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WEM01 Water Resources Management

Climate
Water resources
Pollution

Biodiversity loss
Population growth
Energy
Hydrology

Dr Gary Bilotta

Room C609
G.S.Bilotta@Brighton.ac.uk

School of Environment and Technology

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Hydrology is the science dealing with the waters of the earth, their
occurrence, distribution and circulation, their chemical and physical
properties and their interaction with the environment
Ward and Robinson (2000).

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Why study hydrological processes?

Freshwater is a renewable resource

However, there are limits as to how much we can use at any given point
on Earth at any given time.

These limits are

determined by
hydrological
processes.

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Why study hydrological processes?

Humans can have a huge impact on these hydrological processes...

through the choice of crops that we grow to the surfaces that we cover our
gardens and civic areas with, to our impacts on climate

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These changes have knock-on effects not only on the amount and quality
of water resources available to us, but also the response of catchments to
rainfall events

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Key hydrological processes:
- Precipitation
- Interception
- Throughfall
- Stemflow
- Evaporation
- Transpiration
- Infiltration
What does the process involve? - Overland Flow
How can we measure it? - Throughflow
How do we analyse the data/derive useful statistics?
- Percolation
Think
What about
are the applications of this understanding?
• What each process involves? - Groundwater flow
- Channel Flow
• How is it measured?

• How can we analyse the data/derive

useful statistics?

• What are the applications of this

understanding?

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The global hydrological cycle is a closed system

Closed System

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A catchment is:

‘The area of land which

drains into a particular
stream’

Its boundary is the drainage

divide or ‘watershed’

Efficiency of water removal

depends on the proportion of
hillslope area to channel
density

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At the catchment or watershed scale, we are talking about an open
hydrological system:

There are defined inputs, outputs, stores and transfers.

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Typically <5%
in river
channels fell
directly into the
channel as
precipitation
>95% of water in
our rivers makes
its way there via
other pathways,
interacting with
vegetation, the
soil, the geology-
and facing
opportunities for
loss on the way
(evaporation,
transpiration,
leakage, use). Ward and Robinson (2000)
Principles of Hydrology (4th Ed.)

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Precipitation
The deposition of water in a
solid or liquid form on the
Earth’s surface from
atmospheric sources.

There are many categories of

precipitation, and their
formation dependent upon the
ambient conditions.

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SesRrocIFtc

Relationship between cloud type and precipitation type

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Three main mechanisms

(1) Frontal/cyclonic precipitation

(2) Convectional precipitation

(3) Orographic precipitation

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Precipitation: Spatial and temporal variation

Annual average over entire land-surface = 715 mm yr-1, varying

spatially from near 0 mm yr-1 to almost 11,873 mm yr-1

http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/GlobalMaps/view.php?d1=TRMM_3B43M

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METHOD OF MEASUREMENT:

- Conventionally measured through gauges such

as those shown below.

Sourced from Smithson et al. (2008)

- Usually expressed in units of length such as mm or cm.
Can be converted to a volume of water (m3), by multiplying by the total area (m2) over
which the rain (depth in m) has fallen.

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Satellite and radar measurements can be used to give a real time picture of
rainfall patterns over a region. High level accuracy over individual catchments is
limited however.
http://www.nasa.gov/press/2015/february/new-nasa-earth-science-missions-expand-view-of-our-home-planet

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Brighton University’s Cockcroft Building has a rainwater harvesting system (roof

area = 800m2 ) which is capable of harvesting 80% of the average annual rainfall.
The average annual rainfall in Brighton is ~800 mm.

Calculate the volume

of water (in litres) that
could be harvested in
an average year?

For a rainwater
harvesting calculator
(including tank sizing)
see:
http://www.uksuds.com/r
ainwaterharvestingtanksi
zing.aspx

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Water resource managers are

interested in building up a
picture of water availability in a
catchment from a given storm.

Thus it is important to have at

our disposal methodologies for
using gauged rainfall from a
range of different sites within a
catchment to estimate total
rainfall. There are various
methods of doing this:

(a) Arithmetic mean

(b) Thiessen method
(c) Isohyetal method
(d) Hypsometric method

See page 30-32 in Hendriks (2010) for a quick overview.

