05/10/2017

WEM01 Water Resources Management

Climate
Water resources
Pollution

Biodiversity loss
Population growth
Energy
Hydrology

Dr Gary Bilotta

Room C609
G.S.Bilotta@Brighton.ac.uk

School of Environment and Technology

WEM01 Water Resource Management

Module content
Hydrological processes

Hydrometric techniques

Catchment hydrology

Water resource legislation

Water resource planning

Water resource assessment

Module content

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Module schedule

See Module Brief

Module assessment

50 % Examination (2hr)

40 % Report - Water Resource Management Plan

(3000 words)

10 % Group Presentation – History of water

legislation in the UK
Module schedule and assessment

WEM01 Water Resource Management

Global Water Resource: Distribution

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Non-saline, non-frozen freshwater stores are highly dynamic.

Moss (1998)

Average residence time of water in streams and rivers = 7 days

Average residence time of water in oceans = 300->11000 years

Global Water Resource: Dynamics

WEM01 Water Resource Management

There are some 16,000 desalination plants on the planet.

Volume of desalinated water produced globally has more than tripled since 2000.

Global capacity was ~100 million m3 day-1 in 2015.

By 2050, a further 18,500

desalination plants will become
operational.

In the UK, at least 4 municipal

desalination plants and ~800
smaller units may be providing
freshwater.

UNEP, 2008
http://www.unep.org/Themes/Freshwater/PDF/Resource&GuidanceManualforEIAs.pdf
Global Water Resource: Is desalination a viable alternative source?

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The £270m centre completed in 2010 can
deliver up to 140 million litres of water per day

Workers at the Thames Gateway

water treatment works in Beckton,
London. Photograph: Peter
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-17615364
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=htUvGe4amVs Macdiarmid/Getty Images
Global Water Resource: Desalination in the UK?

WEM01 Water Resource Management

Drinking water intake typically 2.5 Litres person-1 d-1

To supply the global population with their daily drinking

water requirements would require around 18.5 million m3
of freshwater per day.

More than five times this volume is already produced by desalination globally.

However, drinking water is only a tiny fraction of total water footprint (WF). For a
breakdown of the global WF see: Hoekstra and Mekonnen (2012) and Mekonnen
(2015).

For UK WF see: Chapagain and Orr (2008)

Global Water Resource: Is desalination a viable alternative source?

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The water footprint of humanity, based on data from Mekonnen et al., (2015) and Hoekstra and Mekonnen
(2012). These data represent the blue water footprint of humanity, i.e. the consumption of blue water
resources (surface and ground water), whereby consumption refers to the volume of water that evaporates
or is incorporated into a product. The blue WF is thus often smaller than the water withdrawal, because
generally part of a water withdrawal returns to the ground or surface water.
Global Water Resource: Uses

WEM01 Water Resource Management

Other domestic/municipal water requirements are typically 30

to 300 Litres person-1 d-1 .

Industrial requirements are typically 540 to 1350

Litres person-1 d-1 .

For WF of different electricity generation sources see:

Byers et al., (2014) and Mekonnen et al., 2015

Food production requirements vary from 2,000

to 5,000 Litres person-1 d-1.

For WF of different food crops see: Mekonnen

and Hoekstra (2011). For meat and dairy
products see: Hoekstra (2011).

Global Water Resource: Uses

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Water Footprint (WF)

Hoekstra and Mekonnen (2012).

Blue WF = consumption of surface and ground water resources, whereby consumption refers to the
volume of water that evaporates or is incorporated into a product. The blue WF is thus often
smaller than the water withdrawal, because generally part of a water withdrawal returns to the
ground or surface water.

Green WF = consumption of rainwater; particularly relevant in crop production.

Grey WF = an indicator of the degree of freshwater pollution; defined as the volume of freshwater
that is required to assimilate the load of pollutants based on existing water quality standards.

