car o ni fe ro b u s,

m d f f m ti
o f 1 65
e o or a o n o , . u d g f i ti m 4 5 9
i n t e rr p t e ra n e o , n e, .

sh ly 31a , . U p pe r S i lu i 272 r an, .

si li u 32 8 5 1 0 6
ceo s, , , . S cra t h c gl i l 1 63
e s, 40 8 ac a , , .

l ty 3 1
s a , ,
m d by w d d ft d
a e d 1 19 1n ~
ri e s an , .

t ti fi d 4 1
s ra e , . S ea m
an e o ne ,

T ti y 3 88
er ar , . S ea b h l t d 4 21
e ac e s , e e va e , .

Tri a s s i c , 332, 334 . S ea f an s ,

u n s t ra t i fi e d , 45 . S ea u hi S E h i d
rc ns . ee c nO i s .

U pp e r S i lu i r an, 26 6 . S ea w d S A lg
ee s. ee ae .

l 29 8 8 39 1 7 5
v o c an i c , , , , . Se d i m t y f m ti m i 1 52
e n ar or a o n s, ar n e , .

R ky M u t i
oc gl i t d
o i n a n s, ac a e are as n 4 14 . Se d m t y m t i l g i f 1 5 1 1 65
i e n ar a er a , o ri n o , , .

g t l l l ti f 402
ea n i c i na e e va on o , . Se d i m t y t t f m ti i 1 65
e n ar s ra a, or a on o , .

R d
o t T ti y 394 400
e n s, er ar , , . Se l hi 81
ac an s , ,

R mi g i
o n e r a, C b ar f u 8 0 6 8 07
o ni e r o s, ,

R t li
o a a, 368 . C t re ace o u 87 0 s, .

R ud i t 3 69
s a, , D i 283
e vo n a n , ,

J u i 35 0 rass c , .

Sa c cammi g f i t im 25 9na , ran e o , n e, . L w o S i lu i 25 8

er r an , .

S i t H l M u t 17 7 T ti y 8 98
’
a n e e n s, o n , . er ar , ,

S i t L w
a n aRi i th Qu t r e nc e ve r n e a e rnar y , 421 . T i i 3 50
r a ss c , .

S i t P t d t 253 U pp S i lu i 27 2
’
a n S e er s an s o ne , . er r an , .

S l m
a a d 85 an e rs , . Se mi b i t u m i u
-
l 298
n o s co a , .

S l f
a i e ro u g u p 88 5 s ro , . i d fi i ti f 48
S er e s , e n o n o , .

S li
a b d 266 278
na e s, ,
. S ero li s ,
S li
a l t w ll 26 7
na s a e s, . S e rp e n ti n e , 21 , 39 .

S l bu y C g 1 9 0
a is r ra s, . ul
S e rp a , 1 01 .

S li
a x, T ti y er ar , u
S e rt lari a,
S l t 26 1 1 7
a , , . hl
S a e , 8 1 , 85 .

C t u 26
r e aceo s, . lu
a m, 85 .

S ub b f u 29 6
car o ni e ro s, . l k
B a c , 27 8 .

T i i 835
r a ss c , . l l d
C e ve an , 27 8 .

Upp S lu i 267
er i r an , E ri e , 27 8 .

S lt l k
a a 117 es, .
G e ne s e e , 27 7 .

San d 38 , . ud
H so n Ri ve r, 258 .

San d t h 1 19 s cra c es, . u

H ro n , 27 8 .

San dfl -
78
e a, . lu
M arce l s , 277 .

San d t 85 s o ne , . u h hu k
M a c C n , 294 .

C d 254
ara o c, . U ti ca, 253 .

C t k ill 27 7
a s , . h k
S ar s l
S ee S e ac hian s
. .

M di e 26 6 278 na, , . h u
S ast a, M o n t, 1 77 .

N e w R ed , 29 9 , 885 . h kg
S ri n a e c rac sk ,

O ld R e d , 27 8 . d
S i e ri t e , 27 29 7 .

Ori sk an , 27 6 y . l
a t e ra ti o n o f , 1 1 2 .

P o t s am , 244 d . d y ll
S i erra N e va a, c r s ta i n e ro c ks o f, 21 9 .

S ai nt e te r s , 258
’
P .
p t Ju i
o s - l t ras s c e e va i o n o f, 362 .

S anidi n , 3 8 , T ti y l er ti far e e va on o , 408 .

 g ll
S i i ari a, 280 801 ,
. u y bl
S tat ar mar e , 41 .

l
S i i c a, 1 8 . u l
S ta ro i te , 23 .

S i li t
ca e s , 19 . S te a ti te , 2 1 , 8 9 .

S ili u k 8 2 8 5 1 06
ce o s ro c s, , , . g hl
S te o c e p a a, 85 .

