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 RELC Journal
http://rel.sagepub.com

The Attitudes of University Students towards Non-native Speakers

English Teachers in Hong Kong
Cheung Yin Ling and George Braine
RELC Journal 2007; 38; 257
DOI: 10.1177/0033688207085847

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 Article

The Attitudes of University Students

towards Non-native Speakers
English Teachers in Hong Kong
Cheung Yin Ling
Purdue University USA
ycheung@purdue.edu

George Braine
The Chinese University of Hong Kong
georgebraine@cuhk.edu.hk

Abstract ■ Although non-native speakers (NNS) English teachers have taught along-
side native speaker (NS) teachers for centuries, studies on the effectiveness of NNS
teachers, their self-perceptions, or the attitudes of students towards these teachers,
have only been conducted recently. Most of these studies have been conducted in the
USA in ESL contexts. However, the majority of students worldwide learn English in
foreign language (EFL) contexts, and, consequently, most English teachers work in
such contexts too. This paper reports on a study conducted in Hong Kong which
investigated the attitudes of university students towards their NNS English teachers.
The students were queried through a questionnaire and interviews. On the whole, the
students had a favorable attitude towards their NNS English teachers, although some
shortcomings were indicated. Third (final) year students appeared to have a more
favorable attitude than first year students. The reasons for the students’ attitudes are
discussed.

Keywords ■ Effectiveness, EFL, English teachers, ESL, native speaker, non-native

speaker.

The British Council1 estimates that English is spoken as the second

language by about 375 million speakers and as a foreign language by
about 750 million speakers. There is little doubt that the majority of
English teachers are non-native speakers (NNS) because these vast num-
bers of second and foreign language speakers would have been taught

Vol 38(3) 257-277 | DOI: 10.1177/0033688207085847

© 2007 SAGE Publications, Los Angeles, London, New Delhi and Singapore
http://RELC.sagepub.com

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Regional Language Centre Journal 38.3

mainly by indigenous NNS English teachers. For instance, China recently

made English a compulsory subject from Grade 3 onwards. According to
the latest available statistics, about 220 million students were enrolled in
primary, secondary and tertiary level in China (‘China facts and figures
2002’). Undoubtedly, the majority of these students are taught English by
indigenous Chinese teachers who are non-native speakers of English.
Despite the strong presence of NNS English teachers worldwide, issues
relating to them were not discussed or studied until recently. This may
have been because the topic is unusually sensitive. The commonly ac-
cepted view in language pedagogy has been that NNS teachers are second
in knowledge and performance to native speaker (NS) teachers.2 While
the authority of the NSs was accepted as the norm in English-speaking
countries, there appeared to be some power struggles between the expa-
triate NS teachers and the indigenous NNS teachers in EFL contexts (see
Canagarajah 1999; Lung 1999).
One of the first to explore NNS teacher issues was Medgyes, who
advanced three hypotheses based on his assumption that NS and NNS
teachers are ‘two different species’ (Medgyes 1994: 25): native and NNS
teachers differ in terms of language proficiency and teaching practice
(behavior), most of the differences in teaching practice could be attributed
to the discrepancy in language proficiency, and both NS and NNS could
be equally good teachers on their own terms.
Medgyes (1992, 1994) also conducted research on NNS teachers of
English. Despite these pioneering studies, it took nearly a decade for
more research to emerge on the issues relating to these teachers. These
recent studies could be classified by their aims⎯the determination of
the self-perceptions of NNS teachers or students’ attitudes towards NNS
teachers⎯and by context, ESL or EFL. Most of these studies, on both
self-perceptions of teachers and students’ attitudes, such as that of
Samimy and Brutt-Griffler (1999); Liang (2002); Mahboob (2004), and
Moussou and Braine (2006) have been conducted in North America, in
ESL teaching contexts. However, NS English teachers, who have long
taught in affluent EFL contexts such as Japan, Korea, Hong Kong, the
Middle East, and many European countries, are now making their pres-
ence felt in other EFL contexts, such as in China and the rest of Asia. As
a result, NNS teachers in many EFL contexts are facing new challenges in
terms of jobs and self-confidence (see Braine, n.d., for a discussion of
issues relating to NNS English teachers). While self-perception of these
NNS is important, what could be even more critical in the overall EFL
context is the attitude of students.

