1.3 Why did Japan emerge as a world power and what was the impact on international relations? Rea! ons for rapid modernisation and military development Japan’s riso as an imperial power in its own right was both sudden and dramatic. In the first half of the ‘19th century, Japan was still an unmodernised country with an almost medieval social structure. It had a rigid class system dating back centuries, The samurai had begun as a military elite but by this stage had largely become government officials, with their leader, the shogun, now an autocratic head of government. Farming, transport and industry had changed little for centuries, and the economy was still largely based on bartering rather than money; for example taxes were paid in rice. Fearing the potentially disruptive impact that Christian missionaries might have, Japan had effectively closed its borders to all foreigners in the 17th sntury, and at the same time prevented Japanese citizens from leaving. The Japanese did not welcome foreigners, and they successfully resisted pressure to establish trading rights with other nations. Russia (1804), Britain (1842) and the USA (1853) all tried to open up trade with Japan - and all had largely failed. The USA in particular was desperate to gain trading rights in Japan. There were three reasons for this: ‘+ American commercial interests were pressurising the US government to open Japanese markets for their rapidly expanding industrial output. + The American whaling fleet needed access to Japanese ports in order to take on vital supplies, especially coal. ‘+ In 1849, the USA sent a warship, USS Preble, to Japan to rescue American sailors who had been shipwrecked off the Japanese coast, The Japanese were reluctant to let the Preble into port, but after the threat of force it successfully retrieved the sailors. The USA was angered by the fact that it was clear the sailors had been harshly treated by the Japanese. Fillmore and Perry Confronted with Japan's obstinate resistance to trade, in 1853-54 the USA sent a fleet of ships under the command of Commodore Perry, When the Japanese demanded that the ships leave, Perry turned his guns towards the town of Uraga. He demanded permission to deliver a letter from US President Fillmore, which made it clear that the USA expected trading access to Japan. ‘When the Japanese refused to agree to Fillmore’s wishes, Commodore Perry threatened large-scale violence from the USA. Samurai swords were no match for modern guns, and the Japanese had no alternative but to open up their borders to trade with the USA. In 1854, Japan signed a treaty that allowed the USA trading access to two ports. In 1858, the Japanese signed another treaty that allowed foreigners access to more ports and designated cities within Japan. Modernisation and industrialisation ‘This situation posed an enormous risk to Japan. With military backing, foreign merchants had already seized control of large areas of China, imposing their own laws and destroying local culture. There was an obvious risk that Japan would face the same fate and be divided up between competing foreign powers. To avoid this possibility, in 1867 the Japanese people demanded the restoration of an emperor as head of government, instead of the military shogun. Following the Meiji Restoration the following year, Emperor Meiji and his government set about modernising Japan in order to resist the imperial powers. By 1869, they had established a centralised administration, uniting all the previously independent regions of Japan under one government in one capital city. A new constitution was created, based on the German model. Whereas China had steadfastly refused to change in response to foreign interference, Japan realised that it would need to adopt Western ways in order to retain its independence, In particular, the Japanese appreciated that they needed to develop their own military capabilities. This could not be achieved without rapid modernisation and industrialisation. The Japanese modelled their education system, form of government, army, navy and industry on those of the foreign nations whosepresence they most feared. Mines, iron foundries, factories and shipyards were quickly developed. Some of these were established by the government and then handed over to private enterprise. Others were built by samurai, such as Iwasaki Yataro, who founded the Mitsubishi shipyards. Railways and telegraph lines were laid, both to support industrial development and also to assist the government with its plans to unify the country. To cover the costs of this rapid modernisation, Japan concentrated on promoting its export trade, especially in textiles, Increasing prosperity facilitated the development of Japan's military strength, One-third of the national budget was spent on the army and navy. Military service became compulsory for all adult males, and by 1894, Japan possessed 28 modern warships. In schools, children were taught to be patriotic and to show total obedience to the emperor. The old Shinto religion, which viewed the emperor as descended from a god, was revived for the same reason ‘The First Sino-Japanese War (1894) Modernisation helped Japan maintain its independence and prevented it from suffering the same fate as China. In a remarkably short period of time, Japan developed from being a country threatened b imperialistic ambitions of other nations to one capable of becoming an imperial power in its own right. ‘The main reason for Japan's imperial ambitions in the late 19th century was economic. As a relatively small island nation, Japan possessed limited natural resources, Its industrial development, for example, ‘was reliant on imported coal and steel. Much like the European imperial powers, the Japanese began to seek overseas possessions in order to gain the resources that they lacked. ‘The ongoing disintegration of China provided the opportunity for Japan to test its new military