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The data in Table 1 has been extracted over a 24 hour period for a drainage basin,
using the Thiessen method.

Table 1

station rainfall (mm) area (m2)

1 22 2000

2 33 1500

3 12 7000

4 16 200

5 13 1300

6 34 900

a) With the aid of diagrams describe the methodology applied to extract the data in
Table 1, comment on the accuracy of the method and describe three further
methods which could be applied and why they may or may not improve the
accuracy of these data collected, and therefore results.

b) With the data provided in Table 1 use both the Thiessen and Arithmetic methods
to calculate the total rainfall over the 24 hour period for the whole drainage
basin.
HOMEWORK TASK 1

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Once a gauge has been installed and

collecting data for some time (tens of
years), it is then possible to use this
information to carry out a range of further Return Periods
useful statistical analyses.
1 in 10 year storm
describes an event magnitude
If a series of rainfall measurement over a which occurs on average once
period of several months or years is every 10 years
available, a picture of the rainfall
characteristics of the catchment can be 1 in 100 year storm
built up. A useful statistic to use is the describes an event magnitude
concept of return period. which occurs on average once
every 100 years

The methodology for determining return

period is also applicable to flooding (of
rivers)

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Return Periods
Several methods available, many are derived from adaptation of popular Weibull
formula:
N 1
Weibull: T 
m
Where T is the return period, N is the number of values, m is the rank

To perform this calculation:

• First collate the rainfall data from your weather station. You need at least 10
years of data.

• Then take the highest annual maximum rainfall intensity (mm hr-1) value for
each duration of interest (e.g. 10 min, 60 min, 180 min, 720 min, 1440 min).

• Next, rank the annual maximums in descending order (i.e. highest value is 1st,
next highest value is 2nd)

• Finally, for each annual maxima, calculate the return period using the equation
above (repeat for each storm duration of interest)

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• Plot rainfall intensity against return period (one line for

each storm duration) and use trend-line equation to
extend predictions beyond observations Reduced
Return variate
period (T) (y)

years

rank 10 min 60 min 720 min Weibull

1 290.2 57.9 7.14 20.00

2 159.4 55.2 6.81 10.00

3 152.2 55.2 6.6 6.67

4 147 53.4 5.35 5.00

5 125.5 49.8 4.9 4.00

6 117.6 42.4 4.89 3.33

7 108.8 41.8 4.74 2.86

8 107 41.8 4.56 2.50

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350

y = 10.139x + 81.395
300 R² = 0.9773

250
Rainfall intensity mm hr-1

200

150

100

For calculation by computer, you can log

50 data or Y axes and fit a linear trend line to
the data and get an equation. You may not
need to; as was the case with these data
0
1.00 3.00 5.00 7.00 9.00 11.00 13.00 15.00 17.00 19.00 21.00
Return period

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Rainfall Statistics – Intensity-Duration-Frequency Curves

In statistical rainfall analysis we can define an intensity duration frequency graph

which tells us what the intensity of a given storm is likely to be (in mm hr-1of rainfall)
for a given return period, for a given duration. That is the intensity of calculated
rainfall is a function of the standardized frequency and the duration of the calculated
rainfall

The shorter the duration, the greater the intensity of the storm (mm hr-1)

This tool is used to for estimation of

maximum rainfall for design of:

• Drainage system design

• Storm flow correction, or constructions

http://www.reviewcivilpe.com/rainfall-intensity-analysis/idf-curve/

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Using the data provided on the following slide:

For 3 different storm durations (10 min, 60 min and 720 min), estimate the
rainfall intensities (mm hr-1) with return periods of 2, 5, 10, 25, 50 and 100 years.

Plot the values of rainfall intensity against duration for these return periods and
plot these on a single graph.