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Attitudes towards Non-native Speakers English Teachers in Hong Kong

One of the earliest studies, that by Liang (2002) conducted at a uni-

versity in California, USA, was designed to investigate 20 ESL students’
attitudes towards six ESL teachers’ accents and the features of these
teachers’ speech that contributed to the students’ preference for teachers.
Five of the teachers were NNS from different language backgrounds and
the other was a NS. The results showed that, although the students rated
pronunciation/accent in the ESL teachers’ speech as very important, these
factors did not affect the students’ attitudes toward their previous NNS
English teachers in their home countries. In fact, the students held gen-
erally positive attitudes toward these teachers and believed that pronun-
ciation/accent was not as relevant as they had first thought. Further,
personal and professional features, such as ‘being interesting’, ‘being
prepared’, ‘being qualified’, and ‘being professional’, played a role in the
students’ preference for teachers.
Another study into students’ perceptions was conducted by Mahboob
(2004) at a university in the USA. Mahboob examined students’ per-
ceptions of NNS teachers using the novel and insightful ‘discourse-
analytic’ technique, asking 32 students enrolled in an intensive English
programme to provide written responses to a cue that solicited their
opinions on NS and NNS language teachers. The students’ comments
were classified according to linguistic factors (oral skills, literacy skills,
grammar, vocabulary, culture), teaching styles (ability to answer ques-
tions, teaching methodology), and personal factors (experience as an ESL
learner, hard work, affect). The analysis of these comments showed that
both NS and NNS teachers received positive and negative comments. In
the case of NNS teachers, experience as an ESL learner earned the most
number of positive comments, followed by grammar, affect, oral skills,
methodology, hard work, vocabulary, culture, ability to answer questions,
and literacy skills. NNS teachers received negative comments with regard
to oral skills and culture.
Moussu and Braine (2006), in a longitudinal study, investigated the
attitudes of ESL students enrolled in an intensive English programme at a
university in the USA. Their research questions were threefold: (1) What
are the attitudes and expectations of ESL students at the beginning of the
semester towards nonnative teachers of English? (2) What teacher and
student variables influence the students’ attitudes towards their teachers at
the beginning of the semester? (3) How do time and exposure influence
the students’ attitudes towards these teachers? The subjects were four
NNS English teachers from four countries and 84 ESL students from 21

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Regional Language Centre Journal 38.3

different countries. All students responded to two questionnaires, one

given the first day and the second given on the last day of class. Over the
14-week semester, three separate sets of interviews were also conducted
with six students. Analysis of the data showed that most students had a
positive attitude at the beginning of the semester, based mainly on their
experiences with NNS English teachers in their own countries. The
students’ attitudes towards these teachers became markedly more positive
by the end of the semester. For instance, to the question ‘Would you
encourage a friend to take a class with this non-native English-speaking
teacher?’, 47 (56%) students had answered ‘yes’ at the beginning of the
semester. By the end of the semester, 64 (76%) had answered ‘yes’ to the
same question. Variables such as the native language of the students and
the native language of the teachers were found to influence the students’
attitudes. As pointed out earlier, the Liang (2002), Mahboob (2004), and
Moussu and Braine (2006) studies were conducted in ESL contexts. With
the spread of NSS English teachers to EFL growth areas like China, an
interesting contrast to these ESL studies could be offered by investigating
students’ attitudes towards NNS English teachers in EFL contexts, where
English is taught by indigenous NNS teachers as well as by expatriate NS
teachers. Two places that come to mind are Hong Kong and Japan, where
NS English teachers are recruited by both the private and the public sector,
and often work alongside indigenous NNS teachers.
Hong Kong, a special administrative region in China, is an especially
suitable context for this study for a number of reasons. First, English has
been taught in Hong Kong for more than 150 years, since 1842. Currently,
both NS teachers and local NNS teachers teach English from primary to
tertiary level. The local teachers at primary and secondary schools number
around 14,000. The business sector, educational bodies, and the general
public have expressed grave concerns about the declining English stan-
dards in Hong Kong. As a remedial measure, the government has been
hiring NS English teachers since 1988 to serve in secondary schools (see
Lee 2005). Since 2000, the NS teachers have been hired to serve in pri-
mary schools also. These teachers are mainly from New Zealand, Britain,
Australia, Canada, and the USA. Hence, most students in Hong Kong have
had the opportunity of learning English from both NS and NNS teachers
of English.
This study investigated the attitudes of university students in Hong
Kong towards NNS teachers of English. Specifically, two research ques-
tions were addressed:

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Attitudes towards Non-native Speakers English Teachers in Hong Kong

(1) What are the attitudes of university students in Hong Kong towards
NNS teachers of English?
(2) From the perspective of the students, what are the specific strengths
and shortcomings of NNS English teachers in Hong Kong?

