PRINCIPLES OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
embody the activities undertaken by a highway
TRANSPORTATION AND TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
PRACTICE
Definitions
Transportation engineering is a filed or
branch of civil engineering that deals with the
application of technology and scientific principles to
the planning, functional design, operation, and
management of facilities for any mode of
transportation in order to provide for the safe, rapid,
comfortable, convenient, economical, and
environmentally compatible movement of people
and goods. On the other hand, traffic engineering is
that phases of transportation engineering that deals
with the planning, geometric design, and traffic
operations of roads, streets and highways, their
networks, terminals, abutting lands, and relationships
with other modes of transportation.
The use of traffic signals for controlling traffic
came much earlier. The first recorded use of traffic
signals was in 1868 in Great Britain. The signals were
illuminated by town gas. However, the use of gas
was discontinued after an explosion incident.
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING IN THE PHILIPPINES
The traffic engineering practice in the
Philippines is still new. Most intersections were
previously controlled by traffic police officers or by
manually operated traffic signals. Outside Metro
Manila, manually operated semaphore signals
displaying STOP or GO message were installed on
top of police outposts located at the center of the
intersection. In 1977, the Traffic Engineering and
Management (TEAM) Project first implemented an
area traffic control system in Metro Manila. It was
almost at the same period when the Traffic Control
Center, later renamed as the Traffic Engineering
Center (TEC), was established. The center was
responsible for the implementation of various traffic
engineering and management measures such as
traffic signalization, geometric improvement of
intersections, etc. In 1976, the Transport Training
Center (TTC) was established in the University of the
Philippines with assistance from Japan through the
Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA).
TTC started its training program in 1978 in the fields of
traffic engineering, transportation planning, and
traffic management for traffic law enforcers. TTC was
renamed as the National Center for Transportation
Studies and became a regular unit of UP Diliman in
1993, with research and support to graduate
programs in the fields of transportation engineering
and transportation planning as additional functions.
Traffic management is a term used to
transportation agency to improve roadway system
safety, efficiency and effectiveness for both
providers and consumers of transportation services.
There are two distinct types of traffic management.
The first one is through the use of traditional traffic
engineering tools or simple devices to regulate and
control traffic. The second relies more on simple
devices to regulate and control traffic. The second
relies more on advanced technology through the
use of Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS).
Advancement of ITS has been the primary goal of
many developed countries. The more conventional
applications are common in developing countries.
However, it is not uncommon in both developed and
developing countries to have a combination of
conventional methods and ITS application.
TRAFFIC REGULATIONS
Many individuals feel that traffic controls are an
encroachment on their individual driving rights. It
must be stressed, however, that driving is not a right
but a privilege. It is therefore necessary to show that
restrictions are for the general welfare, and it must
be demonstrated that regulations do not curtail the
rights or actions of the majority.
Traffic regulation must cover all aspects of
the control of both vehicle (registration, ownership,
mechanical fitness, accessories, size, and weight)
and driver (age, ability to operate specific types of
vehicles, financial responsibility). Traffic regulations
must be reasonable and effective. This can only be
achieved through careful study. Facts must be
sought through the conduct of traffic studies,
accident analysis, keeping driver records, and other
data.
All traffic regulations are dependent upon
the laws of the states and local governments,
especially the ordinances of cities. Legislative bodies
and traffic authorities must keep in mind that
unreasonable restrictions or regulations are not likely
to last very long.
Effective Traffic Regulation
There are fundamental requirements for traffic
regulation to be effective. These are as follows:
a) Regulation should be rational.
Irrational regulations cannot be enforcing
except by tremendous effort and expense.
Social, economic, and human problems
must be considered. If the habits of a
community are greatly at variance with the
 regulations, success cannot be attained for
any substantial period of time.
b) Regulations should be developed
progressively.
Regulations must be planned over a long
period of time, and the effects must be
carefully observed so that alterations can be
made as experience dictates. Experience
shows that abrupt changes in regulation
often lead to increase in the occurrence of
traffic accidents.
c) Regulations alone often are not enough.