HOMEWORK TASK 2

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Ranked rainfall intensities (mm hr-1) for given durations (minutes)

5 10 15 30 45 60 120 240 360 480 600 720 960 1200 1440

1 290.20 290.20 212.80 106.40 72.90 57.90 36.36 20.29 14.25 10.71 8.57 7.14 5.36 4.97 4.43
2 193.80 159.40 142.80 85.40 70.90 55.20 35.69 19.65 13.60 10.21 8.17 6.81 5.22 4.82 4.15
3 168.00 152.20 121.60 77.90 66.10 55.20 30.10 18.72 12.80 9.66 7.92 6.60 5.11 4.29 3.58
4 161.30 147.00 121.30 77.50 66.00 53.40 27.82 15.24 10.17 7.75 6.42 5.35 4.95 4.09 3.41
5 143.30 125.50 108.70 77.20 59.20 49.80 25.12 13.17 8.87 6.77 5.52 4.90 4.88 3.96 3.32
6 143.10 117.60 107.90 75.00 55.40 42.40 22.77 12.78 8.81 6.75 5.42 4.89 4.17 3.72 3.32
7 140.40 108.80 98.80 71.60 53.90 41.80 21.82 12.27 8.70 6.62 5.42 4.74 3.57 2.98 3.06
8 139.80 107.00 89.60 64.80 50.10 41.80 21.41 11.84 8.67 6.61 5.38 4.56 3.52 2.86 2.78
9 135.30 106.00 88.00 62.90 49.20 41.30 20.92 11.40 8.43 6.45 5.38 4.52 3.39 2.82 2.69
10 132.00 106.00 86.70 62.10 46.80 38.30 20.37 11.35 8.35 0.41 5.28 4.52 3.39 2.82 2.54
11 122.40 99.30 83.90 61.90 46.50 38.00 20.30 10.79 7.70 6.27 5.13 4.27 3.39 2.79 2.54
12 122.40 97.20 82.80 60.10 45.70 37.00 19.45 10.77 7.68 5.96 5.12 4.27 3.23 2.74 2.38
13 122.40 97.00 79.50 57.30 45.60 34.90 19.45 10.67 7.27 5.79 4.77 3.97 3.20 2.71 2.36
14 121.20 96.60 78.00 56.20 43.00 34.30 19.21 10.55 7.25 5.77 4.62 3.89 3.00 2.70 2.35
15 121.20 93.90 77.60 54.50 40.80 33.50 19.15 10.16 7.20 5.46 4.38 3.85 2.98 2.63 2.34
16 120.00 91.50 76.40 53.20 39.30 30.10 17.70 10.14 7.19 5.44 4.36 3.72 2.90 2.56 2.30
17 120.00 91.20 75.20 52.70 39.00 30.00 15.50 9.78 7.15 5.40 4.32 3.65 2.89 2.52 2.29
18 120.00 90.50 74.90 52.70 38.10 29.50 15.35 9.10 6.90 5.39 4.32 3.63 2.87 2.43 2.28
19 118.80 89.00 73.60 49.50 37.10 29.30 15.09 8.69 6.88 5.31 4.27 3.63 2.81 2.42 2.13

HOMEWORK TASK 2

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Interception
When precipitation falls onto a vegetated surface, only a part may actually reach
the ground beneath.
Depending upon the nature and density of the
vegetation cover a proportion of the rain may be
intercepted by the leaves and stems of the
vegetation canopy and temporarily stored on its
surfaces.

Some, or all, of this water may be evaporated back

into the atmosphere and so take no part in the
land-bound portion of the hydrological cycle. This
is termed ‘interception loss’.

The remaining water which reaches the ground constitutes the ‘net rainfall’. The
bulk of this comprises ‘throughfall’’ consisting of raindrops that fall through
spaces in the vegetation canopy and water which drips from wet leaves. A small
amount will run down the stem or trunk to the ground as ‘stemflow’.
Ward and Robinson (2000) Principles of Hydrology (4th Ed.)

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Evaporation
The loss of water from a wet surface through its conversion into its gaseous
state, water vapour, and its transfer away from the surface into the
atmosphere (Ward and Robinson (2000).

The rate of evaporation is normally

expressed in units of depth per unit time:
mm hr-1 or mm d-1

IMPORTANCE
Over the terrestrial surfaces of Earth, approx. 66 % of the precipitation is
returned to the atmosphere as evaporation, making it the largest single
component of the global terrestrial hydrological cycle
Baumgartner and Reichel (1975).