strength. Disputes over which country should control Korea led to the First Sino-Japanese War in 1894. The new, modern Japanese army quickly overran Korea, Manchuria and parts of China itself. When the Chinese capital, Peking (modern-day Beijing) came under threat, China surrendered. Under the terms of the ‘Treaty of Shimonosoki (1895), China was forced to make territorial concessions to Japan, including the strategically important Port Arthur. Japan’s speedy and crushing victory over China came as a shock to the major European powers. It posed a serious threat to their own imperial interests in China and the Far East. Russia, in particular, greatly resented Japanese control of Port Arthur, whose warm-water port was vital to its own trading activities. With the support of France and Germany, Russia imposed diplomatic pressure on Japan to relinquish its control over Port Arthur. Faced with this ‘Triple Intervention’ of three major European powers, Japan had little choice but to back down, Port Arthur was returned to China, but Russia quickly established its own control over the region, That Japan was unable to resist the combined pressure of Russia, France and Germany was not surprising. Few countries could have done. However, the situation made clear that Japan was not yet able to pursue its foreign and domestic policies without interference by the great powers. Humiliated, and mindful of Port Arthur, the Japanese decided to build more warships and wait for the opportunity to gain revenge against the Russians, aa Thave no other object in sending Commodore Perry to Japan but to propose that the United States and Japan should live in friendship and have commercial intercourse with each other. lam desirous that our two countries should trade with each other, for the benefit both of Japan and the United States. Many of our ships pass every year from California to China, and a great number of our people pursue whale fishery near the shores of Japan. It sometimes happens, in stormy weather, that one of our ships is wrecked on Japan's shores, In all such cases, we ask and expect that our unfortunate people should be treated with kindness until we can send a vessel and bring them away. Our steamships, in crossing the great ocean, burn a great deal of coal, and it is not convenient to bring it all the way from America. We wish that out steamships and other vessels should beallowed to stop in Japan and supply themselves with coal, provisions and water. They will pay for them in money, or anything else you may prefer, These are the only reasons I have sent Commodore Perry, with a powerful squadron of ships, to Japan. Letter from the President of the United States of America to the Emperor of Japan, 13 November 1852 ‘a Look carefully at the extracts from President Fillmore’s letter to the Japanese. 4 How would you describe the tone of the letter? Note down the phrases you would use as examples in your answer Ai What requests did it make? ill Why do you think it mentions that Commodore Perry had ‘a powerful squadron of ships’ 1b Make a list of the main factors which made the rapid modernisation of Japan possible? Which do you feel was the most important and why? Put the reasons next to your notes. ‘© Why, in the late 19th century, did Japan begin to look for overseas possessions? d_ Why did Japan’s victory in the First Sino-Japanese War both surprise and concern the major European nations? ON Similarity and Difference Historians study the ways in which people react to the situations that confront them, noting any similarities and differences they identify Prior to the 19th century, for example, China and Japan were similar in many ways - both. maintained traditional methods which had lasted for centuries, and both resisted involvement with foreigners. Yet, faced by the threat posed by foreign interference in the second half of the 19th century, China and Japan responded in very different ways. While China continued to follow its traditional beliefs and methods, Japan changed massively. In small groups, compare and contrast the ways in which China and Japan responded to the threat posed by foreign interference in the second half of the 19th century. Internatione Russian expansion In the Far Fast | recognition of Japan as a world power Having gained control of Port Arthur and the Liaodong peninsula in 1894, by 1900 Russia occupied the whole of Manchuria. This continued Russian expansion in the Far East caused alarm in Japan. Russia clearly had ambitions to seize Korea, which had been under Japanese control since the Treaty of Shimonoseki in 1895. The loss of Korea would greatly damage the Japanese economy and make Japan itself more vulnerable to a Russian attack. Japan was not alone in being concerned by Russian expansion in the Far East. Britain saw it as a serious threat to its own commercial interests in China, As an island nation protected by its undisputed naval supremacy, Britain had followed a policy of ‘splendid isolation’, by which it had stayed out of European politics, avoided alliances with other countries and concentrated on the expansion of its own empire, By the beginning of the 20th century, it became clear that Britain needed to abandon this policy. There ‘wore a number of reasons for this. For example: ‘+ it was becoming increasingly difficult for Britain to protect and maintain control over its vast empire + the Boer Wars had exposed fundamental weaknesses in Britain's military capabilities‘+ the negative reaction of the other European powers to its involvement in the Boor Wars left Britain feeling isolated and vulnerable ‘+ Germany had adopted a more aggressive foreign policy under Kaiser Wilhelm IT - German acquisitions in Africa posed a threat to British possessions on the continent; more significantly, Germany's naval development programme threatened to undermine the supremacy of the British navy + Russian expansion in the Far East was