Methodology
The study was conducted in two phases, a questionnaire survey involving
420 students from seven universities and interviews with ten students from
three universities. All Hong Kong universities have English Language
Centers, Language Centers, or English language Teaching Units which
offer optional or required service courses in English. These centers and
units employ both NS and NNS teachers of English, whose qualifications
range from Master’s to doctoral degrees.

Subjects
The students were undergraduates in their second and third year of study,
and were chosen on the belief that students at this level are relatively more
mature and objective in their views than first year students who had just
graduated from secondary school. Cantonese was the first language of the
majority of the interviewees. The students were interviewed in English.
In the main study, an equal number (60) of subjects were chosen from
each of the seven universities in Hong Kong3 for a questionnaire survey.
The students were from seven faculties and were representative of the
three years of undergraduate education in Hong Kong. Most students were
aged between 17 and 24 with Cantonese as their first language. Nearly all
had lived in Hong Kong for more than six years and nearly all had studied
English for more than 12 years. Almost all learned English in Hong Kong
and had been taught by both NS and NNS English teachers.
For the follow-up interviews, ten students from City University of
Hong Kong, Lingnan University, and The University of Hong Kong took
part. The duration of the interviews ranged from 30 to 90 minutes.

Instruments
Questionnaire
The International Teaching Assistants (QUITA) questionnaire designed
by Plakans (1997) was used in this study with some modifications. The
original questionnaire had been designed to measure American students’

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Regional Language Centre Journal 38.3

attitudes toward international teaching assistants from various disciplinary

backgrounds. The questionnaire was adapted with terminology more
appropriate to the Hong Kong context.
The international teaching assistants who were surveyed were NNS of
English, and most of them had received their undergraduate education
outside the United States. Plakans (1997), using QUITA, collected back-
ground information about undergraduate students enrolled in courses
taught by the teaching assistants, inquired about the students’ depth of
experience with international teaching assistants, and examined their atti-
tudes towards courses conducted by these international teaching assistants,
their cross-cultural awareness, and their willingness to take the responsibil-
ity for the interaction in classes taught by international teaching assistants.
One of the main changes in the questionnaire for use in Hong Kong was
the change of ‘international teaching assistant’ to ‘NNS English instruc-
tor’. Another change was the use of wording more appropriate to the Hong
Kong context, with attention to the students’ mother tongue and the
required public examinations taken by Hong Kong students before they
are admitted to university. A further change was an adoption of a four-
point scale instead of a five-point scale, with the deletion of point 3
meaning ‘Neutral’ preference. According to the four-point scale, 1 refers
to ‘Strongly Disagree’, 2 ‘Disagree’, 3 ‘Agree’, and 4 ‘Strongly Agree’.
On the modified scale, the subjects were compelled to show their positive
or negative standpoints clearly. Because each subject was personally
surveyed on a one-on-one basis, there were no missing answers and the
response rate was 100%.
In a pilot study with 50 randomly selected students, the meaning of
the terms ‘NS teachers of English’ and ‘non-NS teachers of English’ were
verbally explained before the subjects filled in the questionnaire. Some
students underlined other terms that they did not understand, such as ESL
(English as a second language). This feedback from the students was used
to revise the questionnaire before it was administered again to a larger
group of subjects in the main study.
Part I of the questionnaire focused on the subjects’ personal data in-
cluding gender, age, nationality, mother tongue, affiliated institution,
academic department, and number of years of previous study in English.
Part II elicited students’ experience with NNS teachers of English. Some
questions were related to questions in Part III and were designed to cross-
check the responses on students’ perceptions towards NNS of English.
The questionnaire is included in Appendix A.

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Attitudes towards Non-native Speakers English Teachers in Hong Kong

Before completing the questionnaire, the instructions were read to the

students, the purpose of the study was stated, and the meaning of the
terms ‘NS teachers of English’ and ‘non-NS teachers of English’ were
explained.

Interviews
Semi-structured interviews were conducted in English with ten students
from three universities in Hong Kong, who had expressed their willing-
ness during the questionnaire survey to be interviewed for this study.
These interviews served to confirm and broaden the data from the ques-
tionnaire surveys. Because in-depth responses were needed, only three
questions were asked. The first question elicited interviewees’ personal
experience with NNS teachers of English in university and in secondary
school. The second question sought interviewees’ opinions on the strengths
and weaknesses of NNS teachers of English. The final question inquired
about the qualities of a competent English language teacher from the per-
spective of the interviewees. All interviews were conducted in English,
audio taped, and transcribed.