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Despite its importance, evaporation is inherently difficult to measure.

Generally estimated indirectly through calculation of physical and
meteorological factors, although Evaporation Pans, Lysimeters and
Atmometers have been used in some studies.

Evaporation pan
Evaporation pan: Measures evaporation rate
from a free water surface

An evaporation pan

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In addition to the evaporation of water, there is also direct water use by

plants termed transpiration.
This component of evaporation comprises water taken up by plant roots
from the soil which moves up the plant and then into the atmosphere
principally through the leaves

Influencing factors:
- Solar radiation
- Temperature of the air and the evaporation surface
- Wind speed
- Humidity
- Turbulence
- Plant biology, and
- Availability of water.

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As it is difficult, and often of little value, to separate evaporation and

transpiration they are often lumped together and termed
evapotranspiration (Et). Essentially evapotranspiration is the same as
actual evaporation.

Evapotranspiration can be further sub classified:

Potential evapotranspiration (PE)

Measure of the ability of the atmosphere to
remove water from the surface through the
processes of evaporation and transpiration
assuming no control on water supply.

Actual evapotranspiration (AE)

The quantity of water that is actually removed
from a surface due to the processes of
evaporation and transpiration.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evapotranspiration

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Lysimeter

A lysimeter. Source: Meissener and Seyfarth (2004)

Et = P – Q - S

Where ΔS = change in storage, P = precipitation, Q = collected through flow water

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Not always small-scale….

Rowden Experimental Research Platform = 1

Ha (0.01 km2) drained and undrained
lysimeter plots

Bilotta et al., (2008) Rethinking

the Contribution of Drained and
Undrained Grasslands to
Sediment-Related Water Quality
Problems

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Water Budget Method

•Catchment scale
•Gauging station on river
•Selected time period

E t  P  Q  G  ΔS http://ian.umces.edu/imagelibrary/displayimage-114-
6434.html

Where:
ΔS = change in storage,
P = precipitation,
Q = river discharge,
G = groundwater discharge across drainage basin boundaries

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FAO Penman-Monteith method to estimate Evapotranspiration:

Evapotranspiration rates depend on

solar radiation, air temperature,
relative humidity (i.e., vapour pressure
deficit) and wind speed.

The transpiration component is also

influenced by plant characteristics,
environmental aspects and cultivation
practices.

Reference evapotranspiration (ETo) is

defined as the rate at which readily
available soil water is vaporized from
specified vegetated surfaces.

http://www.fao.org/docrep/x0490e/x0490e06.htm

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For guidance on how to set-up

meteorological instruments and calculate
ETo see Zotarelli et al:

http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdffiles/ae/ae45900.
pdf

A map of the spatial variation in mean annual

evaporation over the UK, calculated by the
Penman Monteith method.

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Infiltration

‘The process of water entry into the soil through the soil surface’
Ward and Robinson (2000)

The infiltration rate is the volume of water passing into the soil per
unit time (m s-1, mm hr -1)

The maximum rate at which

water soaks into or is
absorbed by the soil is
referred to as its infiltration
capacity.

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METHOD OF MEASUREMENT

Double-ring infiltrometers
Tension infiltrometer or Disk permeameter

The declining infiltration capacity over

time results directly from the reduction in
Infiltration the gradient of water potential in the soil
capacity
profile. In addition, factors operating at the
surface, including swelling of clay
particles, raindrop impact and in-washing
of fine material, may also be important in
0 Time
the case of some clay soils or soils with a
sparse vegetation cover.

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The amount of water which infiltrates into the soil depends on the nature of the
land surface on which it falls and is also influenced by:

• The volume and intensity of precipitation

• The condition of the soil surface
• The presence of vegetation and % cover
• The permeability and moisture content of a soil

http://plantcellbiology.masters.grkraj.org/html/Plant_Cellular_Physiology2-Absorption_Of_Water.htm

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If rainfall rate simply exceeds infiltration (in an
unsaturated soil) then the excess rainfall will
flow over the land surface as infiltration-
excess overland flow.