Sil u i t 86
i ce o s s n e r, . b u
C a r o ni fe ro s , 80 7 ,
Sil i co nd i x id S S i l i o e . ee ca . J u i 381 ras s c , .

S i lu ir an S L w
. S lu i Up p S i lu i
ec o er i r an , er r an T i i 839
r as s c, , 35 1 , 85 2“
Si t
n e r, 86 . St g
e u C t
o sa rs , re ac e o u s, 8 72 .

S iph o ni a , Ju i ra s s c , 354 .

S k i dd w S l ta 254 a e s, . S t ll t t
e e a,

Sl t 3 1 37
a e, , . S t e n o th e ca ,
S l ty l
a 31
c e a vag e , 21 9 , . S te p h a no c e ra s ,
S l th
o Qu t y
s, a e rna r , S t i c to p o ra ,
S l 73
n ai s , ,
g
S t i m a ri a , 30 1 .

i t
n e rr u pt d g f i ti m 459 e ran e o , n e, . S t o ne A g e , 48 6 .

S na e k Ri l h t f 1 89 ve r, ava s ee s o S trata , ag e o f, h o w dt e er m i ne 228 d

"
.
, , .

S k
na 85
e s, . c o n fo rm a e a nd bl u n c o n fo rma e , 56 , 57 bl
C t u 8 74
r e a ce o s, . d i l ti s o ca f 50 o ns o , .

S no w li 1 59
ne , . f ld d 2 1 1 2 l2
o e , ,
*
,

S p t
oa 21 39
s o ne , , . m xi mu m th i k
a f 50 c ne s s o , .

S d i u m hl i d
o 8
c S lt or e . 66 a . orig i l p m f 48 50
na os o n o , ,
*

S i l 34
o ,
. S t ti ul t
ra c t u tu
a e s r 48 c re , .

S l h f
o en l ith g phi li m t
o e n, f 835 o ra c e s o ne o , . S t t fi ti
ra i ca g f 44
o n , o ri in o , .

S lf t
o a a ra s ,1 85 . S t ti fi d
ra e k 41 ro c s, .

S l id
o fl w i g f 20 5
s, o n o ,
. S t ti g ph i l g l gy 228
ra ra ca eo o , .

S l
o va g u p 230 ro , . S t t u m d fi i ti
ra ,
f e n on o ,

S o mm a , M o n te ,
1 83 . St p l m
re te as a,

S o rata, 1 7 7 . St ir a
e. S S t h
ee c ra c e s.
uh
S o t A m e rica , re cen t c h g an e s o f l l
e ve in S t ik
r e, 52 .

428 . S t ph m
ro o e na ,

fi
p ro le o f, S t p h m id
ro o l t f 34 6
en ae, as o , .

S w bug
o -
78 , . S t u tu l g l gy 6 1 7
r c ra eo o , , .

S p th
a i c i ro n S e e S i eri te . d . S ub b i f u p i d 29 1 294
c ar on e ro s er o , , .

S p e ci aliz e d
fo rms o f ife , ate r t l l h an g e ne r S ub m i u p ti 184
ar ne e r o ns , .

a li z ed , 454 . S ub i d s li l d
e nc e , c o ra 40 4 s an , .

S peci e s , o ri i n o f S e e E vo ti o n g . lu . ff t f
e ec t mpo ,
tu 1 68
o n e e ra re , .

hg u
S p a n m , 10 7 . S ub i d s f A tl
e nc e o ti t f U it d S t an c c o as o n e ate s ,
h
S p e no p t e ri s , 4 29 .

ul
S pi c e s o f S p o n e s , g 64 . S ub i d s fG
e n ce o l d 428 re e n an , .

d
S pi ers , 7 9 . S ub i d s f
e nc e ol i gi 1 84 vo c an c re o n s, .

b
Car o ni fe ro s , 3 0 5 , u S ub t e rrane anw t 1 42 a e rs , .

i nte rr p te u d ran g e o f, i n ti m e , 4 59 . S ul phu l i d p i t f 1 85

r, vo ca n c e os s o , .

S pi nax , S u n, h t i d f m 167
ea re c e ve ro , .

y
S pi n a n t -e ate r , 86 . S u p i mp
er d d i g 142
o se ra na e, .

S piri fe r , 303, S up i e r o r,L k pp d p i t f 201

a e, co er e os s o , .

S pir i fe ri d l ae, as t o f, 34 6, 34 7 * S u p p i ti
er o s it i o n, f g f t cr er o n o a e o s rata ,

S p iri fe ri na, 224 .

S pi ro cy at h u s , Sw d e h g f l l i 428
e n, c an es o e ve n, .

S po n e s , g S w i tz l d l k d w lli g
e r an ,
f 48 9
a e e n s o , .

C am ri a n , b S y i t 37
en e,

C re tac e o s , 8 68 , u S y it g i
en e 87 ne s s , .

S p o ngi o li th i s , S y l i l xi
nc na a55 s, .