Results
The data from the questionnaires is presented below under two broad
themes of communication with NNS English teachers and learning from
NNS English teachers. A thematic analysis method (Holstein and Gubrium
1997) was adopted to analyze the interview data, which is presented later
as ‘NNS teachers’ strengths’ and ‘NNS teachers’ shortcomings’. The
results are summarized below.

Questionnaire
Table 1. Communication with NNS English Teachers

Agree/Disagree Number of
students
(percentage)
1. If I had trouble understanding a non-native Agree 256 (61%)
English instructor, I would talk with her or
him about it during office hours.
2. Many non-native English instructors usu- Agree 323 (77%)
ally communicate effectively in the classroom.

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Regional Language Centre Journal 38.3

3. I make friends with my native English Agree 260 (62%)

instructors more than my non-native English
instructors.
4. When there are communication problems Disagree 281 (67%)
between students and non-native English
instructors, students cannot do anything to
improve the situation.
5. I feel comfortable talking about personal Agree 265 (63%)
concerns with non-native English instructors.
6. On the whole, non-native English instruc- Agree 307 (73%)
tors show about the same level of concern for
students as do native English instructors.

Table 2. Learning from NNS English Teachers

Agree/Disagree Number of
students
(percentage)
7. If I got a non-native English instructor with Agree 260 (62%)
a weak foreign accent, I would try to transfer
to another course.
8. I can learn just as well from a non-native Agree 256 (61%)
English instructor as I can from a native
English instructor.
9. Students’ attitudes affect their ability to Agree 260 (62%)
understand non-native English instructors in
class.
10. If I could choose the course myself, I Agree 265 (63%)
would choose a course taught by a non-native
English instructor.
11. Many non-native English instructors have Disagree 302 (72%)
difficulty understanding and answering
students’ questions.
12. It would be better if non-native English Disagree 277 (66%)
instructors were not allowed to teach in ESL
programmes.
13. There are many non-native English Agree 302 (72%)
instructors who teach just as effectively as
native English instructors.

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Attitudes towards Non-native Speakers English Teachers in Hong Kong

Interviews
The data obtained from the interviews with the ten subjects is summarized
below under two broad areas: NNS teachers’ strengths and shortcomings,
and under narrower topics which emerged during the data analysis, such
as ‘examination-oriented teaching approach’ and ‘effective pedagogical
skills’. The students’ responses are quoted verbatim.

NNS Teachers’ Strengths

Ability to Use Students’ Mother Tongue in Teaching
I studied in a Chinese-medium secondary school. The local English
teacher conducted the English lesson in Chinese, and it was easier for us
to understand the English lessons. (Student C)
My NNS English teacher from Form 1 to Form 3 was a good teacher.
She explained everything clearly to us. If we had problems, she tried
to solve our problems and explained in Cantonese. I believed a good
teacher was like this. (Student F)

Effective Pedagogical Skills

In the university, the non-native English teachers were competent and
taught really well. (Student G)
In the University, the NNS teachers were actually very good. They were
knowledgeable because they knew our culture of Hong Kong students
and how they learnt. They made the materials according to our needs.
They told you how to learn and it’s sort of preparing you for inde-
pendent learning. They taught step by step. The materials were very
structured, easy to follow. (Student H)

Knowledgeable in English Language

Some local NNS English teachers were good and they were educated
overseas. I just loved learning English after they taught me. (Student H)
I was taught by a NNS English teacher. Her English was really good.
(Student I)

Positive Personality Traits

In the secondary school, I had closer relationships with the local NNS
English teachers. In the university, the NNS English teachers were very
nice and very responsible. (Student B)

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Regional Language Centre Journal 38.3

NNS Teachers’ Shortcomings

Examination-oriented Teaching Approach
In my secondary school, most of the English teachers were NNS.
Usually we did past exam papers and had spoon-feed lessons which I
think were useful in preparing us for the public exams. (Student A)

Over-correcting Students’ Work

The NNS English teacher seemed to over-correct our work. I dislike the
teacher correcting every mistake I made. I felt stressful. (Student D)

Limited Use of English

My teacher used English only in the classroom. (Student A)

The data analysis also revealed that attitudes of the students varied
according to the student’s year of study. As the students progressed from
their first to third (final) year, their positive attitudes towards NNS teach-
ers appeared to increase (see items 2, 6, 8, 9 and 13. Further, as shown in
items 11 and 12, negative attitudes they may have had about NNS teachers
appeared to decrease.