Infiltration-excess overland flow is also referred to as

Hortonian overland flow after its proposer, R.E.
Horton (1933).

When a soil is saturated however, and

rainfall rate exceeds the saturated hydraulic
conductivity (Ksat), flow will occur over the
land surface, known as saturation-excess
overland flow.

Saturation-excess overland flow is also referred to

as Hewlett-type overland flow, after its proposer,
Hewlett (1961), and Hewlett and Hibbert (1967).

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Characteristic Infiltration-excess flow Saturation-excess flow

Rainfall Strongly related More dependant on

to rainfall intensity rainfall duration

Infiltration Surface infiltration Transmissibility of lower

capacity is critical horizons more important
Distribution:
Temporal Begins soon after Starts only after
storm saturation occurs
Spatial
(a) Environmental Semi-arid areas, Humid areas, good soil
sparse veg, thin soils and veg development

(b) Local Can be extensive in Zones of saturation

small basins Topographically influenced

Downslope variation Linear runoff increase Non-linear related to slope,

profile, soil depth and Ksat

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The Rational Method

Catchment runoff, and its characteristics such as volume, peak flow, and flood return
period can be determined using one of four methods: Statistical analysis of observed flow
records; Regional methods; Transfer methods and Rainfall-runoff methods.
http://www.geog.leeds.ac.uk/projects/nps/reports/npsch4.pdf

The Rational Method, also referred to as the Lloyd-Davies (1906) equation is one of the earliest
Rainfall-runoff methods. It relates the flow rate from runoff to the rainfall intensity, the land area,
and the percentage of impermeable surfaces in the catchment.

Where:
QP  2.78CiA
QP is the peak flow rate (m3 s-1)
C is the runoff coefficient. It is equal to the proportion of impermeable land in the catchment (PIMP)
divided by 100 .
i is the rainfall intensity (mm hr-1) at time of concentration or TC (i.e. the time taken for water to flow from
the catchment boundary to a point of discharge estimate). Typically found from intensity-duration-
frequency curves in region of interest. Storm frequency of interest is usually stated by local authority (10
yr, 100 yr).
A is the area under consideration (in hectares; 1 hectare = 10,000 m2). Defined by field survey or map
contours.

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If impermeable area is
difficult to measure, an
estimate can be
PIMP = 100 PIMP = 65 established using density of
dwellings per hectare (J):

PIMP  6.4 J
PIMP = 50 PIMP = 55

PIMP = 45 PIMP = 35

PIMP = <10 PIMP = <10

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The Rational method runoff coefficient (C) is a function of the soil type and
drainage basin slope. A simplified table is shown below.

Corbitt, Robert A. 1999. Standard Handbook of Environmental Engineering. McGraw-Hill. 2ed..

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Time of concentration (Tc)

Tc is the longest time required for a water molecule to travel from the watershed
divide to the watershed outlet.

Tc = 1.8 (1.1 - C) L0.5 / (100 S)1/3

Where:

C = runoff coefficient (see previous table of values)

Q  0.278CiA
L = length of longest watercourse length
p
S = average slope of the watercourse

Ministry of Health Method” RainfallT

intensity (i) from Tc
c = time of concentration

5 ≤ D ≤ 20 min 20 ≤ D ≤ 100 min

Rain falling at farthest point in
catchment In UK rainfall intensity (i) can
750 1000 to reach measuring point
i i
in river be estimated using Tc
D  10 D  20
D = duration of event (minutes)
i = rainfall intensity (mm/h) Qp occurs after the period Tc

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HOMEWORK TASK 3

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Sustainable Drainage Systems (SuDS)
SuDS are an approach to managing rainfall in developments that replicates natural
drainage, managing it close to where it falls. In natural environments, rain mostly
falls on permeable surfaces and infiltrates into the ground.

In urbanised areas where many surfaces are sealed by buildings and paving,
natural infiltration is limited. Instead, drainage networks consisting of pipes and
culverts, divert surface water to local watercourses.