Regulations constitute but one approach to
the overall traffic problem. When public
acceptance is poor and enforcement is lax,
regulations may be totally ineffective. They
must be used in conjunction with control
devices, overall highway planning and
design, and administrative policies
CHAPTER 2- TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT
TRAFFIC SIGNS AND MARKINGS
Traffic signs are employed more frequently
than any other devices to regulate, warn, or guide
road users. Traffic markings normally consist of lines,
patterns, words, symbols, reflectors, etc. They may
be considered as specialized types of traffic signs in
which the message is in contrast with the color and
brightness of the pavement or other background.
Philippine traffic signs conform to the 1968
Vienna Conventions of the United Nations on Road
Traffic and Road Signs, which the country officially
adopted on June 6, 1973.
Traffic signs are necessary to give information
as to routes, directions, destinations, etc. Their
function becomes more relevant when used to warn
road users of hazards and regulate any prohibitive
action at specific places and/or at specified times.
To ensure uniformity, traffic signs shall be
installed only by a duly authorized public body or
official for the purpose of guiding, regulating, and
warning traffic. In case of temporary construction
work, however, special permission is given to
contractors or utility companies to install signs to
protect the public provided that such signs conform
to the set standards.
Traffic signs are normally of fixed/permanent
type although some variable signs have been
employed and have become useful in locations
where traffic and environment conditions often
change. Traffic signs are classified depending on
their intended uses:
a) INFORMATIVE: the signs are intended to
guide users while they are traveling.
b) REGULATORY: the signs are intended to
inform users of special obligations,
restrictions, or prohibitions with which they
must comply.
c) WARNING: these signs are intended to warn
users of a danger on the road and to inform
them of its nature,
ELEMENTS OF DESIGN
Uniformity in design includes shape, color,
dimension, symbols, wording, lettering, and
illumination or
reflectorizing.
Shape
Shapes of signs are standardized as follows:
a) Equilateral triangular shape with one side
horizontal shall be used for danger warning
signs.
b) Round shape shall be used for regulating
traffic.
c) Rectangular shape shall be used for
informative signs.
d) Octagonal shape shall be used for STOP
signs only.
e) Inverted equilateral triangle shall be used for
YIELD signs only.
Color
▪ Danger warning signs shall have a yellow or
white background with black symbols and
red border.
▪ Prohibitory signs and restrictive signs shall
have a white background with black symbols
and red border.
▪ Mandatory signs with the exception of STOP
and YIELD signs shall have a blue
background and white symbols.
▪ STOP signs shall have a red background and
white symbols.
▪ YIELD signs shall have a yellow background
and red border.
▪ Informative signs shall have a white or light-
colored symbol on a dark-colored (blue or
black) background or a blue or dark-colored
symbol on a white or light-colored
background
Size
The minimum dimensions of signs depend upon the
intended applications. Larger sizes are necessary at
wider roadways and on high-speed highways.
According to section 2.5 of DPWH Highway Safety
Design
Standards Part 2: Road Signs and Pavement
Markings Manual, regulatory signs are of four sizes
based on
the speed of the facility as follows:
 a. A for urban low-speed roads
b. B for rural roads with speed limits
between 60 kph and 70 kph
c. C for high-speed rural highways
d. D for expressways
PAVEMENT MARKINGS
A system of clear and effective pavement markings
is essential for the guidance and control of vehicles
and pedestrians. They take the form of lines, symbols,
messages, or numerals, and may be set into the
surface of, applied upon, or attached to the
pavement. In some cases, pavement markings are
used as a supplement to other traffic control devices
such as traffic signals and road signs. In other
instances, they may simply guide traffic regulations.
Pavement markings have some definite limitations:
a. They are subject to traffic wear and require
proper maintenance.
b. They may not be clearly visible if the road is
wet or dusty (e.g., near shoulder edge or
median).
c. They may be obscured by traffic.
d. Their effect on skid resistance requires
careful choice of materials.
e. They cannot be applied on unsealed roads.