Global Water Resource: Uses

WEM01 Water Resource Management

Beyond the provision of water for agriculture, industrial and domestic uses,
freshwaters provides us with valuable ecosystem services worth around $1.7 trillion
per annum in 1997 prices! Costanza et al., 1997

NPP per unit area

Water Resources: Ecosystem Services

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Fibres
Water Resources: Ecosystem Services

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Proteins
Water Resources: Ecosystem Services

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Recreation
Water Resources: Ecosystem Services

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Spiritual
Water Resources: Ecosystem Services

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% electricity from hydropower - Top 20 World Bank :

By 2035, 31% of global electricity production

will be from renewable sources, with half of
this from hydropower!

http://www.gridwatch.templar.co.uk/
Hydropower
Water Resources: Ecosystem Services

WEM01 Water Resource Management

http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-essex-24844756
Transport
Water Resources: Ecosystem Services

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For more information, visit:
http://www.unesco.org/water/wwap/wwdr/wwdr2/table_contents.shtml

http://www.worldometers.info/

• In 1950 human population 2.5 billion

• In 2000 population was just over 6 Billion.
• In 2011 this reached 7 billion!
Gerland et al., 2014
Water Resources: Demand

WEM01 Water Resource Management

• There is an 80% probability that population, now >7.5 billion people, will increase to
between 9.6 billion and 12.3 billion in 2100.

UN 2012 world
population projection
(solid red line), with
80% prediction
interval
(dark shaded area),
95% prediction
interval (light shaded
area), and the
traditional UN high
and low variants
(dashed blue lines). Gerland et al., 2014
Water Resources: Demand

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UN 2012 population projections by continent.

Gerland et al., 2014

Water Resources: Demand

WEM01 Water Resource Management

This situation is worsened when we consider the potential impacts of climate change

Water Resources: Supply

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Observed annual and decadal global mean surface
temperature anomalies from 1850 to 2012 and map of the
observed surface temperature change from 1901 to 2012

• The globally averaged combined land and ocean surface temperature data as
calculated by a linear trend, show a warming of 0.85 [0.65 to 1.06] °C, over the
period 1880 to 2012, when multiple independently produced datasets exist. (IPCC, 2013)
Water Resources: Climate Change

WEM01 Water Resource Management

Maps of observed precipitation change from 1901 to 2010 and from 1951 to 2010

Averaged over the mid-latitude land areas of the Northern Hemisphere, precipitation has
increased since 1901 (medium confidence before and high confidence after 1951).

For other latitudes area-averaged long-term positive or negative trends have low
confidence . (IPCC, 2013)
Water Resources: Climate Change

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(IPCC, 2013)
Water Resources: Climate Change

WEM01 Water Resource Management

Maps of projected late 21st century annual mean
surface temperature change, annual mean
precipitation change, Northern Hemisphere
September sea ice extent, and change in ocean
surface pH

Simulated global mean surface temperature increase

as a function of cumulative total global CO2
emissions (IPCC, 2013)
Water Resources: Climate Change

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ClimateWEM01
ChangeWater Resource Management

Limiting total human-induced warming to <2°C with a probability of >66% would require
cumulative CO2 emissions from all anthropogenic sources since 1870 to remain below
about 2900 GtCO2 (with a range of 2550 to 3150 GtCO2 depending on non-CO2 drivers).

About 1900 GtCO2 had already been emitted by 2011, leaving a remaining budget of
about 1000GtCO2.

Table: Estimates of fossil reserves and resource, and their carbon content. (IPCC 2014)

1 GtC = 3.67 GtC02

Water Resources: Climate Change

WEM01 Water Resource Management

https://carboncounter.wordpress.com/2
015/06/12/has-shale-gas-really-reduced-
us-carbon-emissions-the-problem-of-
coal-exports/

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Changes in summer flow predominantly show decreases in runoff through Great

Britain but range from +20% to -80%. The largest percentage decreases are mainly in the
north and west of Great Britain. Prudhomme et al., 2012
Water Resources: Climate Change

WEM01 Water Resource Management

Water Resources: Supply

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EU/UK aims to have:
- 20% of its energy from renewable sources by 2020 (Renewable Energy Directive-
the UK’s specific goal is 15%)
- 27% of energy from renewables by 2030 (EU 2030 Framework for Climate and
Energy Policies)
- 80% reduction in emissions by 2050 (Climate Change Act 2008)