Table 3. Attitudes by Students’ Year of Study

Questionnaire Item Mean

Year 1 Year 2 Year 3
2. Many non-native English instructors 2.80 2.82 2.89
usually communicate effectively in the
classroom.
6. On the whole, non-native English 2.82 2.84 2.86
instructors show about the same level of
concern for students as do native English
instructors.
8. I can learn just as well from a non-native 2.60 2.65 2.65
English instructor as I can from a native
English instructor.
9. Students’ attitudes affect their ability to 2.99 3.03 3.06
understand non-native English instructors
in class.

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Attitudes towards Non-native Speakers English Teachers in Hong Kong

11. Many non-native English instructors 2.16 2.28 2.16

have difficulty understanding and
answering students’ questions.
12. It would be better if non-native English 2.33 2.32 2.24
instructors were not allowed to teach in
ESL programmes.
13. There are many non-native English 2.76 2.85 2.86
instructors who teach just as effectively as
native English instructors.

Discussion
The Hong Kong university students surveyed for this study generally
showed a favorable attitude towards NNS English teachers. During the
survey, most students reported that they did not encounter problems with
these teachers because of their non-nativeness. They stated that NNS
teachers taught as effectively as NS teachers and had no difficulty in
understanding and answering students’ questions. They believed that the
NNS teachers made a sincere effort to communicate with their students,
and, simply stated, they liked studying with NNS teachers.
During the interviews, students voiced specific reasons for their posi-
tive attitudes. They stated that NNS teachers could apply effective strate-
gies in teaching English as they had gone through a similar educational
system, shared the same cultural background, and therefore understood the
difficulties faced by local students. Local NNS English teachers could
make use of Cantonese, the students’ first language, in explaining difficult
issues in the English class. They were capable of designing teaching
materials according to the needs and learning styles of the students. The
students also voiced their concerns regarding the shortcomings of NNS
English teachers. They remembered being spoon-fed in English lessons,
and an over-emphasis on past exam papers during English lessons. Their
NNS also over-corrected their mistakes in English usage.
Readers familiar with the English language teaching situation in Hong
Kong might be surprised by the overall positive attitudes of the students
towards NNS English teachers. As Lee (2004) has pointed out, English
teachers in Hong Kong’s public schools have been heavily criticized for
their low proficiency in English. Since 2001, the government has con-
ducted a benchmarking test for English teachers, aimed to test the teach-
ers’ proficiency in speaking, reading, listening, writing, and classroom

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Regional Language Centre Journal 38.3

language. In the 2003 test, nearly 70% of the 1,930 teachers who took the
test failed in the writing paper and more the 50% failed in speaking (Hui
2003: 1). A glance at Hong Kong newspapers indicates evidence of school
administrators’ and parents’ lack of confidence in local NNS English
teachers. The newspapers are replete with advertisements for NS English
teachers, from kindergarten to secondary level, and also at private tutorial
institutes. Classified advertisements requiring private tutors for school-
children, usually inserted by parents, also carry the NS requirement. Some
advertisements even specify a British or, less frequently, an American
accent. But the majority of students in this study said that they would
rather learn from local NNS English teachers instead of NS teachers with
more prestigious accents.
Although some Hong Kong parents and school administrators display a
negative attitude towards NNS English teachers, the university students in
this study appear not to do so. There could be a number of reasons for this.
First, it is not the administrators or the parents who are in Hong Kong
English classrooms. Most students, having been taught by both NS and
NNS teachers, probably realize that a well-qualified local English teacher
who is familiar with the local language and culture is as good as any NS
English teacher, usually a foreigner. Another reason could be the students’
exposure to more NS teachers. In government primary and secondary
schools, the only NS teachers are English teachers, whereas at the tertiary
level, students are likely to meet such teachers in many other disciplines as
well. They are also likely to hear more ‘native speaker’ accents, some of
them difficult to comprehend, and realize that English spoken with a
Cantonese accent is probably easier to deal with and is more appropriate
for the Hong Kong context.
Since the return of Hong Kong to China in 1997, many Hong Kong
born Chinese have displayed a stronger sense of ethnic identity. Standard
written Chinese and vernacular spoken Cantonese are widely used as the
marker of ethnic and group solidarity (Li 1999). English is no longer a
symbol of power. The sociolinguistic situation in post-1997 probably
favors educated and qualified Hong Kong NNS English teachers because
they are able to use Cantonese in the classroom. Most students were
supportive of intercultural communication and in travelling and living
abroad, which suggests that they would prefer to enrol in classes taught
by NS English teachers. However, the majority of students showed no
preference for such classes.
The shortcomings of NNS teachers pointed out by the students are
testimony to both the students’ perceptiveness and critical ability. Local