Despite these limitations, they have the advantage
under favorable conditions of conveying warning
message or information to drivers without diverting
their attention from the road.
Types of Markings
Markings are classified into the following groups:
▪ PAVEMENT AND CURB MARKINGS
a) Longitudinal lines are those laid in the
direction of travel. These include Center Line,
Lane Line, Double Yellow Line, “No-Passing”
Zone Markings, Pavement Edge Line,
Continuity Lines, and Transition Line.
b) Transverse lines are those laid across the
direction of travel. These include Stop Line,
Yield (Give Way) Lines, and Pedestrian
Crossing Markings.
c) Other lines, which include Turn Lines, Parking
Bays, Painted Median Islands, and Bus & PUJ
Lane Lines.
d) Other markings, which include Approach
Markings to Islands and Obstructions,
Chevron Markings, Diagonal Markings,
Markings on Exit and Entrance Ramps, Curb
Markings for Parking Restrictions, Approach
to Railroad Crossings, Messages, and
Symbols and Pavement Arrows.
▪ OBJECT MARKINGS
a. Object within the roadway
b. Object adjacent to the roadway
▪ REFLECTOR MARKINGS
a. Retro-reflector raised pavement markers
b. Hazard markers
c. Delineators
WHAT IS TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING?
Transportation Engineering is the application of the
principles of engineering, planning, analysis, and
design to the disciplines compromising
transportation; its vehicles, its physical infrastructure,
safety in travel, environmental impacts, and energy
usage.
Metro Manila has a total road length of about 4,800
km. The major arterial roads form circumferential and
radial patterns, although road expansion is seen
toward the north and south directions, following the
development of Metro Manila.
Many of the roads have reached their capacity.
Due to traffic congestion, the average travel speed
is estimated to be as low as 14 kph,
The mode of public transportation in Metro Manila is
predominantly road-based, consisting largely of
jeepneys and buses for primary and secondary
routes, and motorized tricycles and pedicabs for
feeder routes. There are about 330 bus routes and
600 jeepney routes. These routes include those
serving the adjoining areas of Metro Manila.
During rush hours, the inadequate provision of public
transportation becomes apparent. Many
commuters can be seen standing on the
carriageway while waiting for buses and jeepneys.
Passengers clinging to anything at the back of
jeepneys are a common sight.
PEDESTRIAN FACILITIES
Sidewalks are in relatively good condition; however,
many obstructions can be found on them such as
illegal vendors, electrical posts, police outpost, etc.
With the sidewalk occupied, pedestrians have to
walk on the carriageway. There are still very few
overhead pedestrian bridges even in Metro Manila
and at places where these have been constructed,
pedestrians still prefer to risk their lives or limbs by
crossing the road at grade level. Moreover,
pedestrian overpasses are often inaccessible to the
elderly and the handicapped.
VEHICLE REGISTRATION
The registration of vehicles in the Philippines is
handled by the Land Transportation Office (LTO), a
line agency of the Department Transportation and ▪ Every product needs transportation
Communication (DOTC). ▪ Better system can provide easy access and
benefit to low costing of products
The number of utility vehicles or jeepneys has a share ▪ Availability of raw material can be provided
of 37 percent. The number of motorcycles has to manufacturing units
increased tremendously in the last three years due to
the influx of cheaper models into the country. SOCIAL EFFECT
▪ People of remote area can come closer to
MOTOR VEHICLES ARE CLASSIFIED AS FOLLOWS: the city or town
▪ Private vehicles – refers to motor vehicles ▪ People from different parts of country can
owned by private individuals or companies reach far places with convenience and in
and are not intended to be used for hire. less time.