In some cases, this has resulted in downstream flooding and deterioration in river
water quality caused by diffuse pollution or when combined sewers (which collect
surface water runoff and foul waste) are overwhelmed by surface water leading to
a release of polluted water into rivers.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LMq6FYiF1mo&feature=youtu.be

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Sustainable Drainage Systems (SuDS)

www.susdrain.org provides up-to-date guidance, information, case studies, videos,

photos and discussion forums that help to underpin the planning, design, approval,
construction and maintenance of SuDS.

See excellent illustration of their potential in:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LMq6FYiF1mo&feature=youtu.be

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Sustainable Drainage Systems (SuDS)

But….Depending on the nature of the underlying geology, release of water into

the ground may increase the susceptibility to ground stability hazards.

• voids and collapse features

created by the dissolution of
soluble rocks and minerals

• down-slope waterlogging
leading to increased
potential of landslides

• changes in subsurface
water content leading to
ground compression and
subsidence
An example of ground stability hazards formed as a result of
water infiltration from a burst water pipe within an area
susceptible to dissolution and karst formation.

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Sustainable Drainage Systems (SuDS)

There is also potential for groundwater quality deterioration, caused by infiltration

of surface water containing contaminants that originate from the surfaces over
which it flowed prior to infiltration.

Whilst pre-treatment (e.g. by incorporating swales or filter trenches) is necessary

prior to infiltration of surface water, care is necessary in those aquifers that are
used for public water abstractions and in those that have limited capacity to filter
contaminants.

There are resources available to help identify potential site issues:

http://www.bgs.ac.uk/products/hydrogeology/infiltrationSuds.html

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Summary

Catchment hydrology is an open system

Precipitation is normally the main input and therefore it is important to understand

its characteristics and how they vary over space and time (intensity-duration-
frequency curves)
See the Flood Estimation Handbook Volume 2 for guidance:
http://www.ceh.ac.uk/services/flood-estimation-handbook

Evapotranspiration is normally the dominant output (not in the high latitudes) but it
is a tricky parameter to measure. More often than not it is estimated via
meteorological parameters and consideration of the vegetation type (Penman-
Monteith equation is widely-used)
See the FAO for guidance: http://www.fao.org/docrep/x0490e/x0490e06.htm

Infiltration rate relative to precipitation rate partitions water into surface and
subsurface pathways. The covering of land-surfaces with impermeable materials
reduces infiltration and increases surface runoff.

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Summary

Catchment runoff, and its characteristics such as volume, peak flow, and flood
return period can be estimated using one of four methods: Statistical analysis of
observed flow records; Regional methods; Transfer methods and Rainfall-runoff
methods (e.g. The Rational Method and subsequent derivatives).
See Flood Estimation Handbook for guidance: http://www.ceh.ac.uk/services/flood-
estimation-handbook

The impact of urbanisation can be reduced through the use of Sustainable

Drainage Systems (SuDS) which aim to mimic natural drainage through:

- storing runoff and releasing it slowly (attenuation)

- allowing water to soak into the ground (infiltration)
- slowly transporting (conveying) water on the surface
- filtering out pollutants
- allowing sediments to settle-out by controlling the flow of the water
See Susdrain for guidance: http://www.susdrain.org/resources/

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References (also see links throughout slides!)

Hewlett, J.D. (1961) Watershed management in report for 1961 Southeastern

forest experimental station. U.S. Forest Service, Ashville, N.C.

Hewlett, J.D. and Hibbert , A.R. (1967) Factors affecting the response of small
watersheds to precipitation in humid areas. In: Sopper, W.E. And Lull H.W. (eds)
Forest Hydrology. Pergamon Press, Oxford.

Holden, J. (Ed) (2005) An introduction to physical geography and the environment.

Pearson/Prentice Hall, London.

Horton, R.E. (1933) The role of infiltration in the hydrological cycle. Trans.
American Geophys. Union, 14: 446-460.

Robson, A., & Reed, D. W. (1999). Flood estimation handbook. Institute of

Hydrology, Wallingford.

Ward and Robinson (2000) Principles of Hydrology (4th Ed.) McGraw Hill
Publishing Company, London.

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