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Attitudes towards Non-native Speakers English Teachers in Hong Kong

NNS English teachers have long been criticized for their over-reliance on
textbooks, for code switching between Cantonese and English, for over-
emphasizing the two public examinations in their day-to-day lesson
planning, and for their tendency to correct every error in students’ work
(see Lee 2005, for instance). While code switching has been blamed for
low English standards since the 1980s (see Johnson and Lee 1987), it is
sometimes seen positively by some students, as evidenced by their remarks
during the interviews. The washback effect of the two public examina-
tions is that teachers concentrate on ‘covering the syllabus’ and practicing
on past examination questions, often disregarding the Communicative
Approach recommended by the government and instead focusing on
formal features of the language (Education Commission 1994).4 Another
consequence of the exam-driven approach is that teachers often correct
every error that students make, which at times could be overwhelming for
young learners.
Another noteworthy result is that the students’ positive attitude towards
NNS English teachers tended to increase with longer stay at the university.
As seen in Table 3, for some of the items in the questionnaire, third (final)
year students indicated a more positive attitude than first and second year
students. This result is similar to what Moussu and Braine (2006) observed
in their longitudinal study of ESL students enrolled in an intensive English
programme. However, unlike the students in the Moussu and Braine
(2006) study, the students in this study came from a variety of majors, and
their attitudes may have been shaped by their experiences with both NS
and NNS teachers of other disciplines as well. Many students become
more conscious of their prejudices and are willing to shed them as they
mature at the university. Further, they may also meet more qualified and
competent NNS English teachers at the tertiary level, become conscious of
the ‘native speaker fallacy’ (Phillipson 1992), and hence become more
willing to question the superiority of NS English teachers.

Conclusion
To sum up, this study, conducted in an EFL context, supports the findings
of Liang (2002), Mahboob (2004), and Moussu and Braine (2006), which
were conducted in ESL contexts. In all four studies, students held mainly
positive attitudes towards the NNS English teachers in their home coun-
tries as well as in the USA.

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NNS teachers, having being second or foreign language learners of

English themselves, have better insights into the language learning proc-
ess. According to Medgyes (1994), these teachers have the ability to share
effective learning strategies, anticipate language difficulties, and empa-
thize with the learners’ needs and problems. Hence, Medgyes (1994)
concluded that NNS English teachers can be better learner models, and
this view appears to be shared by the students who participated in this
study.
This study has notable implications for Hong Kong. The government
spends millions of dollars to recruit and employ NS English teachers to
bolster English teaching in Hong Kong. This policy is partly motivated
by the perception that English proficiency of local NNS teachers is
declining. However, in the context of the findings of this study, the Hong
Kong students could be better served if the government makes an effort
to enhance both the language proficiency and teaching skills of local
teachers. They could then become better ‘teacher models’ as well. Ironi-
cally, students who graduate with teaching qualifications from Hong
Kong universities have difficulty in finding employment in local schools,
while the government and the private sector continue to hire NS teachers
at enormous cost. With a 150-year history of teaching English locally,
Hong Kong should now be in a position to rely on local NNS English
teachers.
This study has implications beyond Hong Kong. Take China, for
example. As stated earlier, China’s Ministry of Education has decided to
make the teaching of English compulsory from Grade 3 onwards, meaning
that, throughout China, English is being taught to more than 220 million
students at primary, secondary, and tertiary institutions (see Ministry of
Education 2003). In the past, almost all the English teachers in China were
local NNS teachers trained at local institutions. But, with China’s increas-
ing affluence, more and more NS teachers are being recruited by both
state-run and private educational institutions in China, and incidents of
discrimination against nonnative speaker teachers have been recorded.5
This does not bode well for the future of Chinese NNS English teachers. If
university students in Hong Kong who are 99% ethnically Chinese have
positive attitudes towards NNS English teachers, the same could be said of
students in China as well. Educational administrators in China need to be
conscious of the ‘native speaker fallacy’ and consider the students’ atti-
tudes before rushing to employ NS English teachers.