S p o re s o f L co p o s i n y d co a l , 8 1 0‘ S y li
nc ne , 55 .

g
S pri n s , h o t , 1 8 5 . Sy li
nc i u m 21 8
no r , .

ud
S q i s, 76 . Sy n co r n e ,
y
g dfi
S ta e , e ni ti o n o f, 43 . S y t h t i ty p
n e c 455 e s, .

l
S ta ac ti te , 4 0 , 1 44 . Sy rac u lt w ll f 267
se , sa e s o , .

S t l g mi t
a a e, 40 , 144 . Sy i g p
r n o o ra ,

S tarfi sh e s . S e e A s te ri o id s . S y t m d fi i ti
s e , f 48
e n on o , .
 IN DE X .

Tabl l d S Pl t u
e an s. ee a ea s. Tran s p o rtati o n , by gl aci ers , 1 62 .

T bl m u t
a e o 1 89 n ai n s , . by r i ve r s , 1 36 .

T hyl t 39 1 7 5
ac i e, ,
. Tra n s po i t i ng po w e r o f w at er, 1 37 .

T m u t i
ac o n i c y t m 2 62
o n a n s s e ,
. Tra p 39 , .

T g C mb
ac o ni c ra n k f 245 e, a ri a n r o c s o , . T ra ve rt i ne , 40 , 1 16 , 1 8 7 .

l ti f 26 1 320
e e va o n o , , . T re e fe r n s , 8 9 .

T lu t 260
a c o n i c r e vo i o n, . C a r bo u 30 1 n i e ro f s, .

T h i ti
a i
,
i
e ro s o n 1 31 n, . T re m d Sl t
a 230 oc a e s, .

m p f a o , Tre n t p h 253
o n e oc , .

T l
a c, 21 . T re n t p d 252 253
o n e ri o , , .

T l
a c sc h t 89 is , . Tre s ca , e x p e r i me n t s o f, on flo win g o f so lid s,

T a x o c ri n u s , 20 5 .

T l t
e eo s s , 83 , Tri art hu r s,

C t u 8 70
re a c e o s, , Tri as s i c e ra, 229 , 38 1 , 382 .

J u i 35 1 ra s s c , . Tri c e ra ti u m ,
T y 8 98
e rt i a r , . T ri ce ra t o p s ,
T i 35 1
r as s i c , . g
T ri o n ia , 3 4 6 ,
T lli
e na, T rig o n o carp u s ,
T mp
e tu e ra l imiti g d i t i bu ti
re , as n s r on lb
Tri o i te s , 78 .

m l if 9 3
ari n e e, . Cam b ri a n ,

T E t
e nne s s e e , ll y f 21 8 as , va e o , . C ar b o n i e ro f u 8 05
s, .

T e n ne s se eI l d 263 28 8 s an , ,
. D e vo ni a n , 28 1 , 28 2,
T t ul t
e n ac 27 0 i e s, , lu
Lo w e r S i ri a n , 25 7 ,
T e re b t ul ra a, g fg
ra n e o e n e ra o f, i n t i m e , 8 22 .

T e re b ra t u li na , U pp S lu i er i r an, 27 0 .

T e r race s , i i ve r, 1 88 , 422, 427 T l l

r i o c u i n a,

T e rra n e s , 1 7 , 4 1 . T p l i 39 2
ri o , .

T e rre s t r i a llf l i e, ate r t h an mari ne , 45 6 . T u f 35 1 75

a, ,
.

y 28 1 386
Te r t i a r e ra , , . l u S
c a c are o s . ee Traverti ne .

T t b
e ra h ra n c s, Tu i t 79
n ca e s , .

C mb i a 24 7 r a n, . Tu l t 3 70
r ri i e s , ,

C b arif u 804 o n e ro s, . T u tl r 85 es, .

C u 3 70 37 1
r e ta c e o s, ,
* C t u 8 74
re a c e o s, .

D i 2 82
e vo n a n ,
J w 85 6
u ra s s , .

Ju i ra s s c T i y 39 4
e rt a r , .

L w o S lu i er i r a n, 257 . Tr ia s s i c , 8 5 6 .

T i i 84 7
r as s c , ,

T t t
e rac i nell d pi ul i s c es,
U nc o nfo rma e s trata , 5 6, bl
T t d p d 78
e ra

Ju i
e ca o s, .

d ly
U n e rc a , 29 7 .

T t l i
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 Le s so n s i n Ph ys ic a l G e o gra ph y
By C H R LE S R A R ER, M A , . D Y . .

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a re p re s e nt e d b y m e a n s o f a ty p i c a l e x a m p e w h ic h i s d e s c ri be d i n u n u s u a ll
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In t h e fi e d t h e s t u d e n t i s t a u g h t t o o b s e rve
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S PEC IAL ATTENTIO N TO S UBJ ECTS O F HUMAN INTEREST

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