Next 35 years= HUGE

changes in energy sources
= HUGE knock-on effects
on water resources

https://www.gov.uk/government/upl
oads/system/uploads/attachment_d
ata/file/337452/ecuk_chapter_1_ov
erall_factsheet.pdf

Water Resources: Climate Change

http://theconversation.com/energy-sector-is-one-of-the-largest-consumers-of-water-in-a-
drought-threatened-world-59109

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The UK electricity sector in 2010

(Byers et al., 2014)

A 1 GW thermoelectric
plant can consume (lose to
atmosphere) 6000m3
water per hour!

Water Resources: Climate Change

WEM01 Water Resource Management

Emissions of selected electricity supply technologies (gCO2eq/kWh). Source IPCC (2013)

Water Resources: Climate Change

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• Freshwater is a renewable resource,

but... its availability is limited temporally and spatially.

• Climate change is set to make these limits less predictable and more
uncertain.

• Predicted population growth is set to increase the

demand for this resource. A great reference on this
challenge is available from Godfray et al (2010).

• The use of water for human activities (agriculture,

industry, sanitation) can place pressures on the quality
of water resources, threatening both the resource
available for human consumption and also the resource
available to aquatic organisms and for other ecosystem
services.
Water Resources: The challenge

WEM01 Water Resource Management

Are we reaching this carrying capacity for water resources?

There are already many case-studies

of international hydropolitics and
water conflicts including:
http://www.worldwater.org/conflict.html
• The Ganges-Brahmaputra basin
• The Tigris-Euphrates basin
• The Jordan basin
• The Nile basin
• The Colorado basin

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Some improvements in access to improved
water supply and sanitation

http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf

Water Resources: The challenge

WEM01 Water Resource Management

Groundwater storage trends for
Earth's 37 largest aquifers from UCI-
led study using NASA GRACE data
(2003 - 2013).

Basin-averaged groundwater use

quantified by:

(a) groundwater withdrawal

statistics and

(b) GRACE-derived depletion in mm

per year. The GRACE-derived
estimates have both positive and
negative estimates, while the
withdrawal statistics are limited to
negative estimates alone.

Richey et al., (2015):

http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi
/10.1002/2015WR017349/full

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Are we reaching this carrying capacity for water resources?
Of the 5096 freshwater fish species assessed by the IUCN (2011),
2506 are threatened, and 688 endangered, critically endangered
or extinct in the wild.

http://www.iucn.org/about/work/programmes/species/our_work/about_freshwater/
Water Resources: The challenge

WEM01 Water Resource Management

Some long-
term
improvements
in water
quality in
Europe due to
stricter
legislation and
improved
wastewater
treatment

http://www.eea.eu
ropa.eu/data-and-
maps/indicators/fre
shwater-
quality/freshwater-
quality-
assessment-
published-may-2

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Methods to increase water resource availability and efficiency

Increase storage?

Reduce impermeable surfaces and surface

runoff. Encourage natural flow paths and
groundwater recharge through SuDS?

Tighter legislation on water

pollution from industrial,
domestic and agricultural sectors

More efficient use of water in agricultural,

energy, industrial, and domestic sectors.

Water Resources: The challenge

WEM01 Water Resource Management

References
BBC (2012) Hosepipe bans brought in for drought-hit areas. Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-17615364

BBC (2013) London Gateway 'super-port' welcomes first vessel. Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-essex-
24844756

* Byers, E. A., Hall, J. W., & Amezaga, J. M. (2014). Electricity generation and cooling water use: UK pathways to 2050. Global
Environmental Change, 25, 16-30. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959378014000089

* Chapagain, A., Orr, S. (2008). UK Water Footprint: the impact of the UK’s food and fibre consumption on global water
resources. Volume two: appendices. WWF-UK, Godalming, 31-33. Available at:
http://www.waterfootprint.org/Reports/Orr%20and%20Chapagain%202008%20UK%20waterfootprint-vol1.pdf

Costanza R, d’Arge R, de Groot R, Farber S, Grasso M, Hannon B, Naeem S, Limburg K, Paruelo J, O’Neill RV,. 1997a. The value
of the world’s ecosystem services and natural capital. Nature 387:253–60.