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Attitudes towards Non-native Speakers English Teachers in Hong Kong

NOTES
1. See http://www.britishcouncil.org/english/engfaqs.htm
2. According to Phillipson (1992), this may have originated at the Common-
wealth Conference on the Teaching of English as a Second Language, held in 1962.
One of the key tenets of the conference was that ‘the ideal teacher of English is a
native speaker’.
3. University of Hong Kong, Chinese University, City University, Polytechnic
University, University of Science and Technology, Baptist University, and Lingnan
University.
4. However, even this practice could be seen positively by some, because
success at public examinations is vital to the future of Hong Kong students, who face
stiff competition when entering local universities.
5. A Letter to the Editor appearing in Hong Kong’s English language newspa-
per, the South China Morning Post, described how a Chinese-American applying for
an English teaching job in Beijing was discriminated against. The employers preferred
Caucasians, even those from Eastern Europe, over the writer because he was not
Caucasian (Hsu 2005). Another Chinese American, Shao (2005) recounts a similar
experience when she applied for English teaching jobs in China.

REFERENCES
Braine, G.
n.d NNS and Invisible Barriers in ELT. Retrieved on 1 August, 2006
from http://nnest.moussu.net/history.html.
Canagarajah, S.
1999 Revisiting Linguistic Imperialism in English Teaching (Oxford:
Oxford University Press).
China Facts and Figures
2002 Retrieved 1 August, 2006, from http://www.china.org.cn/english/
shuzi-en/en-shuzi/kj/htm/biao/20-1.htm.
Education Commission
1994 Report of the Working Group on Language Proficiency (Hong Kong:
Government Printer).
Holstein, J.A., and J.F. Gubrium
1997 ‘Active Interviewing’, in P. Silverman (ed.), Qualitative Research:
Theory, Method and Practice (London: Sage).
Hsu, H.
2005 ‘Mainland Bias against Chinese from the West’, South China Morn-
ing Post, 28 November: A16.
Hui, P.
2003 ‘Teachers Fail to Make the Grade in Language Tests’, South China
Morning Post, 19 December: 1.

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272
Regional Language Centre Journal 38.3

Johnson, R.K., and P. Lee

1987 ‘Modes of Instruction: Teaching Strategies and Student Responses’,
in R. Lord and H. Cheng (eds.), Language Education in Hong Kong
(Hong Kong: Chinese University Press): 99-121.
Lee, I.
2004 ‘Is our English Good Enough to Teach?’, NNEST Newsletter 6.1: 5-6.
2005 ‘English Language Teaching in Hong Kong Special Administrative
Region (HKSAR): A Continuous Challenge’, in G. Braine (ed.),
Teaching English to the World: History, Curriculum, and Practice
(Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum): 35-45.
Li, D.C.S.
1999 ‘The Functions and Status of English in Hong Kong: A Post-1997
Update’, English World-Wide 20(1): 67-110.
Liang, K.
2002 ‘English as a Second Language (ESL) Students’ Attitudes towards
Nonnative English-speaking Teachers’ Accentedness’ (Unpublished
MA thesis, California State University, Los Angeles).
Lung, J.
1999 ‘A Local Teacher Views the Native English Teacher Scheme in Hong
Kong’, TESOL Matters, June/July: 8.
Mahboob, A.
2004 ‘Native or Nonnative: What Do Students Enrolled in an Intensive
English Program Think?’, in L. Kamhi-Stein (ed.), Learning and
Teaching from Experience: Perspectives on Nonnative English Speak-
ing Professionals (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press):
121-47.
Medgyes, P.
1992 ‘Native or Nonnative: Who’s Worth More?’, ELT Journal 46(4): 340-
49.
1994 The Non-native Teacher (London: Macmillan).
Ministry of Education
2003 China Education Development Statistics Report, retrieved on 4
November, 2004, from http://www.edu.cn/HomePage/english/index/
shtml.
Moussu, L., and G. Braine
2006 ‘The Attitudes of ESL Students towards Nonnative English Language
Teachers’, TESL Reporter 39: 33-47.
Phillipson, R.
1992 Linguistic Imperialism (Oxford: Oxford University Press).
Plakans, B.
1997 ‘Undergraduates’ Experiences with and Attitudes toward International
Teaching Assistants’, TESOL Quarterly 31: 95-119.
Samimy, K.K., and J. Britt-Griffler
1999 ‘To Be a Native or Non-NS: Perceptions of “Non-native” Students
in a Graduate TESOL Program’, in G. Braine (ed.), Non-native
Educators in English Language Teaching (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum).