▪ For hire vehicles – refers to motor vehicles ▪ Decreases growth of slums in urban area.
authorized to be used as public vehicles by
virtue of a franchise granted by the Land OTHER EFFECTS
Transportation Franchising and Regulatory ▪ Helps in maintain law and order in the
Board (LTFRB). country
▪ Official/Government Vehicles – refers to ▪ We can supply ammunition and man-power
motor vehicles owned by the Philippine fast and easily
government. ▪ It helps in reducing individual source of
▪ Diplomatic Vehicles – refers to motor vehicles pollution
owned by a foreign government or by their
ROLE OF TRANSPORTATION IN NATIONAL
diplomatic officials in the Philippines.
DEVELOPMENT
DRIVING LICENSE ❑ Economic Growth
The issuing procedure of driving license in provided ❑ Place Utility of Goods
for under Republic Act (RA) 4136. The LTO has the full ❑ Time Utility of Goods
responsibility for issuance of driving licenses. ❑ Preservation of Quality Of Goods
❑ Mass Production
There are three types of driving licenses: student ❑ Exploitation of Natural Resources
driver’s permit, nonprofessional driver’s license, and ❑ Urbanization
professional driver’s license. ❑ Industrial And Agricultural Development
▪ Student driver’s permit ❑ Costs of Goods
The applicant must be at least sixteen years ❑ Transport Facilities and Social Activities
old and must be physically and mentally fit to
operate a motor vehicle. He or she must be SURFACE TRANSPORTATION AND AVIATION
able to read and write in Filipino or English.
▪ Nonprofessional driver’s license
New applicant must be at least seventeen
years old and must be a holder of a valid
student permit for at least one month. He or
she must be physically and mentally fit to
operate a motor vehicle and must not be a
drug user or an alcoholic.
▪ Professional driver’s license
New applicant for professional driver’s
license must be at least eighteen years old
and is required to submit a valid TRANSPORTATION WAYS
nonprofessional driver’s license or a valid ✓ RAILWAYS
student driver’s permit that is used for at least o Surface
five months. He or she must not be a drug o Underground
user or an alcoholic. The requirement of o Elevated
having a medical examination and drug test o Light Rail Transit (LRT)
was introduced only very recently. o Mass Rapid Transit (MRT)
o Philippine National Railways (PNR)
ROLES OF TRANSPORTATION ✓ ROAD TRANSPORT
✓ AIR TRANSPORT
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
 ✓ WATER TRANSPORT
MODES OF TRANSPORTATION
ROADWAYS
CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS
❑ National Highway (NH)
❑ State Highway (SH)
❑ Major District Road (MDR)
❑ Other District Road (ODR)
❑ Village Road (VR)
BASED ON PAVEMENT
❑ Surface Roads
❑ Unsurfaced Roads
BASED ON CARRIAGEWAY
❑ Paved Roads
❑ Unpaved Roads
AS PER USABILITY
❑ All Weather Roads
❑ Fair Weather Roads
URBAN ROADS
❑ Arterial Roads
❑ Sub-Arterial Roads
❑ Collector Streets
❑ Local Streets
ROAD TRANSPORT
EXPRESSWAYS
Expressways or arterial high standards highways are
limited-access thoroughfares that come with
interchanges and have no traffic lights as well as
intersections for faster travel.
EXPRESSWAYS
❑ managed by the DPWH
❑ include facilities that collect toll fess for
passage in an open or closed system
PHILIPPINE EXPRESSWAYS
Philippine Expressways are a huge factor for the
growth and mirror the development of a nation as it
provides access to different needs like employment,
social, health, education, and other services
PHILIPPINE EXPRESSWAYS
❑ North Luzon Expressway (NLEX)
❑ South Luzon Expressway (SLEX)
❑ Manila Cavite Expressway (CAVITEX)
❑ Metro Manila Skyway
❑ NAIA Expressway (NAIAX)
PHILIPPINE EXPRESSWAYS
❑ Southern Tagalog Arterial Road (STAR
Tollway)
❑ Subic- Tipo Expressway
❑ Subic- Clark-Tarlac Expressway (SCTEX)
❑ Tarlac-Pangasinan-La Union Expressway
(TPLEX)
❑ Muntinlupa- Cavite Expressway (MCX)
❑ Epifanio Delos Santos Avenue (EDSA)
❑ Cavite-Laguna Expressway (CALAX)
SOUTH LUZON EXPRESSWAYS (SLEX)
With a total length of 51 kms, SLEX starts from Paco
District in Quirino Avenue, Manila and goes all the
way to cities in Metro Manila such as Makati, Pasay,
Paranaque, Taguig, and Muntinlupa. It also passes
through the municipalities of San Pedro and Binan in
Laguna, Carmona in Cavite, and then progresses
again to Binan, Santa Rosa, Cabuyao and Calamba
Laguna, and ends in Santo Tomas, Batangas.