* Gerland, P., Raftery, A. E., Ševčíková, H., Li, N., Gu, D., Spoorenberg, T., ... & Wilmoth, J. (2014). World population
stabilization unlikely this century. Science, 346(6206), 234-237. http://www.popcenter.umd.edu/resources/scholar-
dev/working-groups/jc_papers/jc_20141114_gerland

* Godfray, H. C. J., Beddington, J. R., Crute, I. R., Haddad, L., Lawrence, D., Muir, J. F., ... & Toulmin, C. (2010). Food security:
the challenge of feeding 9 billion people. science, 327(5967), 812-818.
Available at:
http://isites.harvard.edu/fs/docs/icb.topic667366.files/The%20Challenge%20of%20Feeding%209%20Billion%20People.pdf

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References
Hoekstra, A. Y. (2012). The hidden water resource use behind meat and dairy. Animal Frontiers, 2(2), 3-8. Available at:
http://animalfrontiers.org/content/2/2/3.full

* Hoekstra, A.Y., Mekonnen, M. M. (2012). The water footprint of humanity. Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences, 109 (9), 3232-3237. Available at: http://www.pnas.org/content/109/9/3232.short

* IPCC, 2013: Summary for Policymakers. In: Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of
Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Stocker,
T.F., D. Qin, G.-K. Plattner, M. Tignor, S.K. Allen, J. Boschung, A. Nauels, Y. Xia, V. Bex and P.M. Midgley (eds.)].
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA. Available at:
http://www.climatechange2013.org/images/report/WG1AR5_SPM_FINAL.pdf

* Mekonnen, M. M., Hoekstra, A. Y. (2011). The green, blue and grey water footprint of crops and derived crop
products. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences Discussions, 8 (1), 763-809. Available at: http://www.hydrol-earth-
syst-sci-discuss.net/8/763/2011/hessd-8-763-2011.pdf

* Mekonnen, M. M., Gerbens-Leenes, P. W., & Hoekstra, A. Y. (2015). The consumptive water footprint of electricity
and heat: a global assessment.Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology, 1(3), 285-297.

Moss B. (1998) Ecology of Fresh Waters. Blackwell Science, Oxford.

* Prudhomme, C., Crooks, S., Jackson, C., Kelvin, J., Young A., (2012) Future Flows and Groundwater Levels – Final
Technical Report Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Wallingford, UK
http://www.ceh.ac.uk/sci_programmes/water/future%20flows/documents/futureflowsandgroundwaterlevels_pn9_fi
nalreport_finaloct2012.pdf

Water Resources: The challenge

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UNEP (2008) Desalination Resource and Guidance Manual for

Environmental Impact Assessments. United Nations Environment Programme,
Regional Office for West Asia, Manama, and World Health Organization,
Regional Office for the Eastern Mediterranean, Cairo. Available at:
http://www.unep.org/Themes/Freshwater/PDF/Resource&GuidanceManualforEIAs.pdf

UNESCO (2006) Water a shared responsibility. The United Nations World Water
Development Report 2. Berghahn Books, New York.

* Richey, A. S., Thomas, B. F., Lo, M. H., Reager, J. T., Famiglietti, J. S., Voss, K., ... & Rodell,
M. (2015). Quantifying renewable groundwater stress with GRACE. Water Resources
Research. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/2015WR017349/pdf

World Bank. 2009. Directions in hydropower. Washington, DC: World Bank. Available at:
http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2009/03/12331040/directions-hydropower

World Bank (2014) Hydropower Statistics. Available at:

http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EG.ELC.HYRO.ZS?order=wbapi_data_value_2011+wb
api_data_value&sort=desc&cid=DEC_SS_WBGDataTwitter_EXT

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