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Attitudes towards Non-native Speakers English Teachers in Hong Kong

Shao, T.
2005 ‘Teaching English in China: NNESTs Need Not Apply’, NNEST
Newsletter, retrieved on 1 August, 2006, from www.tesol.org/
NewsletterSite/view.asp?nid =2982.

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Regional Language Centre Journal 38.3

APPENDIX
Questionnaire Administered to Students

A Survey of the Attitudes of University Students in Hong Kong towards

Native and Non-native Teachers of English

Note:
• Unless otherwise stated, mark the appropriate answer by circling it
• Confidentiality will be strictly observed in this survey
• Most of the questions are about English language teachers in Hong
Kong
• By completing this questionnaire, you will help the researcher to
better understand your successes and problems in language learning
• Thank you very much for your co-operation

I. Background Information
1. Gender: a. Male b. Female

2. Age group: a. 17-20 b. 21-24 c. 25-28 d. 29-32 e. 32 or above

3. Nationality: a. British Nationals Overseas b. Chinese c. Others _____

4. Which of the following is your mother tongue?

a. Cantonese b. Mandarin c. Others _____

5. Which University are you in?

Baptist U City U †
Chinese U †
Hong Kong U †
U of Science and Technology †
Lingnan U †
Poly U †

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Attitudes towards Non-native Speakers English Teachers in Hong Kong

6. Which faculty are you in?

Architecture † Dentistry † Law †
Social Sciences † Arts † Engineering †
Medicine † Others † Business Admin. †
Education † Science †

7. Which certificate do you have and what grade/score did you get in
English?
Grade in English/Score
HK Certificate of Education A B C D E
HK Advanced Level Exam A B C D E
TOEFL _________
Others _______ _________

8. Number of years in Hong Kong:

a. 0-1 † b. 2-3 †
c. 4-5 † d. 5-6 † e. More than 6 †

9. Number of years of previous study in English:

a. None/a few months † b. One year †
c. Two years † d. Three years †
e. More than twelve years †

10. Previous study in English was:

a. In Hong Kong b. In another place (please specify):_____________

II. Experience with Non-native English Instructors

1. When you studied English in secondary school, was your teacher
a. A NS of your native language
b. A native English instructor or
c. Both NS of your native language and NS of English?

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Regional Language Centre Journal 38.3

2. Have you ever had a course with a non-native English instructor in the
University that you are studying?
a. Yes b. No

3. How often have you had class with a non-native English instructor per
week?
a. None b. One c. Two d. Three e. Four or more

4. Did you have any problems with your non-native English instructor?
a. Yes b. No

5. Would you like to study with a non-native English instructor?

a. Yes b. No

III. Scale of Preference

(1) Strongly Disagree (2) Disagree (3) Agree (4) Strongly Agree

Communication with NNS English teachers

1. If I had trouble understanding a non-native 1 2 3 4

English instructor, I would talk with her or
him about it during office hours.
2. Many non-native English instructors 1 2 3 4
usually communicate effectively in the
classroom.
3. I make friends with my native English 1 2 3 4
instructors more than my non-native English
instructors.
4. When there are communication problems 1 2 3 4
between students and non-native English
instructors, students cannot do anything to
improve the situation.
5. I feel comfortable talking about personal 1 2 3 4
concerns with non-native English instructors.

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Attitudes towards Non-native Speakers English Teachers in Hong Kong

6. On the whole, non-native English 1 2 3 4

instructors show about the same level of
concern for students as do native English
instructors.

Learning from NNS English teachers

7. If I got a non-native English instructor 1 2 3 4

with a weak foreign accent, I would try to
transfer to another course.
8. I can learn just as well from a non-native 1 2 3 4
English instructor as I can from a native
English instructor.
9. Students’ attitudes affect their ability to 1 2 3 4
understand non-native English instructors in
class.
10. If I could choose the course myself, I 1 2 3 4
would choose a course taught by a non-native
English instructor.
11. Many non-native English instructors have 1 2 3 4
difficulty understanding and answering
students’ questions.
12. It would be better if non-native English 1 2 3 4
instructors were not allowed to teach in ESL
programmes.
13. There are many non-native English 1 2 3 4
instructors who teach just as effectively as
native English instructors.

I would like to conduct a more in-depth interview on some of the students

completing this questionnaire. If you are interested in taking part in an
interview, please leave your name, telephone number, and email address.

a. Name:_______________________ b. Tel:___________________
c. Email address:___________________________________________

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