North Luzon Expressway (NLEX)
Opened in 1965, the North Luzon Expressway (NLEX)
is a four- to eight-lane limited access toll that links
Metro Manila to the northern provinces of Central
Luzon such as Bulacan and Pampanga.
Owned by NLEX Corporation and operated by
Tollways Management Corporation, the 101-km
NLEX starts from Balintawak City and ends at Sta.
Ines, Mabalacat City. It is the longest expressway in
the Philippines.
Manila Cavite Expressway (CAVITEX)
The Coastal Road or commonly known as the
Manila–Cavite Expressway or CAVITEX, is an open
road that ranges by about 14 km long. With its
starting point situated at the traffic light intersection
with NAIA Road and Roxas Boulevard, this highway
stretches from Bacoor to Kawit exit. CAVITEX was
built on two segments which respectively runs from
Cavite to Laguna. This expressway was constructed
by the Metro Pacific Investments Corporation as led
by Manny V. Pangilinan.
METRO MANILA SKYWAY
The Metro Manila Skyway happens to be the first fully
grade-separated highway in the Philippines, which
helps SLEX and other major thoroughfares relieve
heavy traffic.
This highway is set to be one of the longest flyovers in
the world, currently spanning from Gil Puyat Avenue
northbound to Alabang–Zapote Road southbound.
NAIA Expressway (NAIAX)
The NAIA Expressway or NAIAX is an elevated
expressway that links the Metro Manila Skyway, the
Entertainment City, and Ninoy Aquino International
Airport (NAIA). The said expressway runs through
Pasay and Paranaque.
Southern Tagalog Arterial Road (STAR Tollway)
The Southern Tagalog Arterial Road, also known as
the STAR Tollway or CALABARZON expressway, is a
two-to-four-lane expressway that has a total span of
42 kms. Officially opened in 2001 under the
management of STAR Infrastructure Development
Corporation (SIDC), this expressway stretches from
the intersection of Maharlika Highway and SLEX in
Santo Tomas, which then runs south near Diversion
Road to Batangas International Port. This road then
traverses through Malvar, Lipa, and Ibaan.
Subic- Clark-Tarlac Expressway (SCTEX)
Officially inaugurated in July 2008, the Subic-Tarlac
Expressway or SCTEX is the longest expressway in the
Philippines. It is a four-lane highway in the region of
Central Luzon that has a total of 94 kms. It is built by
Bases Conversion and Development Authority
(BCDA) and maintained by the NLEX Corporation.
This expressway was constructed to develop the
economic state of the region. In fact, it is the shortest
and most direct link to numerous areas such as Subic
Bay Special Economic Zone and Freeport Zone in
Zambales, as well as the Clark Special Economic
Zone in Pampanga, and the Luisita Industrial Park in
Tarlac.
NATIONAL HIGHWAYS
❑ They run through the length and breadth of
the country
❑ They connect national capital to all state
capitals, major cities, towns, border areas.
❑ They should have at least two traffic lanes,
good surface finishing and excellent
strength to carry heavy traffic.
❑ The construction and maintenance of these
roads are usually carried out by Central
government (DPWH)
PHILIPPINE NATIONAL HIGHWAY
❑ The Pan- Philippine Highway, also known as
the Maharlika Highway is a 3,517 km network
of roads, expressways, bridges and ferry
services that connect the islands of Luzon,
Samar, Leyte and Mindanao in the
Philippines, serving as the country’s principal
transport backbone.