now posing a significant threat to Britain's commercial Interests in China. Anglo-Japanese Alliance (1902) ‘The British and Japanese governments decided to adopt a common approach to the problems posed by Russian expansion in the Far East. During 1901, negotiations took place between the British Foreign Secretary (Henry Petly-Fitzmaurice, 5th Marquess of Lansdowne) and the Japanese Ambassador to London (Hayashi Tadasu). These negotiations led to the signing of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance of 1902 Britain and Japan agreed to remain neutral if either country was involved in war. However, if either Britain or Japan faced war against two or more opponents, the other country would come to its aid. Britain recognised Japanese rights in Korea, while Japan agreed to use its fleet to protect British Interests in the Far East. The signing of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance was greeted favourably in both Britain and Japan. The British felt that their strategic and economic interests in the Far East were now adequately protected against Russian expansion. To the Japanese, the Alliance was a major triumph. Japan could now count on British support in a war against Russia if any other country, such as France or Germany, sided with the Russians. Moreover, the signing of the Alliance marked the first time that Japan had been. recognised as an equal by one of the major European powers, Some historians have argued that the Alliance established Japan's emergence as a world power in its own right. Fonrsa te) Working in pairs: a make a list of reasons to explain why Britain formed the 1902 alliance with Japan 1b make a list of reasons why Japan formed the 1902 alliance with Britain ¢ look carefully at Figure 1.13 ~ what can historians learn from this cartoon?Figure 1.13: A British cartoon, published in 1905. The text reads: “Oh, East is Fast, and West is West... But there is neither East nor West, Border, nor Breed, nor Birth, When two strong men stand face to face, tho’ they come from the ends of the earth!” Rudyard Kipling (October 4, 1905) ‘The Russo-Japanese War (1904-05) Japan now felt strong enough to seek a settlement with Russia. The Japanese were prepared to recognise Russian rights in Manchuria in exchange for Japanese rights in Korea. Convinced of their military superiority, the Russians refused to negotiate with the Japanese, and instead invaded Korea, ‘The Japanese response was rapid, dramatic and devastating, and brought Japan into a war with one of the world’s great powers. On 9 February 1904, Japanese warships entered Port Arthur, where a number of Russian ships wore in dock, totally unprepared for battle, Two Russian battleships and a cruiser were destroyed by Japanese torpedoes. This began the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05. With the Russian fleet widely dispersed across the world and Russian soldiers forced to endure a lengthy overland trip across Asia to reach the battlefield, the advantage clearly lay with Japan. It quickly established control over the local seas, which enabled it to move troops around without resistance. Once Port Arthur was taken (Figure 1.15), the Japanese moved into Manchuria, forcing the Russian troops to retreat to Mulden. After a three- month siege, involving over a million soldiers on both sides - and at the height of a bitterly cold winter - Mukden fell to the Japanese, Russia's last hope lay with its floet in the Baltic Sea, but the ships’ journey to the Far East was long, tortuous and eventful. While steaming through the North Sea, the Russian ships mistook some British fishing boats for warships, and fired on them. The British were understandably outraged, and for a time the Russian fleet was pursued by a vastly superior fleet of British ships. As Britain was allied to Japan, it seemed likely that the rival fleets would engage in battle, While diplomatic negotiations succeeded in preventing this, Britain denied the Russian fleet access to the Suez Canal, forcing it to take the far longer route around Africa. Laden down with coal to fuel the steam engines, the Russian ships made slow progress and did not arrive in the Straits of Tsushima between Korea and Japan until May 1905. ‘The battle began on 27 May 1905, when Russian and Japanese ships finally faced each other in the straits. The slow-moving and outdated Russian vessels were no match for Japan's modern warships, which were under the command of Admiral Togo Heihachiro. By the following day, Japan had defeated the Russian navy. Facing humiliation abroad and revolution at home, the Russian tsar, Nicholas Il, hadno alternative but to seek a settlement with Japan. In August 1905, negotiations took place in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, USA, chaired by the American president Theodore Roosevelt. The following month, Japan and Russia signed the Treaty of Portsmouth, which clearly recognised Japan's overwhelming victory in the Russo-Japanese War. Russian influence in Manchuria was effectively ended, and Japan’s rights over Korea were formally recognised. neat ry Look carefully at Figure 1.14. It shows other countries looking on while the champion of Europe (Russia) takes on the champion of Asia (Japan). Le Petit Parisien sum Figure 1.14: Cartoon published in the French magazine Le Petit Parisien, 1904 Consider the following questions in pairs or small groups. ‘Put the illustration into context by commenting on the significance of its publication date. 1b How are Russia and Japan depicted in the illustration? What is the meaning of the map on the floor of the ring? d Why would other countries be so interested in the outcome of a conflict between Russia and Japan? © Which of the two countries did the artist believe was most likely to achieve victory in the conflict botween Russia and Japan? f Do you think the artist considered Japan a major world power in 1904? Explain your answer.