ASIAN HIGHWAY 26 (AH26)
AH26 is the route number given to the 3,517-
kilometer Philippine segment of the Asian Highway
Network. The main road on the AH26 route is the Pan-
Philippine Highway or the Maharlika Highway,
stretching from Laoag City, Ilocos Norte, to
Zamboanga City.
STATE/ PROVINCIAL HIGHWAYS
❑ These are main roads running within the
states/province.
❑ They connect important towns, cities of state
within the National Highway.
❑ These are generally one lane but two lanes
are always be preferred.
❑ They have modern type of bituminous or
concrete surfacing.
❑ The construction and maintenance of these
roads are usually carried out by the
State/Provincial Government.
STATE/ PROVINCIAL HIGHWAYS
Secondary roads connecting municipalities to
primary roads and each other; other roads as
designated by the Province through legislation.
DISTRICT ROADS
❑ These provide links to villages and serve a
large rural population.
❑ They should have good metaled surface
and proper drainage.
❑ Construction and Maintenance are carried
by District Authority.
VILLAGE ROADS
❑ These connect the villages with each other
and also towns nearby.
 ❑ These are generally established earth roads SPEED
but metal surface is preferred. ❑ Speed is defined as rate of motion in
❑ The construction and maintenance are distance per unit time.
carried by local district roads. ❑ When describing traffic stream, two types of
speed are used: time mean speed and
BARANGAY ROADS space mean speed.
❑ Classified as penetration roads or FMRs
connecting barangays with each other and
to road network of the area; other roads
TIME MEAN SPEED
designated by local council.
❑ Also called spot speed, time mean speed is
❑ Routine maintenance by Barangay council
simply the arithmetic mean of the speeds of
through Barangay Road Maintenance
vehicles passing a point within a given
Committee (also referred as Committee on
interval of time.
Public Works/ Infrastructure)

TRAFFIC FLOW FUNDAMENTALS

HOW WILL YOU DESCRIBE A TRAFFIC?
❑ To illustrate, imagine the development of
traffic along the expressway. SPACE MEAN SPEED
❑ In the early morning, drivers can freely ❑ Space mean speed is used to describe the
choose their own speeds because there are rate of movement of a traffic stream within a
only very few vehicles on the road. given section of road.
❑ As traffic density increases, the drivers are
constrained to adjust their speeds. ❑ It is the speed based on the average travel
❑ Traffic condition becomes very unstable time of vehicles in the stream within the
when the capacity of the highway has section.
already been reached, after which a stop ❑ It is also called the harmonic mean speed.
and go condition will be experienced if the
situation worsens. ❑ If n vehicles are observed at an instant of
time t, the space mean speed is computed
TYPES OF FLOW as follows:
❑ Flow occurring at long sections of road
where vehicles are not required to stop by
any cause external to the traffic stream is
called uninterrupted flow.
❑ On the other hand, flow occurring at
intersections or driveways where vehicles are
required to stop by any cause outside the
traffic stream - such as traffic signs (STOP or
YIELD), traffic signal lights, etc. - is called
interrupted flow

Major Traffic Variables

Uninterrupted flow can be described using any of
the following traffic variables:
A. Flow rate or volume DENSITY
B. Speed ❑ Density is defined as the number of vehicles
C. Density or concentration in a given length of road at an instant point
in time.
FLOW RATE OR VOLUME ❑ If n vehicles are found within the section L,
❑ Flow rate is defined as the number of vehicles density k is computed as:
passing a point during a specified period of k=
𝑛
𝐿
time. It is often referred to as volume when
❑ Among these three variables, density proves
measured over an hour.
to be the most difficult or expensive to
❑ Flow Rate q may be expressed as:
𝑵
observe.
q=
𝑻
𝒒 = 𝑲𝝁𝒔